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Verb (Group 2)
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| Someone gives something to a person who is not a member of the giver's in group but whose status is about equal to that of the giver. | Give |
| 【Related Expression: くれる1; (もらう1)】 |
(ks). 私は良子に花をあげた・あげました。
I gave Yoshiko flowers.
(a). 大野さんは山本さんに本をあげた。
Ms. Ono gave Mr. Yamamoto a book.
(b). 君はアンに何をあげましたか。
What did you give to Ann?
1. あげる is one of a set of giving and receiving verbs; the meaning is 'give'. However, あげる cannot be used when the indirect object is the first person (i.e., I or we) or a person with whom the speaker empathizes (usually a member of the speaker's in-group). Thus, (1a) and (1b) are ungrammatical.
The reason for this is as follows: あげる requires the giver's point of view or a neutral point of view when describing an event. When an event involves the first person or a person the speaker empathizes with, however, the event is normally described from that person's point of view. Therefore, if the first person or a person the speaker empathizes with is a recipient in a あげる sentences, a viewpoint conflict arises, making the sentences ungrammatical. The grammatical sentences for (1a) and (1b) are (2a) and (2b), respectively.
(⇨ くれる1)
2. The humble polite version of あげる is 差し上げる. Example:
The degree of politeness expressed in 差し上げる is higher than that of 下さる and it いただく, which are the polite versions of くれる and もらう, respectively.
(⇨ くれる1, Related expression II)
3. When the giver is in a higher position than the recipient or the recipient is a person very close to the speaker, やる is used instead of あげる. Examples:
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Auxiliary Verb (Group 2)
| Someone gives some action as a favour to a person who is not a member of the giver's in group but whose status is about equal of the giver. | Do something for someone; do someone a favour by doing something |
| 【Related Expression: くれる2; (もらう2)】 |
(ksa). 私は信男さんにネクタイを買ってあげた・あげました。
I bought a tie for Nobuo.
(ksb). 僕は春子さんを慰めてあげた・あげました。
I consoled Haruko.
| Vて | あげる | |
| 話してあげる | talk for someone's sake | |
| 食べてあげる | eat for someone's sake |
(a). 君はお母さんに何をしてあげましたか。
What did you do for your mother?
(b). 田中さんはスミスさんに本を貸してあげた。
Mr. Tanaka lent a book to Mr. Smith.
1. あげる is used as an auxiliary verb with the て form of verbs. The meaning of Verb-てあげる is 'do something for someone' or 'do someone a favour by doing something'. The restriction which applies to あげる1 also applies to あげる2. Namely, sentences with Verb-てあげる are descriptions from the viewpoint of the benefactor (i.e., the person in subject position); therefore, the indirect object must not be the first person or a person the speaker empathizes with. (⇨ ㊦ あげる (1)1, Note 1) Thus, (1a) and (1b) are ungrammatical.
As in KS (B), if the person receiving the benefit is the direct object of the sentence, the indirect object is omitted. Therefore, (3a) and (3b) are ungrammatical.
When the main verb is intransitive, あげる is not used along with に.
The following sentence is ungrammatical:
In this case, の為に 'for the sake of' is used, as in (5). (⇨ ㊦ 為(に)・ため(に))
4. The humble polite version of Verb-てあげる is Verb-てさしあげる. Example：
The degree of politeness expressed in Verb-てさしあげる is higher than that of Verb-てくださる and Verb-ていただく, which are the polite versions of Verb-てくれる and Verb-てもらう, respectively, (⇨ ㊦ 呉れる・くれる (1))
5. When the benefactor is in a higher position than the recipient or is of equal status and his relationship to the recipient is close, Verb-てやる is used instead of Verb-てあげる. Examples:
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Phrase
| The space between two temporal or physical points. | During (the time when); while |
| 【Related Expression: ながら; うちに】 |
(ksa). 私がご飯を食べている間山田さんはテレビを見ていた・いました。
While I was eating my meal, Mr Yamada was watching TV.
(ksb). 私がご飯を食べている間に山田さんが来た・来ました。
While I was eating my meal, Mr. Yamada came in.
| (i)Vて | いる間 (に) | |
| 話している間 (に) | While someone is talking | |
| 食べている間 (に) | While someone is eating | |
| (ii)Adjective い | 間 (に) | |
| 間 (に) 高い | While something is expensive | |
| (iii)Adjectiveな stem | な 間 (に) | |
| 静かな間 (に) | While something is quiet | |
| (iv)Noun | の間 (に) | |
| 夏休みの間 (に) | During the summer vacation |
(a). スミスさんは日本にいる間英語を教えていました。
Mr. Smith was teaching English (all during the time) while he was in Japan.
(b). 子供達がテルビを見ている間私は本を読んでいました。
I was reading a book (all during the time) while my children were watching TV.
(c). 高橋さんはアメリカにいる間にゴルフを覚えました。
Mr. Takahashi learned golf while he was in America.
(d). 中川さんのお母さんは中川さんがパリに留学している間に病気になりました。
Mr. Nakagawa's mother become ill while he was studying in Paris.
(e). 秋子は子供がいない間に本を読む。
Akiko reads books while her children are not at home.
1. The subjects for the 間-clause (=subordinate clause) and the main clause can be different as in Exs. (b), (d) and (e) or can be the same as in Exs. (a) and (c). When the subjects are different, the subject in the 間-clause is marked not by は but by が.
2. The verb before 間 is normally nonpast Vている or いる regardless of the tense of the main clause.
3. 間, if followed by に, a particle of specific time point, means that the time span of an event identified by the main clause falls within the time span of an event identified by the 間-clause, as in Exs. (c) and (e). 間 without に, as in Exs. (a) and (b), indicates that the two events are assumed to cover the same span of time. Thus, if the main verb is a punctual verb, 間 should be used with に. The following sentence, therefore, is ungrammatical.
The difference between 間に and 間 can be diagrammed as follows [see bottom of Notes].
4. A noun or an adjective can be used before 間.
5. The non-temporal 間 which means 'space between' or 'relationship' is used in the structure A と B (と) の間 'between A and B' as in:
The usage of 間 meaning 'relationship' in (7) is a metaphorical extension of physical space between two persons.
6. The verb いる '(an animate object) exists' can be used by itself, as in Ex. (c), due to its stative nature. Some adjectives such as 高い 'expensive', 安い 'cheap', 暖かい 'warm', 涼しい 'cool', 若い 'young' can also be used in this way, as follows:
These adjectives, however, sound a little more natural with うちに 'while '.
If the subjects of the main and subordinate clauses are identical and if the verbs are action verbs, 間 can be replaced by ながら but with different meaning.
[1] and [2] focus on 'duration of some action/state' and 'accompanying minor action', respectively.
[Table from (1)]
間に |
-------Event 1------- (main clause) Event 2 |
|
| ----------------------------------------- (subordinate clause) |
||
間 |
(main clause) Event 2 |
|
| ----------------------------------------- (subordinate clause) |
||
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Adverb
| The degree of something is not great. | (not) very much; (not) very |
(ks). この本はあまりよくない・よくありません。
This book is not very good.
(a). 鈴木さんはあまり食べない。
Miss Suzuki does not eat much.
(b). 私はあまり速く走れません。
I cannot run very fast.
1. The adverb あまり usually occurs in negative sentences, meaning 'not very (much)'. あまり is one of a group of adverbs which co-occur with negative predicates. They include:
2. あんまり is a phonological variant of あまり and usually used in conversation.
3. In limited situations, あまり can be used in affirmative sentences, too. In this case, it means 'very; too' with a negative implication. Examples:
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Verb (Group 1)
| An inanimate thing exists. | Be; exist; have |
| 【Related Expression: いる1; もっている】 |
(ksa). この町(に)は大学が三つある・あります。
In this town are three universities.
(ksb). エッフェル塔はパリにある・あります。
The Eiffel Tower is in Paris.
(a). 私のアパト(に)はテレビが二台ある。
There are two TV sets in my apartment.
(b). デトロイトはミシガン州にあります。
Detroit is in the State of Michigan.
(c). 和田さんのうち(に)はクーラーがない。
There is no air-conditioner at Mr. Wada's.
1. ある expresses the existence of or the possession of inanimate things including abstract things such as events and problems. Thus, (1) is ungrammatical.
For animate things, いる1 is used.
2. The negative informal form of ある is not あらない but ない.
3. Two sentence patterns can be used with ある. The Key Sentence (A) pattern is used when a location is presented as a topic. In this case, what exists is under focus. In this pattern, the location marker に can optionally drop. The Key Sentence (B) pattern is used when something which exists is presented as a topic. In this case, where it exists is under focus. Compare the two patterns in (2).
4. A thing (whether animate or inanimate) can also occur in the location position of Key Sentence (A). In this case, the sentence expresses possession rather than existence. Examples:
Note that even if ある expresses the idea of possession, possessed things are marked not by を but by が. This is because ある essentially indicates existence.
5. When ある is used to express the idea of having and the object is animate, that object must be someone who maintains a very close relationship with the possessor, such as a family member, a relative or a friend. Thus, (4) is acceptable, but (5) is odd.
Since ある in this usage is a possessive expression, it cannot be used in situations where the idea indicates existence. Thus,(6) is unacceptable.
In this case, いる must be used.
6. When ある is used for events such as parties and concerts, the particle marking locations must be で as in(7).
【Related Expressions】
I. There is another possessive expression, 持っている, which is the てform of 持つ 'hold' followed by the auxiliary verb いる. However, 持っている is used only when the possessor is animate and the possessed thing is inanimate. Thus, [1] is acceptable, but [2] and [3] are not.
[1]
[2]
[3]
Groups and organizations of people such as political parties, countries, institutions and companies can also be possessors in sentences with 持っている, as in [4].
[4]
II. いる1 is also used to express existence. However, いる1 is used only for animate objects. (See Note 1.)
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Auxiliary Verb (Group 1)
| Something has been done to something and the resultant state of that action remains. | Have been done; be done |
| 【Related Expression: いる2; おく】 |
(ks). それはもうジョンに話してある・あります。
It's been told to John already.
| Vてある | 話してある | Has been said |
| 食べてある | Has been eaten |
(a). 飲み物はもう買ってあります。
Drinks have already been bought.
(b). 窓が開けてある。
The window has been open/is open.
1. ある is used with Verbて as an auxiliary verb. Two points are indicated by the Verbてある expression:
X is most frequently marked by the topic marker は or the subject marker が; occasionally it is marked by the direct object marker を.
2. The agent is usually omitted because he is unimportant, unknown or obvious.
【Related Expressions】
There are expressions similar to Verbてある, namely, Verbている and Verbておく. Let us compare [1] and [2] with Example (b).
[1]
[2]
[1] simply means that the window is open. It doesn't imply that someone opened it. 開いて, the てform of 開く 'open', is an intransitive verb. As seen in [2], Verbておく means "do something in advance for future convenience'". An important difference between Verbてある and Verbておく is that the former expresses a state, while the latter expresses an action. Note that in Verbておく sentences, the agent is not omitted unless it is known.
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Conjunction
| Some state or action takes place at a time (not always immediately) after another state or action has taken place. | After |
| 【Related Expression: たら; てから】 | |
| 【Antonym Expression: 前に】 | |
(ksa). メイソンさんは日本へ行ったあとで病気になった・なりました。
Mr. Mason became ill after he went to Japan.
(ksb). 私は授業のあとで図書館に行った・行きました。
After the class I went to the library.
| Vinformal past | あとで | |
| 話したあとで | After someone has talked/had talked | |
| 食べたあとで | After someone has eaten/had eaten | |
| Noun | のあとで | |
| 勉強のあとで | After study |
(a). ご飯を食べたあと(で)すぐ勉強しました。
I studied right after I had eaten my meal.
(b). 山田さんはビールを飲んだあと(で)寝てしまった。
Mr. Yamada fell asleep after he drank beer.
(c). 戦争が終わったあと(で)東京に戻りました。
I went back to tokyo after the war ended.
(d). 食事のあとでテニスをした。
I played tennis after my meal.
The particle で may be omitted in informal speech.
【Related Expressions】
Vinformal past あとで is crucially different from Verbてから in two respects: Verbてから is very awkward if the main clause expresses something beyond the control of the subject or the speaker of the sentence. Verb informal past あとで is free from such restriction.
[1]
Secondly, Verbてから indicates 'the space of time following after', but Verb informal past あとで indicates 'any space of time after'. Thus,
[2]
(⇨ から2)
II. Verb informal past あとで can be replaced by Verb informal pastら when the latter is used with a purely temporal meaning (i.e. 'after', 'when'). Thus, Example (a), (b) and (c) can be rephrased as [3a], [3b] and [3c], respectively.
[3]
However, if Verb informal pastら has a non-temporal meaning(i.e., 'if'), it cannot be replaced by Verb informal past あとで, as illustrated by [4].
[4]
(⇨ たら)
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Conjunction
| A conjunction which indicates that the preceding clause expresses a conditional. | If |
| 【Related Expression: たら; (なら, と4)】 |
(ks). この薬を飲めばよくなる・なります。
If you take this medicine, you'll get well.
| (i)Group 1 verbs | Vconditionalば | |
| 話せば | If someone talks | |
| (ii)Group 2 verbs | Vstemれば | |
| 食べれば | If someone eats | |
| (iii)Irregular verbs | 来る→来れば | If someone comes |
| する→すれば | If someone does | |
| (iv)Adjective い | Adjective い stemければ | |
| 高ければ | If something is expensive | |
| (v) Adjective な | Adjective な stem {なら(ば)/であれば} | |
| {静かなら(ば)/ 静かであれば} | If something is quiet | |
| (vi)Noun+copula | Noun {なら(ば)/であれば} | |
| {先生なら(ば)/ 先生であれば} | If someone is a teacher |
(a). これは松本先生に聞けば分かります。
You'll understand it if you ask Professor Matsumoto.
(b). その町は車で行けば三十分で行ける。
You can get to that town in thirty minutes if you go by car.
(c). 安ければ買います。
I'll buy it if it's cheap./I would buy it if were cheap.
(d). 時間があれば京都へも行きたい。
If I have time, I want to go to Kyoto too./If I had time, I would want to go to Kyoto, too.
(e). 見たければ見なさい。
If you want to see it, see it.
(f). 出来ればこれもやってください。
Please do this, too, if you can.
1. "Sentence1ばSentence2" basically expresses a general conditional relationship between the two propositions represented by Sentence1 and Sentence2. Sentence1 represents a condition and Sentence2 a proposition which holds or will hold true under the condition. (ば is, in fact, the origin of the topic marker は.)
2. Sentence2 can be a statement of the speaker's volition or hope, as in Examples (c) and (d).
(⇨ と4)
3. Sentence2 can be a command, a request or a suggestion, as in Examples (e) and (f). In this case, however, Sentence1 cannot be an action. Thus, in (1) and (2) ば is ungrammatical.
4. Sentence1 can express both factual and counterfactual conditions. Thus, Examples (c) and (d) can be either factual or counterfactual statements.
(⇨ ばよかった)
5. Sentence1 can be a state or an event in the past if it is counterfactual or habitual. Examples:
However, Sentence1 cannot be a single factual event in the past even if it represents a condition, as seen in (5).
(⇨ たら)
6."Senetnce1ばSentence2" does not mean more than a conditional relationship; therefore, this construction cannot be used when the speaker wants to suggest something by a conditional sentence. For example, (6) does not suggest that one should not approach the cage. It is acceptable only when it means, as a mere conditional statement, which one is in danger under the condition that one gets close to the cage.
In order to suggest that one should not approach the cage, 近づくと or 近づいたら is used instead of 近づけば.
7. There are some idiomatic expressions which utilize the "Sentence1ばSentence2" construction.
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Particle
| A particle which indicates that something is the only thing or state which exists, or the action someone will take, takes, is taking or took. | Only; just; be ready to do something; have just done something; just did something; be just doing something; about |
| 【Related Expression: ほど (くらい); しか (だけ); とろこだ】 |
(ksa). デザートは食べるばかりになっている・います。
The only thing left to do with the dessert is to eat it./The dessert is ready to eat.
(ksb). 友子は遊んでばかりいる・います。
The only thing Tomoko is doing is playing./Tomoko is doing nothing but playing.
(ksc). 私は昼ご飯を食べたばかりだ・です。
I had my lunch and haven't done anything else since then./I have just eaten my lunch.
(ksd). このレストランは安いばかりだ・です。
The only merit of this restaurant is that the food is inexpensive./This restaurant is just cheap.
(kse). デニスはビールばかり飲んでいる・います。
Dennis is drinking only beer.
(ksf). 私は一月ばかりパリにいた・いました。
I was in Paris for about a month.
| (i)Vinformal nonpast | ばかり | |
| 話すばかり | Be ready to talk | |
| (ii)Vて | ばかり | |
| 話してばかり | Be just talking | |
| 食べてばかり | Be just eating | |
| (iii)Vinformal past | ばかり | |
| 話したばかり | Have just talked | |
| 食べたばかり | Just have eaten | |
| (iv){Adjective い informal nonpast/Adjectiveな stem} | ばかり | |
| 高いばかり | Just expensive | |
| 静かなばかり | Just quiet | |
| (v)Noun | ばかり | |
| 先生ばかり | Only teachers | |
| (vi)Noun+Particle | ばかり | |
| 学生にばかり | Only to students | |
| (vii)Quantifier | ばかり | |
| 一時間ばかり | About an hour |
(a). このレポートはあと結論を書くばかりだ。
The only thing left to do with this report is to write a conclusion.
(b). 春江は泣いてばかりいて何も話そうとしない。
Harue is just crying and won't talk about anything.
(c). 松山さんは今シカゴに着いたばかりです。
Mr. Matsuyama has just arrived in Chicago now.
(d). この仕事は面倒なばかりであまり儲かりません。
This job is troublesome and doesn't bring us big profits.
(e). この寮に住んでいるのは男子学生ばかりだ。
The students who are living in this dorm are all boys.
(f). フィッシャー先生はリサとばかり話している。
Professor Fisher is talking only with Lisa.
(g). 十人ばかりの友達が手伝ってくれました。
About ten friends helped me.
1. The basic idea which ばかり expresses is that there is nothing except what is stated. When Verb informal nonpast precedes ばかり, the whole expression means there is nothing left to do (to complete something) but what is stated by the verb. In some contexts, Verb informal nonpast ばかり means that someone does nothing but what is stated. Example:
2. When Verb informal past precedes ばかり, the whole expression means that there has been almost no time for anything to happen since what is stated took place. That is, something has just happened, or someone has just done something.
3. When ばかり follows "Nounが" or "Nounを", が or を drops. The directional へ and に may be either deleted or retained. Other case particles do not drop when they are followed by ばかり.
4. ばかり in classical Japanese expressed the speakers conjecture and this usage is still seen in the "Quantifier ばかり" pattern, where ばかり means 'about'.
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Phrase
| A phrase which expresses the speaker's regret. | I wish~ had done something |
| 【Related Expression: てよかった】 |
(ks). 先生に聞けばよかった・ばよかったです。
I wish I had asked my teacher.
| (i)Group 1 verbs | Vconditionalばよかった | |
| 話せばよかった | I wish someone had talked | |
| (ii)Group 2 verbs | Vstemればよかった | |
| 食べればよかった | I wish someone had eaten | |
| (iii)Irregular verbs | 来る→来ればよかった | I wish someone had come |
| する→すればよかった | I wish someone had done |
(a). あの本を読めばよかった。
I wish I had read that book.
(b). ウェルズさんは日本へ行けばよかったね。
I wish Mr. Wells had gone to Japan, don't you?
(c). ああ、もっと英語を勉強しておけばよかったなあ。
Oh, I wish I had studied English harder!
1. Verb conditionalばよかった is an idiomatic expression which means 'I wish ~ had done something.' It consists of a conditional clause with ば and よかった 'was good' and literally means 'It would have been good if ~ had done something.'
2. When there is no subject in a ば cause sentence, the first person is the implicit subject.
3. This expression is often used with exclamatory words such as ああ 'oh' and the sentence-final particle of exclamation なあ, as in Example (c).
4. "Someone (other than the first person) wishes ~ had done something" is expressed using this phrase and the verb 思う 'think', as in (1).
【Related Expression】
In "Verb conditionalばよかった", Verb conditionalば expresses a counterfactual action or state in the past. In a similar expression "Verbてよかった", Verbて expresses a factual action or state in the past. Compare [1] with Example (a).
[1]
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Particle
| A sentence final particle which indicates an interrogative word question in informal male speech. |
| 【Related Expression: か2; かい】 |
(ksa). どこが静かだい。
What place is quiet?
(ksb). 誰が行くんだい。
Who is going?
| (1){Adjective な stem/ N} | だい | |
| 静かだい | Something is quiet? | |
| 先生だい | Someone is a teacher? | |
| (2){V/Adjective い} informal | んだい | |
| {話す/話した}んだい | Someone talks/talked? | |
| {高い/高かった}んだい | Something is/was expensive? | |
| (3){Adjective な stem/ N} | {なだった}んだい | |
| {静かな/ 静かだった}んだい | Something is/was quiet? | |
| {先生な/先生だった}んだい | Someone is/was a teacher? |
(a). 新しい仕事はどうだい。
How's your new job
(b). あの人は誰だい。
Who is that person?
(c). 何が可笑しいんだい。
What's funny?
(d). どの人は佐藤先生なんだい。
Which person is Professor Sato?
1. だい can also be used with declarative sentences for emphasis in boys' speech, as in (1)
2. When だい is used with interrogative sentences, the sentences must be interrogative word questions. Thus, the following sentences are ungrammatical.
For yes-no questions, かい is used.
(⇨ かい)
3. Questions with だい, as in Key Sentence (A), and those with んだい, as in Key Sentence (B), correspond to questions without のです and those with のです in formal speech, respectively.
(⇨ のだ)
4. だい actually consists of the copula だ and the particle い. Thus, it can follow only な type adjective stems, nouns and noun equivalents. The following sentences are ungrammatical because だい follows a verb or an い type adjective.
んだい can follow verbs and い type adjectives, as in Key Sentence (B) and Example (c), because ん is a nominalizer (the colloquial form of の3) and it changes the preceding sentence into a noun equivalent.
5. In informal male speech, questions as in (3) are expressed as in (4)，with rising intonation.
6. The past form of だい is だったい, but it is not frequently used. The more frequently used past form of だい is だった with rising intonation, as seen in (5).
【Related Expression】
In informal speech, the question marker か (i.e., か2) is not usually used.
The following chart summarizes the endings for informal questions.
| Formal | Male, informal | Female, informal | Note |
| yes-no question | Sentence informalかい | Sentence informal | だ after Adjectiveな stem and ん drops |
| yes-no question with のです | Sentence informalのかい | Sentence informalの | だ after Adjectiveな stem and ん changes to な |
| Interrogative word question | Sentence informal; {Adjectiveなstem/Noun}だい | Sentence informal | だ after Adjectiveな stem and ん drops |
| Interrogative word question with のです | Sentence informalんだい | Sentence informalの | だ after Adjectiveな stem and ん changes to な |
Sentence informalか is used in very informal speech or in vulgar speech. Female informal endings can also be used by male speakers.
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Particle
| A particle which expresses a limit imposed upon something that is growing and expanding. | Only; just; alone; merely; that's all |
| 【Related Expression: しか (ばかり)】 |
(ksa). スミスさんだけ(が)来た・来ました。
Only Mr. Smith came.
(ksb). 私は日本へ一度だけ行った・行きました。
I went to Japan only once.
(ksc). 雪子さんとはデートしただけだ・です。
I just dated Yukiko, that's all.
(ksd). この家は大きいだけだ・です。
This house is big, that's all.
(kse). このお菓子は色が奇麗なだけだ・です。
This cake has pretty colours, that's all.
| (i)Noun | だけ {がを} | |
| 先生だけ{がを} | The teacher alone {subject/direct object} | |
| (ii)N {Prt だけ/Prt だけ} | (where Prt=particles other than が, を and は) | |
| 先生 {だけににだけ} | Only to the teacher/to the teacher alone | |
| (iii){V/Adjective い} informal | だけ{だです} | |
| {話す/話した}だけ{だです} | Someone talks/talked, that's all | |
| {高い/ 高かった}だけ{だです} | Something is/was expensive, that's all | |
| (iv)Adjective な stem | {なだった} だけ {だです} | |
| {静かな/静かだった} だけ {だです} | Something is/was quiet, that's all |
(a). 佐藤さんだけ(が)会議に出ました。
Only Mr. Sato attended the conference.
(b). 小さい和英辞典だけ(を)買いました。
I bought only a small Japanese-English dictionary.
(c). 僕にだけ・だけに話して下さい。
Please tell it only to me/to me alone.
(d). この車はアルコールでだけ・だけで動きます。
This car runs only on alcohol (and nothing else)/on alcohol alone (so it needs nothing else).
(e). あの先生には一度だけ会いました。
I met that professor only once.
(f). 朝はコーヒーを一杯飲むだけです。
In the morning I just drink a cup of coffee, that's all.
(g). この本は高いだけで面白くない。
This book is just expensive and is not interesting.
(h). テニスは好きなだけで上手じゃない。
I just like tennis, and I'm not good at it.
(i). それは学生だけのパーティーだった。
It was a party for students only.
(j). 出来るだけゆっくり話して下さい。
Please speak slowly as possible.
1. When だけ modifies a preceding noun, as in Examples (a), (b), (c), and (d), the particle that is used with the noun can be positioned before or after だけ, except for the particles が, を and は, which can be optionally used only after だけ.
2. The optional positioning of the particles other than が, を and は create a subtle semantic difference. Distinctive emphasis is placed on the particle, yielding a meaning of exclusiveness in the case of Noun+Particle+だけ. No meaning of exclusiveness is implied in the case of Noun+だけ+Particle.
3. If だけ is used in:
as illustrated by Key Sentence (C), (D) and (E), だけ modifies the entire preceding part and means '~, that's all.'
Compare (1a) and (1b) below:
In (1a) だけ modifies only the preceding noun 魚 'fish', while in (1b) だけ modifies the entire preceding part of the sentence 魚を食べた 'I ate fish.'
4. Verb (Potential)+だけ as in Example (j) means 'as much as one can ~'.
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Phrase
| Not only X but also Y, where X and Y can be either a noun, a verb, and adjective. | Not only~ but also~ |
| 【Related Expression: ばかりで(は)なく~も】 |
(ksa). あの人はよく勉強するだけで(は)なくよく遊ぶ・遊びます。
He not only studies hard, but also plays a lot.
(ksb). あの人は頭がいいだけで(は)なくよく勉強(も)する・します。
He is not only smart; he studies hard, too.
(ksc). このうちは奇麗なだけで(は)なくとても安い(です)。
This house is not only beautiful but it is also inexpensive.
(ksd). ジョンだけで(は)なくメアリーも来た・来ました。
Not only John but also Mary came here.
| (i){V/Adjective い} informal | だけで(は)なく | Not only~ |
| {話す/話した}だけで(は)なく | Someone not only speaks/spoke~ | |
| {高い/高かった}だけで(は)なく | Something is/was not only expensive~ | |
| (ii)Adjective な stem | {な/だった} だけで(は)なく | Not only~ |
| {静かな/静かだった}だけで(は)なく | Something is/was not only quiet ~ | |
| (iii)Noun | {Ø/だった}だけで(は)なく | Not only~ |
| {先生/ 先生だった}だけで(は)なく | Not only teachers/not only someone was a teacher |
(a). あの人は小説を読むだけではなく書きます。
He not only reads novels but also writes them.
(b). ブラウンさんは日本へ行っただけではなく住んだこともあります。
Mr. Brown has not only been to Japan, but has lived there.
(c). このアパートは高いだけでなく大変狭いです。
This apartment is not only expensive but it is also very small.
(d). 幸子は頭がよかっただけではなく、とても親切でした。
Sachiko was not only bright but also very kind.
(e). この車は奇麗なだけではなく、よく走ります。
This car is not only pretty but also runs well.
(f). 日本人だけではなくアメリカ人もよく働きます。
Not only Japanese but Americans also work hard.
(g). 中村さんはアメリカやヨーロッパだけではなく東南アジアにもよく出張します。
Mr. Nakamura makes a business trip not only to America and Europe but also to Southeast Asia.
(h). ジョンソンさんは日本語だけではなく中国語も話せます。
Mr. Johnson can speak not only Japanese but also Chinese.
In "Noun ~だけで(は)なく Noun~ も", the two nouns can be followed by various particles.
[1]
[2]
【Related Expression】
In the majority of cases だけ can be replaced by ばかり. When one needs to define limitation in a rigid way, however, だけ is preferable. For example:
(⇨ だけ)
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Auxiliary
| An auxiliary indicating the speaker's conjecture which is not based on any particular information or evidence. | Probably |
| 【Related Expression: かもしれない (に違いない); ようだ (らしい, そうだ2)】 |
(ks). アンダーソンさんは日本へ行くだろう・でしょう。
Ms. Anderson will probably go to Japan.
| (1){V/Adjective い} informal | だろう | |
| {話す/話した}だろう | Someone will probably talk/probably talked | |
| {高い/高かった}だろう | Something is/was probably expensive | |
| (2){Adjective な stem/ N} | {Øだった}だろう | |
| {静か/静かだった}だろう | Something is/was probably quiet | |
| {先生/先生だった}だろう | Someone is/was probably a teacher |
(a). あのアパートは高いでしょう。
That apartment is probably expensive.
(b). ロジャーはスキーが上手だろう。
Roger is probably good at skiing.
(c). あの人は中国人だろう。
That man is probably Chinese.
1. だろう is originally the informal conjecture form of the copula だ, but it is used as an auxiliary of conjecture. The formal version is でしょう.
2. Probability adverbs such as 多分, おそらく and きっと are sometimes used with だろう or でしょう. The speaker's conjecture sounds more certain with 多分 or おそらく, and even more certain with きっと. Examples:
3. だろう/でしょう with the question marker か makes questions softer or less direct. Compare (3) and (4).
4. Sentence だろう/でしょう with rising intonation asks for the hearers agreement.
The sentence-final particle ね also asks for the hearer's agreement, but Sentence だろう/でしょう with rising intonation is softer or less direct. (⇨ ね)
Compare (5a) with (6).
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Auxiliary Verb (Group 1)
| Something that has been latent is realised. | Out; begin to; start to |
| 【Related Expression: ~始める】 | |
| 【Antonym Expression: ~終わる】 | |
(ks). 車が動き出した・出しました。
The car started to move.
| V ます | 話し出す | Someone starts to talk |
| 食べ出す | Someone starts to eat |
(a). 急に雨が降り出した。
Suddenly it began to rain.
(b). 一歳になって初めて歩き出した。
He started to walk only after he became a year old.
(c). そのアイディアは誰が考え出したんですか。
Who thought out that idea?
(d). 一時間ぐらいかけてとうとうその本屋を探し出した。
After spending about an hour, I finally located that bookstore.
1. 出す in Verbます+出す is used as an auxiliary verb. When it is used as a full verb, it means 'cause something to become visible'.
2. Verbます+出す is normally ambiguous; one meaning is '~ out' and the other is 'begin to ~'. Thus, 作り出す means 'turn out' or 'begin to make'.
3. Verbます+出す conjugates as a Group 1 verb.
| ⎧さない | informal, negative, nonpast | |
| ⎪します | formal, nonpast | |
| 話し出 | ⎪す | informal, nonpast |
| ⎨せば | conditional | |
| 食べ出 | ⎪そう | volitional |
| ⎪して | て form | |
| ⎩した | informal, past |
4. Verbます+終わる 'finish ~ing' is an antonym of Verbます+出す/始める.
【Related Expression】
出す in the sense of 'begin to ~' is different from 始める in that the former indicates a non-volitional and abrupt beginning while the latter is more broadly used. Thus,
[1]
[2]
[3]
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Particle
| A particle which indicates location, except for location of existence. | At; in; on |
| 【Related Expression: に4; に6; を2】 |
(ks). 私達は喫茶店でコーヒーを飲んだ・飲みました。
We drank coffee at a coffee shop.
(a). ゆり子はデパートで働いています。
Yuriko is working at a department store.
(b). オーストラリアでは十二月は夏だ。
In Australia it is summer in December.
(c). 島崎さんは日本では元気でした。
Mr. Shimazaki was healthy in Japan.
(d). ヘレンは始めて舞台で歌った。
Helen sang on the stage for the first time.
で1 cannot be used to indicate location of existence. (⇨ に6) However, if the existential verb ある '(inanimate things) exist' occurs with an event, で is used, as in (1).
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Particle
| A particle which indicates the use of something for doing something. | By; for; from; in; on; using; with |
| 【Related Expression: を使って】 |
(ks). 宮本さんは毎日バスで会社へ行く・行きます。
Mr. Miyamoto goes to his company by bus everyday.
(a). 日本人は箸でご飯を食べる。
Japanese people eat rice with chopsticks.
(b). 私達は日本語で話した。
We talked in Japanese.
(c). 私はその映画をテレビで見ました。
I saw the movie on TV.
(d). 豆腐は大豆で作ります。
We make toufu from soybeans.
(e). ラリーはこの椅子を十ドルで買った。
Larry bought this chair for ten dollars.
(f). ベッツィーはそのレポートを一日で書いたそうだ。
I heard that Betsy wrote the report in one day.
1. In general, で2 indicates something which is used when someone or something does something. Typically, it indicates means and instruments as in Key Sentence and Exsamples (a) ~ (c).
2. Since で also indicates reason and cause, the phrase 何で, which consists of なん 'what' and で, is ambiguous: One meaning is 'by means of what (= how)' and the other is 'for what reason (= why)'. Thus, (1) can be interpreted in two ways.
【Related Expression】
で2 can be used instead of the phrase を使って 'by using ~', except the preceding noun refers to a human being. Examples:
[1]
[2]
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Particle
| A particle (apparently derived from the て form of です) that indicates a weak causal relationship. | And; because of; due to; because |
| 【Related Expression: から3; ので】 |
(ks). 山口さんは病気で学校を休んだ・休みました。
Because Mr. Yamaguchi was ill, he didn't come to school.
(a). 明日は期末試験で大変です。
I'm having an awful time because of tomorrow's final exam.
(b). 大雨で橋が壊れた。
Heavy rain destroyed the bridge.
(c). 昨日は夜、仕事でとても疲れた。
Because of my work I got very tired last night.
(d). 父は交通事故で入院しました。
My father was hospitalised due to a traffic accident.
1. Some of the uses of で3 (such as Key Sentence and Example (a)) are very close to the て form of です. For example, Key Sentence can be paraphrased into two sentences (1a) and (1b):
And Key Sentence can be considered to be the result of combining the two sentences using the て form of です which basically means 'be ~and'.
2. A noun that precedes で3 expresses something that is beyond human control (such as illness, flood, accident, rain, and fire). It is also to be noted that で3 co-occurs with any noun, if a predicate expresses something that is beyond human control. If the co-occurring predicate expresses something that is controllable, the particle で is no longer で3; it is で2 of means. (⇨ で2) Compare (2a) and (2b) below:
(2a) and (2b) contain a noncontrollable predicate アレルギーになる 'become allergic' and a controllable predicate オムレツを作る 'make an omelette', respectively. Therefore, で in (2a) and (2b) are で3 and で2, respectively.
【Related Expression】
The particle で3 is a very loose marker of cause due to its origin; in contrast, から3 and ので are clear subordinate conjunctions of cause/reason.
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Particle
| A particle which indicates the time when something terminates or the amount of time a period of activity has taken. | At; on; in |
| 【Related Expression: に1】 |
(ks). 春学期は五月十日で終わる・終わります。
The spring term ends on May 10.
(a). このコンサートは十時で終わります。
This concert will be over at ten o'clock.
(b). 私のパスポートは六月で切れる。
My passport expires in June.
(c). アメリカに来てから今日で三年になる。
It's been three years since I came to America.
1. In general, Xで4 indicates that something lasts for a period of time up to X.
2. When X in Xで refers to a duration of time, as in (1), it is the で of means rather than the で of termination time.
(⇨ で2)
【Related Expression】
に1 can be used in place of で4 in Key Sentence and Examples (a) and (b), as in [1].
[1]
When で is used, the nuance is that the spring term lasts up to May 10. When に is used, however, the sentence simply indicates the time when the spring term ends.
★Semantic derivations of で
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Particle
| The て form of です plus も 'even'. |
(ksa). 先生でも間違う・間違います。
Even a teacher makes mistakes.
(ksb). 私は難しい仕事でもする・します。
I will even do a difficult job.
(ksc). ここからでも富士山が見える・見えます。
Even from here you can see Mt. Fuji.
| (i)Noun | でも | |
| 先生が (subject) → | 先生でも | Even a teacher |
| 先生を (object) → | 先生でも | Even a teacher |
| (ii)Noun+Particle | でも | |
| 先生とでも | Even with a teacher | |
| 東京からでも | Even from Tokyo |
(a). 子供でもそんなことは分かりますよ。
Even a child can understand that sort of thing.
(b). お会いしたいんですが、日曜日でも構いませんか。
I'd like to see you, but it is all right to see you even on Sunday?
(c). あの人は魚でも肉でも食べます。
He eats anything, whether it be fish or meat.
1. Interrogative word+でも yields the following meaning depending on which Interrogative word is used.
| 誰でも | no matter who it is; anyone |
| 何でも | no matter what it is; anything |
| いつでも | no matter when; any time |
| どこでも | no matter where it is; any place |
| どれでも | no matter which it is |
2. The particle でも should not be confused with the particle combination で+も as in (1) below where で is a particle of location (=で1), and in (2) where で is a particle of means (=で2).
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Adverb
| An interrogative adverb which asks about the state of someone/something or the way of doing something. | How; in what way |
(ks). お母さんさんはどう(ですか)。
How's your mother?
(a). 新しいアパートはどうですか。
How's your new apartment?
(b). コーヒーはどうですか。
How is the coffee?/Would you like coffee?/How about coffee?
(c). 土曜日はどう？
How about Saturday?
1. The polite version of どう is いかが. In very informal speech ですか is omitted after どう or いかが.
2. どう and いかが are also used to offer or suggest something, as in Examples (b) and (c). In this case, どう or いかが are asking about the state of the hearer's mind regarding the offer or suggestion rather than about the state of what is being offered or suggested.
3. どう is also used to ask the way of doing something. In this case, いかが is usually not used. Example:
4. The idiomatic expression どうして 'literally: doing what' is used to ask manners, reasons or causes. Examples:
As seen in (2), unless the context is clear, どうして is sometimes ambiguous. (The interrogative adverb なぜ 'why' is unambiguous but less colloquial than どうして.)
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Particle
| A particle that indicates the direction toward which some directional movement or action proceeds. | To; towards |
| 【Related Expression: まで; に4; に7】 |
(ks). 私は先週京都へ旅行に行った・行きました。
I went on a trip to Kyoto last week.
(a). 私は札幌のうちへ飛行機で帰った。
I went back home to Sapporo by plane.
(b). 地震だったのでいそいで外へ出た。
It was an earthquake, so I went outside quickly.
(c). 父へ手紙を出したが、まだ返事が来ない。
I sent a letter to my father, but his reply has not come yet.
【Related Expressions】
I. The particles へ, まで, and に7 focus on direction, course (up to ~), and point of contact, respectively. Thus,
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
In actuality, native speakers use へ and に7 (of point of contact) almost interchangeably except in the case of [3] (i.e., に cannot be followed by の).
II. Even the に4 of direct contact meaning 'into; onto' can be replaced by へ as in:
[5]
[6]
[7]
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Particle
| A particle which indicates the subject. |
| 【Related Expression: は1】 |
(ks). 雨が降っている・います。
Rain is falling.
(a). 私の部屋にはステレオがあります。
There is a stereo in my room.
(b). あ、のり子が走っている。
Oh, Noriko is running.
(c). A:このレストランは何が美味しいですか。B:ステーキが美味しいです。
A: What is good in this restaurant? B: Steak is good.
1. が marks the subject of a sentence when the information expressed by the subject is first introduced in a discourse. When the subject is presented as the topic (that is, the information has already been introduced into the discourse), however, the topic marker は replaces が. (⇨ は1) Consider the following discourse, a typical opening in folktales, which illustrates the different uses of が and は.
In the first sentence, おじいさん 'old man' appears for the first time in the discourse; おじいさん is the subject but not the topic in this sentence. Therefore, it is marked by が. The second sentence tells something about the old man introduced in the first sentence. おじいさん is now the topic; therefore, it is marked by は rather than が. Note the parallelism here between が and は in Japanese and 'a' and 'the' in English.
2. が is also replaced by は if the subject is in contrast with another element. For example, in Example (c), B could also say:
Here, ステーキ 'steak' is newly introduced in the discourse and is not the topic; yet it is marked by は. This is because ステーキ, in this case, is being contrasted with other food.
3. Since Interrogative words like 何 'what', 誰 'who' and どこ 'what place' can never be topics, they are never marked by は, as in (3).
4. The subject in subordinate clauses is marked by が unless it is a contrasted element, as seen in (4).
Note that topics are not presented in subordinate clauses.
3. In relative clauses, the subject may be marked by の, as in (5).
(⇨ Relative Clause, Note 3)
6. In some expressions, elements which are considered to be direct objects are presented as subjects and are marked by が.
(⇨ は~が)
7. To sum up the important rules concerning が,
【Related Expression】
The topic marker は is often mistaken for a subject marker. It appears to be a subject marker because it often replaces が.
(⇨ は1)
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Conjunction
| A disjunctive coordinate conjunction that combines two sentences. | But |
| 【Related Expression: だが; だけど; でも; けれども; しかし】 |
(ks). ジョンは来た・来ましたがメアリーは来なかった・来ませんでした。
John came but Mary didn't (come).
| S1 がS2 | 太郎は泳いだ が 次郎は泳がなかった。 | Taro swam but Jiro didn't swim. |
(a). 私はビールは飲むが酒は飲まない。
I drink beer but don't drink sake.
(b). 旅行をしたいがお金がない。
I want to travel but I don't have the money.
1. が2, like 'but' in English, combines two sentences which express contrastive ideas. However, が is much weaker than 'but' in that it is sometimes used simply to combine two sentences for stylistic reasons even if those two sentences do not represent contrastive ideas. For example, the が in (1) is used simply as a transition word to connect two sentences.
2. が2 makes a sentence unit with the preceding sentence, not with the following sentence. Thus, it is wrong to place a comma before が or to start a sentence with が, as in (2) and (3).
3. Sentence1 and Sentence2 in "Sentence1がSentence2" must be in the same form whether formal or informal, because they are both independent clauses. (4) and (5) are stylistically awkward.
(⇨ けれども)
4. Sentence2 in "Sentence1がSentence2" is often omitted when it is understandable from the context and/or the situation, or when the speaker doesn't want to continue for some reason (e.g., the sentence is too direct, impolite, embarrassing，etc.). Examples:
5. When "Sentence1がSentence2" expresses contrastive ideas, the contrastive は typically appears in Sentence1 and Sentence2 as in Key Sentence and Example (a).
(⇨ は1)
【Related Expressions】
だが, だけど, でも, しかし and けれども express the same idea as が. However, the first four cannot make compound sentences like が does; they must occur at the beginning of a sentence, as in [1].
(See Note 2.)
[1]
けれども differs from が in that けれども is a subordinate conjunction meaning 'although'. That is, in "Sentence1けれどもSentence2", Sentence1けれども is a subordinate clause and Sentence2 is a main clause. In "Sentence1がSentence2", on the other hand, both Sentence1 and Sentence2 are independent clauses.
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Auxiliary Verb (Group 1)
| An auxiliary verb attached to a psychological/physiological adjective meaning a person other than the speaker shows signs of~ | Show signs of~ |
(ksa). 一男はスポーツカーを欲しがった・がりました。
Kazuo showed signs of wanting a sports car.
(ksb). 上田さんはアイスクリームを食べたがった・がりました。
Mr Uedo showed signs of wanting to eat ice cream.
| Adjective い/な stem | がる | |
| うれしがる | Someone shows signs of being glad | |
| めんどうがる | Someone shows signs of being bothered |
(a). スーザンは一人で淋しがっています。
Susan feels lonely by herself.
(b). 子供が眠たがっている。
My child wants to go to sleep.
1. There is a group of adjectives which, in the present tense, usually requires the first person (or a person with whom the speaker can empathize) as subject. If the subject of a sentence in which these adjectives occur is not the first person (or one with whom the speaker can empathize), then がる is attached to the adjective. Observe the accompanying change of particles from が into を.
If an adjective appears in an embedded clause (except a nominalized clause), the がる attachment is unnecessary even if the tense is nonpast and the subject is a person with whom the speaker cannot empathize. Thus,
(⇨ 欲しい, Note 3)
がる conjugates as a Group 1 verb. Thus,
| ⎧らない | informal, negative, nonpast | |
| ⎢ります | formal, nonpast | |
| ⎢る | informal, nonpast | |
| 欲しが | ⎨れば | conditional |
| ⎢ろう | volitional | |
| ⎢って | て form | |
| ⎩ った | informal, past |
3. The following psychological and physiological adjectives are commonly used with がる.
| Psychology | ||
| Adjectiveい | ||
| 欲しい | want | 欲しがる |
| 嬉しい | happy | 嬉しがる |
| 淋しい | lonely | 淋しがる |
| たい | want to | たがる |
| 怖い | scary | 怖がる |
| 羨ましい | envious | 羨ましがる |
| 面白い | amusing | 面白がる |
| Physiology | ||
| Adjectiveい | ||
| 痛い | painful | 痛がる |
| 苦しい | painful | 苦しがる |
| かゆい | itchy | かゆがる |
| 寒い | cold | 寒がる |
| 暑い | hot | 暑がる |
| だるい | languid | だるがる |
| くすぐったい | ticklish | くすぐったがる |
| Adjectiveな | ||
| 迷惑だ | troublesome | 迷惑がる |
| いやだ | dislike | いやがる |
4. A limited number of がる forms have derived noun forms. The form is がり(屋), meaning 'a person who shows signs of being ~'.
(⇨ や)
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Suffix
| Approximately (with a specific point of time). | About; around |
| 【Related Expression: くらい/ぐらい】 |
(ks). 鈴木さんは朝七時ごろうちを出る・出ます。
Mr. Suzuki leaves home at about 7:00 o'clock in the morning.
| Noun (time) | ごろ(に) | |
| 三時ごろ(に) | At about 3 o'clock |
(a). A:いつごろ北京に行きますか。 B:来年の六月ごろ行きます。
A: About when are you going to Beijing? B: I'm going there around June of next year.
(b). A:今朝は何時ごろまで寝ていましたか。 B:十時ごろまで寝ていました。
A: Until about what time were you asleep this morning? B: I was asleep until about 10 o'clock.
(c). 去年の今ごろは大雪でしたね。
About this time last year it snowed heavily, didn't it?
1. ごろ is used with a specific point of time. Thus, the following sentence is unacceptable.
2. Depending on the speaker's perspective, time expressions other than exact time expressions can be perceived as points in time. Thus, in Example (a), the month of June is a point in time from the speaker's viewpoint. In these cases, ごろ seems easier to use grammatically if there is some distance between the time of the event and the time of speech, as seen in the following examples.
【Related Expression】
ごろ is different from くらい/ぐらい 'about' in that the latter is used with specific quantity expressions. Thus,
[1]
[2]
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Particle
| Something takes place regularly in succession after a certain temporal or spatial interval. | Every |
| 【Related Expression: まい; おきに】 |
(ksa). 私は三時間ごとに薬を飲んだ・飲みました。
I took medicine every three hours.
(ksb). 正月は家ごとに門松を立てる・立てます。
They put up pine tree decorations at every house on New Year's Day.
(a). 一課ごとに試験がある。
There is a test after every lesson.
(b). 学期ごとに先生が変わる。
Every semester teachers change.
(c). 木村さんは会う人ごとに挨拶している。
Mr. Kimura greets everyone he meets.
(d). 三日ごとにテニスをしています。
I'm playing tennis every third day.
【Related Expression】
おきに indicates that something is repeated at certain intervals. Although its usage is comparable to ごとに, note the distinct difference in meanings in examples [1a] and [1b].
[1]
When a time expression precedes おきに or ごとに, there is no difference in meaning, if an event takes place at one point in time as in [2a]. But there is difference in meaning, if an event takes place within a certain period of time as in [2b].
[2]
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Auxiliary Verb (Group 2)
| Someone/something begins to do something or begins to be in some state. | Begin to |
| 【Related Expression: ~出す; 来る2】 | |
| 【Antonym Expression: ~終わる】 | |
(ks). 明日からレポートを書き始める・始めます。
I'll begin to write my paper tomorrow.
| Vます | はじめる | |
| 話しはじめる | Someone begins to talk | |
| 食べはじめる | Someone begins to eat |
(a). 私は八月から源氏物語を読み始めました。
I began to read The Tale of Genji in August.
(b). 日本の経済は１９６４年の東京オリンピックのころから強くなり始めた。
The Japanese economy began to strengthen about the time of the 1964 Tokyo Olympics.
(c). A:いつから切手を集め始めたんですか。 B:子供の時から集め始めました。
A: When did you start to collect stamps? B: I started to collect them (literally: since) I was a child.
1. Verbます始める conjugates exactly like the Group 2 Verb 始める.
| ない | informal, negative, nonpast | |
| ます | formal, nonpast | |
| 話しはじめ | る | informal, nonpast |
| 食べはじめ | れば | conditional |
| よう | volitional | |
| た | て form | |
| た | informal, past |
2. For the sentence (1) below, there are two honorific versions, depending on which part of Verbます始める is changed into an honorific form; if the Verbます is changed into an honorific form, it will become (2a) and if the entire Verbます始める is changed into an honorific form, it will become (2b).
(⇨ お~になる)
3. 始める is normally attached to a non punctual verb (such as 読む 'read', 書く 'write' and 見る 'see'). If the subject is plural, however, the verb can be a punctual verb (such as 着く 'arrive', 来る 'come' and 死ぬ 'die'). Thus,
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Noun
| A dependant noun which expresses the speaker's expectation that something will take place or took place or that someone/something is or was in some state. | I expect that~; it is expected that~; ~is expected to; I am fairly certain that~; should; ought to; it is natural that~; no wonder~ |
(ks). クラークさんはパーティーに行くはずだ・です。
I expect that Mr. Clark will go to the party.
| (1){V/Adjectiveい} informal | はずだ | |
| {話す /話した}はずだ | It is expected that someone will talk/talked. | |
| {高い /高かった}はずだ | It is expected that something is/was expensive. | |
| (2)Adjective な stem | [な だった]はずだ | |
| {静かな/静かだった}はずだ | It is expected that something is/was quiet. | |
| (3)Noun | {のだった}はずだ | |
| {先生の /先生だった} はずだ | It is expected that s.o. is/was a teacher |
(a). 大野先生はサンドラを知っているはずです。
I expect that Professor Ono knows Sandra.
(b). あの本は高かったはずだ。
I expect that book was expensive.
(c). そのアパートは奇麗なはずです。
I expect that apartment is clean.
(d). カールソンさんは昔先生だったはずだ。
I'm fairly sure that Ms. Carlson was a teacher before.
1. "Sentenceはず" expresses the speakers expectation, not in the sense of hoping or looking forward to something, but in the sense that the proposition expressed by Sentence should be true or come true. Thus, when the speaker uses はず he is not merely guessing, but stating a proposition based on reliable information or knowledge.
2. はず is a dependent noun and cannot be used alone. It is always modified by a sentence or a demonstrative such as その 'that' and こんな 'like this'. "Demonstrative はず" is used when a proposition is known to the hearer from the context, as in (1).
3. Negative expectations can be expressed in two ways:
(A) Sentence (negative) はずだ
(B) Sentenceはずは/がない
The assertion in (3) is stronger than that in (2).
4. "Sentenceはず" can also be used when the speaker has discovered the reason for an event or a state. In this case, はず means "It is natural that ~." or "No wonder ~." and can be paraphrased as "Sentenceわけだ." (⇨ わけだ) Example:
5. When "Sentenceはず" modifies a noun, that is, when "Sentenceはず" is a relative clause, の follows, as in (5).
(⇨ Relative Clause)
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Particle
| A particle which indicates an extent or a degree to which someone/something does something or is in some state. | To the extent of; to the extent that~; (not as)~ as~; about |
| 【Related Expression: ばかり; くらい】 |
(ksa). 私はケンほど強くない・強くありません。
I'm not as strong as Ken.
(ksb). この仕事は子共でも出来るほど易しい・易しいです。
This job is so easy that even a child can do it.
| (i)Noun | ほど | |
| 君ほど | As you | |
| (ii)Demonstrative | ほど | |
| それほど | To that extent | |
| (iii)Sinformal | ほど | |
| 家が倒れるほど | To the extent that houses would fall down |
(a). 僕は君ほど速く歩けません。
I can't walk as fast as you can.
(b). ジェニファーほどよく勉強する学生はいない。
There is no student who studies as hard as Jennifer.
(c). 私は西田さんがあれほどピアノが弾けるとは思わなかった。
I didn't think that Mr. Nishida could play the piano that well.
(d). ルイスさんの日本語は太田先生も外国人だと気づかなかったほど上手です。
Mr. Lewis' Japanese is so good that even Professor Ota didn't notice he was a foreigner.
1. When ほど is preceded by a noun, the predicate must be negative, as in Key Sentence (A), Examples (a) and (b). The following sentences are ungrammatical.
If a sentence or a demonstrative modifies ほど, however, the predicate of the main clause can be either affirmative or negative, as in Key Sentence (B), Example (d) and (3).
2. When ほど is used with a quantifier, it means 'about'. Example:
【Related Expressions】
ばかり and くらい also mean 'about' when they are used with a number and a counter. The difference among the three is that ばかり and ほど can be used with an exact number or amount of something, whereas くらい cannot, as seen in [1].
[1]
In the situation in [1] the speaker does not want about two apples but exactly two apples, and, in this case, くらい cannot be used. It is a very common practice in Japanese to avoid asking for exact numbers or amounts, and the practice comes from the idea that being straightforward or direct is impolite. This can be observed in many verbal and nonverbal expressions in Japanese and also in the manners of the Japanese people.
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Phrase
| It is strongly suggested that someone do something. | Had better do something |
| 【Related Expression: たらどうですか】 |
(ks). 日本語の本を読んだほうがいいです。
You'd better read Japanese books.
| Vinformal past | ほうがいい | |
| 話したほうがいい | Had better talk | |
| 食べたほうがいい | Had better eat |
(a). 野菜も食べたほうがいいよ。
You'd better eat vegetables, too.
(b). もう帰ったほうがいいですか。
Had I better go home now?
1. Verb informal past ほうがいい is an idiomatic expression of the comparative structure and expresses a strong suggestion.
(⇨ ほうが~より)
2. The second person subject in declarative sentences and the first person subject in interrogative sentences are usually omitted. (Key Sentence and Examples (a) and (b)) When the subject is the third person, it is not omitted unless it can be clearly understood from the context. In this case, the speaker is telling the hearer what the speaker suggests for the third person. (Example (c))
3. Verb informal nonpast can be substituted for Verb informal past, as in (1).
The meaning of Verb informal nonpast ほうがいい is almost the same as that of Verb informal past ほうがいい if it is used in situations of suggestion. However, Verb informal past ほうがいい may express a stronger suggestion than Verb informal nonpast ほうがいい. For instance, in the following example, Verb informal past ほうがいい is more appropriate.
4. "Had better not do something" is expressed by Verb negative ないほうがいい. Example:
Note that the verb must be in the nonpast negative form in this expression. The following is ungrammatical.
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Phrase
| Comparing two entities, one is in some state or does something more than the other. | ~be more (adjective) than~; ~do something more (adverb) than~ do |
| 【Related Expression: より】 |
(ksa). 石田さんのほうが私より若い・若いです。
Mr. Ishida is younger than I am.
(ksb). 私のほうが上田さんよりよく食べる・食べます。
I eat more than Ms. Ueda does.
(ksc). 車で行くほうがバスで行くより安い・安いです。
Going by car is cheaper than going by bus.
| (i)Noun | のほうがNounより | |
| 先生のほうが学生より | Teachers are more~ than studens | |
| (ii){V/Adjective い} informal | ほうが {V/Adjective い} informal nonpastより | |
| {話す /話した}ほうが 聞くより | Talking/having talked is more~; than hearing | |
| {食べる /食べた}ほうが 寝るより | Eating/having eaten is more~; than sleeping | |
| {高い /高かった}ほうが 安いより | Being/having been expensive is more~; than being cheap | |
| (iii)Adjective な stem | {なだった}ほうが Adjective な stemなより | |
| {なだった}ほうがなより | Being/having been quiet is more~; than being pretty | |
| (iv)Noun | {であるだった}ほうが;Nounであるより | |
| {先生である/先生だった}ほうが学生であるより | Being/having been a teacher is more~; than being a student |
(a). このカメラのほうがあのカメラより好きです。
I like this camera better than that camera.
(b). ジェフのほうが私より速く走れる。
Jeff can run faster than I can.
(c). 私が話すほうが君が話すよりいいでしょう。
It's probably better for me to talk than for you to talk.
(d). もちろん、安いほうが高いより嬉しいです。
Of course, I'm happier when it is cheap than when it is expensive.
(e). 子供は元気なほうが静かなより安心だ。
Talking about children, you feel more at ease when they are lively than when they are quiet.
(f). 私は女であるほうが男であるより楽しいと思う。
I think it's more enjoyable to be a woman than to be a man.
1. In Japanese there are no comparative forms of adjectives and adverbs. The idea of comparison is expressed by the "XのほうがYより" pattern. Yより may be omitted if it is clear from the context or the situation. Example:
2. In the "Sentence1ほうがSentence2より" pattern (Key Sentence (B)), Sentence1 can be either nonpast or past. Sentence2, however, is always nonpast regardless of the tense of Sentence1 and the main clause. There are two cases in which Sentence1 is past. First, Senence1 can be past when the whole sentence is about a present or future action or state. In this case, the sentence sounds rather hypothetical. Example:
Sentence1 can also be past if the whole sentence is about a past action or state, in this case the sentence is counterfactual. Example:
3. Yより can precede X(の)ほうが, as in (4).
4. Xのほう is a noun phrase; therefore, it can also be a direct object, an indirect object, etc. However, when it is used for something other than the subject, the "YよりXのほう(を, に, etc.)" order is preferable. Examples:
【Related Expression】
The idea of comparison can be expressed by the "XはYより" pattern, too. (⇨ より) However, when this pattern is used, X must have already been established as a topic. Thus, in a context like [1], the "XはYより" pattern cannot be used.
[1]
On the other hand, in a context like [2], the "XはYより" pattern is preferable, because X has already been established in the previous sentence.
[2]
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| Something is desired by the speaker. | Want (something) |
| 【Related Expression: たい】 |
(ksa). 私は車が欲しいです。
I want a car.
(ksb). 弟は僕の自転車を欲しがっている・います。
My little brother wants a bike.
(a). 私は日本人の友達が欲しい。
I want a Japanese friend.
(b). あなたは今何が欲しいですか。
What do you want now?
(c). パムはステレオを欲しがっている。
Pam wants a stereo.
1. The い type adjective 欲しい expresses a person's desire for some object. Like other stative transitive adjectives, 欲しい takes the は~が construction, where the experiencer is marked by は and the desired object by が. (In subordinate clauses the experiencer is also marked by が.)
(⇨ は~が)
2. Since 欲しい expresses a very personal feelings the experiencer is usually the first person in declarative sentences and the second person in interrogative sentences, as in Key Sentence (A), Examples (a) and (b). The third person's desire is usually expressed by 欲しがっている 'Literally: be showing the sign of wanting (something)', as in Key Sentence (B) and Example (c). (⇨ がる) It is noted that when 欲しがっている is used, the desired object is marked by を.
3. It is, however, acceptable to use 欲しい in connection with the third person experiencer in the following situations:
(⇨ のだ)
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Auxiliary Adjective (い)
| Want someone (who is not higher in status than the speaker) to do something. | Want (someone) to do (something) |
| 【Related Expression: もらいたい; たい】 |
(ks). 私はあなたに英語を教えて欲しい・欲しいです。
I want you to teach me English.
| Vて | ほしい | |
| 話してほしい | Want (someone) to talk | |
| 食べてほしい | Want (someone) to eat |
(a). 私は子供達に私と一緒に住んで欲しい。
I want my children to live together with me.
(b). あなたは誰に来て欲しいですか。
Who do you want to come?
1. 欲しい is used as an auxiliary with Verbて to mean 'want (someone) to do (something)'. When the experiencer wants a person X to do something, X is marked by に. 欲しい is not used if X has a higher status than the experiencer. Thus, the following sentence is not appropriate when the speaker is a student of Profesoor Yoshida's. (See Related Expression, [2] for the correct sentence in that situation.)
2. When Verbて欲しい is used, the experiencer is usually the first person in declarative sentences (Key Sentence, Example (a)) and the second person in interrogative sentences (Example (b)). If the experiencer is the third person, Verbてもらいたがっている '(literally) be showing the sign of wanting to receive the favor of doing something from someone' is used, as in (2).
【Related Expression】
The same idea can also be expressed by Verbてもらいたい (⇨ もらう2; たい) Example:
[1]
This pattern can be used when the experiencer wants someone who has higher status to do something. In this case, いただく, the humble version of もらう, is used instead of もらう. Example:
[2]
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Adverb
| A superlative marker. | Most |
(ks). クラス(の中)で大川さんが一番頭がいい。
Mr. Okawa is the brightest in the class.
| (i)一番 | Adjective い/な | |
| 一番 {高い/高かった} | Something is/was the highest | |
| 一番 {静かだ/静かだった} | Something is/was the most quiet | |
| (ii)一番 | {Adjective い stem く/Adjective な stem に} | |
| 一番 高く | Most highly | |
| 一番 静かに | Most quietly |
(a). A:この中でどの映画が一番面白いですか。 B:この日本の映画でしょう。
A: Among these, which movie is the most interesting? B: This Japanese movie, I guess.
(b). A:松本さんと池田さんと清水さんの中で、誰が一番(よく)出来ますか。 B:池田さんです。
A: Among Mr. Matsumoto, Mr. Ikeda and Mr. Shimizu, who is the best student. B: Mr. Ikeda is.
(c). 日本で一番奇麗な所はどこですか。
Where is the most scenic place in Japan?
一番 cannot be affixed directly to a noun as in *一番先生, meaning 'the best teacher'. It should precede an adjective, as in 一番いい先生. If the meaning is predictable, however, the adverbial form of adjectives, especially よく 'well, frequently', may be omitted, as in Example (b).
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Verb (Group 1)
| Someone or something moves in a direction away from the speaker or the speaker's viewpoint. | Go; come |
| 【Related Expression: 来る1】 |
(ksa). 田中さんは来週アメリカへ・に行く・行きます。
Mr. Tanaka is going to America next week.
(ksb). 私は東京から大阪までバスで行った・行きました。
I went from Tokyo to Osaka by bus.
(a). 私は毎朝八時に会社に行く。
I go to work at eight every morning.
(b). A:今晩私のうちでパーティーをしますが来ませんか。 B:はい、行きます。
A: We are going to have a party at my place tonight. Wouldn't you like to come? B: Yes, I'll come.
(c). あなたにもその知らせは行きましたか。
Did the notice go to you, too?
(d). その村にもバスは行っている。
The bus goes to the village, too.
1. 行く1 is used when someone or something moves in a direction away from the speaker or in a direction away from the speakers viewpoint, which is not necessarily the speaker's position. (⇨ 来る1) For example, in the following situation, 行く is used when the speaker (point C) places his viewpoint near point A.
2. When someone goes to his own "home base" (e.g., うち 'home'), うちに行く is ungrammatical. In this case, 帰る 'return' is used as in うちに帰る 'go home'.
3. There are cases where both 来る and 行く can be used with different shades of meaning. Examples:
In (2), when the speaker uses 来る, he is putting himself psychologically in the addressee's location; when he uses 行く he is not. In (3), 来る is more appropriate than 行く because, in general, a speaker is more empathetic with a location close to his own. The choice of 行く here definitely implies that the speaker is unusually unempathetic with his neighboring location.
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Auxiliary Verb (Group 1)
| Some action or state keeps changing from the point in time at which the speaker first describes the action. | Go on ~ing; continue; grow; become |
| 【Related Expression: 来る2】 |
(ks). これからは寒くなって行く・行きますよ。
It will get colder (and continue to be that way) from now on.
| Vて | 行く | |
| 話して行く | Someone continues to talk | |
| 食べて行く | Someone continues to eat |
(a). これからは毎日本を一冊読んで行くつもりです。
I intend to keep reading one book a day from now on.
(b). これからは暖かくなって行きますよ。
It will grow warmer (and continue in that way) from now on.
(c). その頃から日本の経済は強くなって行った。
The Japanese economy grew stronger (and continued to grow that way) from that time on.
(d). 分からないことをノートに書いて行った。
I went on taking notes on things I didn't understand.
1. The point in time at which the action starts is the present time in Examples (a) and (b) and the past in Examples (c) and (d), respectively.
2. The following examples use 行く as a full verb meaning 'to go' and are not the usage of 行く2.
【Related Expression】
When a change of state is expressed by 行く2, as in Examples (b) and (c), 行く2 can be replaced by 来る2, as in [1a] and [1b] below.
[1]
The 行く2 versions here are more impersonal and objective than the 来る2 versions. The latter versions stress that some change is going to involve or has involved the speaker himself, while the former versions are impersonal statements.
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Verb (Group 2)
| An animate thing exists. | Be; exist; stay |
| 【Related Expression: ある1】 |
(ksa). この町(に)は日本人が沢山いる・います。
In this town are many Japanese.
(ksb). リーはこの寮にいる・います。
Lee is in this dorm.
(a). この動物園にはパンダがいます。
There are pandas in this zoo.
(b). スチーブは今ロビンのアパートにいる。
Steve is in Robin's apartment now.
1. いる1 expresses existence in terms of animal life. It cannot be used for plant life or inanimate things. Thus, the following sentence is ungrammatical.
For plants and inanimate things, ある is used.
(⇨ ㊦ ある (1))
2. Two sentence patterns can be used with いる1. In the Key Sentence (A) pattern, a location is presented as the topic and what exists there is under focus. In this pattern the location marker に can optionally drop. In the Key Sentence (B) pattern, on the other hand, what exists is presented as the topic and where it exists is under focus.
(⇨ ㊦ ある (1), Note 3)
3. An animate thing or a group or organization of animate things such as a football team can also be in the location position, as seen in (2).
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Auxiliary Verb (Group 2)
| Someone or something is doing something he or it started some time ago, or is in a state created by an action he or it took some time ago. | Be~ing; have done (something) |
| 【Related Expression: ある2】 |
(ks). 佐々木さんは酒を飲んでいる・います。
Mr. Sasaki is drinking sake.
| Vて | いる | |
| 話している | Be talking | |
| 食べている | Be eating |
(a). 和江は新聞を読んでいる。
Kazue is reading a newspaper.
(b). この林檎は腐っている。
This apple is rotten.
(c). 木が倒れている。
A tree has fallen down (and is lying there).
(d). 私は鈴木さんを知っています。
I know Miss Suzuki.
1. いる is used as an auxiliary verb with Verb-て and expresses the continuation of an action or state. In general, if Verb-て expresses an action which can continue or be repeated, Verb-て expresses the continuation of the action. If Verb-て is a verb indicating a momentary action which cannot be repeated, Verb-て expresses the idea that something happened to X and X maintains the state which was created by that event. Key Sentence and Example (a) are examples of the first usage and Examples (b), (c) and (d) are examples of the second usage. Note in Example (d) that 知る the dictionary form of 知って, means 'to get to know' and 知っている expresses the continuation of the state after the speaker got to know Miss Suzuki, which is expressed by know in English. It is also noted, however, that 'not to know' is not 知っていない but 知らない.
(⇨ ㊦ 知る・しる)
2. Verb-ている also expresses a habitual action, which is a special sort of repeated action. Example:
3. When Verb-て is a motion verb such as 行く 'go', 来る 'come' and 帰る 'return', the meaning of Verb-ている is not 'be ~ing'. For example, 行っている means 'to have gone to some place and to still be there'. The sentences in (2) provide examples.
4. The verb 住む 'live' requires the Verb-ている pattern if the sentence expresses a present state. Also, verbs like 言う 'say' and 思う 'think' with a third person subject require the Verb-ている pattern if the sentence expresses a present state. Examples:
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Verb (Group 1)
| Someone, something needs something | Need |
(ks). 君達は英和辞典が要る・要ります。
You need an English-Japanese dictionary.
(a). 私は今お金が要る。
I need money now.
(b). 何か道具が要りますか。
Do you need some tools?
(c). この車はガソリンが沢山要る。
This car needs a lot of gas.
1. いる 'need' takes the は～が construction, where the experiencer (that is, the person or thing that needs something) is followed by は and the necessary object by が.
(⇨ ㊦ は～が)
2. いる 'need' is a Group 1 verb; thus, the negative form is いらない, the polite form is いります and the て-form is いって.
3. The experiencer can also take the particle に, as in (1).
4. In subordinate clauses, the experiencer is followed by either が or に, as in (2), unless the sentence is contrastive. (In that case, は follows.)
(⇨ ㊦ は (1))
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Pronoun
| A reflexive pronoun that refers (back) to a human subject with whom the speaker is empathising. | ~self; own |
| 【Related Expression: 自分2】 |
(ksa). 土田は幸子が自分を愛していることを知らなかった・知りませんでした。
Tsuchida didn't know that Sachiko loved him (literally: himself).
(ksb). 1:ゆかりは歩きながら考えていた。 2:健一は自分が本当に好きなんだろうか。
1: Yukari was walking while thinking. 2: Does Kenichi really love me (literally: myself)?
(a). 中川は自分が京大に入れると思っていなかった。
Nakagawa didn't think that he (literally: himself) could enter Kyoto University.
(b). 一郎は冬子が自分に会いに来た時うちにいなかった。
Ichiro wasn't at home when Fuyuko came to see him (literally: himself).
(c). 道子は一男に自分の車で行かせた。
Michiko made Kazuo go there in his/her car.
(d). ジョンはメアリーのことを思っていた。彼女は自分と結婚してくれるんだろうか。自分を捨てて、ボブと結婚するんだろうか。
John was thinking of Mary. Is she going to marry me (literally: myself)? Is she going to leave me (literally: myself) and marry Bob?
1. 自分1 is an empathy marker that normally refers back to the subject of the main clause as in Key Sentence (A), Examples (a), (b) and (c), or to the discourse topic as in Key Sentence (B) and Example (d).
2. When 自分 is an empathy marker, its referent (i.e., the subject of the sentence) is normally a passive experiencer. In other words, the referent is not an agent (i.e., someone who initiates and/or completes an action).
(⇨ 自分2)
3. Example (c) is an ambiguous sentence, because 自分 can refer to either the main subject Michiko or to Kazuo. 自分's reference to Kazuo is not a counter example of 自分's strong tendency to refer to the subject, however, because Kazuo is semantically the subject of the verb 行く 'go'. Also to be noted is that Michiko is an agent of the causative action, but Kazuo is a passive experiencer of the causative action. Indeed，it is easier to look at Kazuo as the object of the speaker's empathy, because he is a passive experiencer. It is very likely that 自分 is not an empathy marker but a contrastive marker when it refers to an agent Michiko. Other similar ambiguous sentences follow:
Note that 自分 in (1a, b) is an empathy marker when it refers to Michiko and is a contrastive marker when it refers to Kazuo.
(⇨ 自分2)
4. The referent of 自分 in a complex sentence has to be conscious of the situation expressed in the main clause. Compare (2a) and (2b):
The sentence (2b) is ungrammatical because one can hardly empathize with a dead person.
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Pronoun
| A reflexive pronoun that refers (back) to a human subject, the referent of which is contrasted with someone else. | ~self; own |
| 【Related Expression: 自分1】 |
(ksa). 日本人は自分の国の文化をユニークだと思っている・います。
The Japanese think that their country's culture is unique.
(ksb). メアリーは自分で何でもする・します。
Mary does everything by herself.
(ksc). 一男は自分を励ました・励ましました。
Kazuo braced himself.
(a). 自分を知ることが一番難しい。
To know yourself is the hardest.
(b). マイクはいつも自分の寮の部屋で勉強している。
Mike is always studying in his own dorm room.
(c). 小林は自分からしたいと言った。
Kobayashi voluntarily (literally: from himself) said that he wanted to do it.
(d). 先生はご自分の家で私に会って下さった。
The professor kindly met me at his own house.
自分 is a contrastive marker if at least one of the following three conditions is met:
Key Sentence (C) satisfies the condition (3), because if 自分 is replaced by Ø or 彼 'he', the meaning of the sentence changes into 'Kazuo encouraged him.'
【Related Expression】
自分 is 自分1 if the referent does not satisfy any of the three conditions given in Note; if it satisfies at least one of them it is 自分2.
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Particle
| A particle which marks an alternative. | (either)~or~ |
| 【Related Expression: それとも】 |
(ksa). 私は電車かバス(か)で行く・行きます。
I will go either by train or by bus.
(ksb). トムが行くかメアリーが行くかどちらかだ・です。
Either Tom will go or Mary will go.
| (i){V/Adjective い} informal | か | |
| {話す /話した}か | Either someone talks/talked or | |
| {高い /高かった}か | Either something is/was expensive or | |
| (ii){Adjective な stem/ N} | {Øだった}か | |
| {静か /静かだった}か | Either something is/was quiet or | |
| {先生 /先生だった}か | Either someone is/was a teacher or | |
| (iii)N1 か N2 | 先生か学生 | Either a teacher or a student |
(a). 私は毎朝ジュースかミルクを飲む。
I drink either juice or milk every morning.
(b). それはボブかマークかします。
As for that, either Bob or Mark will do it.
(c). 肉が高かったか一郎が嫌いだったかどちらかだ。
Either meat was expensive or Ichiro didn't like meat.
(d). 手紙を書くか電話をかけるかどちらかして下さい。
Either write a letter or make a call, please.
(e). 食べるか話すかどちらかにしなさい。
Decide on either eating or talking.
1. The basic function of か is to mark an alternative. It can mark either nouns or sentences. When it marks nouns, the final か is usually omitted. When it marks sentences, the sentences are subordinate clauses; that is, they must be in the informal form. The topic marker は must not be used.
2. か cannot be used to connect two questions. Thus, the following sentences are ungrammatical.
In this case, それとも is used instead of か.
(⇨ それとも)
【Related Expression】
それとも is also used with alternatives. However, the function of それとも is to connect two alternatives, not to mark an alternative. Thus, それとも appears with か, not in place of か. Examples:
[1]
[2]
それとも is optional in [1], but not in [2].
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Particle
| A sentence final particle which indicates that the preceding sentence is interrogative. | Whether; if |
| 【Related Expression: だい (かい)】 |
(ksa). よし子は大学へ行く・行きますか。
Is Yoshiko going to college?
(ksb). 私はテリーにナンシが日本へ行くかと聞いた・聞きました。
I asked Terry whether Nancy was going to Japan.
| (i){Verb/Adjective い} | か | |
| {話す /話します}か | Will (or does) someone talk? (informal/formal) | |
| {高い /高いです}か | Is something expensive? (informal/formal) | |
| (ii){Adjective な stem/ Noun} | {Øです}か | |
| {静か /静かです}か | Is something quiet? (informal/formal) | |
| {先生 /先生です}か | Is someone a teacher? (informal/formal) |
(a). あなたは学生ですか。
Are you a student?
(b). これは何ですか。
What is this?
(c). 友達は漢字が難しいかと聞いた。
My friend asked if kanji is difficult.
(d). 私はジャンに誰が来たかと尋ねた。
I asked Jan who had come.
(e). 僕は山崎先生が昨日何を言ったか忘れてしまった。
I've forgotten (completely) what Professor Yamazaki said yesterday.
(f). 私は健二にお金を貸したかどうか思い出せない。
I cannot remember if I lent Kenji some money.
1. The question marker か is a special use of the か which marks an alternative (i.e., か1). For example, Key Sentence (A) came from (1), with the parenthesized part omitted.
(⇨ か1)
2. Unless it is very informal, an interrogative sentence is marked by か whether it is a yes-no question or an interrogative word question. (⇨ だい; かい) Note that in Japanese interrogative sentences, the word order is the same as that of the corresponding declarative sentence. Also, an interrogative sentence is pronounced with rising intonation whether it is a yes-no question or a interrogative word question.
3. か remains in indirect questions as in Key Sentence (B), Examples (c) and (d).
4. When the informal forms of な type adjectives and the copula precede the question marker か, だ drops. A possible reason is that だ, the informal form of です, expresses a strong assertion and it conflicts with the question marker か, which expresses the speaker's uncertainty about something.
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Particle
| A marker for an embedded yes-no question. | Whether or not; if (~ or not) |
(ks). 鈴木さんが大学に入ったか(どうか)(は)知らない・知りません。
I don't know whether or not Mr. Suzuki entered college.
| (i){V/Adjective い} informal | か(どうか) | |
| {話す /話した}か(どうか) | Whether or not someone talks/talked | |
| {高い /高かった}か(どうか) | Whether or not something is/was expensive | |
| (ii) {Adjective な stem/ N} | {Øだった}か(どうか) | |
| {静か /静かだった}か(どうか) | Whether or not something is/was quiet | |
| {先生 /先生だった}か(どうか) | Whether or not someone is/was a teacher |
(a). 小川さんが結婚しているかどうか知っていますか。
Do you know if Mr. Ogawa is married or not?
(b). フォークナーの小説が面白いかどうか知らない。
I don't know if Faulkner's novels are interesting.
1. When the optional どうか is used, the embedded question has to be a yes-no question. If it is not used，then the question can be either a yes-no question or an interrogative word question.
2. Typical final verbs include, among others, verbs of knowing, examining, understanding, asking, remembering, and deciding.
3. Sentnece informal か(どうか) can be used as a noun phrase that takes particles such as が and を.
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Particle
| A sentence final particle which marks yes-no questions in informal male speech. |
| 【Related Expression: だい (か2)】 |
(ksa). 日本語は面白いかい。
Is Japanese interesting?
(ksb). 上野さんはアメリカへ行くのかい。
Is Mr. Ueno going to America?
| (i){V/Adjective い informal} | かい | |
| {話す /話した}かい | Does (or will)/Did someone talk? | |
| {高い /高かった}かい | Is/was something expensive? | |
| (ii){Adjective な stem/ N} | {Øだった}かい | |
| {静か /静かだった}かい | Is/was something quiet? | |
| {先生 /先生だった}かい | Is/was someone a teacher? | |
| (iii){V/Adjective い} informal | のかい | |
| {話す /話した}のかい | Does (or will)/Did someone talk? | |
| {高い /高かった}のかい | Is/was something expensive? | |
| (iv){Adjective な stem/ Noun} | {なだった}のかい | |
| {静かな/静かだった}のかい | Is/was something quiet? | |
| {先生な/先生だった}のかい | Is/was someone a teacher? |
(a). 日本語を勉強するかい。
Will you study Japanese?
(b). このアパートは静かかい。
Is this apartment quiet?
(c). 君達は学生かい。
Are you students?
(d). その本は難しいのかい。
Is the book difficult?
(e). あの人は先生なのかい。
Is that person a teacher?
1. Since かい is used in informal speech, preceding sentences must be in the informal form. The following sentences are unacceptable.
2. かい is used only for yes-no questions. Thus, the following sentences are ungrammatical.
In these sentences, だい is used. (⇨ だい)
3. Questions in the Key Sentence (A) pattern and those in the Key Sentence (B) pattern correspond to questions without のです and those with のです in formal speech, respectively.
(⇨ のだ)
4. Questions in female informal speech can be formed by dropping かい in male informal questions and using rising intonation. Examples:
For a summary of the endings for informal questions, see だい, Related Expression.
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Auxiliary Adjective (い)
| Can't tell if ~ | Might |
| 【Related Expression: だろう; に違いない; そうだ2】 |
(ksa). 午後雨が降るかもしれない・かもしれません。
It might rain in the afternoon.
(ksb). あの先生の授業は詰らないかもしれない・かもしれません。
That teacher's class might be dull.
(ksc). 京都の桜はまだ奇麗かもしれない・かもしれません。
The cherry blossoms in Kyoto might still be beautiful.
| (i){V/Adjective い} informal | かもしれない | |
| {話す /話した}かもしれない | Someone might talk/might have talked | |
| {高い /高かった}かもしれない | Something might be high/might have been high | |
| (ii){Adjective な stem/ Noun} | {Øだった}かもしれない | |
| {静か静かだった}かもしれない | Something might be quiet/might have been quiet | |
| {先生先生だった}かもしれない | Someone might be a teacher/might have been a teacher |
(a). 今年の冬は大変寒くなるかもしれません。
It might be very cold this winter.
(b). あの人は今日のパーティーのことを忘れたかもしれません。
He might have forgotten about today's party.
(c). この映画はあなたにつまらないかもしれません。
This movie might be uninteresting for you.
(d). 中国語の文法は日本語の文法より簡単かもしれない。
Chinese grammar might be simpler than Japanese grammar.
(e). あれは鈴木先生かもしれないよ。
That might be Professor Suzuki.
【Related Expressions】
I. The probability of accuracy predicted by a かもしれない sentence is lower than that of a だろう sentence and much lower than that of a に違いいない sentence as diagrammed below:
| low probability | high probability | |
| かもしれない | だろう | に違いない |
The Japanese weatherman on radio or TV, for example, employs でしょう (the formal version of だろう) in his forecasts as in the following:
[1]
II. Verbます/Adjective(い/な) stem そうだ is used when the speaker's conjecture is based primarily on visual or other perceptual evidence, but かもしれない is not; rather the latter is used when that conjecture is based on logical reasoning. Thus,
[2]
(⇨ ようだ)
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Particle
| A particle which indicates a starting point or a source. | From; since; out of |
| 【Related Expression: に3; を3】 |
(ks). パーティーは八時から始まる・始まります。
The party starts from eight o'clock.
(a). 今日の授業は一時から三時までです。
Today's class is from one o'clock till three o'clock.
(b). このバスはニューヨークから来た。
This bus came from New York.
(c). ここから富士山が見えるよ。
You can see Mt. Fuji from here.
(d). そのタイプライターは誰から借りたんですか。
Who did you borrow the typewriter from?
(e). 酒は米から作る。
Sake is made out of rice.
(f). つまらないことから喧嘩になった。
We started a quarrel over a trifle.
から basically indicates a temporal or spatial starting point (Examples (a), (b) and (c)) or a source (Examples (d), (e) and (f)). As seen in Examples (d), (e) and (f), a source can be a person, material,a cause or a reason.
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Conjunction
| After/since a point in time at which something takes place. | After; having done something; since (time) |
| 【Related Expression: あとで; てform of verb】 |
(ks). 雪子は晩ご飯を食べてから映画に行った・行きました。
After eating her supper, Yukiko went to a movie.
| Vてから | 話してから | After talking |
| 食べてから | After eating |
(a). 私は友達に電話してからうちを出た。
I left home after making a call to my friend.
(b). ジョーンズさんはいつもシャワーを浴びてから寝ます。
Mr. Jones always goes to bed after taking a shower.
(c). 私達がこの家を買ってからもう十年になる。
It's already been ten years since we bought this house.
(d). 二年前に交通事故を起こしてから、ミラーさんは車に乗らないようにしています。
Since he caused a traffic accident two years ago, Mr. Miller has been trying not to drive a car.
1. Verbてから Sentence means 'Sentence after doing something' or 'Sentence since ~ did something'. The usage of から2 is an extended use of から1.
2. てから is not to be confused with たから in which から is used as a conjunction of cause/reason.
(⇨ から3)
【Related Expression】
から in Verbてから can be omitted if the main verb does not indicate a high degree of volitional control on the part of the speaker as in the cases of a strong suggestion, determination or a command. Thus, in Key Sentence and Examples (a), (b) and (c) から can drop, but in Example (d), [1a] and [2a] it cannot.
[1]
[2]
The difference between てから and て is that the former focuses more on chronological order and volitional planning than the latter does.
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Conjunction
| A subordinate conjunction which expresses a reason or a cause. | So; since; because |
| 【Related Expression: ので】 |
(ksa). 来年日本へ行くから日本語を勉強している・います。
I'm studying Japanese because I'm going to Japan next year.
(ksb). A:どうして日本語を勉強しているん(だ・ですか)。 B:来年日本へ行くからだ・です。
A: Why are you studying Japanese? B: It's because I'm going to Japan next year.
| Sinformal | から | |
| {話す/話した}から | Because someone (will) talk/talked | |
| {高い/高かった}から | Because something is/was expensive | |
| {静かだ/静かだった}から | Because somehing is/was quiet | |
| {先生だ/先生だった} から | Because someone is/was a teacher |
(a). 春子は十七だからまだお酒を飲めない。
Haruko is seventeen, so she can't drink sake yet.
(b). 今日は忙しいですから明日来て下さい。
Please come tomorrow because I'm busy today.
(c). A:どうして昨日学校を休んだんですか。 B:頭が痛かったからです。
A: Why were you absent from school yesterday? B: It was because I had a headache.
1. Sentence から represents a reason or a cause. Thus, Sentence1 から Sentence2 corresponds to 'Sentence2 because/since S1', 'Because/since Sentence1, Sentence2', or 'Sentence1, so Sentence2'. Note that the order of Sentence1 and Sentence2 is not always the same in English, while in Japanese から clauses (i.e., Sentence1) always precede main clauses (i.e., Sentence2).
2. In subordinate clauses predicates are usually in the informal form. However, since the degree of subordination or dependency of Sentence1 in "Sentence1 から Sentence2" is rather low, Sentence1 may be in the formal form in very formal speech, as in Example (b).
3. When a main clause is known to the hearer from the context, the Key Sentence (B) pattern is used. In this case, the から clause must be in the informal form. The following sentence is unacceptable.
4. In question-and-answer situations as in Key Sentence (B) and Example (c), abbreviated forms are occasionally used. For example, speaker B may say (2) in the Key Sentence (B) situation.
In this sentence, the main clause 日本語を勉強しています 'I'm studying Japanese' has been omitted.
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Particle
| A sentence final particle which expresses the idea that the female speaker wonders about something. |
(ks). 松本さんは来るかしら。
I wonder if Mr. Matsumoto will come.
| (i){V/Adjective い} informal | かしら | |
| {話す /話した}かしら | I wonder someone (will) talk/talked | |
| {高い /高かった}かしら | I wonder something is/was expensive | |
| (ii){Adjective な stem/ N} | {Øだった}かしら | |
| {静か /静かだった}かしら | I wonder something is/was quiet | |
| {先生/ 先生だった}かしら | I wonder someone is/was a teacher |
(a). あの先生の授業は面白いかしら。
I wonder if that teacher's class is interesting.
(b). 幸子さんは何が好きかしら。
I wonder what Sachiko likes.
(c). あの人は誰かしら。
I wonder who that person is.
1. Etymologically, かしら comes from か知らない 'I don't know (if) ~', but now expresses the idea "I wonder".
2. かしら is usually used by female speakers in rather informal speech. The male version is かなあ which is used only in fairly informal situations. The formation rules of かなあ are exactly the same as those for かしら.
3. Sentence formal かしら is acceptable if the situation is very formal. Example:
4. Since かしら and かなあ mean 'I wonder' (present tense), they cannot be used for expressions like "I wondered" and "Mr. Smith wondered". For such expressions, "Aは Sentence Informal かしら/かなあと思う" is used. Here, A is the person who wonders; と思う literally means 'think that'. Examples:
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Suffix
| A noun forming suffix that indicates a way or a manner in which one does something. | A way of; a manner of; how to |
| 【Related Expression: 方法】 |
(ks). ケーキの作り方を教えて下さい。
Please show me how to make a cake.
| Vます | 方 | |
| 話し方 | Way/manner of speaking | |
| 食べ方 | Way/manner of eating |
(a). この漢字の書き方が分かりません。
I don't know how to write this kanji.
(b). あの人の歩き方は面白いですね。
His manner of walking is amusing, isn't it?
(c). 日本語の勉強の仕方を教えて下さい。
Please teach me how to study Japanese language.
1. Verbます+方 is in itself ambiguous, meaning either 'way' or 'manner'. Thus,
is ambiguous: it means either 'The way of drinking is important' or 'The manner in which one drinks is important'. The separate meanings become clearer in an extended context:
2. Sino-Japanese verbs such as 勉強する 'study', 電話する 'telephone', 料理する 'cook', 説明する, 'explain' and 相談する 'consult' need the particle の before 仕方 as in:
【Related Expression】
方 can be replaced by 方法 but only when 方 means 'a way of doing something'. 方法 roughly corresponds to the English word 'method'; it means a relatively complicated way of doing something. Example (c) can be rewritten as [1].
[1]
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Phrase
| Something (including an action) replaces something else. | In place of~; instead of; to make up for~; although; but |
| 【Related Expression: けれど(も); しかし】 |
(ksa). 先生のかわりに私が教えた・教えました。
I taught in place of my teacher.
(ksb). 土曜日に仕事をするかわりに月曜日は休む・休みます。
To make up for working on Saturdays, I take Mondays off.
| (i)Noun | の代わりに | |
| 先生の代わりに | In place of the teacher | |
| (ii){V/Adjective い} informal | 代わりに | |
| {話す /話した}代わりに | Instead of talking/talked but | |
| {食べる /食べた}代わりに | Instead of eating/ate but | |
| {高い /高かった}代わりに | Something is/was expensive but~ | |
| (iii)Adjective な stem | {なだった}代わりに | |
| {静かな/静かだった}代わりに | Something is/was quiet but~ |
(a). ビールのかわりに酒を買いました。
I bought sake instead of beer.
(b). 私のかわりに父が行ってもいいですか。
Can my father go there in place of me?
(c). 今日は夜おそくまで踊るかわりに明日は一日中勉強します。
I'll study all day tomorrow to make up for dancing until late tonight.
(d). 手伝ってあげるかわりに飲ませて下さいよ。
I'll help you, so (to make up for it) please (literally: let me drink) buy me a drink, OK?
(e). 僕のアパートは不便なかわりに家賃が安い。
My apartment is inconvenient, but the rent is cheap.
(f). 英語を教えてあげたかわりに日本語を教えてもらった。
I taught him Japanese, so (to make up for it) he taught me English.
(g). その車は安かったかわりによく故障した。
That car was inexpensive, but it often broke down.
In Noun1 の代わりに Noun2, Noun2 is regarded as the substitute for Noun1, which is the originally intended item. In Sentence1 informal 代わりに Sentence2, an action or a state identified by Sentence2 takes place to make up for a counter-action or counter-state represented in Sentence.
【Related Expressions】
In Sentence1代わりにSentence2, 代わりに can be replaced by けれど(も) 'although' or しかし 'but'. Note, however, that the converse is not always acceptable. Thus, けれど(も) and しかし in [1] below cannot be replaced by 代わりに, because the meaning of 'making up for ~' is missing, but the same conjunctions in [2] can be replaced by 代わりに, because the compensative meaning is present there.
[1]
[2]
Basic Page 187
Conjunction
| A disjunctive subordinate conjunction that combines two sentences. | Although; though |
| 【Related Expression: が2 (だが, だけど, でも, しかし)】 |
(ks). 私は言わなかったけれどもトムは知っていた・いました。
Although I didn't tell him, Tom knew (about it).
| Sinformal | けれども | |
| {話す /話した}けれども | Although someone (will) talk/talked | |
| {高い /高かった}けれども | Although something is/was expensive | |
| {静かだ /静かだった}けれども | Although something is/was quiet | |
| {先生だ /先生だった}けれども | Although someone is/was a teacher |
(a). この本は高いけれどもいい本ですよ。
Although it is expensive, this book is a good book.
(b). 僕はドイツ語があまり好きじゃないけれども勉強しなければならない。
Although I don't like German very much, I have to study it.
(c). 大野さんは九十歳だけれどもとても元気だ。
Although Mr. Ono is ninety years old, he is very healthy.
1. Sentence1 これども Sentence2 means 'Although Sentence1, Sentence2'. Here, Sentence1 けれども is a subordinate clause, therefore it is usually in the informal form. However, in very polite speech, Sentence1 can be in the formal form, as in (1).
2. The informal forms of けれども (listed from least formal to most formal)
けど けども けれど.
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Verb (Group 2)
| Something is passively and spontaneously audiable. | Audible; (can) hear; it sounds |
| 【Related Expression: 聞ける】 |
(ks). 私(に)は鶯の声がよく聞こえる・聞こえます。
To me the cries of a nightingale are clearly audible./ I can clearly hear the cries of a nightingale.
(a). その音は小さ過ぎて聞こえない。
That sound is too weak and is not audible.
(b). 大山さんの声は大きいので隣の部屋の人にもよく聞こえる。
Mr. Oyama's voice is so loud that people in the neighbouring rooms can hear him.
(c). 私にはお寺の鐘の音が聞こえたが、弟には聞こえなかった。
I could hear the sound of the temple bell, but my younger brother couldn't.
(d). テーラーさんの作った文は変に聞こえる。
The sentences which Mr. Taylor made sound strange.
【Related Expression】
聞こえる is different from the regular potential form of 聞く 'hear' (i.e., 聞ける) in that the former indicates a passive, auditory potentiality, whereas the latter indicates that the speaker (or the subject of sentence) can hear sound not passively but actively. Thus,
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
Note that in [4] both 聞ける and 聞こえる are possible, depending on the speaker's perception of the situation; if he perceives the situation to be inalterable, he uses 聞こえる; if not, he uses 聞ける.
Basic Page 190
Adjective (な)
| Something or someone is what someone does not like. | Don't like; dislike |
| 【Antonym Expression: 好きだ】 |
(ks). 私はチーズが嫌いだ・嫌いです。
I don't like cheese.
(a). 僕は冬が嫌いだ。
I dislike winter.
(b). ホワイトさんはフットボールが大嫌いです。
Mr. White hates football.
1. 嫌いだ is a な type adjective which requires the "は~が construction". (⇨ は~が) The experiencer (i.e., the person who dislikes some thing) is marked by は and the disliked object by が. Note that the disliked object is marked by が, not by を.
2. In subordinate clauses, は marking the experiencer changes into が, as seen in (1).
3. "Dislike a lot" is expressed by 大嫌い, as in Example (b).
Basic Page 191
Noun
| A thing which is intangible. | Thing; what |
| 【Related Expression: もの】 |
(ksa). いいことを教えてあげよう・あげましょう。
I have a good suggestion for you.
(ksb). 論文に書いたことを話して下さい。
Please tell me what you wrote in your thesis.
(ksc). ブラウンさんは日本の大学のことをよく知っている・います。
Mr. Brown knows a lot (of things) about Japanese universities.
| (i){V/Adjective い} informal | こと | |
| {話す /話した}こと | What someone (will) says/said | |
| {面白い /面白かった}こと | What is/was interesting | |
| (ii)Adjective な stem | {なだった}こと | |
| {大事な/大事だった}こと | What is/was important | |
| (iii) Noun | のこと | |
| 先生のこと | Things about the teacher |
(a). 大事なことはもう全部話しました。
I already told you everything that's important.
(b). 先生が言ったことを覚えていますか。
Do you remember what (=the thing which) the teacher said?
(c). 試験のことは忘れなさい。
Forget about the exam.
1. こと means a thing which is intangible. Thus,(1) is ungrammatical.
2. Nounのこと, whose literal meaning is 'thing of Noun' is often used with such verbs as 知っている 'know', 話す 'talk' and 忘れる 'forget', and means 'know about Noun', 'talk about Noun', etc.
3. こと is used as a nominalizer, too. (⇨ こと2) Example (b), for instance, is ambiguous without proper context. That is, it means either 'Do you remember the thing which the teacher said?' or 'Do you remember (the fact) that the teacher said (it)?'
【Related Expression】
もの also means 'thing', but it means 'a tangible thing'. Compare こと and もの in the following sentences:
[1]
[2]
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Nominaliser
| A nominaliser used to indicate the speaker's relative lack of empathy with the content of the sentence he is nominalising. | To~; ~ing; that |
| 【Related Expression: の3】 |
(ks). 小説を書くことは難しい(です)。
Writing a novel is hard.
| (i){V/Adjective い} informal | こと | |
| {話す /話した}こと | (the fact) that someone talks/talked | |
| {高い /高かった}こと | (the fact) that something is/was expensive | |
| (ii)Adjective な stem | {なだった}こと | |
| {静かな/静かだった}こと | (the fact) that something is/was quiet | |
| (iii)Noun | {であるであっただった}こと | |
| {先生である/先生であった/先生だった}こと | (the fact) that someone is/was a teacher |
(a). 若い時にいい友達を作ることはとても大事だ。
It is very important to make good friends when one is young.
(b). 大学四年の時フランスに留学することを考えています。
I am thinking of studying in France during my senior year.
(c). 日本の文化が面白いことは分かるが、ユニークだとは思わない。
I know that Japanese culture is interesting, but I don't think that it is unique.
(d). スイスが奇麗なことは写真で知っています。
From pictures I know that Switzerland is beautiful.
(e). あの人がいい人であることは確かです。
He is without doubt a good person.
The nominalizer こと turns not just a verb or adjective but an entire sentence into a noun phrase. For example, in Key Sentence the sentence 小説を書く 'one writes a novel' becomes a complex noun phrase. Once a sentence has become a noun phrase, it can be used anywhere a regular noun phrase can be used. Thus, it can function as the subject, as in Key Sentence or Examples (a) and (e), or as the direct object, as in Examples (b) and (d), and so on.
【Related Expression】
In contrast to another nominalizer の, こと tends to indicate something the speaker does not feel close to. Thus, in Key Sentence, the nominalizer こと indicates that the speaker of the sentence is not personally involved in writing a novel; in other words, he is stating the sentence in general or objective terms. The nominalizer の, however, indicates something which the speaker can directly perceive or empathize with. (⇨ の3) Therefore, if こと in Key Sentence is replaced by の, the nominalizer now indicates that the speaker of the sentence is somehow personally involved with writing a novel; in short, he is empathetic with an act of writing a novel. A few typical examples in which の or こと are unacceptable are given.
[1]
Incidentally, the difference between こと and の is apparently due to the difference in the initial sounds 'k' and 'n'; the velar sound 'k' is used to symbolize a harsh, metallic, impersonal sound and the nasal sound 'n' is used to symbolize a soft, warm, personal sound.
Basic Page 196
Phrase
| There was a time when ~ | Someone has done something; someone has had an experience doing something; there was a time when~ |
(ks). 私はヨーロッパへ行ったことがある・あります。
I have been to Europe.
(ks). レタスがとても高かったことがある・あります。
There was a time when lettuce was very expensive.
| Sinformal past | ことがある | |
| 話したことがある | Have talked | |
| 高かったことがある | There was a time when something was expensive | |
| 静かだったことがある | There was a time when something was quiet | |
| 先生だったことがある | There was a time when someone was a teacher |
(a). 私は中学校で英語を教えたことがあります。
I have taught English at a junior high school.
(b). 小川さんはまだゴルフをしたことがない。
Mr. Ogawa hasn't played golf yet.
(c). 私は日本の小説をよく読んだことがある。
There was a time when I read a lot of Japanese novels.
(d). スーザンは一時ジャズがとても好きだったことがある。
There was a time when Susan liked jazz a lot.
(e). 私はプロ野球選手だったことがあります。
There was a time when I was a professional baseball player.
1. In general, Sentence informal past ことがある expresses the idea that there was a time when someone or something was in some state or did something.
2. More specifically, Sentence informal past ことがある expresses one's experience. In this case, Sentence informal past ことがある is an extended use of the possession expression "AはBがある", where B is a past action rather than a possessed thing. (⇨ ある1, Note 4) This extended use of the expression of possession for the expression of experience in Japanese is parallel to that in English. Compare (1) and (2).
3. In the Sentence informal past ことがある structure, a past time adverb can be used in the Sentence.
(3) expresses the ideas "I have been to Japan" and "It was five years ago" at the same time. However, in this usage, the time expressed cannot be too close to the present. (4) is unacceptable.
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Phrase
| There are times when ~. |
(ks). 私は朝風呂に入ることがある・あります。
There are times when I take a bath in the morning.
| (i)V/Adjective い informal nonpast | ことがある | |
| 話すことがある | There are times when someone talks | |
| 高いことがある | There are times when something is expensive | |
| (ii)Adjective な stem | なことがある | |
| 静かなことがある | There are times when something is quiet | |
| (iii)Noun | {のである}ことがある | |
| {先生の/先生である}ことがある | There are time when someone is a teacher |
(a). たかしは朝ご飯を食べずに学校へ行くことがある。
There are times when Takashi goes to school without eating breakfast.
(b). この店のミルクはたまに古いことがある。
Occasionally there are times when the milk in this store is old.
(c). アメリカで日本への土産を買うとそれが日本製であることがよくある。
Often there are times we find out that a souvenir we've bought in America for someone in Japan is made in Japan.
(d). 最近のいわゆる自然食品は本当の自然食品じゃないことがある。
There are times these days when so-called natural foods are not genuine natural foods.
1. Sentence informal nonpast ことがある expresses the idea that something happens from time to time.
2. Adverbs of frequency such as よく 'often', 時々 sometimes' and たまに 'occasionally', are sometimes used with this expression, as in Examples (b) and (c).
Basic Page 200
Phrase
| Doing something is possible | Can; be able to |
| 【Related Expression: られる2】 |
(ks). 田口さんは中国語を話すことが出来る・出来ます。
Mr. Taguchi can speak Chinese.
| Vinformal nonpast | ことが出来る | |
| 話すことが出来る | Someone can talk | |
| 食べることが出来る | Someone can eat |
(a). 新幹線に乗れば大阪まで三時間で行くことが出来る。
If you take the bullet train, you can get to Osaka in three hours.
(b). 小田さんは六つの時バッハを弾くことが出来た。
Oda was able to play Bach at the age of six.
(c). ジョンソンさんは日本語で手紙を書くことが出来る。
Mr. Johnson can write letters in Japanese.
1. Verb informal nonpast ことが出来る is a potential form meaning 'can' or 'be able to ~'. This potential form is used in the "は~が construction":
where Noun is an animate experiencer and the noun phrase ~Verb informal nonpast こと is a subject noun phrase nominalized by こと. The meaning of the structure is 'Noun can Verb' (Literally: 'For Noun, Verbing~ is possible.').
(⇨ は~が)
2. If a verb is closely associated with its direct object, as in (1) and (2) below, をVerbこと can be deleted.
The をVerbこと deletion is unacceptable in the following sentence, however, because there is no close association between the verb and its direct object.
【Related Expression】
A shorter potential form of verb, i.e., られる2 can replace the longer potential form ことが出来る without a change in basic meaning. Thus, Examples (a), (b) and (c) can be rewritten as [1], [2] and [3], respectively.
[1]
[2]
[3]
Basically, the difference between the shorter and the longer potential form is one of style; namely, the shorter version is more colloquial and less formal than the longer one.
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Phrase
| An event takes place as if spontaneously, irrespective of the speaker's volition. | It will be decided that~; come about~; be arranged that~; turn out that~ |
| 【Related Expression: ことにする】 |
(ksa). 私は来年大阪に転勤することになった・なりました。
I'm going to be transferred to Osaka next year.
(ksb). 日本では車は道の左側を走ることになっている・います。
In Japan cars are supposed to be driven on the left side of the street.
| Vinformal nonpast | ことに {なるなった} | |
| 話すことに {なるなった} | It will be decided/it has been decided that someone will talk | |
| 食べることに {なるなった} | It will be decide/it has been decided that someone will eat |
(a). 私は来月から会社に勤めることになりました。
It has decided that I will be employed at a company beginning next month.
(b). 多分ジャンセンさんは日本で英語を教えることになるでしょう。
Perhaps it will turn out that Mr. Jansen will teach English in Japan.
(c). 来年六月に結婚することになりました。
It's been arranged that I will get married next June.
(d). スミスさんは日本で英語を教えることになっている。
Mr. Smith is supposed to teach English in Japan.
(e). 今日山田先生に会うことになっています。
Today (it's been arranged that) I'm seeing Professor Yamada.
1. This construction is used when some decision or arrangement is made by some unspecified agent. Semantically this construction is close to the passive, because the experiencer has no control over the event.
2. Even when the experiencer himself decides to do something, it sounds more indirect, and therefore, more humble for him to use this construction rather than to use ことにする 'decide to do'.
(⇨ ことにする)
3. ことになっている as in Key Sentence (B) and Examples, (d) and (e), indicates that some decision took place at some point in the past and that the result of that decision is still in effect, sometimes to the extent that it has become a rule or a custom.
Basic Page 204
Phrase
| A volitional decision to so something is made. | Decide to |
| 【Related Expression: ことに決める; ことになる】 |
(ksa). 私は会社を辞めることにした・しました。
I decided to quit my company.
(ksb). 私は毎日三十分ぐらい運動をすることにしている・います。
I made it a rule to exercise for about 30 minutes every day.
| (i)Vinformal nonpast | ことに{しる/した} | |
| 話すことに{しる/した} | Someone decides/has decided to talk | |
| 食べることに{しる/した} | Someone decides/has decided to eat |
(a). 今年の夏は北海道を旅行することにしました。
I've decided to make a trip to Hokkaido this summer.
(b). 京都までバスで行くことにしましょう。
Let's (literally: decide to) go as far as Kyoto by bus.
(c). 毎日漢字を十覚えることにしました。
I've decided to memorize ten kanji every day.
(d). 私は肉をあまり食べないことにしている。
I make it a rule not to eat very much meat.
1. If one decides not to do something, the verb before ことにする should be negated as in:
2. ことにする is a more complex version of Nounにする 'decide on Noun', 'make it Noun'. (⇨ にする) The complexity is due to a noun phrase nominalized by こと. (⇨ こと2) An example of Nounにする is given below:
【Related Expressions】
I. ことにする indicates someone's volitional decision, whereas ことになる indicates a non-volitional decision. Therefore, if you perceive a given decision to be your own decision, you should use ことにする; on the other hand, if you don't perceive a given decision to be your own, you should use ことになる instead. That is why ことにする and ことになる are very awkward in [1a] and [1b], respectively.
[1]
II. ことにする and ことに決める 'determine to do something' are virtually identical in meaning. The difference is that the former is an idiom and, therefore, frequently used in colloquial speech, while the latter is appropriate when the speaker is talking about a relatively important decision in a rather decisive manner. Also, ことにする can be used to mean 'I hereby decide to ~' but ことに決める cannot- Thus, [1] below cannot be rephrased by ことに決める.
[1]
Basic Page 206
Phrase
| Speaking of proposition X, X is certainly true. | Indeed one does something alright, (but ~); indeed ~ (but ~); do ~ (but ~) |
(ks). 私はテニスをすることはする・しますが上手じゃない・上手じゃありません。
I do play tennis, but I am not good at it.
| (i){V1/Adjective い1} informal | ことは{V2/Adjective い2} | Where {V1/Adjective い1}={V1/Adjective い2} |
| 話すことは{話す/話します} | Someone does talk | |
| 話したことは{話した/話しました} | Someone did talk | |
| 高いことは高い(です} | Something is expensive | |
| 高かったことは高かった(です} | Something was expensive | |
| (ii){Adjective な stem1 なこと/Noun1} | は{Adjective な stem2/Noun2} {だ /です} | Where {Adjective な stem1 / Noun1}={Adjective な stem2/Noun2} |
| 静かなことは静か{だ/です} | Something is quiet | |
| いい人はいい人{だ/です} | Someone is a good person | |
| (iii){Adjective な stem1/ Noun1} | だったことは {Adjective な stem2/ Noun2} {だった/でした} | Where {Adjective な stem1/Noun1}={Adjective な stem2/ Noun2} |
| 静かだったことは静か{だった/でした} | Something was quiet | |
| いい人だったことは人{だった/でした} | Someone was a good person |
(a). ジョーンズさんは日本語を話すことは話しますが、簡単なことしか言えません。
Mr. Jones does speak Japanese, but he can say only simply things.
(b). ボストンシンフォニーの切符は買えたことは買えましたが、大変悪い席でした。
I could buy a ticket for the Boston Symphony alright, but it was a very bad seat.
(c). この店は安いことは安いですが、ものが良くありません。
This store is inexpensive alright, but its goods are of poor quality.
(d). 今日の試験は難しかったことは難しかったが、よく出来た。
Today's test was indeed difficult, but I did well on it.
(e). 私のアパートは駅に近くて便利なことは便利ですが、家賃がとても高いです。
My apartment is close to the station and convenient alright, but the rent is very high.
(f). その女の子が好きだったことは好きでしたが、結婚はしなかったんです。
I did like the girl, but I didn't marry her.
(g). あの人はいい人はいいだったけれど頑固だったね。
He was indeed a good person, but he was stubborn, wasn't he?
1. In this construction, when the main verb is in the past tense the tense of the first verb/adjective can be changed into the nonpast tense. Thus, Examples (b) and (d) could be (1) and (2), respectively. The switched versions are more common in conversation.
2. The verb/adjective/noun before ことは is normally marked in the informal form even if the final predicate is marked in the formal form.
3. Normally this construction is followed by a disjunctive conjunction such as が 'but', けれど 'but, although', and しかし 'but'.
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Auxiliary Verb (Imperative Form)
| An auxiliary verb which indicates a polite request. | Please do something |
(ksa). 日本語で書いて下さい。
Please write in Japanese.
(ksb). 英語を使わないで下さい。
Please don't use English.
| (i)Vて | 下さい | |
| 話して下さい | Please talk | |
| 食べて下さい | Please eat | |
| (ii)Vnegative | ないで下さい | |
| 話さないで下さい | Please don't talk | |
| 食べないで下さい | Please don't eat |
(a). この言葉の意味を教えて下さい。
Please tell me the meaning of this word.
(b). 夜遅く電話しないで下さい。
Please don't call me late at night.
1. ください is the polite imperative form of くださる, the honorific version of くれる 'give (me)' and is used as an auxiliary verb with the て form of verbs.
(⇨ くれる2)
2. どうぞ emphasizes the speaker's request and makes it more polite.
3. In very informal speech, ください may drop. (This form of request is often used by female speakers.)
4. The negative question form, seen in (3), makes a request more polite.
5. くれ, the imperative form of くれる, can also be used in place of ください in informal male speech. {Verbて/Verb negative ないで}くれ is the least polite request form.
Basic Page 211
Suffix
| A suffix attached to the first or last name of a male equal or to the first or last name of a person whose status or rank is lower than the speaker's. |
| 【Related Expression: 様 (ちゃん; さん)】 |
| (i) Last name | 君 | |
| 山田君 | Mr. Yamada | |
| (ii) First name | 君 | |
| 太郎君 | Taro | |
| (iii) Last name first name | 君 | |
| 山田太郎君 | Mr. Taro Yamada |
(a). もし、もし、一郎君いますか。
Hello, is Ichiro in?
(b). 田口君が来年結婚するそうだ。
I heard that Mr. Taguchi will get married next year.
(c). 田口一郎君、昇進おめでとう。
Mr. Ichiro Taguchi, congratulations on your promotion.
A male may address females of lower rank by 君. A female student may address males of equal or lower rank by 君. Such addresses are commonly used in situations such as schools and companies.
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Particle
| Approximate quantity or extent. | Approximately; about |
| 【Related Expression: ごろ; ほど; (ばかり)】 |
(ks). 東京からサンフランシスコまで飛行機で九時間くらいかかる・かかります。
It's about nine hours by plane from Tokyo to San Francisco.
| (i)Number-counter | くらい | |
| 四冊くらい | About four volumes | |
| 百人くらい | About a hundred people | |
| (ii)Demonstrateive {pronoun/adjective} | ||
| {これ /この}くらい | About this much/to about this extent | |
| {それ /その}くらい | About that much/to about that extent | |
| {あれ /あの}くらい | (Referring to an object that is removed from both the speaker and the hearer) about that much/to about that extent | |
| {どれ /どの}くらい | About how much?/to about what extent? | |
| (iii)Interrogative pronoun | いくらくらい | About how much? |
(a). A:その車はいくらぐらいでしたか。 B:百五十万円くらいでした。
A: About how much was that car? B: It was about 1,500,000 yen.
(b). スミスさんは京都に四ヶ月くらい行っていました。
Mr. Smith was in Kyoto for about four months.
(c). 山田ぐらい英語が出来れば楽しいでしょうね。
It must be fun to be able to speak English as well as Mr. Yamada (literally: to the extent of Mr. Yamada).
(d). 私だってそれぐらいのことは分かりますよ。
Even I can understand that sort of thing (literally: things of that extent).
くらい may be freely replaced by ぐらい without a change in meaning.
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Verb (Group 2)
| Someone whose status is not higher than the speaker's gives something to the first person or to someone with whom the speaker empathises. | Give |
| 【Related Expression: あげる1; もらう】 |
(ks). 大川さんは(私に)本を呉れた・呉れました。
Mr. Okawa gave me a book.
(a). ビルは(君に)何を呉れましたか。
What did Bill give to you?
(b). 川村さんは私の娘にレコードを呉れた。
Mr. Kawamura gave my daughter a record.
1. くれる, which is one of a set of giving and receiving verbs, means 'give'. Unlike the English 'give', however, くれる is used only when the receiver is the first person or someone with whom the speaker empathizes (usually a member of the speakers in-group). Thus, (1) is unacceptable. (If the speaker empathizes with Mr. Ito, (1) is considered acceptable. Addressing someone as "Mr. Ito", however, is too formal in such a situation.)
2. When the giver is the first person, くれる cannot be used.
In this case, あげる must be used.
Note that when the subject is the first person, くれる sentences are not grammatical even if the receiver is someone the speaker empathizes with, as in (4).
The reason for this is as follows: くれる requires the receiver's point of view when describing an event, and when an event involves the first person, the event is normally described from the first person's point of view. Therefore, if the first person is the giver in くれる sentences, a viewpoint conflict arises, making the sentences ungrammatical. (In this case, あげる must be used.)
3. The polite (honorific) version of くれる is 下さる (Group 1 verb; The ます form is 下さいます). Example:
4. The indirect object is often omitted if it refers to the speaker in declarative sentences or to the hearer in interrogative sentences.
(See Key Sentence and Example (a).)
【Related Expressions】
I. [1] compares the differences among the three giving and receiving verbs あげる, くれる and もらう in terms of viewpoint when A gives X to B. The eye sign ∀ indicates which viewpoint the sentence requires.
[1]
If the first person or a person the speaker empathizes with is involved in a giving-receiving situation, the Noun Phrase which refers to him must occur in the positions with ∀. The reason for this is as follows: When the first person or someone the speaker empathizes with is involved in a giving-receiving situation, the situation is normally described from his viewpoint, and if the Noun Phrase which refers to him occurs in the positions without a viewpoint conflict arises.
II. [2] summarizes the plain forms and polite forms of giving and receiving verbs:
[2]
| (I) give (someone) | (someone) gives (me) | (I) get/receive (from someone) | ||
| － p o l i t e n e s s ＋ |
Plain form
|
①やる to someone of lower status ②あげる |
②くれる
|
①もらう
|
| Polite form | ②差し上げる very humble |
①くださる honorific ますform: くださいます |
①いただく |
Note the different degree of politeness in each verb (particularly, やる, あげる and 差し上げる).
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Auxiliary Verb (Group 2)
| Someone does something as a favour to the first person or to someone with whom the speaker empathises. | Do something (for me or someone); do me or someone a favour by doing something |
| 【Related Expression: あげる2; くれる1; もらう2】 |
(ksa). 父は私にカメラを買って呉れた・呉れました。
My father bought a camera for me.
(ksb). 道男は私を慰めて呉れた・呉れました。
Michio consoled me.
| Vて | くれる | |
| 話してくれる | Someone (will) talks for my sake | |
| 食べてくれる | Someone (will) eats for my sake |
(a). 母は(私に)ケーキを焼いて呉れた。
My mother baked a cake for me.
(b). ウォーカーさんは私の息子に英語を教えて呉れている。
Ms. Walker is kindly teaching my son English.
(c). 子供達は(あなたに)何をして呉れましたか。
What did your children do for you?
1. くれる is used as an auxiliary verb with Verbて. The meaning of Verbてくれる is "someone does the first person (or someone with whom the speaker empathizes) a favor by doing something". Like sentences with くれる as a main verb, sentences with Verbてくれる are stated from the viewpoint of the person who receives the favor and the receiver must be the first person or someone the speaker empathizes with (usually a member of the speaker's in-group〉. Thus, (1a) is grammatical, but (1b) is not.
(⇨ くれる1)
(In the case in (1b), あげる 'give' must be used. (⇨ あげる2)) Note that if the subject is the first person, sentences with Verbてくれる are ungrammatical even if the person who receives the favor is someone the speaker empathizes with, as in (2).
(See くれる1, Note 2.)
In this case, あげる must be used.
(⇨ あげる2)
2. As in Key Sentence (B), if the person receiving the benefit of the action is the direct object, the indirect object is omitted. Therefore, (3a) and (3b) are ungrammatical.
3. If the main verb of the sentence is intransitive, the person receiving the benefit of the action is not marked by に.Therefore, (4) is ungrammatical.
In this case, の為に 'for the sake of' is used, as in (5),
(⇨ ため)
4. The polite (honorific) version of Verbてくれる is Verbてくださる. Example:
5. Note that in sentences like "Mr. A taught me ~", "Mr. A bought me ~" and "Mr. A lent me ~", which usually imply that the speaker received some sort of favor, Verbてくれる (or くださる) should be used, though in English this is not usually explicitly expressed. In Japanese, without the auxiliary verbs くれる or くださる, such sentences don't convey the idea that the speaker received a favor.
6. The indirect object is often omitted if it refers to the speaker in declarative sentences or to the hearer in interrogative sentences.
(See Key Sentence (A), Examples (a) and (c).)
【Related Expressions】
あげる, くれる and もらう and all their polite and non-polite versions are used as auxiliary verbs with Verbて. (Auxiliary verbs あげる, くれる and もらう are explained under あげる2, くれる2 and もらう2, respectively.) When these verbs are used as auxiliary verbs, the same viewpoint rules stated in くれる1 Related Expression I apply, except that there is no neutral viewpoint.
Basic Page 219
Verb (Irregular)
| Someone or something moves in a direction towards the speaker or the speaker's viewpoint or area of empathy. | Come; visit; show up |
| 【Related Expression: 行く1】 |
(ks). 田中さんが明日うちへ・に来る・来ます。
Mr. Tanaka will come to my house tomorrow.
(a). ナンシーは昨日パーティーに来ましたか。
Did Nancy come to the party yesterday?
(b). 来週木口さんが名古屋に来るそうだ。
I was told that Mr. Kiguchi is coming to Nagoya next week.
(c). もし、もし、家内が来たら直ぐ帰るように言って下さい。
Hello, please tell my wife to come home right away if she (literally: comes to see you) drops by.
(d). 今日はまだ新聞が来ない。
Today's newspaper hasn't come yet.
(e). 僕の研究室に明日来て下さい。
Please come to my office tomorrow.
から commonly describes a movement towards a place where the speaker physically exists, as in Key Sentence and Example (d). However, it can also describe a movement in a direction where the speaker has placed his viewpoint or where he feels strong empathy. For example, in Example (a) the speaker, who apparently did not attend the party, is taking the viewpoint of the hearer, who did attend. In Example (c) the speaker is phoning and is not at the hearer's house, yet he is taking the hearer's viewpoint, a typical example of the psychological fusion between speaker and hearer. In Example (b), it is possible that the speaker lives nearer Nagoya than Mr. Kiguchi does and feels that Mr. Kiguchi is entering his (the speaker's) territory or area of strong empathy. And again, in Example (e), the use of 来る indicates that the speaker's office as well as his house can be considered his territory or area of empathy.
【Related Expression】
If a movement is towards a place where the speaker can place his viewpoint, 来る is used, but if a movement is towards a place where the speaker cannot place his viewpoint, 行く is used.
(⇨ 行く1)
In Examples (a) and (c) both 来る and 行く are acceptable. The difference is that the use of 来る shifts the focus of the sentence to the hearer's viewpoint while 行く shifts it to the speaker's viewpoint.
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Auxiliary Verb (Irregular)
| An auxiliary verb which indicates the beginning of some process of continuation of some action up to a current point of time. | Come about; grow; come to; begin to |
| 【Related Expression: ~始める】 |
(ksa). 私はコンピューターが少し分かって来た・来ました。
Now I have begun to understand computers.
(ksb). 私は色々日本の歴史書を読んで来た・来ました。
Up to now I've been reading various Japanese histories.
| (i)Vて | 来る | |
| 膨らんで来る | Something begins/has begun to swell | |
| 大きくなって来る | Something begins/has begun to grow big |
(a). テニスをしていたら急に雨が降って来た。
Suddenly, while we were playing tennis, it began to rain.
(b). 午後から頭が痛くなって来ました。
My head began to ache in the afternoon./ My headache started in the afternoon.
(c). 私はこの頃太って来ました。
I've started to gain weight these days.
(d). あの子はこの頃随分奇麗になって来たね。
That girl has become very pretty lately, hasn't she?
(e). 今までたくさん本を読んで来ましたが、これからも読んで行くつもりです。
Up to now I have read quite a few books and I intend to read from now on, too.
(f). 今まで遊んで来ましたが、これからは一生懸命勉強するつもりです。
Up to now I haven't been working hard (literally: have been playing), but from now on I intend to work very hard.
1. Verbて来る expresses inception as in Examples (a) through (d), or continuation of something up to a current point of time, as in Examples (e) and (f). In the former case the Verb is a verb that indicates a process that takes some time to complete, such as なる 'become', 分かる 'understand', 太る 'gain weight', 痩せる 'lose weight', 膨らむ 'swell' and 縮む 'shrink'. In the latter case the Verb is any non-punctual verb.
2. In the following sentences 来る is used more as a full verb than as an auxiliary verb. The meaning of Verbて来る is the same as that of Verbて (i.e., 'Verb and') and of 来る.
(⇨ 来る1)
3. Note that the experiencer of the inception process or the continuation of the action must be the speaker himself or someone with whom the speaker empathizes. In other words, in this usage, what is expressed by Verbて来る involves the speaker in a very intimate way.
【Related Expression】
When 来る2 means inception (the beginning of a process, that is), it is very close to Verbます始める 'begin to ~' Examples (a) through (d) can all be paraphrased using Verbます始める. However, 来る implies that something happens to the speaker or whomever he can empathize with, whereas Verbます始める lacks the speakers involvement with a process of inception.
(⇨ 始める)
Basic Page 224
Adverb
| Someone or something is in some state he or it was in some time ago. | Still; (not) yet |
| 【Related Expression: もう】 |
(ksa). 木村君はまだ昼ご飯を食べている・います。
Mr. Kimura is still eating his lunch.
(ksb). 太田さんはまだそのことを知らない・知りません。
Mr. Oota still doesn't know about it.
(a). お酒はまだありますか。
Do you still have sake?
(b). 私はまだ日本へ行ったことがない。
I have not been to Japan yet.
(c). A:もう昼ご飯を食べましたか。 B:いえ、まだ食べていません。/いい、まだです。
A: Have you eaten your lunch yet? B: No, I haven't eaten it yet./No, not yet.
1. まだ expresses the idea that someone or something is in the same state that he or it was in some time ago. In affirmative sentences, まだ always corresponds to 'still'. In negative sentences, however, it corresponds to 'yet' when an action has not yet been taken, and 'still' in other situations, as in Example (c) and Key Sentence (B), respectively.
2. The abbreviated sentence seen in B2 of Example (c) is used only when the response to a question is a negative one.
【Related Expression】
The concept which まだ expresses is opposite to that of もう. [1] illustrates the difference between the idea conveyed by まだ and the one conveyed by もう.
Basic Page 225
Particle
| A particle to indicate a spatial, temporal or quantitative limit or an unexpected animate/inanimate object. | As far as; till; up to; until; through; even |
| 【Related Expression: までに】 |
(ksa). 昨日は三時から五時まで友達とテニスをした・しました。
Yesterday I played tennis from three to five with my friend.
(ksb). 東京から京都まで新幹線で三時間かかる・かかります。
It takes three hours by bullet train from Tokyo to Kyoto.
(ksc). 私が行くまでうちで待っていて下さい。
Please wait at home until I get there.
(ksd). このホールは二千人まで入れる・入れます。
This hall can hold up to 2,000 people.
(kse). あの人は鼠やスカンクは勿論蛇まで好きだ・好きです。
He even likes snakes, not to mention rats and skunks.
| (i) Noun (time/location) | まで | |
| 五時/学校まで | Until five/as far as school | |
| (ii)Vinformal nonpast | まで | |
| 話すまで | Until someone talks/talked | |
| 食べるまで | Until someone eats/ate | |
| (iii)Number-counter | まで | |
| 四十人まで | Up to forty people | |
| 五枚まで | Up to five sheets of paper |
(a). アメリカ人は毎週月曜日から金曜日まで働く。
Americans work every week from Monday through Friday.
(b). 駅から大学までは歩いて十分ぐらいです。
It's about 10 minutes from the station to the university on foot.
(c). スミスさんは刺身は勿論、納豆まで食べるんですよ。
Mr. Smith even eats fermented soybeans, not to mention raw fish.
(d). 飛行機が出るまでロビーで友達と話していた。
Until the plane left I was talking with my friend in the lobby.
'Xまで' and 'until X' do not have the same meaning when X represents a duration of time. For example, in (1) 来週の月曜日まで means that the speaker will be absent next Monday; therefore, the corresponding English is 'until next Tuesday'.
Basic Page 228
Particle
| A particle that indicates a time limit on/for an action. | By; by the time (when) |
| 【Related Expression: までに; までで; 前に】 |
(ksa). 私は十時までに帰る・帰ります。
I'll come home by 10 o'clock.
(ksb). 学校が始まるまでにこの本を読んでおいて下さい。
Please read this book (in advance) by the time school starts.
| (i)Noun (time) | までに | |
| 五時までに | By five o'clock | |
| 明日までに | By tomorrow | |
| (ii)Vinformal nonpast | までに | |
| 話すまでに | By the time someone talks/talked | |
| 食べるまでに | By the time someone eats/ate |
(a). A:何時までに空港に行けばいいでしょうか。 B:出発の一時間前までに来て下さい。
A: By what time should I go to the airport? B: Please come one hour before departure.
(b). 僕はこのレポートを一月二十日までに書き上げなければならないんだ。
I have to finish writing this paper by January 20.
(c). ジェット機がパリに着くまでに本を三冊読んでしまいました。
By the time the jet got to Paris, I had finished reading three books.
【Related Expressions】
I. までに cannot be used with a verb that indicates a continuous action. Instead, まで 'continuously until/to X' is used.
[1]
[2]
II. When までに 'by' is preceded by an informal nonpast verb, it may be replaced by 前に 'before'. The difference between the two is the same as the English 'by' vs. 'before'. Thus, if までに in Example (c) is replaced by 前に, the sentence means 'Before the jet got to Paris I had finished reading three books.' More examples of the different uses follow:
[3]
III. までで, a particle which means 'something continues until/up to X (and stops at X, although it can continue beyond X)' is similar to までに. The differences in meaning can be seen in the examples below. In [4] までに is unacceptable because Lesson 10 is not the limit of domain (which is Lesson 20). In [5] までで is unacceptable because no important items appear after Lesson 10.
[4]
[5]
Basic Page 231
Conjunction
| In front of or before some situation comes about. | Before; in front of |
| 【Related Expression: までに; うちに】 | |
| 【Antonym Expression: あとで; 後ろに】 | |
(ksa). ジャクソンさんは日本へ行く前に日本語を勉強した・しました。
Mr. Jackson studied Japanese before he went to Japan.
(ksb). 旅行の前に風邪を引いた・引きました。
Before the trip I caught a cold.
(ksc). 駅の前に煙草屋がある・あります。
There is a tobacco shop in front of the station.
| (i)Vinformal nonpast | 前に | |
| 話す前に | Before someone talks/talked | |
| 食べる前に | Before someone eats/ate | |
| (ii)Noun | の前に | |
| 朝ご飯の前に | Before breakfast |
(a). 日本人はご飯を食べる前に「いただきます。」と言う。
The Japanese say "Itadakimasu" (literally: I humbly receive (this food)) before eating their meals.
(b). テイラーさんは日本へ行く前にハワイに寄りました。
Mr. Taylor stopped in Hawaii before he went to Japan.
(c). 私は試験の前に映画を見に行った。
Before the exam I went to see a movie.
1. 前に is used when the speaker knows when something is going to take place. Thus, the following uses of 前に are marginal.
2. The verb before 前に is always nonpast, even if the tense of the main verb is past, as in Example (b).
【Related Expression】
When the speaker knows that something is about to happen but does not know exactly when it is to happen, うちに 'before' is used instead of 前に. Thus, 前に in (1) and (2) of Note 1 should be replaced by ないうちに, as in [1] and [2].
(⇨ うちに)
[I]
[2]
Basic Page 233
Prefix
| A prefix which means 'every (unit of time)'. | Every; per |
| 【Related Expression: ごとに】 |
(ks). 私は毎日一マイル泳ぐ・泳ぎます。
I swim one mile every day.
| Noun of time | 毎 | |
| 毎朝 | Every morning | |
| 毎月 | Every month |
(a). 弘は毎晩道子に電話しているそうだ。
I heard that Hiroshi calls Michiko every evening.
(b). 台風は毎時二十キロの速さで北に進んでいる。
The typhoon is moving north at a speed of twenty kilometers per hour.
(c). 私は毎年一度は日本へ行く。
I go to Japan at least once every year.
(d). ジーンは毎食サラダを食べる。
Jean eats salad at every meal.
1. 毎 is prefixed to nouns which express a unit of time. Nouns like 食 'meal' can also be used, as seen in Example (d). In this case, 食 implies the time at which one eats. However, the following phrases are all unacceptable because the nouns following 毎 do not indicate a time or period of time. (The correct expressions are given in parentheses.)
| a. | *毎人 | every person | (すべての人 人はみんな) |
| b. | *毎先生 | every teacher | (すてべの先生 先生はみんな) |
| c. | *毎家 | every house | (すべての家 家はみんな) |
毎 cannot be used when nouns of time are preceded by numbers; thus, the following phrases are unacceptable.
(⇨ ごとに)
| a. | *毎三日 | every three days |
| b. | *毎二年 | every other year |
| c. | *毎一週 | every one week |
[See Related Expresssion [1a] for correct expressions.]
2. ごとに is usually used with Japanese-origin words of one or two syllables or shorter Chinese-origin words. Thus, compounds like those in (3) are awkward.
| a. | ???毎休み | every holiday |
| b. | ???毎クリスマス | every Christmas |
| c. | *毎子供の日 | every Children's Day |
[See Related Expression [1b] for correct expressions.]
【Related Expression】
ごとに also means 'every' but its usage differs from that of 毎. First, ごとに is not a prefix but a suffix. Second, it is used with nouns of time preceded by numbers or specific dates, as seen in [1].
(⇨ ごとに)
| a. | Period of time |
| 三日ごとに | every three days |
| 一時間ごとに | every hour |
| b. | Specific date |
| クリスマスごとに | every Christmas |
| 子供の日ごとに | Every Children's Day |
(Complementiser phrase)
| 日ごとに | day after day; | 年ごとに | year after year |
Third, unlike 毎, ごとに can also be used with other noun phrases, as seen in [2].
[2]
Basic Page 236
Noun
| An already given situation or condition remains unaltered. | As it is; unchanged; undisturbed; leave as is; remain |
| 【Related Expression: ないで; ずに】】 |
(ksa). 弟はテレビをつけたまま寝てしまった・しまいました。
My younger brother went to sleep leaving the TV on.
(ksb). 弟はテレビをつけたままにしておいた・おきました。
My younger brother left the TV on.
(ksc). 弟はテレビをつけたままだ・です。
My younger brother has left the TV on.
(ksd). この部屋は昨日のままだ・です。
This room is as it was yesterday.
(kse). ここはこのままにしておく・おきます。
I'll leave this place as it is.
(ksf). テレビがついたままになっている・います。
The TV was turned on and is still on.
(ksg). 帽子を被ったままの学生が教室にいた・いました。
A student who kept his hat on was in the classroom.
| (i)Vinformal past | まま | |
| (電気を)つけたまま | Leaving (the light) on | |
| (ii)Adjective い | まま | |
| 大きいまま | As something is big | |
| (iii){Adjective な stem/ Noun の} | まま | |
| 不便なまま | Leaving something is inconvenient | |
| 昔のまま | Leaving something as it was |
(a). 電気をつけたまま寝てしまいました。
I fell asleep leaving the light on.
(b). ビールを買ったまま飲まなかった。
I bought beer, but didn't drink it.
(c). 聞いたままを友達に話しました。
I told my friend exactly what I heard.
(d). あの人はあれからずっと寝たままだ。
He's been in bed (literally: all along) since then.
(e). 高山さんはアメリカへ行ったまま帰らなかった。
Mr. Takayama went to America never to return.
(f). 車のエンジンをかけたままにしておいた。
I left the car engine on.
(g). 今のままにしておいてください。
Please leave it as it is now.
1. The verb before まま has to be nonpast if the verb is negative as in (1).
If a verb that precedes ままを is non-vontional, the verb can be nonpast even if the main transitive verb is past, as shown in (2):
2. When まま is followed directly by a verb (other than する) as in Key Sentence (A) and Example (a), (b) and (e), で can be inserted between まま and the verb. Thus, Key Sentence (A) can be rephrased as follows:
The difference between the まま version and the ままで version is minimal; the latter sounds more like a coordinate construction as illustrated by the literary translation of (3).
【Related Expressions】
Verb informal nonpast negative まま can be paraphrased using ないで or ずに, as in:
[1]
The まま version focuses on the unaltered situation, but the ないで/ずに versions focus primarily on the negative aspect of the verb. The translation of the former and the latter are 'He left with the door open' and 'He left without closing the door.', respectively.
(⇨ ないで)
Basic Page 240
Auxiliary
| A verb ending which indicates the first person's volition or invitation in formal speech. | I/We will do something; Let's do something. |
| 【Related Expression: ませんか】 |
(ksa). 私が彼に話しましょう。
I will talk to him.
(ksb). 映画に行きましょう。
Let's go to a movie.
| Vます | ましょう | |
| 話しましょう | I/we will talk; let's talk | |
| 食べましょう | I/we will eat; let's eat |
(a). 私達が手伝いましょう。
We will help you.
(b). 私が行きましょうか。
Shall I go there?
(c). ビールを飲みましょう。
Let's drink beer.
(d). 車で行きましょうか。
Shall we go by car?
1. ましょう is a formal verb ending which is used to express the first person's volition (Key Sentence (A), Examples (a) and (b)) or invitation (Key Sentence (B), Examples (c) and (d)).
2. The sentence in the Key Sentence (A) pattern, which includes the subject Xが, implies that 'not others but X will do something'. If the sentence doesn't carry such an implication but simply states the first person's volition, the subject is usually omitted. Compare the following sentences:
3. In invitation situations like Key Sentence (B), the subject is usually omitted. (Examples (c) and (d))
4. ましょう with the question marker か asks whether the hearer will accept the speaker's volitional action or invitation. (Examples (b) and (d))
5. Negative volition is usually expressed by simple nonpast negatives, as seen in (2).
(The negative volitional ending まい, as in 行くまい 'won't go', is not commonly used in modern colloquial Japanese.)
6. "Let's not do something" is expressed by different constructions.
Example:
(⇨ おく)
Example:
7. In indirect speech or in sentences with verbs like 思う 'think' and 決心する 'make up one's mind', the informal volitional form is used.
8. Unlike English, in Japanese the volitional future and the simple future are expressed by different forms. Thus, "I think I will see a movie." is expressed by either (7) or (8).
(7) is an example of the volitional future, in which the speakers volition is expressed, while (8) is an example of the simple future.
【Related Expression】
An invitation by the speaker can also be expressed through negative questions，as in [1].
[1]
In invitation situations, negative questions are more polite than ましょう sentences because the former are asking whether or not the hearer will do something and, therefore, are hearer-oriented, while the latter do not consider the hearer's volition and are more speaker-oriented.
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Verb (Group 2)
| Someone or something is passively/spontaneously visible. | Be visible; (can) see; look~ |
| 【Related Expression: 見られる】 |
(ksa). 私(に)は遠くの物がよく見える・見えます。
To me distant objects are very visible.
(ksb). 窓から(は)海が見える・見えます。
From the window the ocean is visible.
(ksc). 今日は山が近く見える・見えます。
Today the mountains look near.
(a). 私には木の上の小さな鳥が見えた。
I could see small birds on the tree.
(b). 東京タワーからは東京の町がよく見える。
From Tokyo Tower you can get a good view of the towns of Tokyo.
(c). あの人は年よりずっと若く見える。
He looks much younger than his age.
(d). 女の人は夜奇麗に見える。
Women look beautiful at night.
(e). 中島さんは学生に見える。
Mr. Nakajima looks like a student.
1. 見える can mean 'look ~' if it is preceded by the adverbial form of an Adjective い as in Example (c) or of an Adjective な as in Example (d) or by a Nounに as in Example (e).
2. 見える can be used as a polite version of 来る 'come' as in:
見える can be used as an honorific polite verb because it is a more indirect reference to a superior's act of 'coming'. In other words, the speaker is referring to a superior's appearance as if it were a spontaneous, natural phenomenon of 'visibility'.
3. A visible object is marked by が, not by を.
【Related Expression】
見える is different from the regular potential form of 見る, i.e., 見られる, in that 見える indicates that something or someone is passively visible regardless of the volition of the speaker; 見られる, on the other hand, indicates that the speaker or the subject of the sentence can see something or someone actively rather than passively. Thus,
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
Note that in [5] both 見える and 見られる are possible, depending on how the speaker perceives the visible object; if he thinks that the situation is beyond his control and has to give up looking at the mountains, he uses 見える; if not, he uses 見られる.
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Auxiliary Verb (Group 2)
| Do something to see what it's like or what will happen. | Do something and see; try to do something |
| 【Related Expression: ようとする】 |
(ks). 私は日本の小説を読んでみる・みます。
I will read Japanese novels (to see what they are like).
| Vて | みる | |
| 話してみる | Try to talk | |
| 食べてみる | Try to eat |
(a). 面白そうなコンサートだったので行ってみました。
Since it seemed interesting, I went to the concert (to see what it was like).
(b). ここの刺身は美味しいですよ。食べてみますか。
Sashimi here is good. Will you try it?
みる is used as an auxiliary verb with Verbて meaning 'make an attempt at doing something to see what it is like or what will happen'.
【Related Expression】
A similar expression, ようとする, means simply 'try to do something'. When these two expressions are used in the past tense, however, their meanings are not the same. For example, [1a] means that Mr. Brown did put on Tom's undershirt, whereas [1b] means that Mr. Brown tried to put it on, with the implication that he couldn't or didn't actually do it.
[1]
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Particle
| A particle which indicates that a proposition about the preceeding element X is also true when another similar proposition is true. | Too; also; (not) ~ either |
(ksa). 私も学生だ・です。
I, too, am a student.
(ksb). 私はスペイン語も話す・話します。
I speak Spanish, too.
(ksc). 私は村山さんにもプレゼントを上げる・上げます。
I will give a present to Mr. Murayama, too.
| (i)Noun も | 私も | I, too/me (as direct object), too |
| (ii)Noun (particle) も | 日本(に)も | In/to Japan, too |
| アメリカ(へ)も | To America too | |
| (iii)Noun Particle も | 先生にも | To/for the teacher, too (indirect object) |
| フランスからも | From France | |
| イギリスでも | In England, too | |
| 友達とも | With my friend, too |
(a). ハートさんは日本へ行った。ルイスさんも(日本へ)行った。
Mr. Hart went to Japan. Mr. Lewis also went to Japan.
(b). 林さんはテニスをします。(彼は)ゴルフもします。
Mr. Hayashi plays tennis. He plays golf, too.
(c). この町では新しい魚が買えません。隣の町でも(新しいか魚が)買えません。
You can't buy fresh fish in this town. You can't buy it in the next town, either.
1. In general, when the element Xも appears in a sentence, a related sentence with the element Y (plus particle if necessary) in place of Xも is presupposed. For example, when a speaker states (1), a sentence like (2) is presupposed.
Thust when Xも appears in a sentence, Xも is always the element under focus in that sentence.
2. There are cases in which Xも is used, althougn it does not exactly replace the element Y in the presupposed sentence. For example, (3b) can be spoken after (3a).
In this case, the speaker implies that his house is inconvenient when he says (3a), and this implication is the presupposition of (3b), where the speaker elaborates on the inconvenience.
3. "XもAだ" cannot be used to mean 'X is also A' in the sense that X is A as well as something else. "XもAだ" can be used only when "Yは/がAだ" presupposed. Thus, (4) does not mean (5). (In fact, (4) is nonsensical if it is stated by the same person.)
The idea that someone is a doctor as well as a teacher is expressed as in (6).
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Particle
| A marker which indicates emphasis. | Even; as many/much/long/...as; (not) even (one); (not) any |
(ksa). グレーさんはこんな難しい漢字も読める・読めます。/ハリスさんはこんな易しい漢字も読めない・読めません。
Mr. Gray can read even difficult kanji like this./ Mr. Harris cannot read even easy kanji like this.
(ksb). 私は漢字を八千も知っている・います。
I know as many as eight thousand kanji.
(ksc). 私は漢字を一つも知らない・知りません。
I don't know even one kanji.
(ksd). 私は何も食べなかった・食べませんでした。
I didn't eat anything.
(kse). ナンシーは私の話を聞きもしない・しません。
Nancy doesn't even listen to me.
| (i)Quantifier | も | |
| 五十も | As many as fifty | |
| 百人も | As many as a hundred people | |
| (ii)One Counter | も | |
| 一人も | (not) even one person | |
| 一つも | (not) even one~ | |
| (iii)WH-word | も | |
| 何も | (not) anything | |
| 誰も | (not) anybody | |
| (iv)Vます | もしない | |
| 話しもしない | Don't even talk | |
| 食べもしない | Don't even eat |
(a). 春男は一年生の足し算もまともに出来ない。
Haruo cannot do even the first-year addition correctly.
(b). 今日は車が十台も売れた。
As many as ten cars sold today.
(c). そのパーティーには女の子は一人も来なかった。
Not even one girl came to the party.
(d). 誰もそのことを知りません。
Nobody knows about it.
(e). 私は木村さんが呉れた本をまだ見もしていない。
I haven't even seen the book Mr. Kimura gave me yet.
1. も as an emphatic marker is an extended use of も1. (⇨ も1) The following examples show the transition of meaning from the original idea 'also' to the emphatic use 'even'
2. 何も and 誰も are used only in negative sentences. Other Interrogative words with も can be used in both affirmative sentences and negative sentences.
Note the following examples:
3. Verbますも is always followed by a negative form of する 'do' as in Key Sentence (E) and Example (e).
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Adverb
| Someone or something is no longer in the same state that he or it was in some time ago. | (not) anymore; (not) any longer; already; yet; now |
| 【Related Expression: まだ】 |
(ksa). 私はもう昼ご飯を食べた・食べました。
I have already eaten my lunch.
(ksb). ヒルさんはもう日本語を勉強していない・いません。
Mr. Hill is not studying Japanese any longer.
(a). A:もう宿題をしましたか。 B:はい、もうしました。
A: Have you done your homework yet (or already)? B: Yes, I 've already done it.
(b). 私はもう酒を飲みません。
I won't drink sake any more.
(c). 春男君はもう大丈夫です。
Haruo is all right now.
1. もう expresses the idea that someone or something is not in the same state he or it was in some time ago. Thus, もう corresponds to 'already' or 'now' in affirmative declarative sentences, 'yet' or 'already' in affirmative interrogative sentences, and '(not) any more' or '(not) any longer' in negative sentences.
2. The opposite concept of もう is expressed by まだ.
(⇨ まだ)
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Structure
| The repeated use of a particle meaning 'also' to list elements belonging to the same part of speech. | Both~and~; neither~nor |
(ksa). 田中さんも中山さんもデパートに勤めている・います。
Both Mr. Tanaka and Mr. Nakayama are working for a department store.
(ksb). 京都へはバスでも電車でも行ける・行けます。
We can go to Kyoto either by both bus or by electric train.
(ksc). このうちは広くも狭くもない・ありません。
This house is neither big nor small.
| (i) | N(Prt)もN(Prt)もN(Prt)も | |
| Both teachers and students | ||
| (ii) | AdjいstemもAdjいstemもNegative | |
| Something is neither big nor small | ||
| (iii) | {Adjなstem /N}でも{Adjなstem/N}でもNegative | |
| 便利でも不便でもない | Something is neither convenient nor inconvenient | |
| 先生でも学生でもない | Someone is neether a teacher or a student |
(a). 日本人もアメリカ人もよく働く。
Both Japanese and Americans work hard.
(b). 山川さんは酒も煙草もやりません。
Mr. Yamakawa neither drinks nor smokes.
(c). 弟にも妹にも本を買ってやりました。
I bought books for both my younger brother and sister.
(d). 和枝は美人でも不美人でもない。
Kazue is neither beautiful nor ugly.
(e). この建物は奇麗でも立派でもありません。
This building is neither pretty nor magnificent.
1. NounもNounも can be used as the subject as in Example (a), as the direct object as in Example (b), as the indirect object as in Example (c) or in any other way in which a regular noun phrase is used.
(⇨ も1)
2. Although NounもNounも can be an indefinitely long noun phrase, normally Nounも is not repeated more than three or four times.
3. The predicate that corresponds to the NounもNounも phrase can be affirmative as in Examples (a) and (c) or negative as in Examples (b), (d) and (e).
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Noun
| The speaker presents some situation as if it were a tangible object. | Because; how could~!; used to; should like to; should |
| 【Related Expression: から; のだ】 |
(ksa). A:どうして行かないの？ B:だって、忙しいもの。
A: How come you don't go there? B: 'Cause I'm busy.
(ksb). よくあんな男とデート出来るものだ・です！
How could you date that kind of guy!
(ksc). 昔はよく映画を見たものだ・です。
I used to see movies a lot.
(ksd). こんないいうちに一度住んでみたいものだ・です。
I'd like to live in such a nice house.
(kse). 朝人に会ったら「おはよう」と言うものだ・です。
You should say "Good morning" when you see people in the morning.
(ksf). 年を取ると昔のことを話したがるものだ・です。
When one gets old, he wants to talk about his/her past.
| (i){Vinformal/Vますたい} | ものだ | |
| 話すものだ | Someone should talk | |
| 話したものだ | Someone used to talk | |
| 話したいものだ | Someone would like to talk | |
| (ii){Adjective い/な} informal | ものだ | |
| 高いもの | 'cause something is expensive | |
| 高かったもの | 'cause something was expensive | |
| 高かったものだ | Something used to be expensive | |
| 静かだもの | 'cause something is quiet | |
| 静かだったもの | 'cause something was quiet | |
| 静かだったものだ | Something used to be quiet |
(a). A:どうして食べないの？ B:だって、不味いもの。
A: Why don't you eat it? B: 'Cause it doesn't taste good.
(b). A:どうしてその本、読まないんだい？ B:だって、よく分からないんだもの。
A: Why don't you read that book? B: 'Cause I don't understand it well.
(c). よくそんな馬鹿なことをしたものだ！
How could you do such a foolish thing!
(d). 月日の立つのは早いものだ。
The passing of days and months is so quick!
(e). 昔はこの川にも魚がいたものだ。
There used to be fish in this river, too.
(f). 一度是非一緒にテニスをしたいものですね。
Id like to play tennis with you once.
(g). 人の家に行く時はお土産を持って行くものです。
When you visit someone, you should take a gift with you.
(h). 好きな仕事をしていると病気にならないものだ。
When you are doing work you love, you don't become ill.
1. Because the speaker presents a situation before もの(だ) as if it were a tangible object, this structure tends to convey differing degrees of emotion. Key Sentences (A) through (F) represent emotive excuse, exclamation, nostalgic reminiscence, desire, indirect command and conviction, respectively. Note, however, that the emotion expressed here is not an instantaneously appearing emotion instigated by a current event but an emotion nurtured in one's mind for a relatively long period time.
2. When もの indicates a reason or an excuse it is used only in very informal speech.
3. もの is contracted into もん in very colloquial speech.
4. The usage of もの in Key Sentence (A) does not take だ/です, unless it appears in a subordinate clause, as in (1).
【Related Expression】
In Key Sentences (A), (C), (D), (E) and (F) もの can be replaced by の, but with a slightly different meaning. もの sounds more emotive than の, probably due to the semantic difference between もの 'a tangible object' and の 'a nominalizer of a directly perceptible state or action'. Thus, the もの(だ) version is more indirectly emotive, and is not necessarily geared to the current moment, whereas the の(だ) version is more directly emotive and is geared to the current moment. Observe the following:
[1]
[2]
Note that もの in Key Sentence (A) can be replaced by から, but the latter is free from the emotive overtones which are attached to もの.
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Verb (Group 1)
| The first person or someone the speaker empathises with receives something from someone whose status is not as high as the receiver's. | Get; receive; be given |
| 【Related Expression: くれる1 (あげる1)】 |
(ks). (私は)山本さんに本をもらった・もらいました。
I got a book from Mr. Yamamoto.
(a). 山川さんは橋本さんにウイスキーをもらった。
Mr. Yamakawa got whiskey from Mr. Hashimoto.
(b). (あなたは)モリスさんに何をもらったの？
What did you get from Mr. Morris?
1. もらう, which is one of a set of giving and receiving verbs, means 'get'. Unlike the English get, however, もらう is used only when the receiver is the first person or someone with whom the speaker empathizes (usually a member of the speaker's in-group). Thus, (1) is unacceptable.
The reason for this is as follows: もらう requires the receiver's point or view when describing an event, and when an event involves the first person, the event is normally described from the first person's point of view. Therefore, if the first person is the giver in もらう sentences, a viewpoint conflict arises, making the sentences ungrammatical. (The situation seen in (1) is usually described using あげる.)
(⇨ あげる1)
2. The humble polite version of もらう is いただく. Example:
3. The giver can also be marked by the source から 'from' (i.e., から1).
(⇨ に3)
However, if the giver is not human, から is more appropriate than に, as seen in (4).
This seems to be due to the fact that から1 carries the idea of source, while に conveys the idea of direct contact. That is, unlike the situation in (3), the speaker in (4) does not have direct contact with the giver, the Japanese government, when receiving money. Rather, the Japanese government in (4) is merely the source of the money received.
4. In declarative sentences, if the subject is the speaker, it is often omitted. Similarly, in interrogative sentences, if the subject is the hearer, it is often omitted. (See Key Sentence and Example (b).)
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Auxiliary Verb (Group 1)
| The first person or someone the speaker empathizes with receives some benefit from an action by someone whose status is not as high as the receiver's. | Receive benefit from an action by someone; have something done by someone; have someone do something. |
| 【Related Expression: くれる2 (あげる2)】 |
(ksa). (私は)父にカメラを買ってもらった・もらいました。
My father bought a camera for me.
(ksb). (私は)友達に来てもらった・もらいました。
I had my friend come (for my benefit).
| Vて | もらう | |
| 話してもらう | Have someone talk for my sake | |
| 食べてもらう | Have someone eat for my sake |
(a). 木村さんは大野さんに車を貸してもらった。
Mr. Kimura had Mr. Ono lend him his car.
(b). (君は)ベックさんに何をしてもらいましたか。
What did you have Mr. Beck do for you?/ What did Mr. Beck do for you?
(c). ジョンソンさんは鈴木さんに日本語を教えてもらっている。
Mr. Johnson has Mr. Suzuki teaching him Japanese.
1. もらう is used as an auxiliary verb with Verbて. The meaning of Verbてもらう is 'receive some benefit from someone's action' or 'have someone do something for someones sake'. Like sentences with もらう as a main verb, when the auxiliary verb もらう is used, the recipient of the favor (i.e., the person in the subject position) must be the first person or someone with whom the speaker empathizes (usually a member of the speaker's in-group). Thus, (1a) is grammatical, but (1b) is not.
Note that if the giver of the favor is the first person, sentences with Verbてもらう are ungrammatical even if the recipient of the favor is someone the speaker empathizes with, as in (2).
(⇨ もらう1, Note1)
The humble polite version of もらう as an auxiliary verb is いただく. Example:
4. Unlike sentences with もらう1, the giver cannot be marked by から in sentences with もらう2.
5. In declarative sentences, if the subject is the speaker, it is often omitted. Similarly, in interrogative sentences, if the subject is the hearer, it is often omitted. (Key Sentence (A), (B) and Example (b).)
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Particle
| A negative imperative marker used by a male speaker in very informal speech | Don't do ~ |
(ks). 煙草を吸うな！
Don't smoke!
| Vinformal nonpast | な | |
| 話すな | Don't talk! | |
| 食べるな | Don't eat! |
(a). 酒をあまり飲むな！
Don't drink too much sake!
(b). そんな所にもう行くな！
Don't go to such a place any more!
(c). あんな男とは結婚するな！
Don't marry that kind of man!
(d). もう帰って来るな！
Don't come home any more!
1. な is a strong negative imperative and is seldom used except in highly emotional situations. However, the addition of よ after な serves to soften the force of the statement.
2. A female speaker normally does not use the な imperative. She uses Verb negative ないで, as in 話さないで 'Don't talk.' or 食べないで 'Don't eat.'
(⇨ ください, Note 3)
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Particle
| A marker that indicates exemplification. | And so on; and the like; for example; things like~ |
| 【Related Expression: なんか】 |
(ks). 日本の食べ物の中では寿司や天ぷらなどが好きだ・好きです。
Among Japanese foods I like things like sushi and tempura.
(a). A:冬休みはどこに行きましょうか。 B:ハワイなどどうですか。
A: Where shall we go during the winter vacation? B: How about Hawaii, for example?
(b). 大学ではフランス語やドイツ語などを勉強した。
In college I studied French and German and the like.
(c). この大学には中国や韓国などから学生が大勢来ます。
A lot of students from China, Korea and so on come to this college.
(d). A:経済学を専攻するつもりですか。 B:いいえ、経済学など専攻するつもりはありません。
A: Are you going to major in economics? B: No, I have no intention of majoring in things like economics.
(e). A:この翻訳をして下さいませんか。 B:こんな難しいもの、私などには出来ません。
A: Could you kindly translate this for me? B: A person like me cannot translate such a difficult thing.
1. A particle normally follows など, as in:
Particles other than が, を, and は can precede など, but, depending on the context, this order gives the sentence a more derogatory meaning. Examples:
If the main predicate is negated, as in Examples (d) and (e), など often conveys a sense of humbleness especially when the subject is the speaker or a member of his in-group. In other cases, it is generally derogatory.
【Related Expression】
なか is the informal, colloquial version of など. It is used as など is used except that in a context conveying undesirability or contempt there is more emphasis on the derogatory meaning.
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Conjunction
| A conjunction which indicates that the action expressed by the preceding verb takes place concurrently or simultaneously with the action expressed in the main clause. | While; over; with |
| 【Related Expression: あいだ】 |
(ks). 田口さんはいつも新聞を読みながら朝ご飯を食べる・食べます。
Mr. Taguchi always reads a newspaper while eating his breakfast.
| Vます | ながら | |
| 話しながら | While talking/talk while doing something | |
| 食べながら | While eating/eat while doing something |
(a). 歩きながら本を読むのは危ないですよ。
It is dangerous to read while walking.
(b). 山口さんは笑いながら私の話の聞いていた。
Mr. Yamaguchi was listening to me with a smile./ While smiling, Mr. Yamaguchi was listening to my story.
(c). 私は寝ながら小説を読むのが好きだ。
I like to read novels in bed./ While in bed, I like to read novels.
(d). ものを食べながら話してはいけません。
Don't talk with food in your mouth./ You must not talk while eating things.
(e). 木村君は会社で働きながら学校に行っている。
Mr. Kimura works for a company while going to school.
1. Verbますながら expresses an action that occurs concurrently or simultaneously with another action. The action expressed by Verbますながら is always secondary to the action expressed in the main clause. Thus, in (1), B is acceptable as a response to A, but C is not.
Note that in English, "while ~ing" is not always the secondary action.
2. Verbますながら cannot be used when the subjects of the two actions are different, as in (2).
(In this case, 間 is used. (⇨ 間))
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Phrase
| A negative て form of a verb. | Do not do something. and; without doing ~ |
| 【Related Expression: なくて; ずに】 |
(ks). ナンシーは昨日朝ご飯を食べないで学校へ行った・行きました。
Nancy went to school yesterday without eating her breakfast.
| Vnegative | ないで | |
| 話さないで | Without talking | |
| 食べないで | Without eating |
(a). 中田さんは大阪に行かないで京都に行った。
Mr. Nakada didn't go to Osaka; he went to Kyoto.
(b). 辞書を使わないで読んで下さい。
Please read it without using a dictionary.
(c). まだ帰らないで下さい。
Please don't go home yet.
(d). 電話しないで欲しい。
I want you not to call me.
(e). 喧しくしないで貰いたい。
I want you to not make noises.
(f). まだあるから買わないでおきました。
Because I still have it, I didn't buy it (in advance).
1. If a ないで clause expresses something one is expected to do, as in Key Sentence where there is the expectation that Nancy should eat breakfast, the translation is 'without ~ing', but if not, it is 'do not do ~ and ~', as in Example (a).
2. ないで is often used to combine two sentences as in Key Sentence and Examples (a) and (b) but can also be used with 下さい 'please do something', as in Example (c), 欲しい 'want', as in Example (d), もらう 'receive a favor', as in Example (e), and ておく 'do something in advance', as in Example (f).
3. ないで is used only with verbs. It cannot be used with adjectives.
4. In cases where no auxiliaries such as 下さい, 欲しい, もらう and ておく are used, ないで implies that the speaker is emphasizing negation, because somehow the proposition expressed in the ないで clause is contrary to his expectation.
【Related Expressions】
I. ないで can be replaced by ずに, if で of ないで somehow retains the original meaning of 'and' as in Key Sentence, Examples (a), (b) and (f). Thus, the sentences in [1] are all grammatical, but those in [2] are all ungrammatical:
[1]
[2]
The only difference between ないで and ずに is that of style: ずに is used in formal speech or written Japanese. The formation is exactly the same as ないで, namely, Verb informal negativeずに. However, the ずに form for する verbs is not しずに, but せずに, as in 勉強せずに, 'without studying'.
II. ないで can be replaced by なくて only when the ないで clause indicates some cause for human emotion which is expressed in the main clause. Otherwise, the なくて version is unacceptable, as in [5].
[3]
[4]
[5]
It is also noted that the idea of 'X is not Y but Z' is expressed by なくて rather than ないで, as in [6].
[6]
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Phrase
| It won't do if someone does not take some action or if someone or something is not in some state. | Have to; must; need |
| 【Related Expression: ないといけない; なければいけない; なくてはいけない; なくてはならない; ねばならない】 | |
| 【Antonym Expression: ないでもいい; なくてもいい; てはいけない; てはならない】 | |
(ksa). A:今日は働かなくてもいいんですか。 B:いいえ、働かなければなりません。
A: Don't you have work today? B: Yes, I have work.
(ksb). バスケットバールの選手は大きくなければならない・なりません。
Basketball players have to be big.
(ksc). 図書館は静かでなければならない・なりません。
Libraries have to be quiet.
(ksd). この仕事は学生でなければならない・なりません。
Speaking of this job, it has to be students.
| (i)Vnegative | なければならない | |
| 話さなければならない | Someone has to talk | |
| 食べなければならない | Someone has to eat | |
| (ii)Adjective い stem | くなければならない | |
| 安くなければならない | Something has to be inexpensive | |
| (iii){Adjective な stem/ Noun} | でなければならない | |
| 静かでなければならない | Something has to be quiet | |
| 先生でなければならない | Someone has to be a teacher |
(a). 私は明日朝五時に起きなければなりません。
I have to get up at five tomorrow morning.
(b). あの部屋はもう少し広くなければなりません。
That room has to be a bit larger.
(c). この仕事をする為には英語が上手でなければならない。
To do this job, your English has to be good.
(d). このゴルフ場を使う為にはメンバーでなければならない。
To use this golf course, you have to be a member.
1. Verb negative なければならない expresses the idea of obligation. The contracted forms Verb negative なけりゃならない and Verb negative なきゃ(あ)ならない are also used in conversation. Sometimes, ならない is omitted if the context is clear. Example:
2. Negative obligation, i.e., "do not have to" cannot be expressed by the negative form of this pattern. It is expressed by なくてもいい 'It is all right if ~ doesn't do something.'
(⇨ てもいい)
【Related Expression】
In addition to なければならない/いけない there are at least four other expressions of obligation. They are as follows:
[1]
[1c] is the written version なければならない. [1a], [1b] and 話さなければならない/いけない carry essentially the same meaning. なくては is often contracted into なくちゃ, なくちゃあ, なくっちゃ, and なくっちゃあ.
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Phrase
| It has reached the point where some state or action does not take place anymore. | Not~ any more |
| 【Related Expression: ようになる; もう~ない】 |
(ks). 易しい漢字も書けなくなった・なりました。
I cannot even write easy kanji any more.
| (i)Vinformal negative | なくなる | Where V is often a potential verb |
| {話さ /話せ}なくなる | Someone doesn't talk/can't talk anymore | |
| {食べ /食べられ}なくなる | Someone doesn't/can't eat any more | |
| (ii)Adjective い stem | くなくなる | |
| 高くなくなる | Something isn't expensive any more | |
| (iii){Adjective な stem/ Noun} | {ではじゃ}なくなる | |
| {静かでは/静かじゃ}なくなる | Something isn't quiet any more | |
| {先生では/先生じゃ}なくなる | Someone isn't a teacher any more |
(a). 前は酒をよく飲んでいたが、この頃は飲まなくなりました。
I used to drink sake a lot, but now I don't drink any more.
(b). 彼は前よく電話をかけて来ましたが、もうかけて来なくなりました。
He used to call me frequently, but he doesn't call me any more.
(c). 日本語はもう難しくなくなりました。
Japanese isn't difficult for me any more.
(d). この郊外も地下鉄が来て不便ではなくなった。
This suburban area is no longer inconvenient because there is a subway now (literally: the subway has reached here).
(e). やっと大学を出て学生ではなくなりました。
I finally graduated from college and am not a student any longer.
【Related Expressions】
Compare なくなる, Verb informal negative ようになる and もう~ない in the following sentences:
[1]
[2]
[3]
[1] and [2] focus on both process and result, but [3] focuses only on result. Thus, [1] and [2] can take time expressions indicating the period of change, such as 一年のうちに 'within a year', 急に 'suddenly', とうとう 'finally', but [3] cannot. [1] is different from [2] in that the latter focuses on an indirect, circumstantial cause for the change, whereas the former focuses on a more direct one. Thus, [1] implies that the speaker cannot speak Japanese any more because he has simply forgotten Japanese but [2] implies that he cannot speak Japanese because the situation is such that there are no native speakers around to speak with.
(⇨ ようになる)
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Phrase
| A て form of the negative ない, which indicates a cause/reason for a state or action. | Do not do something and~; is not~ and~; because~ do not do something |
| 【Related Expression: ないで; ないから; ないので; なくても】 |
(ks). 朝七時に起きられなくて会社に遅れた・遅れました。
I couldn't get up at seven and was late for work (at my company).
| (i)Vinformal negative | なくて | Where V is often a potential verb |
| {話さ /話せ}なくて | Someone doesn't/can't talk and ~ | |
| {食べ /食べられ}なくて | Someone doesn't/can't eat and~ | |
| (ii)Adjective い stem | くなくて | |
| 高くなくて | Something isn't expensive and~ | |
| (iii){Adjective な stem/ N} | {ではじゃ}なくて | |
| {静かでは/静かじゃ}なくて | Something isn't quiet and~ | |
| {先生では/先生じゃ}なくて | Someone isn't a teacher and~ |
(a). 先生の説明が分からなくて困りました。
I didn't understand the teacher's explanation and had a difficult time.
(b). 日本では日本語が話せなくて残念でした。
It's regrettable that I couldn't speak Japanese in Japan.
(c). 試験は難しくなくてよかったですね。
The exam wasn't difficult and it was good, wasn't it?
(d). 字が上手じゃなくて恥ずかしいんです。
My handwriting is so poor that I feel ashamed.
(e). 厳しい先生じゃなくてよかった。
He wasn't a strict teacher and it was good.
【Related Expressions】
I. なくても means '(even) if ~not ~'.
[1]
[2]
II. The cause and effect relation indicated by なくて is much weaker and more indirectly presented than that of ないから or ないので. Thus, Key Sentence can be rewritten in four versions, including ないで, as shown in [3].
[3]
The most direct presentation oi tne cause-effect relation is なかったから, and the presentation becomes more indirect in the following order: なかったので, ないで and なくて. For an excuse for one's lateness the least direct one is of course preferred, because the more indirect, the politer the expression.
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Conjunction
| A conjunction which indicates that the preceding sentence is the speaker's supposition about the truth of a present or past fact or the actualisation of something in the future. | If it is true that; if it is the case that; if; would; could |
| 【Related Expression: たら (ば, と4)】 |
(ks). 松田が来る(の)なら僕は行かない・行きません。
If it is true that Matsuda will come, I won't go.
| (i){V/Adjective い} informal | (の)なら | |
| {話す /話した} (の)なら | If it is true that someone talks/talked | |
| {高い /高かった} (の)なら | If it is true that something is/was expensive | |
| (ii){Adjective な stem/ N} | {のだった(の)}なら | |
| {静かの/静かだった(の)}なら | If it is true that something is/as quiet | |
| {先生の/先生だった(の)}なら | If it is true that someone is/was a teacher |
(a). シカゴへ行くのならバスで行きなさい。
If you go to Chicago, go by bus.
(b). 杉田が来たのなら僕は帰る。
If Sugita has come, I'll go home.
(c). そんなに高いのなら買えません。
If it is that expensive, I can't buy it.
(d). 山田先生が好きなら手紙を書いたらどうですか。
If you like Mr. Yamada, why don't you write a letter to him?
(e). 高橋先生ならそのことを知っているでしょう。
If it is Professor Takahashi, he probably knows about it.
1. Basically, Sentenceなら expresses the speaker's supposition concerning the truth of a present or past fact or the actualization of something in the future.
2. なら is the simplified form of ならば, the conditional form of the copula だ. (⇨ ば) In modern Japanese, however, ば is usually omitted.
3. Since なら is the simplified conditional form of the copula, it requires a noun or a noun equivalent. Thus, if the preceding element is not a noun, it is nominalized by の (⇨ の3), although this の is optional in modern Japanese. (The stems of な type adjectives behave like nouns; therefore, they can precede なら without being nominalized. See Formation (ii).)
4. When Sentence1 is nonpast, Sentence1ならSentence2 cannot be used if it is nonsensical to suppose the truth of Sentence. Thus, the sentences in (1) - (3) are all unacceptable. (1) is unacceptable because it never fails to become ten o'clock; (2) is unacceptable because one can never tell whether it is true or not that it will rain tomorrow; (3) is unacceptable because the speaker already knows it is true that he wants to go.
As seen above, なら cannot be used (A) if Sentence1 never fails to happen, (B) if one can never tell if it is true or not that Sentence1 will happen, or (C) if the speaker already knows Sentence1 is the fact.
If Sentence1 is counterfactual, Sentence1ならSentence2 can be used. For example, (4) is acceptable because Sentence1 expresses the speaker's counterfactual feeling.
Note that in this case the nominalizer の is preferred.
5. Sentence1ならSentence2 cannot be used if the completion or actualization of Sentence1 brings about Sentence2.
If Sentence2 does not express a past event or a present habitual events but expresses a present state, the speaker's opinion, volition, judgment, command, request or suggestion, Sentence1なら can be used as in (7).
(7)
6. When Sentence2 in Sentence1ならSentence2 is past, Sentence1 must be a past event or state. For example, in (8), Sentence1 represents a past event, and Sentence1なら indicates that the speaker supposes the truth of Sentence1.
(8) can also be used in a counterfactual situation where it means 'If it were true that it rained, there should have been no game.' In this case the nominalizer の is preferred.
7. のなら often becomes んなら in conversation.
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Auxiliary Verb
| A polite imperative used by superiors such as parents or teachers to their inferiors (=people of younger age and lower rank) | Do something |
| 【Related Expression: 下さい】 |
(ks). もっと沢山食べなさい。
Eat more.
| Vます | なさい | |
| 話しなさい | Talk | |
| 食べなさい | Eat |
(a). 遊ばないで勉強しなさい。
Don't play. Study.
(b). 早くうちに帰って来なさいよ。
Come home early, OK?
(c). もう遅いから歯を磨いて寝なさい。
It's late now, so brush your teeth and go to bed.
1. なさい is the imperative form of the verb なさる 'do' (polite honorific).
2. なさい is the polite version of nonpolite imperatives.
【Related Expression】
In contrast to なさい/ください is used by an inferior towards his superior when he asks a favor of the latter.
[1]
Basic Page 286
Particle
| A sentence final particle that indicates the speaker's request for confirmation or agreement from the hearer about some shared knowledge. | English tag question (such as isn't it?; is it?; don't you?; do you?); you know |
(ks). 坂本さんは煙草を吸わない・吸いませんね。
Mr. Sakamoto doesn't smoke, does he?/ Mr. Sakamoto, you don't smoke, do you?
(a). A:今日はいい天気ですね。 B:本当にそうですね。
A: Today is a fine day, isn't it? B: Isn't it!
(b). あなたは学生ですね。
You are a student, aren't you?
(c). パーティーにいらっしゃいますね。
You are going to the party, aren't you?
1. In this construction the sentence preceding ね can be any informal or formal sentence except nonpolite imperative. Thus,
2. ね can be used as a request for either confirmation or agreement from the addressee. When a sentence expresses the speaker's strong impression of something, ね indicates the speakers request for agreement from the hearer, as in Example (a). When a sentence expresses something emotively neutral, ね indicates the speaker's request for confirmation from the hearer, as in Key Sentence and Examples (b) and (c). Here, however, Key Sentence can also be a request for agreement, if the speaker is surprised that Mr. Sakamoto doesn't smoke. These two uses of ね have diflferent intonations: the ね of agreement uses falling intonation and the ね of confirmation uses rising intonation. The ね of agreement becomes ねえ if the speaker is excited about the content of his statement. In other words, Sentenceねえ is an exclamatory sentence, as in (2).
On the other hand, the ね of confirmation has no exclamatory overtones; it implies something like 'I am assuming X but can you confirm it?' Thus, in Key Sentence the speaker doesn't like people who smoke, and for some reason or other, he wants to confirm that Mr. Sakamoto is not one of those people.
3. ね is sometimes used in a non-sentence-final position to draw the hearer's attention to something or to confirm that the hearer has understood what has been said up to that point. ね is typically used in this manner in telephone conversations.
4. {て/から}ね is specifically used to give a reason or a cause for the speaker's state of mind or feelings in a very indirect and vague fashion. Examples follow:
ね here indicates the speaker's request for agreement from the hearer based on shared knowledge.
5. The ね of confirmation or agreement is used after another sentence-final particle よ of assertion. よね means 'I assert that ~ but don't you agree?/am I right?'. This ね is pronounced with rising intonation
6. The ね of confirmation or agreement is used after another sentence-final particle, the question marker か. かね means 'I am not sure if ~, am I right?'. The ね of かね is pronounced with falling intonation.
Basic Page 289
Particle
| A particle that indicates a point of time at which something takes place. | At; in; on |
| 【Related Expression: で4】 |
(ks). 私は毎朝六時半に起きる・起きます。
I get up at six thirty every morning.
(a). 私は四月一日に生まれました。
I was born on April 1st.
(b). 今朝は五時半にうちを出ました。
This morning I left home at five thirty.
(c). 来年の夏(に)外国旅行をするつもりです。
I intend to make a trip abroad next summer.
(d). 子供が学校に行っている間に手紙を書いた。
I wrote a letter while my children were away at school.
(e). 田中は大学にいる時(に)今の奥さんと出会った。
Tanaka met his present wife when he was in college.
1. There are a number of time expressions that cannot take に; the typical ones are 朝 'morning', 明日 'tomorrow', 昨日 'yesterday', 今日 'today', 一昨日 'the day before yesterday', 来年 'next year', 最近 'lately', etc. Generally speaking, if a time expression can be specified uniquely in terms of digits, the adverb can take に; otherwise, it cannot. 月曜日 'Monday' is the 'first' day of the week, so it can take に. So can クリスマス 'Christmas', because it is December 25. But 今日 'today' cannot take に, because 'today' cannot be uniquely specified by date.
2. に is optional with certain time nouns, such as 夏 'summer' (as in Example (c)) and 時 'time' (as in Example (e)). The version with に stresses the point of time more than the version without に does.
3. The time noun 間 also takes に if the event in the main clause does not continue for the entire duration of the event in the 間 clause, as seen in Example (d). If the event in the main clause covers the same duration as the event in the 間 clause, に cannot be used.
(⇨ 間(に))
4. When a specific time expression takes ごろ 'about' as in (2), に may drop.
5. に as a particle for a point of time can be used freely with various time expressions, as long as it occurs with a time expression that can be uniquely specified in terms of digits.
(⇨ Note 1)
6. に is optional with the names of the four seasons. Thus,
Basic Page 291
Particle
| An indirect object marker. | To; for |
(ks). 私は母に手紙をよく書く・書きます。
I often write letters to my mother.
(a). 父は僕に時計を呉れた。
My father gave me a watch.
(b). 加藤先生はアメリカ人の学生に日本文学を教えている。
Professor Kato is teaching Japanese literature to American students.
(c). 私は妹にお金を少しやりました。
I gave a little money to my younger sister.
(d). 今井さんに電話しましたがいませんでした。
I called Mr. Imai, but he wasn't there.
(e). 大川先生は学生に色々な辞書を見せた。
Professor Ookawa showed various dictionaries to his students.
1. In this construction, as seen in Key Sentence, the verb is typically transitive and is related to an action that involves something that can be transferred from one person to another, such as あげる 'give', 話す 'talk', くれる 'give', 見せる 'show', 投げる 'throw, 教える 'teach' and やる 'give'.
2. Any transitive verb used in the Verbてあげる or Verbてあげる construction can take に, if the verb does not take a human direct object. For example, 読む 'read', which does not take a human object, can take に2, if used in the Verbてあげる or Verbてくれる construction, as shown in (1), but ほめる 'praise', which takes a human object, cannot take に, as shown in (2).
An intransitive verb can never take に even if it is used in the Verbてあげる or Verbてくれる construction. Thus,
Basic Page 292
Particle
| A particle that indicates an agent or a source in passive, causative, もらう/てまらう and other receiving constructions. | By; from |
| 【Related Expression: から1】 |
(ksa). 一男は友達に手紙を読まれた・読まれました。
Kazuo's friend read Kazuo's letter (and Kazuo was unhappy).
(ksb). 秋子は浩にご飯を作らせた・作らせました。
Akiko made Hiroshi fix a meal.
(ksc). 私は父に車を買ってもらった・もらいました。
My father bought me a car.
(ksd). ジェーンは山野先生に生け花を習った・習いました。
Jane took lessons in flower arranging from Mrs. Yamano.
(a). その子はお母さんに叱られました。
The child was scolded by its mother.
(b). A:そのネクタイは誰にもらったんですか。 B:父にもらいました。
A: From whom did you receive that tie? B: I received it from my father.
(c). 僕はアメリカ人に英語を教えてもらった。
I had an American teach me English.
(d). 兄は私に五時間も運転させました。
My older brother made me drive for as long as five hours.
(e). A:吉田さんが結婚したそうですよ。 B:そうですか。誰に聞きましたか。
A: I heard that Mr. Yoshida got married. B: Is that right? Who told you so?
1. に3 is typically used in passive, causative, もらう/てもらう constructions and with verbs such as 借りる 'borrow', 聞く 'hear', もらう 'receive', 習う 'learn', 教わる 'learn' which require a noun phrase representing the source of the direct object.
2. Nouns that take に3 as in Key Sentences (A), (B) and (C) all represent agents of the main verb's action. Thus, Key Sentences (A), (B) and (C) include (1), (2) and (3), respectively as part of their meaning.
3. に3 of source as in Key Sentence (D), Examples (b) and (e) can be replaced by から1, but に3 of agent, as in Key Sentences (A), (B), (C), Examples (a), (c) and (d), cannot.
【Related Expression】
The difference between に3 (of source) and から1 is that the former indicates the speaker's psychological closeness to a human source, whereas the latter doesn't. This difference explains why is ungrammatical if the source is an impersonal institution to which the speaker can hardly feel close, as shown in [1].
[1]
Basic Page 295
Particle
| A particle that indicates the surface of something upon which some action directly takes place. | On; onto |
| 【Related Expression: で1; へ (まで, に7); に6】 |
(ks). 子供は紙に絵を書いた・書きました。
A child has drawn a picture on the paper.
(a). ここにあなたの名前と住所を書いて下さい。
Please write your name and address here.
(b). ヘリコプターが山の上に降りました。
A helicopter landed on the top of the mountain.
(c). オーバーはハンガーに掛けて下さい。
Please hang your overcoat on the hanger.
(d). そんな所に立っていると危ないですよ。
It's dangerous to keep standing in such a place.
【Related Expressions】
I. に4 should not be confused with で1, a particle that indicates a location in which some action takes place. (⇨ で1) Consider the difference in meaning between [1a] and [1b]:
[1]
II. に4 should not be confused with に6, a particle that indicates the location where someone or something exists. (⇨ に6) Examples:
[2]
Basic Page 297
Particle
| A particle which indicates purpose when someone moves from one place to another. | To do something; in order to do something |
| 【Related Expression: 為に】 |
(ks). 私はデパートへ贈り物を買いに行った・行きました。
I went to a department store to buy a gift.
| Vます | に | |
| 話しに | To talk | |
| 食べに | To eat |
(a). 学生が質問をしに来た。
A student came to ask questions.
(b). そこへ何をしに行くんですか。
To do what are you going there?/ For what are you going there?
(c). 村井さんは昼ご飯を食べにうちへ帰った。
Mr. Murai went home to eat his lunch.
1. Verbますに, meaning 'to do something', can be used only with verbs of motion, (i.e., verbs which express a movement from one place to another), such as 行く 'go', 来る 'come', 帰る 'return', 入る 'enter' and 出る 'leave'. Verbs like 歩く 'walk', 走る 'run' and 泳ぐ 'swim' are not considered motion verbs because they express a manner of movement rather than a movement from one place to another. Therefore, the following sentence is ungrammatical.
2. If the verb in Verbますに is a compound verb of the structure Nounする, such as 仕事する 'work', 勉強する 'study' and 質問する 'ask a question', する is sometimes omitted.
【Related Expression】
Verb informal nonpast為に is also used to express purpose in an action. However, the uses of Verb informal nonpast為に and Verbますに differ in some ways. First, unlike Verbますに, Verb informal nonpast為に can be used with any verb. Examples:
[1]
[2]
Second, when Verbますに and Verb informal nonpast為に are used with verbs of motion, Verbますに can be used without a directional phrase, but Verb informal nonpast為に cannot, unless that information is clear from the context. Examples:
[3]
[4]
Third, when Verb informal nonpast為に and Verbますに are used with verbs of motion, Verb informal nonpast為に usually expresses a rather important purpose, while Verbますに can be used even to express something insignificant. Examples:
[5]
Basic Page 299
Particle
| A particle which indicates the location where someone or something exists. | In; at; on |
| 【Related Expression: で1; に4】 |
(ksa). ヒルさんは今ジョンソンさんのアパートにいる・います。
Mr. Hill is at Mr. Johnson's apartment now.
(ksb). 私のクラスには中国人の学生がいる・います。
There is a Chinese student in my class.
(a). その本はこの学校の図書館にあります。
That book is in the school's library.
(b). この学校にはプールがない。
There is no swimming pool at this school.
(c). 加藤さんは大阪に住んでいます。
Mr. Kato lives in Osaka.
(d). 庭に桜の木が立っている。
There is a cherry tree standing in the yard.
(e). この作文には文法の間違いが沢山見られる。
A lot of grammatical mistakes can be seen in this composition.
(f). 花子はみのるの隣に座っている。
Hanako is sitting next to Minoru.
1. に6 indicates the location where someone or something exists. Verbs such as いる '(animate things) exist', ある '(inanimate things) exist' and 住む 'live' typically occur with the locational に.
2. The verb ある often takes the particle に, but when ある is used for an event, に cannot be used. In this case, で is used.
3. Noun phrases with に often occur as topics, as in Key Sentence (B) and Example (b).
4. If a location phrase which indicates the existence of someone or something modifies a noun phrase, as in 'an apartment in New York', に cannot be used. In this case, の is used.
(⇨ の1)
【Related Expressions】
I. で1 also indicates location, but not a location where someone/something exists. Thus, in the following sentences で is ungrammatical.
[1]
On the other hand, に is used only to indicate the location where someone/something exists, but not an event; therefore, in the following sentences, に is ungrammatical.
[2]
11. In some sentences, both the locational に and the locational で can be used. For example, in [3] both に and で are appropriate.
[3]
However, the nuances of a sentence with に and that with で are different. Namely, the sentence with に implies that "I found a good house which is in Kyoto", while the one with で means "In Kyoto I found a good house". Therefore, in [4] the に version and the で version mean different things.
[4]
Namely, in the sentence with に, the job is in Tokyo and the place the speaker found it mignt not have been Tokyo. On tne other hand, the sentence with で means that the place the speaker found the job was Tokyo and the place where he is going to work is not necessarily Tokyo.
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Particle
| A particle which indicates a place toward which someone or something moves. | To; toward. |
| 【Related Expression: へ】 |
(ks). 私はきのうサンフランシスコに行った・行きました。
I went to San Francisco yesterday.
(a). ジムは来年アメリカに帰る。
Jim is going back to America next year.
(b). いつか私のうちに来ませんか。
Wouldn't you like to come to my house sometime?
(c). 彼らは角のレストランに入った。
They entered the restaurant around the corner.
★Semantic Derivations of に
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Phrase
| The speaker is convinced that there is no mistake on his part in guessing something. | There is no doubt that~; must be~; no doubt |
| 【Related Expression: だろう; はず; かもしれない】 |
(ksa). 下田さんは今日のことを忘れたに違いない・違いありません。
Mr. Shimoda must have forgotten today's plans.
(ksb). あの先生の試験は難しいに違いない・違いません。
That teacher's exams must be hard.
(ksc). ベイリーさんはテニスが上手に違いない・違いありません。
Mr. Bailey must be good at tennis.
(ksd). あの人は日本人に違いない・違いありません。
That person must be Japanese.
| (i){Vinformal/Adjective い} informal | に違いない | |
| {話す /話した}に違いない | Someone will no doubt talk/someone no doubt talked | |
| {食べる /食べた}に違いない | Someone will no doubt eat/someone no doubt ate | |
| {高い /高かった}に違いない | Something is/was no doubt expensive | |
| (ii){Adjective な stem/ Noun} | {Øだった}に違いない | |
| {静か /静かだった}に違いない | Something is/was no doubt quiet | |
| {先生 /先生だった}に違いない | Someone is/was no doubt a teacher |
(a). 二人は今頃ハワイで楽しく泳いでいるに違いない。
The two must be enjoying swimming in Hawaii.
(b). 一人で外国へ行くのは大変に違いない。
It must be hard to go to a foreign country alone.
(c). 山口さんは頭がいいに違いない。
Mr. Yamaguchi must be bright.
(d). あれはトンプソンさんに違いない。
That must be Mr. Thompson.
The sentence-equivalent that precedes に違いない can be nominalized by の in written Japanese, yielding more credibility to the speakers assertion. Examples:
(⇨ の3)
【Related Expressions】
I. There are cases where に違いない can sometimes be replaced by はずだ. In such cases, however, the former is always a conjecture and the latter is the speaker's expectation based on objective facts.
(⇨ はず)
II. The degree of probability implied by だろう, かもしれない, and に違いない is as follows:
| ◀ | Least | Most | ▶ | |
| ◀ | ▶ | |||
| ◀ | かもしれない | | だろう | | に違いない | ▶ |
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Auxiliary Adjective (い)
| Something or someone is hard to~. | Hard to~; difficult to~; don't do something easily; not readily; not prone to~ |
| 【Antonym Expression: やすい】 |
(ks). この本は大変読み難いです。
This book is very hard to read.
| Vます | 難い | |
| 話し難い | Someone is hard to talk to | |
| 食べ難い | Something is hard to eat |
(a). このドアは開き難いですね。
This door doesn't open easily, does it?
(b). あの人の名前は覚え難い。
His name is hard to remember.
(c). あの先生は話し難いです。
That teacher is hard to talk to.
(d). この靴は走りにくいです。
These shoes are hard to run in.
1. Verbます+難い conjugates exactly like an Adjective い.
| Informal | Formal | ||
| Affirmative | Nonpast | 話しにくい | 話しにくいです |
| Affirmative | Past | 話しにくかった | 話しにくかったです |
| Negative | Nonpast | 話しにくくない | 話しにくくありません |
| Negative | Past | 話しにくくなかった | 話しにくくありませんでした |
2. In both English and Japanese the subject of the 難い construction can be the subject of an intransitive verb, as in Example (a) where このドア 'this door' is the subject of 開く 'open'. It can also be the direct object of a transitive verb, as in Example (b) where あの人の名前 'his name' is the direct object of 覚える 'remember'. It can be the indirect object of a transitive verb, as in Example (c) where あの先生 'that teacher' is the indirect object of 話す 'talk'. Finally, the subject can be Noun+Particle such as この靴で 'with these shoes' corresponding in English to Preposition+Noun. In this construction, as in Examples (c) and (d), note that the preposition in the English sentence is retained but the corresponding particle in the Japanese sentence is deleted.
3. やすい 'easy to do ~' is an antonym of 難い. The basic formation of the やすい construction is the identical to the 難い construction.
(⇨ 易い)
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Particle
| A phrase that indicates a generally agreed upon standard (the entire sentence that includes this phrase expresses some deviation from that standard.) | For~; considering that~ |
| 【Related Expression: としては】 |
(ksa). 高山さんは日本人にしては大きい・大きいです。
Mr. Takayama is big for a Japanese person.
(ksb). ボブは日本語をよく勉強しているにしては下手だ・下手です。
Considering that Bob is studying Japanese hard, he is poor at it.
| (i) Noun | (だった)にしては | |
| 先生(だった)にしては | Considering that someone is/was a teacher | |
| (ii) Vinformal | にしては | |
| {話す /話した}にしては | Considering that someone talks/talked |
(a). 八月にしては涼しいですね。
For August is it cool, isn't it?
(b). これは日本の車にしては大きいですね。
For a Japanese car this is big, isn't it?
(c). 彼はレスラーだったにしては体が小さい。
Considering that he was a wrestler, he is small.
(d). 青木さんはアメリカに十年いたにしては英語があまり上手じゃない。
Considering that Mr. Aoki spent ten years in America, his English is not very good.
にしては is the て form of にする 'make it ~, decide on ~' plus は 'if'. The literal meaning is 'if one makes it ~'.
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Phrase
| Someone has decided on something. | Decide on~; make it~ |
| 【Related Expression: に決める】 |
(ks). 私はこのアパートにする・します。
I've decided on this apartment.
(a). A:あなたは何にしますか。 B:私はステーキにします。
A: What have you decided on? B: I've decided on steak.
(b). 岡田さんはアメリカの車にしました。
Mr. Okada (has) decided on an American car.
1. にする is usually preceded by a noun or a noun equivalent. (⇨ ことにする) However, a noun with a particle is also possible. Example:
If the tense is nonpast, にする implies that a decision has just been made, as in Key Sentence and Example (a). If the past tense is used, the sentence is ambiguous; it means either that a decision has been made but no action has been taken or that a decision was made and an action was also taken. (Example (b))
【Related Expression】
に決める also means 'decide on' and にする and に決める can be used interchangeably, although に決める is usually used in situations where a decision is considered significant or important. Thus, in situations like Example (a), に決める is not used.
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Particle
| A particle which, with a preceding noun phrase, forms a phrase to modify a following noun phrase. | 's; of; in; at; for; by; from |
| 【Related Expression: の2】 |
(ksa). これは先生の本だ・です。
This is my teacher's book.
(ksb). これは友達からの手紙だ・です。
This is a letter from my friend.
| (i)Noun の Noun | 田中さんの家 | Mr. Tanaka's house |
| アメリカの大学 | A university in America | |
| (ii)Noun Particle の Noun | 日本での仕事 | A job in Japan |
| メアリーへのプレゼント | A present for Mary |
(a). 私の本 学校の名前 今日の新聞
my book the name of the school today's paper
(b). 日本の寺 駅の電話
a temple in Japan a telephone at the station
(c). 美術の本 日本語の試験
a book on fine arts an exam on Japanese
(d). 桜の花 桃の木 バスの切符 風邪の薬
a cherry blossom a peach tree a bus ticket cold medicine
(e). 日本語の先生 音楽の学生
a teacher of Japanese a student of music
(f). 友達の大木さん 医者の森田さん カラーの写真 十歳の子供
my friend Mr. Ooki a medical doctor, Dr. Morita a photo in colour a ten year old child
(g). 絹のドレス れんがの家
a silk dress a brick house
(h). 八時からのパーティー 先生との話し合い
a party which starts at eight o'clock a discussion with the teacher
1. Generally, の combines two noun phrases into a larger noun phrase. In AのB, Aの modifies B and indicates a specific member(s) of B among all the members of B. A and B in AのB relate to each other in various ways, and these relationships are determined by context. Some common relationships follow.
2. In AのB, A is sometimes a noun phrase with a particle, as in Key Sentence (B) and Example (i). Note that の cannot be omitted in this case, because it indicates that the preceding noun phrase with a particle modifies the following noun phrase. Without の, the noun phrase with the particle is interpreted as an adverbial phrase which modifies the predicate in the clause. For example, in (1a) 八時から 'from eight o'clock' modifies 行きました 'went', while in (1b) 八時からの modifies パーティー 'party'.
3. The "AのB" construction can be extended as in "AのBのCの..." Examples:
4. In AのB, B can be omitted if it is apparent from context. Examples:
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Pronoun
| A dependent indefinite pronoun. | One |
| 【Related Expression: の1; の3】 |
(ksa). 私は大きいのを買った・買いました。
I bought a big one.
(ksb). 私は去年買ったのを使った・使いました。
I used the one I bought last year.
| (i)Adjective い informal nonpast の | 高いの | Expensive one |
| (ii)Adjective な stem なの | 丈夫なの | Durable one |
(a). A:どんな車が欲しいですか。 B:小さいのが欲しいです。
A: What kind of car do you want? B: I want a small one.
(b). 友達がワインを飲みたがったので昨日買ったのを出した。
My friend wanted to drink wine, so I served the one I bought yesterday.
1. The indefinite pronoun の is a dependent pronoun; it cannot be used by itself. It must be modified by an adjective or a relative clause.
2. の is used in place of a noun when what it refers to is clear from the context or the situation. Things referred to by の are not necessarily tangible. Example:
【Related Expressions】
The indefinite pronoun の (i.e., の2) is different from the particle の (i.e., の1) and the nominalizer の (i.e., の3). First, [1] shows the difference between の1 and の2. Namely, in [1a] トムの is the omitted form of トムのペン. On the other hand, [1b] is not an omitted form; that is, if a noun is inserted after 黒いの in [1b], the sentence becomes ungrammatical as seen in [1c]. In fact, what [1b] means is [1d], if の 'one' refers to a pen.
[1]
Next, [2] shows the difference between の2 and の3. That is, the meaning of the sentence depends on whether the の in [2] is interpreted as の2 or の3, as shown in the two English translations.
[2]
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Nominaliser
| A nominaliser which is used when the nominalised sentence expresses a directly perceptible event. | That~; to do something; doing something |
| 【Related Expression: こと2; の2】 |
(ksa). 日本語を教えるのは難しい・難しいです。
Teaching Japanese is difficult.
(ksb). 私は雪子さんがビールを飲むのを見た・見ました。
I saw Yukiko drink beer.
| (i){V/Adjective い} informal | の | |
| {話す /話した}の | Someone (will) talk/talked | |
| {高い /高かった}の | Something is/was expensive | |
| (ii){Adjective な/N} | {なだった}の | |
| {静かな/静かだった}の | Something is/was quiet | |
| {先生な/先生だった}の | Someone is/was a teacher |
(a). 日本へ行くのは簡単です。
Going to Japan is easy.
(b). 私は小林さんがピアノを弾いているのを聞いた。
I heard Ms. Kobayashi playing the piano.
(c). クラークさんがフランスへ行くのを知っていますか。
Do you know that Mr. Clark is going to France?
1. の makes a noun equivalent from a sentence. Key Sentence (A) and Example (a) are examples of sentences where nominalized sentences are used in subject position, and Key Sentence (B) and Examples (b) and (c) are examples where nominalized sentences are used as direct objects. A nominalized sentence can occur in any position where a noun phrase can appear, except in the position of B in "AはBだ". In that situation, the nominalizer こと (i.e., こと2) is used as in (1).
2. Nominalized sentences are subordinate clauses, and, therefore, the topic marker は cannot occur, as seen in (2).
(⇨ が1)
3. There is another nominalizer, こと. の and こと are sometimes mutually interchangeable. (⇨ こと1) For example, Examples (a) and (c) can be restated as:
However, in general, の is used when the preceding clause expresses something rather concrete or perceptible, while こと is used when the preceding clause expresses something rather abstract or imperceptible. In Key Sentence (B), Example (b) and (5), for example, こと cannot be used because the nominalized clauses in these examples all express concrete, perceptible events.
Also, there are a number of idiomatic phrases with こと where こと cannot be replaced by の.
(⇨ ことがある; ことが出来る; ことになる; ことにする)
(6) lists verbs and adjectives and their appropriate nominalizers.
| の | こと | ||
| 見る | see | V | * |
| 見える | be visible | V | * |
| 聞く | hear | V | * |
| 聞こえる | be audible | V | * |
| 感じる | feel | V | * |
| 止める | stop (verb, transitive) | V | * |
| 待つ | wait | V | * |
| 見つける | discover | V | ? |
| 防ぐ | protect | V | ? |
| 知る | get to know | V | V |
| 忘れる | forget | V | V |
| (に)気がつく | notice | V | V |
| 思い出す | recall | V | V |
| 覚える | learn | V | V |
| 認める | admit | V | V |
| 避ける | avoid | V | V |
| 止める | quit | V | V |
| 後悔する | regret | V | V |
| (が)分かる | understand | V | V |
| (が)好き | like | V | V |
| (が)嫌い | dislike | V | V |
| (が)怖い | afraid | V | V |
| (が)嬉しい | happy | V | V |
| (が)悲しい | sad | V | V |
| 易しい | easy | V | V |
| 難しい | difficult | V | V |
| 期待する | expect | ? | V |
| 信じる | believe | ?? | V |
| 勧める | advise | ?? | V |
| 考える | think | * | V |
| 頼む | ask | * | V |
| 命じる | order | * | V |
| (が)出来る | can do | * | V |
| (が)ある | there are/were times when | * | V |
| (に)する | decide | * | V |
| (に)なる | be decided | * | V |
| (に)よる | be due to | * | V |
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Particle
| A sentence-final particle used by a female or a child to indicate an explanation or emotive emphasis. | It is that ~ |
| 【Related Expression: のだ】 |
(ksa). A:どうして泣いているの？ B:お母さんがいないの。
A: How come you are crying? B: 'Cause mommy's gone.
(ksb). あの人はとても優しいの。
He is so gentle, you know.
(ksc). 母はまだとても元気なの。
My mother is still quite fine.
(ksb). 主人はエンジニアなの。
My husband is an engineer.
| (i){V/Adjective い} informal | の | |
| {話す /話した}の | Someone talks/talked | |
| {食べる /食べた}の | Someone eats/ate | |
| {大きい /大きかった}の | Something is/was big | |
| (ii){Adjective な stem/ Noun} | {なだった}の | |
| {静かな/ 静かだった}の | Something is/was quiet | |
| {先生な/ 先生だった}の | Someone is/was a teacher |
(a). A:どうして食べないの？ B:お腹(が)空いて(い)ないの。
A: How come you don't eat it? B: 'Cause I'm not hungry.
(b). A:どうしたの？ B:頭が痛いの。
A: What's the matter with you? B: I have a headache.
(c). うちの子はまだ小学生なの。
My child is still in grade school.
(d). 大学はプリンストンだったの。
My university was Princeton.
1. The sentence-final の is derived from のだ/のです through deletion of だ/です.
2. This の is used by females or children only in an informal situation. There are times when adult male speakers use の in questions, as in Examples (a) and (b), but they do not use it in declarative sentences, as in Examples (c) and (d).
【Related Expression】
The sentence-final particle の4 is the same in its meaning as の of のだ.
(⇨ のだ)
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Phrase
| A sentence ending which indicates that the speaker is explaining or asking for an explanation about some information shared with the hearer, or is talking about something emotively, as if it were of common interest to the speaker and the hearer. | The explanation is that~; The reason is that~; The fact is that~; It is that~ |
(ksa). 何をしているん・のですか。
What are you doing?
(ksb). 日本語を勉強しているん・のです。
I'm studying Japanese.
| (i){V/Adjective い} informal | のだ | |
| {話す /話した}のだ | Someone (will) talk/talked | |
| {高い /高かった}のだ | Something is/was expensive | |
| (ii){Adjective な/N} | {なだった}のだ | |
| {静かな/静かだった}のだ | Something is/was quiet | |
| {先生な/先生だった}のだ | Someone is/was a teacher |
(a). A:どうしてお酒を飲まないんですか。 B:私はまだ十七なんです。
A: Why don't you drink sake? B: (The reason is that) I'm still seventeen.
(b). 僕は今日のパーティーに行けません。宿題が沢山あるんです。
I can't go to today's party. I have a lot of homework.
(c). あなたと結婚したいんです。
I want to marry you.
1. In conversation, のだ/です often becomes んだ/です. In informal speech, male speakers use んだ and female speakers use の. (For the informal forms of のだ in interrogative sentences, see かい and だい.)
2. Basically, Sentenceのだ is used when the speaker is explaining or asking for an explanation about information shared with the hearer. The information is often what the speaker and the hearer have observed or heard. For example, in Key Sentences, A uses のです because he is asking for an explanation about what he sees B doing. B also uses のです because he is explaining his actions. In this situation, (1) is odd.
If, however, A is only assuming that B is doing something, A can ask the question in (2), and B can answer as B does in (1).
In Example (a), as in Key Sentence, A uses んです because A observes that B isn't drinking sake and wants an explanation for that. And, B also uses んです because he is explaining about what A observed. In Example (b), the speaker uses んです in the second sentence because it is an explanation about the information which has been given in the first sentence.
3. Sentenceのだ is also used when no information is shared by the speaker and the hearer and the speaker is not explaining or asking for an explanation about anything. In this case, the speaker is talking as if some information were shared with the hearer and the effects of this are, for example,
Examples:
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Conjunction
| A subordinate conjunction which expresses a reason or a cause. | So; since; because |
| 【Related Expression: で3; から3】 |
(ks). お酒を沢山飲んだので眠くなった・なりました。
Because I drank a lot of sake, I got sleepy.
| (i){V/Adjective い} informal | ので | |
| {話す /話した}ので | Because someone (will) talk/talked | |
| {高い /高かった}ので | Because something is/was expensive | |
| (ii){Adjective な stem/ Noun} | {なだった}ので | |
| {静かな/静かだった}ので | Because something is/was quiet | |
| {先生な/先生だった}ので | Because someone is/was a teacher |
(a). 宿題が沢山あるのでパーティー行けません。
Since I have a lot of homework, I can't go to the party.
(b). その本は高かったので買わなかった。
Because that book was expensive, I didn't buy one.
(c). 私の部屋は静かなのでよく勉強出来ます。
My room is quiet, so I can study (there) well.
(d). ジェーンはまだ中学生なので車を運転出来ない。
Because Jane is still a junior high school student, she can't drive a car.
Etymologically, ので is the て form of のだ. (⇨ のだ) However, in modern Japanese it is used as a conjunction to indicate reason or cause.
【Related Expressions】
I. The conjunction から also expresses reason or cause. However, から and ので differ in the following way. ので is used when the speaker believes that the information he provides in Sentence1ので as cause or reason for Sentence2 is valid and is also evident and acceptable to the hearer. (Examples (a) - (d)) Sentence1からSentence2, however, does not involve that assumption. Therefore, ので cannot be used and から must be used in the following situations :
(A) Sentence1 (i.e., reason/cause clause) expresses the speaker's conjecture about something.
[1]
(B) Sentence2 (i.e., the main clause) is a command, request, suggestion or invitation.
[2] Command
[3] Request
[4] Suggestion
[5] Invitation
Sentence2 expresses the speaker's volition or personal opinion.
[6] Volition
[7] Personal Opinion
II. The particle で is also used to express a reason or cause. (⇨ で3; Semantic Derivations of で) で, however, can be used only with nouns, while ので and から are used only with sentences. Compare [8] and [9].
[8]
[9]
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Conjunction
| Contrary to everybody's expectation based on the sentence preceding [x], the proposition in the sentence following [x] is the case. | Even though; despite the fact that~; although; but; in spite of the fact that~ |
| 【Related Expression: が; けれど(も)】 |
(ksa). 毎日漢字を勉強しているのによく覚えられない・覚えられません。
Although I'm studying kanji every day, I cannot memorize them well.
(ksb). このステーキは高いのに美味しくない・美味しくありません。
In spite of the fact that this steak is expensive, it isn't delicious.
(ksc). 清水さんはゴルフが下手なのに大好きだ・大好きです。
Although Mr. Shimizu is not good at golf, he loves it.
(ksd). ホールさんはアメリカ人なのに肉が嫌いだ・嫌いです。
In spite of the fact that Mr. Hall is an American, he doesn't like meat.
| (i){V/Adjective い} informal | のに | |
| {話す /話した}のに | Although someone talks/talked | |
| {高い /高かった}のに | Although something is/was expensive | |
| (ii){Adjective な stem/ N} | {なだった}のに | |
| {静かな/静かだった}のに | Although something is/was quiet | |
| {先生な/先生だった}のに | Although something is/was a teacher |
(a). 中学と高校で六年間も英語を勉強したのにまだ英語が話せません。
I studied English for as many as six years at junior high and senior high, but I still cannot speak it.
(b). 寒いのにオーバーを着ないで出かけた。
Although it was cold, he went out without wearing an overcoat.
(c). あの人はピアノが上手なのにめったに弾きません。
He is good at piano, but seldom plays.
(d). 父は九十歳なのにまだ働いています。
My father is still working in spite of the fact that he is ninety years old.
1. のに is the nominalizer の plus the particle に 'to', meaning 'in contrast to the fact that ~'. The のに clause expresses a highly presupposed, speaker-oriented action or state. (⇨ の3) In other words, the speaker of SentenceのにSentence2 is personally involved with the proposition of Sentence1. This personal involvement tends to create some emotive overtone.
2. In colloquial speech, if the content of the main clause is predictable, the clause often drops. In this case, the sentence expresses a feeling of discontent on the part of the speaker.
【Related Expressions】
I. Because of the speaker-oriented character of the のに clause, certain types of constructions involving the hearer cannot be used in the main clause in this construction. If the main clause is a request, suggestion, question, command or request for permission, only けれど(も)can be used. Examples of the above categories can be seen in [1] through [5] below:
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[3b] is acceptable, because the scope of the question is not the main verb 出る 'go outside' but the whole sentence nominalized by ん.
II. The main clause cannot be an expression of intention as in [6], because the expression is directed not towards the speaker but towards the hearer.
[6]
III. Due to the nominalizer の, the のに clause tends to express something with which the speaker is emotively involved. But けれど(も) is relatively free from the speakers emotive involvement; in short, it is more objective than のに.
(⇨ の3)
IV. のに in Examples (a) through (d) can also be replaced by the disjunctive conjunction が 'but'. For example, Example (d) can be rewritten as [7].
[7]
The disjunctive meaning of が is much weaker than that of のに, and が is free from the restrictions imposed on のに. The style of the のに clause is always informal, but depending on the style of the second sentence, the style of the sentence preceding が can be either informal or formal, as shown below:
| Sentence informalがSentence informal/formal | vs | Sentence informalのにSentence informal/formal |
| Sentence formalがSentence formal |
Basic Page 335
Conjunction
| In the process or for the purpose of doing something expressed in the の nominalised clause. | In the process of doing~; (in order) to do~; for the purpose of~ |
| 【Related Expression: に5; 為(に)】 |
(ks). 私は日本語の新聞を読むのに辞書を使う・使います。
I used a dictionary to read Japanese newspapers.
| Vinformal nonpast | のに | |
| 話すのに | In order to talk | |
| 食べるのに | In order to eat |
(a). すき焼きを作るのには何が要りますか。
What do you need to make sukiyaki?
(b). このレポートを書くのに一ヶ月かかりました。
It took me a month to write this paper.
(c). 会社に行くのにバスと電車を使っている。
I am using the bus and the train to get to my company.
1. In the のに2 construction, only informal, nonpast, volitional verbs can precede のに.
(Complementiser phrase: のに1)
2. When the のに clause is used as the topic (i.e., Sentenceのには), の is often deleted in conversation, as in (1).
【Related Expressions】
I. When the main verb is a verb of motion, the のに2 construction contrasts with that of Verbますに Verb(motion). (⇨ に5) Examples:
[1]
[2]
[3]
If a destination is specified, as in [1] and [2], both constructions can be used. However, the のに version implies that the subject of the sentence made a lot out of the entire process. [2] can imply that the speaker shouldn't have used time and money going to Ginza to see a movie. If a location is not specified, only the Verbますに Verb(motion) construction can be used, as shown in [3].
II. のに2 is similar in its meaning to Verb nonpast為に 'in order to'. The latter purely means 'purpose' but the former retains the meaning of 'in the process of' even when it means 'purpose'. Thus, in a sentence such as [4] below in which the verb in the のに clause is incongruous with the meaning of 'process', のに cannot be used.
[4]
Basic Page 337
Structure
| A structure that indicates new, important information by placing it between [x] and the copula [x] ([x] is an indefinite pronoun ([x]2) that replaces 'time','person', 'thing', 'place' or 'reason'.) | It is ~ that ~; the one who ~ is ~; the place where ~ is ~; the reason why ~ is ~; the time when ~ is ~; what ~ is ~ |
| 【Related Expression: の3】 |
(ksa). 私が中国に行ったのは三年前だ・です。
It was three years ago that I went to China./ The time when I went to China was three years ago.
(ksb). このクラスで一番頭がいいのは吉田さんだ・です。
The brightest one in this class is Mr. Yoshida.
(ksc). ここで一番奇麗なのは山だ・です。
The most beautiful things here are mountains.
| (i){V/Adjective い} informal | のは～だ | |
| {話す /話した}のは～だ | It is~ who talks/talked | |
| {食べる /食べた}のは～だ | It is~ who eats/ate | |
| {高い /高かった}のは～だ | It is~ that is/was expensive | |
| (ii){Adjective な stem/ Noun} | {なだった}のは～だ | |
| {静かな/静かだった}のは～だ | It is~ that is/was quiet | |
| {先生な/先生だった}のは～だ | It is~ who is/was a teacher |
(a). 山田さん、あなたがシカゴに行ったのはいつですか。
Mr. Yamada, when was it that you went to Chicago?
(b). 一昨日遊びに来たのは秋子さんです。
It was Akiko who came to see me the day before yesterday.
(c). モーツアルトが大好きになったのは大学一年の時です。
It was during my freshman year that I become very fond of Mozart.
(d). 父が嫌いなのはテレビだ。
It is television that my father hates.
(e). 日本で美味しいのは果物だ。
What is delicious in Japan is fruit.
1. The particle used with the noun or noun phrase between のは and だ usually drops if the particle does not have any concrete meaning (as in the cases of が and を), or if the meaning of the entire sentence is somehow predictable. Examples follow.
In (5b) and (6b) the particles から and と normally drop, because 出発した 'departed' and 一緒に 'together' generally co-occur with から and と, respectively.
3. The element between のは and だ cannot be a manner adverb. The following sentences are all unacceptable.
Unlike English, the copula だ in this construction is normally in the present tense.
5. The number of のは~だ sentences which can be produced from one sentence is limited only by the number of elements which can be placed between のは and だ. For example, four such sentences can be derived from (10).
6. Normally the の clause takes は, marking the entire clause as presupposed, old, unimportant information, and the element between のは and だ represents a new, important piece of information. But sometimes the の clause takes が, marking the clause as new, important information. In this case the element between のが and だ indicates unimportant information.
【Related Expression】
の in the present construction should not be confused with the の used as a nominalizer. Sentence [1] is the のは~だ construction and [2], the nominalized sentence.
(⇨ の3)
[1]
[2]
One way to differentiate between the two constructions is to see if the sentence can be restated by deleting のは and だ and placing the element before のは in an appropriate position. For example, [1] can be restated as [3], but [2] cannot be restated, as seen in [4].
[3]
[4]
Basic Page 343
Prefix
| A prefix that expresses politeness. |
| 【Related Expression: ご】 |
(ksa). 石田先生は英語でお話しになった・なりました。
Professor Ishida talked in English.
(ksb). 私は昨日山崎先生にお会いした・しました。
I met Professor Yamazaki yesterday.
(ksc). 今村さんはゴルフがお好きだ・好きです。
Mr. Imamura likes golf.
(ksd). お飲み物は何が宜しいですか。
As for drinks, what would be good?
| おVます | になる | |
| おVます | する | |
| おAdjective い/な | お忙しい | Someone is busy |
| お上手だ | Someone is good at~ | |
| おNoun | お金 | Money |
(a). 田村先生は今とてもお忙しい。
Professor Tamura is very busy now.
(b). 毎日お暑いですね。
It's hot day after day, isn't it?
(c). 上田先生はテニスがお上手です。
Professor Ueda is good at tennis.
(d). 宮本さんの奥様はとてもお奇麗だ。
Mrs. Miyamoto is very pretty.
(e). 野村さんからお電話がありました。
There was a phone call from Mr. Nomura.
(f). お昼ご飯はもう食べましたか。
Have you had your lunch yet?
1. The polite prefix お is used with verbs, adjectives and nouns to express the speaker's respect, modesty or politeness. おVerbますになる is an honorific polite expression and おVerbますする is a humble polite expression.
2. おAdjective can be either an honorific polite expression, as in Examples (a), (c) and (d), or a simple polite expression, as in Example (b).
3. おNoun is used in various ways:
4. お cannot be attached to the following words:
There are some exceptions to this rule. For example:
These exceptions are words which have been part of the Japanese vocabulary long enough to sound like Japanese-origin words to native speakers.
5. There are a few words which are always used with the polite prefix お or ご.
【Related Expression】
There is another polite prefix, ご. Basically, ご is used for Chinese-origin words and お for Japanese-origin words. Examples follow:
[1] な type adjectives (い type adjectives are all Japanese-origin words; therefore, they are all preceded by お)
[2] Nouns
There are, however, some Chinese-origin words which require the use of お. These exceptions are words which have become assimilated to the point that native speakers no longer consider them to be "borrowed" words. The words in [3] are examples of such exceptions.
[3]
There are very few examples of ご Japanese-origin words.
[4]
Basic Page 347
Particle
| A particle which marks a direct object. |
(ks). 私は日本語を勉強している・います。
I'm studying Japanese.
(a). 前田さんは昨日車を買った。
Mr. Maeda bought a car yesterday.
(b). 何を飲みますか。
What will you drink?
1. を marks the direct object. It is noted, however, that the direct object in English is not always marked by を in Japanese. Compare Japanese and English in the following sentences, for example.
2. In some constructions, the direct object marker を can be replaced by the subject marker が.
| (4) | ミルクを飲む | → | ミルクを/が飲みたい | (⇨ たい) |
| drink milk | want to drink milk | |||
| (5) | 日本語を話す | → | 日本語を/が話せる | (⇨ られる2) |
| speak Japanese | can speak Japanese | |||
| (6) | 窓を開ける | → | 窓を/が開けてある | (⇨ ある2) |
| open the window | The window has been opened. |
3. を cannot occur more than once in a clause, whether it is the direct object marker (i.e., を1) or the space marker (i.e., を2). Thus, in the causative construction, for example, the causee can be marked only by に if another element in the same clause is marked by を. (⇨ させる)
If the direct object is presented as a topic or a contrastive element, を is replaced by は.
Basic Page 349
Particle
| A particle which indicates a space in/on/across/through/along which someone or something moves. | In; on; across; through; along; over |
| 【Related Expression: で1】 |
(ks). 私は五番街を歩いた・歩きました。
I walked along Fifth Avenue.
(a). 公園を通って帰りましょう。
Let's go home passing through the park.
(b). 鶴が湖の上を飛んでいます。
Cranes are flying over the lake.
(c). 日本では車は道の左側を走ります。
In Japan they drive on the left side of the street.
(d). そこの交差点を右に曲がって下さい。
Please turn to the right at the intersection there.
When a sentence involves the verb 登る 'climb', there is an important difference between the use of the particle を and that of に, as seen in (1).
【Related Expression】
The particle で1 also marks the space in wmch an action takes place. The difference between で1 and を is that で1 can be used with any action verb, while を can be used only with motion verbs such as 歩く 'walk', 走る 'run', 飛ぶ 'fly' and 泳ぐ 'swim'. Thus, を is ungrammatical in [1].
[1]
When either で1 or を is possible, as in [2], there is usually a subtle difference between them.
[2]
First, when で1 is used, other locations for an action are also implied, but when を is used, there are no such implications. For example, in [3] John has a choice between a pool and the river. Here, で1 is acceptable, but を is not.
[3]
Second, when で1 is used, the sentence often indicates that the purpose of the action is the action itselt, whereas when を is used it seems that there is another purpose behind the action. For example, in [4] John swam in order to escape, and swimming was not the purpose of his action. Therefore, を is acceptable but で1 is not.
[4]
Basic Page 351
Particle
| A particle that marks the location from which some movement begins. |
| 【Related Expression: から1】 |
(ks). 私は朝七時半に家を出る・出ます。
I leave home at 7.30 in the morning.
(a). 汽車がトンネルを出た。
A train came out of the tunnel.
(b). バスを降りた時友達に会った。
I met a friend when I got off the bus.
(c). 日本を離れて外国で暮らしている。
He left Japan and is living abroad.
【Related Expression】
The particle を3 in Examples (a), (b), (c) can be replaced by から1 'from'. The basic difference between を3 and から1 is that を3 marks the location from which some movement begins and から1 marks the initial location in movement from one location to another. Thus, when focusing on both the new and old location of something or someone, から should be used instead of を. Consider the following examples.
(⇨ から1)
[1]
[1a] focuses on a point of detachment, so を is acceptable but から isn't. [1b], however, focuses on a starting point, so から is acceptable but を isn't.
Basic Page 352
Particle
| A particle that marks the cause of some human emotion. |
(ksa). 次郎は父の死を悲しんだ・悲しみました。
Jiro was saddened at his father's death.
(ksb). 次郎は父が死んだこと・のを悲しんだ・悲しみした。
Jiro was sad that his father died.
(a). 私は浩の大学入学を喜んだ。
I was happy about Hiroshi's entering college.
(b). ヨーロッパ人はまだ戦争が起きることを恐れている。
Europeans are afraid that war will break out again.
(c). 信子は京都での一年を懐かしんだ。
Nobuko nostalgically recollected her year in Kyoto.
(d). 林は英語が出来ないことを悩んでいる。
Hayashi is worried that he cannot speak English.
1. Because the main verbs used in the Key Sentences and the Examples, such as 悲しむ 'sadden', 喜ぶ 'rejoice', 恐れる 'fear', 懐かしむ nostalgically recollect' and 悩む 'worry' are all inwardly-oriented psychological verbs they cannot be considered transitive verbs in Japanese. Therefore, the particle を4 preceding these verbs cannot be the ordinary direct object marker を which normally marks an outwardly-oriented event. Rather it indicates the cause for human emotion expressed by the main verb. Thus, it is sometimes possible to rewrite the sentence in question using ので 'because'. (⇨ ので) For example, Key Sentence (A) and Example (a) can be paraphrased as (1a) and (1b), respectively.
The original versions are examples of written style and are seldom used in conversational Japanese, but the rewritten versions can be used in both spoken and written Japanese.
2. No matter what person (first, second, third) the subject of this construction is, the main emotive verb is normally in the stative ているい/ない form and/or in the past tense. In a generic statement, however, the verb can be in the non-stative, nonpast form as in (2):
3. If the emotive verb consists of adjective い stem + suffixむ as in 悲しむ 'sadden', 懐かしむ 'nostalgically recollect', 惜しむ 'regret', 楽しむ 'enjoy', it can take the suffix がる 'show signs of ~' as in 悲しがる, 懐かしがる, 惜しがる and 楽しがる. Thus, along with Key Sentence (A) we have a sentence type (3).
(⇨ がる)
(3) is a more objective expression than Key Sentence (A), because the verb がる 'show signs of ~' has an outwardly-oriented meaning.
Basic Page 354
Adjective (い)
| (of quantity or number) a lot | Many; a lot of; much |
| 【Related Expression: 大勢; たくさん】 | |
| 【Antonym Expression: 少ない】 | |
(ks). 日本(に)は大学が多いです。
In Japan universities are many.
(a). 京都(に)はお寺が多いです。
There are many temples in Kyoto.
(b). ロスさんの作文(に)は間違いが多いです。
There are many mistakes in Mr. Ross's compositions.
(c). 一月(に)は雪が多い。
There is a lot of snow in January.
1. Unlike the English 'many' the Japanese 多い cannot be used before a noun, except in a relative clause where 多い is the predicate of the clause, not the modifier of the head noun.
2. 多い cannot be used in front of a noun, but 多くの can be used that way in written Japanese. Thus,
3. 少ない, an antoymn of 多い, is very similar to 多い in its use. Neither 少ない nor 多い can be used before nouns, except in relative clauses. 少ない differs from 多い in that there is no counterpart of 多く 'the majority' and of 多くの 'many'.
【Related Expressions】
I. 多い and 多くの can be replaced by 大勢いる and 大勢の, respectively, if 多い and 多く no refer to human beings. 大勢 is used only for people.
[1]
[2]
大勢 can be used by itself as an adverb, but the adverbial form of 多い cannot be used as an adverb in colloquial speech.
[3]
II. 多い and 多くの can be replaced by たくさんある/いる and たくさんの, respectively. たくさん can also be used by itself as an adverb.
[4]
[5]
[6]
多く can be used as a noun but 大勢 and たくさん cannot.
[7]
Basic Page 357
Auxiliary Verb (Group 1)
| Do something in advance for future convenience. | Do something in advance; go ahead and do something; let someone/something remain as he/it is |
| 【Related Expression: ある2】 |
(ks). 明日パーティーをするのでビールを買っておいた・おきました。
Since we are having a party tomorrow, I bought some beer for it.
| Vて | おく | |
| 話しておく | Talk in advance | |
| 食べておく | Eat something in advance |
(a). 今日は昼に客が来るので昼ご飯を早目に食べておいた。
Since I'm having a guest at noon today, I had my lunch earlier.
(b). 来年日本へ行くから少し日本語を勉強しておきます。
Since I'm going to Japan next year, I will study a little Japanese ahead of time.
1. おく as a main verb means 'put' or 'place'. However, when it is used with Verbて, it is an auxiliary verb meaning 'do something in advance and leave the resultant state as it is for future convenience'.
2. With a causative verb, Verbておく can express the idea that someone lets someone or something remain in his/its present state. Examples:
However, if the context is not clear, causative Verbておく can be ambiguous. For example, the following sentence can be interpreted two ways.
3. Verbておく may be contracted into とく or どく in informal conversation.
Basic Page 358
Phrase
| A phrase which expresses the speaker's respect for someone when describing that person's action or state |
| 【Related Expression: お~する; られる1】 |
(ks). 田中先生はもうお帰りになった・なりました。
Professor Tanaka already went home.
| おVます | になる | |
| お話しになる | Someone (will) talk | |
| お教えになる | Someone (will) teach |
(a). この本をもうお読みになりましたか。
Have you read this book yet?
(b). グッドマン先生は私の名前をお忘れになった。
Professor Goodman has forgotten my name.
1. In ordinary circumstances, おVerbますになる is used when the speaker describes someone's action or state with respect. However, if a social norm requires the speaker to talk in honorific speech, the honorific form is used, even if the speaker does not respect the person he talks about. Politeness is expressed in this form by two elements: first by the polite prefix お, and second by the verb なる which describes someone's action or state indirectly. This indirectness is a common strategy in polite expressions.
2. There are some verbs whose honorific forms are expressed by special honorific verbs.
3. When a verb has the form "Nounする" like 結婚 'marry' and 電話する 'call' its honorific form is "ご/おNounなさる". なさる is the honorific form of する 'do' and a Group 1 verb. (Note that Verbます is なさい (ます), not なさり (ます).) Except for a handful of exceptions which require お (i.e., 電話する 'call', 勉強する 'study', 料理する 'cook', 選択する 'wash', 掃除する 'clean', 散歩する 'take a walk'), ご precedes Noun. (⇨ お, Related Expression) Examples:
【Related Expression】
られる1 can also be used to describe respectfully someone's action or state, as seen in [1], although the degree of politeness is not as high.
(⇨ られる1, Note 9)
Basic Page 360
Phrase
| A phrase which humbly expresses the speaker's politeness to someone when describing the speaker's action or state that involves or affects that person. |
| 【Related Expression: お~になる】 |
| おVます | する | |
| お話しする | Someone (will) talk | |
| お教えする | Someone (will) teach |
(a). 私は先生のスーツケースをお持ちした・しました。
I carried my teacher's suitcase.
(b). そのことは私がお話ししましょう。
I will tell you about that matter.
(c). 山村君は先生に本をお借りした。
Mr. Yamamura borrowed a book from his teacher.
1. おVerbますする is used when the speaker wants to be polite when talking about something he or his in-group member did or will do. For example, when a sales manager is talking to a customer, the manager uses this pattern to describe what his salesmen will do for the customer, as in (1).
2. おVerbますする is used only when the speaker's (or his in-group member's) action involves or affects the person the speaker wants to be polite to. Thus, (2) is unacceptable under ordinary circumstances.
3. There are some verbs whose humble forms are expressed by special verbs. The rule in Note 2 does not apply to these verbs. That is, these special verbs are also used as simple polite expressions and can be used even if the speaker's (or his in-group member's) action does not involve or affect the person the speaker wants to be polite to.
4. When a verb has the form "Nounする", like 紹介する 'introduce' and 電話する 'call', its humble form is "ご/おNounする" or, more politely, "ご/おNounいたす". (いたす is the humble form of the verb する, 'do'.) Except for a handful of exceptions which require お (i.e., 電話する 'call', 勉強する 'study', 料理する 'cook', 洗濯する 'wash', 掃除する 'clean', 散歩する 'take a walk'), ご precedes Noun. (⇨ お, Related Expression) Examples:
【Related Expression】
おVerbますになる is also used to express politeness. However, おVerbますになる and おVerbますする are different in that the former is used when the speaker talks about someone's action or state with respect, while the latter is used when the speaker talks about his own action or state.
Basic Page 362
Auxiliary Verb (Group 1)
| Finish doing~ | Finish; end |
| 【Related Expression: しまう】 | |
| 【Antonym Expression: ~始める】 | |
(ks). 源氏物語をやっと読み終わった・終わりました。
I finally finished reading The Tale of Genji.
| Vます | 終わる | |
| 話し終わる | Finish talking | |
| 食べ終わる | Finish eating |
(a). やっと論文を書き終わった。
I finally finished writing a paper.
(b). ちょうどご飯を食べ終わったところです。
I've just finished eating my meal.
1. ~終わる is an auxiliary verb derived from the intransitive verb 終わる meaning 'end; comes to a close'.
2. ~終わる can be replaced by 終える in written Japanese. 終える, however, conjugates as a Group 2 verb.
Basic Page 364
Auxiliary Verb (Group 2)
| A state or an action cannot be controlled by someone or something. | Be –ed; get –ed |
| 【Related Expression: お~になる; られる2】 |
(ksa). 一郎は花子に騙された・騙されました。
Ichiro was deceived by Hanako.
(ksb). ジェーンはフレッドに夜遅くアパートに来られた・来られました。
Fred came to Jane's apartment late at night (and Jane was unhappy).
(ksc). 私は弟にケーキを食べられた・食べられました。
I got my cake eaten by my younger brother./ My younger brother ate my cake (and I was unhappy).
(ksd). 田中先生は日本へ帰られた・帰られました。
Professor Tanaka went back to Japan (honorific).
| (i)Group 1 verbs | Vnegれる | |
| 話される | Be told | |
| (ii)Group 2 verbs | Vstemられる | |
| 食べられる | Be eaten | |
| (iii)Irregular verbs | 来る→来られる | Someone (X) comes to someone (Y) and Y is unhappy |
| する→される | Be done |
(a). このビルは二年前に建てられた。
This building was built two years ago.
(b). この本は１９６５年にアメリカで出版された。
This book was published in America in 1965.
(c). 私は二年前妻に死なれた。
My wife died two years ago (and gave me sorrow).
(d). 原田さんは奥さんに高いコートを買われた。
Mr. Harada's wife bought an expensive coat (and he is unhappy).
(e). 林先生は日本の大学のことを話された。
Professor Hayashi talked about Japanese universities (honorific).
1.There are two types of passive sentences in Japanese. One can be called "direct passive" and the other, "indirect passive". The direct passive is similar to the English passive. (Key Sentence (A), Examples (a) and (b)) That is, for every passive sentence, there is a corresponding active sentence. For example, the active version of Key Senence(A) is (1).
As seen in Key Sentence (A), in direct passive sentences, the direct object in active sentences is presented as the subject; the subject in active sentences is presented as the agent and marked by に. (⇨ に3) Note that verbs in direct passive sentences are always transitive.
2. When the speaker uses a direct passive sentence, he is making a statement from the viewpoint of the receiver of the action. The agent is frequently omitted when he/it is not important and/or unknown, as in Examples (a) and (b).
3. The indirect object in active sentences can also be the subject in direct passive sentences. Examples:
The agent in direct passive sentences can also be marked by other particles, such as によって and から.
によって, meaning 'depending on; owing to; by means of', is usually used in written form or formal speech when X in Xによって is a sort of medium through which or whom something is done. When によって is used, Xによって is usually under strong focus. Therefore, the following sentences are unacceptable under normal circumstances.
から 'from' can be used in place of に when the agent is a sort of source, that is, when there is something coming from the agent.
The following sentences are unacceptable because the agents cannot be considered sources.
5. The other type of passive, the indirect passive, does not exist in English. The indirect passive is different from the direct passive and the English passive in the following ways:
The indirect passive describes an event (X) involving an action by someone or something (Y) which affects another person (Z). As in direct passive sentences, the subject (Z) has no control over the event. Consider the following pair of sentences. (7a), a non-passive sentence, states simply that Taro drank Jiro's beer. (7b), an indirect passive sentence, however, expresses the idea that Jiro was affected by Taro's drinking beer. It implies that Jiro was annoyed in some way by Taro's action, perhaps because the beer Taro drank belonged to Jiro.
6. In the indirect passive construction, Z is usually presented as the topic, marked by は, and Y as the agent, marked by に, as seen in Key Sentence (B) and Key Sentence (C).
7. Since in many situations X negatively affects Z, this construction is also referred to as "adversity passive" or "suffering passive". (Key Sentence (B), Key Sentence (C), Examples (c) and (d)) However, whether X affects Z negatively or positively depends on the situation. Z is not always a "victim", seen in (8) where Z is affected positively.
8. In indirect passive sentences, the agent must be marked by に. If a passive sentence contains an Noun Phrase に, as well as an agent marked by に, the agent must precede the Noun Phrase に. Example:
9. Passive verbs are also used as honorific expressions, as in Key Sentence (D) and Example (e), though the degree of politeness is lower than that of the "おVerbますになる" form and special honorific verbs. (⇨ お~になる) Politeness, in this case, is conveyed through the indirectness of the passive construction.
10. Passive verbs are all Group 2 verbs. The basic conjugations are as follows:
| 話される | nonpast informal affirmative |
| 話されない | nonpast informal negative |
| 話されて | て form |
| 話された | past informal affirmative |
【Related Expression】
The potential form of Group 2 verbs is the same form as the passive form.(⇨ られる2) Potential, passive or honorific structures are identified through syntax and context. Examples:
[1]
[2]
[3]
As seen in [1], if the direct object is marked by が, 食べられる can only be interpreted as potential; if there is an agent marked by に, however, 食べられる expresses indirect passive, as seen in [3]. If there is no agent marked by に and the direct object is marked by を, 食べられる is ambiguous; it can be either honorific, potential or indirect passive, as seen in [2].
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Auxiliary Verb (Group 1)
| An auxiliary verb which indicates potential. | Be able to do something; can do something; be –able; ~ can be done |
| 【Related Expression: 聞こえる; ことが出来る; 見える】 |
(ksa). 私は日本語が読める・読めます。
I can read Japanese.
(ksb). この水は飲めない・飲めません。
This water is not drinkable.
| (i)Group 1 verbs | Vconditionalる | |
| 話せる | Can talk | |
| (ii)Group 2 verbs | Vstemられる | |
| 食べられる | Can eat | |
| (iii)Irregular verbs | 来る→来られる | Can come |
| する→出来る | Can do |
(a). ブラウンさんは刺身が食べられる。
Mr. Brown can eat sashimi.
(b). 寺田さんはテニスが出来る。
Mr. Terada can play tennis.
(c). この字は読めない。
This letter is not readable.
1. In potential expressions, if there is an experiencer, that noun phrase is usually marked by は and the object of the action by either が or を.
(⇨ は~が) Compare (1a) and (1b).
(1)
2. In general, the choice between が and を seems to depend on the degree of volition expressed in the action the experiencer takes. That is, if his volition is high, を is preferable. Thus, in the following sentences, が is unnatural.
3. 出来る 'can do', however, always requires the object of an action to be marked by が, as in Example (b). Another example follows:
4. The spatial を (i.e., を2) and the detachment を (i.e., を3) do not change into が in potential expressions.
5. If the experiencer is clear from the context and/or the situation, or if the experiencer is a person in general, he is usually omitted and the object of the action is presented as a topic marked by は, as in Key Sentence (B) and Example (c).
6. Non-volitional verbs like 分かる 'understand, be understandable'; 要る 'need, be necessary'; ある 'exist'; 開く 'open (verb, intransitive)' and 腐る 'rot (verb, intransitive)' do not have potential forms.
7. The potential forms of 見る 'see' (見られる) and 聞く 'hear' (聞ける) are similar to the verbs 見える 'be visible' and 聞こえる 'be audible', respectively, but their uses are different.
8. The idea of potentiality can also be expressed by Verb informal nonpastことが出来る.
(⇨ ことが出来る)
9. Potential verbs are all Group 2 verbs. The basic conjugations are as follows:
(6)
| 話せる | can talk |
| 話せない | cannot talk |
| 話せて | can talk and, (て form) |
| 話せた | could talk |
10. There is another potential form for Group 2 verbs.
(7)
| Group 2 Verbs: | Verb stem | れる |
| 食べる→ | 食べれる |
This form, however, is used only in informal conversation.
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Auxiliary Adjective (い)
| An auxiliary adjective which indicates that the preceding sentence is the speaker's conjecture based on what he has heard, read or seen. | Seem; look like; apparently; I heard |
| 【Related Expression: ようだ (だろう; そうだ2)】 |
(ks). 松田さんはアメリカへ行くらしいです。
It seems that Mr. Matsuda is going to America.
| (i){V/Adjective い} informal | らしい | |
| {話す /話した}らしい | It seems that someone (will) talk/talked | |
| {高い /高かった}らしい | It seems that something is/was expensive | |
| (ii){Adjective な stem/ Noun} | {Øだった}らしい | |
| {静か /静かだった}らしい | It seems that something is/was quiet | |
| {先生 /先生だった}らしい | It seemst aht someone is/was a teacher |
(a). 杉本さんはもう帰ったらしいです。
Mr. Sugimoto seems to have gone home already.
(b). あの学校の入学試験は難しいらしい。
That school's entrance exam seems difficult.
(c). この辺りはとても静からしいです。
This neighbourhood seems very quiet.
(d). その話は本当らしい。
That story seems true.
(e). ここは学校らしい。
This place seems to be a school.
1. らしい is generally used when the speaker makes a conjecture based on some information which he has heard, read or seen. What he has heard is especially important. Unlike そうだ2, which expresses a simple guess based on what the speaker sees, らしい is used when the conjecture is based on more reliable information. (⇨ そうだ2) (For a comprehensive comparison of conjecture expressions, see (⇨ ようだ, Related Expressions.)
2. If there has been relatively little conjecture in the speaker's mind, らしい is almost the same as the hearsay expression そうだ1.
(⇨ そうだ1)
3. Negative conjecture is expressed by a negative predicate and らしい, as in (1).
4. Another use of らしい is as follows:
Here, らしい means likeness. That is, "XはYらしい" means that X is like the ideal model of Y. (Of course, (2) can also mean "It seems that Oki is a man.")
5. Since らしい is an い type adjective, it can also precede nouns, as in (3).
The negative version of (2) is (4).
If 大木さんは男(だ) is negated, the meaning changes.
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(ksa). ［田中さんが食べた］ステーキは高かった・高かったです。
The steak that Mr. Tanaka ate was expensive.
(ksb). ［ステーキが美味しい］レストランを知らない・知りませんか。
Do you know a restaurant which has good steak (literally: in which steak is good)?
| (i) {V/Adjective い} | informal+Noun | |
| {話す/話した}人 | A person who (will) talks/talked | |
| {高い/高かった}本 | A book which is/was expensive | |
| (ii) Adjective な stem | {な/ だった}Noun | |
| {静かな/静かだった}家 | A house which is/was quiet | |
| (iii) Noun | {のだったであるであった}Noun | |
| {先生の/先生である}田中さん | Mr. Tanaka (,) who is a teacher | |
| {先生だった/先生であった}田中さん | Mr. Tanaka (,) who was a teacher |
(a). ［日本語を教えている］先生は小林先生です。
The teacher who is teaching Japanese is Professor Kobayashi.
(b). ［テニスが上手］な人を教えて下さい。
Please tell me of a person who is good at tennis.
(c). ［お父さんが医者］の学生は三人います。
There are three students whose fathers are doctors.
(d). ［私がいた］町は病院がなかった。
There was no hospital in the town where I lived.
(e). ［道子が行く］学校は東京にあります。
The school where Michiko is going is in Tokyo.
(f). ［スティーブがあなたの写真を撮った］カメラはこれですか。
Is this the camera with which Steve took pictures of you?
1. The procedure for making relative clauses consists of several steps. The following steps show how to relativize ステーキ 'steak' in (1a) in order to obtain the clause modifying ステーキ in (1b).
Step 1: Delete the common noun phrase in the relative clause. ([] indicates the relative clause boundary.)
Step 2： Delete the particle which remains.
Step 3: Change the predicate into an appropriate form. [See Formation.]
Step 4： If the topic marker は appears in the clause, replace it with the appropriate particle. (If は follows another particle, delete は.) In this example, ジョン is the subject; therefore, the particle which replaces は is the subject marker が.
The clause in brackets in (5) is the final form of the relative clause when ステーキ is relativized in (1a).
2. As seen in the procedure for relativization in Note 1,the relative clause construction in Japanese has several characteristics:
3. の can also be used to mark the subject in relative clauses, as in (6).
の cannot be used in place of が, however, if the subject of the sentence is followed by a noun, as in (7a). If の is used in this construction, the meaning of the sentence changes, as seen in (7b).
4. Besides the relative clause construction explained above, Japanese has a construction which looks similar to the one above. As seen in Note 1, in a genuine relative clause construction, the relativized noun (the head noun) is part of the original sentence from which the relative clause was derived. In this construction, however, the "head noun" is not part of the original sentence. For example, in (8), におい 'smell' is not part of the sentence 魚がこげる. 'Fish is burning.'
The relationship between the "relative clause" and the "head noun", as seen in (8), is as follows: Suppose that X is the "head noun". Then, X is something which was brought about by the event expressed in the "relative clause", but is not something which was explicitly stated. For example, in (8) the "head noun" におい 'smell' is something brought about when fish burns, but is not an explicit part of the original sentence. Here are some more examples of this type of construction:
5. The following examples are usually considered to be appositive clause constructions rather than relative clause constructions, because in these examples what is expressed by the preceding clause is the following noun itself.
6. In relative clauses in Japanese, the restrictive use and the non-restrictive use cannot be distinguished from the structure. It is usually determined from the context and/or the situation. The following examples are ambiguous.
7. The ease or relativization of a noun phrase differs depending on the particle marking the phrase. (16) shows the particle hierarchy. Here, noun phrases marked by the particles in the upper position are easy to relativize and noun phrases marked by the particles in the lower position are hard to relativize.
Concerning the relativization of noun phrases in simple sentences, noun phrases marked by で2 (cause/reason) and より1 cannot be relativized, but those marked by the rest of the particles in (16) can.
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Suffix
| A suffix that makes a noun out of an adjective by attaching it to the stem of an adjい or much less frequently to the stem of an adjな | -ness; -ly |
| 【Related Expression: み】 |
(ks). このうちの広さはちょうどいい・いいです。
This size of this house is just right.
| Adjective (い/な) stem | さ | |
| 高さ | Height | |
| 静かさ | quietness |
(a). 富士山の高さはどのぐらいですか。
What is the approximate height of Mt. Fuji?
(b). 日本語の難しさがよく分かりました。
I'm now well aware of the difficulty of Japanese.
(c). アメリカのよさはパイオニア・スピリットでしょう
One of America's good qualities is perhaps its pioneering spirit.
1. The suffix さ is a very productive suffix that makes a noun out of an adjective. Some typical examples are given below:
2. Adjective な stem+さ is not commonly used. It is suggested that the learner avoid using it. Some of the most commonly used Adjective な stem+さ are the following:
3. When an adjective can be paired with another adjectival antonym as in 大きい 'big' vs. 小さい 'small', the positive counterparty (i.e., 大きい) tends to acquire a meaning of absolute degree when さ is attached, as in 大きさ 'size'. Examples follow:
| Positive | Negative | ||
| 厚さ | breadth | 薄さ | thinness |
| 重さ | weight | 軽さ | lightness |
| 難しさ | difficulty | やさしさ | easiness |
| うれしさ | joy | 悲しさ | sadness |
| 深さ | depth | 浅さ | shallowness |
| 高さ | height | 低さ | lowness |
| 暑さ | heat | 寒さ | coldness |
| 濃さ | density | 薄さ | thinness |
| 大きさ | size | 小ささ | smallness |
| 広さ | size of space | 狭さ | smallness of space |
| 強さ | strength | 弱さ | weakness |
【Related Expression】
さ describes, in an analytical manner, the degree of the state represented by an adjective, but み, another noun-forming suffix, is a more emotive and concrete characterization of some state (based primarily on direct perception). Only a limited number of Adjective い can be used with み. Examples:
Consider the following sentences in which さ is unacceptable.
[1]
[2]
In both [1] and [2] the さ version is unacceptable because both sentences express something concrete that can be expressed only by み. The fact that nouns with the suffix み indicate something concrete seems to be related to a general tendency of nasal sounds.
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Suffix
| A suffix (originally meaning 'appearance') that indicates the speaker's/writer's politeness towards someone. | Mr; Miss; Ms; Mrs |
| 【Related Expression: ちゃん; 君; さん】 |
(a). 王様の耳は驢馬の耳だ。
The King's ears are donkey ears.
(b). 神様を信じますか。
Do you believe in God?
(c). 花子ちゃん、今夜はお月様もお星様も奇麗ねえ。
Hanako, aren't the moon and the stars beautiful tonight!
(d). お母様、どこにいらっしゃるの？
Mother, where are you going?
(e). お客様が見えたよ。
Our guests have come.
1. The reason why 様 'appearance' is used to show one's respect is that 様 allows one to refer indirectly to one's superior. For instance, 山田様 is a more indirect way to refer to a person called 山田 than to call him simply 山田, because 山田様 literary means 'appearance of 山田'. Note, however, that a personal name+様 is not used in conversational Japanese, except in highly polite speech used to clientele by clerks/attendants of hotels, restaurants, travel agencies, department stores, etc.
2. 様 attached to a personified object shows more endearment than respect, as in Example (c).
3. 様 can also be attached to some action or state related to the hearer, as in (1) through (5) below:
4. In written Japanese, especially after the addressee's name in a letter, etc., 様 is used as in:
【Related Expressions】
I. Two related forms, さん and ちゃん are derived from 様 through phonetic modifications. さん is the informal version of 様 and therefore less honorific and more intimate than 様. Except for Examples (a) and (b), in which the highest superiors appear, 様 can be replaced by さん. さん can also be attached to names of occupations and titles as in:
[1] Name of occupation+さん
[2] Title+さん
ちゃん is used with children's names or in child-like language. Normally this suffix is attached only to kinship terms or first names as in:
[3] Kinship terms+ちゃん
[4] First name+ちゃん
II. 君 is a similar Sino-Japanese suffix which can be attached to a male equal or male inferior's first name and/or last name. It is sometimes used to refer to a female or a male in an institution such as a school or a company. Etymologically 君 has nothing to do with 様 and its variants.
(⇨ 君)
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Auxiliary Verb (Group 2)
| Cause someone/something to do something or cause something to change its state. | Make someone/something do something; cause someone/something to do something; let someone/something do something; allow someone/something to do something; have someone/something do something; get someone/something to do something. |
(ksa). 鈴木さんは娘を・に大学へ行かせた・行かせました。
Mr. Suzuki made/let his daughter go to college.
(ksb). 父は妹にピアノを習わせた・習わせました。
My father made (or let) my younger sister learn to play the piano.
| (i)Group 1 verbs | Vnegativeせる | |
| 話させる | Cause to talk | |
| (ii)Group 2 verbs | Vstemさせる | |
| 食べさせる | Cause to eat | |
| (iii)Irregular verbs | 来る→来させる | Cause to come |
| する→させる | Cause to do |
(a). 久子は私を困らせた。
Hisako made me have trouble./ Hisako caused me trouble.
(b). このゲームはジムに勝たせようと思う。
I think I'll let Jim win this game.
(c). 友達は私にチップを払わせた。
My friend made me leave (lit pay) a tip.
(d). アンダーソンさんは子供達に好きなだけアイスクリームを食べさせた。
Mr. Anderson let his children eat as much ice cream as they liked.
(e). 私は冷蔵庫でミルクを凍らせた。
I made milk freeze (I froze milk) in the refrigerator.
(f). それは私にさせてください。
As for that, let me do it.
1. The idea that someone/something (= the causer) causes or allows someone/something (= the causee) to do something is expressed by the causative construction. In the causative construction, the causer is usually marked by は in main clauses and by が in subordinate clauses. When the main verb is an intransitive verb, the causee is marked by either を or に. The choice between the two particles depends on the following general rule. When に is used, the causee has taken an action intentionally. For example, に is ungrammatical in (1) because the causee didn't intend to go to the party in this situation.
Also, に is ungrammatical in (2) because the causee is a non-volitional entity and, therefore, has no intent (cannot take a volitional action).
を, on the other hand, can be used regardless of the causee's volition, as seen in (3) and (4). Whether a sentence expresses "permissive" causative or "coercive" causative depends on the context and/or the situation.
2. If the main verb is a transitive verb, the causee can be marked only by に as in (5), because を cannot appear more than once in a clause and, in this case, there is already a direct object marked by を in the clause. (⇨ を1)
Thus, when the verb is transitive, に is acceptable even if the causee is not willing to take the action.
When the main verb is transitive, it is often difficult to tell from the sentence alone whether or not the causee takes the action willingly. This must be determined by the context and/or the situation in which the sentence is uttered.
3. Whether or not the causee is willing to do something is clear if one of the set of giving and receiving verbs is used. (⇨ あげる2; くれる2; もらう2) Examples:
The causee's unwillingness to do something, on the other hand, can be more explicitly expressed by the causative-passive construction explained in Note 7.
4. In causative sentences, the causer must be equal to or higher than the causee in terms of status. Thus, the following is unacceptable:
5. Causative verbs are all Group 2 verbs. The basic conjugations are as follows:
| 話させる | nonpast informal affirmative |
| 話させない | nonpast informal negative |
| 話させて | て form |
| 話させた | past informal affirmative |
6. There is another set of formation rules for causative verbs, (Causative verbs of tnis version are all Gr.1 verbs.)
| a. Group 1 Verbs: | Verb negative す | |
| 話さす | cause to talk | |
| b. Group 2 Verbs: | Verb stem さす | |
| 食べさす | cause to eat | |
| c. Irregular Verbs: | 来る → 来さす | cause to come |
| する → さす | cause to do |
In general, this set of conjugations seems to express more direct causation. For example, in (12a) 食べさす means 'feed (with a spoon or something)' rather than 'make/let eat', while in (12b) 食べさせる is more general and means 'make/let eat (either by saying something like "Eat your meal" or "You may eat your meal" or actually by feeding with a spoon or sometning)'.
7. Causative-passive verbs, which are used in causative-passive sentences, are constructed by affixing the passive verb ending られる to causative verb stems. (⇨ られる1) Examples:
Causative-passive sentences express the idea "be made to do something". Note that they do not express the idea "be allowed to do something". (14) and (15) show causative sentences and their corresponding causative-passive sentences.
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Adverb
| Some situation which seldom occurs has now occurred and one can either make use of it or, to one's regret, cannot make use of it. | With effort; at great pain; take the trouble to do~ |
| 【Related Expression: わざわざ】 |
(ksa). せっかく会いに行ったのに友達はいなかった・いませんでした。
I took the trouble to go see my friend, but he wasn't at home.
(ksb). せっかくいい大学に入ったのだからよく勉強するつもりだ・です。
I entered a good college with great effort, so I intend to study hard.
(ksc). せっかくの日曜日なのに働いた・働きました。
Although Sunday is precious (to me), I worked (all day long).
(a). せっかくアメリカまで行ったのにニューヨークに行けなくて残念だった。
I went as far as America at great expense, but, to my regret, I couldn't make it to New York.
(b). せっかく日本語を三年間も勉強したのだから、是非一度日本へ行ってみたいと思います。
Because I studied Japanese for (as many as) three years, I would love to go to Japan once.
(c). せっかくの旅行が病気で駄目になりました。
My long awaited trip had to be canceled because of my illness.
(d). せっかくですが今日は忙しくて行けません。
I appreciate your most kind offer, but I'm too busy to go there today.
(e). せっかくのチャンスだからデートしたらどうですか。
It's a good chance, so why don't you date her?
(f). せっかくですから遠慮なくいただきます。
Since you took the trouble to bring it to me, I'll take it without hesitation.
せっかく tends to co-occur with のに 'although' or のだから 'because (it is that) ~', as in Key Sentence (A) and (B), respectively. せっかくの+Noun, however, can be used as a noun phrase, free from any co-occurrence restrictions, as shown in Key Sentence (C) and Examples (c) and (e). せっかくですが (in Example (d)) is used to politely decline someone's kind offer, and せっかくですから (in Example (f)) is used to accept someone's offer.
【Related Expression】
せっかく is related to わざわざ, an adverb whose basic meaning is 'intentionally take the trouble to do something, although it is not necessary to do so'.
[1]
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Conjunction
| A conjunction to indicate 'and' in an emphatic way. | And what's more; not only~but also~; so |
| 【Related Expression: それから】 |
(ksa). 今日はテニスもしたし、映画も見た・見ました。
I not only played tennis but also saw a movie today.
(ksb). ここは夏は暑いし、冬は寒い・寒いです。
Here it's hot in the summer, and what's more, it's cold in the winter.
(ksc). このアパートは奇麗だし、安い・安いです。
This apartment is clean, and what's more, it's inexpensive.
(ksd). 遊びたいんです・だが明日は試験だし遊べない・遊べません。
I would like to play, but there is an exam tomorrow, and I can't fool around.
| (i){V/Adjective い} | し | |
| {話す /話した}し | Someone talks/talked and what's more | |
| {食べる /食べた}し | Someone eats/ate and what's more | |
| {高い /高かった}し | Something is/was expensive and what's more | |
| (ii){Adjective な stem/ N} | {だだった}し | |
| {静かだ/静かだった}し | Something is/was quiet and what's more | |
| {先生だ/先生だった}し | Someone is/was a teacher and what's more |
(a). 仕事もあったし、結婚も出来たし、とても嬉しいです。
Not only did I find a job, but I was also able to get married, so I'm very happy.
(b). 今日は天気もいいし、どこへ行きましょうか。
It's a nice day, so shall we go out somewhere?
(c). あの人は美人だし、頭もいい。
She's beautiful and what's more she's bright.
(d). 切符は買ってあるし、是非見に行きましょう。
I've bought a ticket for you, so let's go see it, by all means.
1. As in Example (a), し can be repeated more than once in a clause, just like Verbて '~ and' can be repeated.
2. There are times when a sentence ends with し in order to weaken the sentence and obscure the cause / reason:
3. When the speaker wishes to be very polite, the clause before し can be in the formal form if the main clause is in the formal form, as in (2).
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Infix
| An infix attached to the stem of an adjective い to indicate something that one cannot objectively measure on any scale (e.g. human emotion). |
悲しい 楽しい らしい 美味しい 苦しい 頼もしい
Sad enjoyable seem delicious painful dependable
悔しい 厳しい 羨ましい 寂しい 惜しい 妬ましい
Regrettable strict envious lonely regrettable enviable
恐ろしい 難しい 恋しい 嬉しい 親しい 涼しい
Scary difficult dear happy intimate cool
Adjectives (い) that do not contain -し- are, for the most part, descriptive adjectives that are dependent on the speaker’s objective judgment. In other words, they are adjectives which indicate something that one can objectively measure on some scale. Typical descriptive adjectives are:
| 赤い (red) | 低い (low) | 青い (blue) | 堅い (hard) |
| 大きい (big) | 浅い (shallow) | 軽い (light) | 白い (white) |
| 小さい (small) | 黒い (black) | 高い (high) | 近い (near) |
| 短い (short) | 薄い (thin) | 深い (deep) | 長い (long) |
| 安い (cheap) | 柔らかい (soft) | 若い (young) | 濃い (thick) |
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Particle
| A particle which marks an element X when nothing but X makes the expressed proposition true. | Nothing/nobody/no~ but; only |
| 【Related Expression: ばかり; だけ】 |
(ksa). 戸田さんしか煙草を吸わない・吸いません。
No one but Mr. Toda smokes.
(ksb). 私は日本語しか知らない・知りません。
I know nothing but Japanese.
(ksc). それは江口さんにしか話していない・いません。
I haven't told it to anybody but Mr. Eguchi.
(ksd). 私はご飯を一杯しか食べなかった・食べませんでした。
I had only one bowl of rice.
| (i)Noun | しか | |
| 先生が(subject)→ | 先生しか | No one but the teacher |
| 先生を(direct object)→ | 先生しか | No one but the teacher |
| (ii)Noun+(Particle) | しか | |
| 東京へ・に(direction)→ | 東京(へ・に)しか | To nowhere but Tokyo |
| 先生に(indirect object, agent)→ | 先生(に)しか | No one but the teacher |
| 日曜日に(time)→ | 日曜日(に)しか | Only on Sunday |
| 東京に(location)→ | 東京(に)しか | Only in Tokyo |
| (iii)Noun+Particle | しか | |
| 東京で(location)→ | 東京でしか | Only in Tokyo |
| 車で(means)→ | 車でしか | Only by car |
| 山田さんと(reciprocal)→ | 山田さんとしか | Only with Mr. Yamada |
| 東京から(starting point/source)→ | 東京からしか | Only from Tokyo |
| 五時まで(ending point)→ | 五時までしか | Only till five o'clock |
| (iv)Quantifier | しか | |
| 少ししか | Only a little |
(a). パーティーには学生しか来なかった。
Only students came to the party.
(b). 田村さんはサラダしか食べなかった。
Mr. Tamura ate only salad.
(c). 私は日曜日(に)しか来られません。
I can come only on Sunday.
(d). この本はこの図書館(に)しかありません。
Only this library has this book.
(e). そこは車でしか行けない。
You can go there only by car./ The only way you can go there is by car.
(f). 私は山田さんとしか話をしない。
I talk only with Mr. Yamada.
(g). この学校は学生が百人しかない。
This school has only a hundred students.
しか always occurs with negative predicates.
【Related Expressions】
I. だけ expresses a similar idea, (⇨ だけ) However, だけ and しか differ in the following ways:
(A)
Xしか emphasizes the negative proposition of "non-X", while Xだけ merely describes the situation in neutral fashion.
(B)
しか occurs only with negative predicates; だけ, however, can occur with affirmative predicates. Compare the following sentences:
[1]
[2]
(C)
The verb かかる 'it takes (time)' can be used with しか, but not with だけ, as in [3].
[3]
II. ばかり is also used to mean 'only' in some situations. (⇨ ばかり) Unlike Xしか or Xだけ, however, Xばかり emphasizes the positive proposition of X, often with the implication that someone/something does something to X/with X/... a lot or more than one expects. For example, [4a] emphasizes the fact that Jim drank beer, whereas [4b] emphasizes the fact that Jim didn't drink anything but beer. [4c] is a neutral statement.
[4]
Note that Xばかり cannot be used if X is a single entity. Thus, [5a] is grammatical, but [5b] is not.
[5]
Note also that ばかり cannot be used with negative predicates, as in [6].
[6]
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Auxiliary Verb (Group 1)
| An auxiliary verb which indicates the completion of an action. | Have dome something; finish doing something; finish something up |
| 【Related Expression:~終わる】 |
(ksa). 池田君は三日でその本を読んでしまった・しまいました。
Mr. Ikeda finished reading the book in three days.
(ksb). 私はルームメートのミルクを飲んでしまった・しまいました。
I (mistakenly) drank my roommate's milk.
| Vて | しまう | |
| 話してしまう | Have talked | |
| 食べてしまう | Have eaten |
(a). もう宿題をしてしまいましたか。
Have you done your homework yet?
(b). 私は今日中にそのレポートを書いてしまおうと思っている。
I think that I will finish (writing) the report today.
(c). 早くご飯を食べてしまいなさい。
Finish (eating) your meal quickly.
(d). シチューを作り過ぎてしまいました。
I made too much stew (to my regret).
1. しまう is used as an auxiliary verb with Verbて and expresses the idea of completion in terms of an action. Verbてしまう often appears with such adverbs as すっかり 'completely', 全部 'all' and 完全に 'completely. Examples:
2. Verbてしまった also expresses the idea that someone did something which he shouldn't have done or something happened which shouldn't have happened. (Key Sentence (B) and Example (d)) Thus, it often implies the agents regret about what he has done or the speaker's regret or criticism about someone's action or about something that has happened. Examples:
3. Whether a sentence with Verbてしまった is interpreted as simple completion or regret (or criticism) depends on the context and/or the situation. For example, (3) can be interpreted in two ways.
4. てしまう and でしまう are contractea as ちゃう and じゃう respectively, in informal speech, as in (4), and can be used by male and by female speakers.
ちまう and じまう, another set of contracted forms of てしまう, are used only by male speakers.
【Related Expressions】
I. Verb past can also express the completion of an action. However, it is different from Verbてしまう in that Verb past expresses the completion of an action in the past, while Verbてしまう expresses completion regardless of the time of completion. Thus, [1a] is grammatical, but [1b] is not.
[1]
II. Verbます終わる also means 'finish doing ~'. The difference between Verbます終わる and Verbてしまう is that Verbます終わる indicates the action of finishing something, while Verbてしまう indicates the completed state of the action. Thus, these two expressions correspond to the English expressions 'finish doing' and 'have done' in that Verbます終わる can occur with a specific time phrase, but Verbてしまう cannot.
[2]
It is also noted that しまう can be used with noncontrollable verbs like 忘れる 'forget', while 終わる cannot, as in [3].
[3]
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Verb (Group 1)
| Someone gets information from some outside source. | Get to know |
| 【Related Expression: 分かる】 |
(ks). A:日本のことを知っていますか。 B:はい、知っています。/いいえ、知りません。
A: Do you know about Japan? B: Yes, I do./ No, I don't.
(a). 木下さんを知っていますか。
Do you know Mr. Kinoshita?
(b). 山口さんの電話番号を知っていますか。
Do you know Mr. Yamaguchi's telephone number?
(c). A:中国語を知っていますか。 B:いいえ、知りません。
A: Do you know Chinese? B: No, I don't.
(d). 私は上田さんがアメリカへ行ったことを知らなかった。
I didn't know that Mr. Ueda had gone to America.
1. 知る, a nonstative verb, takes the Verbている form when it means the stative 'know'.
(⇨ いる2)
2. When answering in the negative to the question Xを知っていますか 'Do you know X?', the negative nonstative form 知らない/知りません is used instead of 知っていない/知っていません, as in Key Sentence (B) and Example (c).
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Auxiliary
| An auxiliary which indicates that the information expressed by the preceding sentence is what the speaker heard. | I hear that~; I heard that~; people say that~ |
| 【Related Expression: そうだ2; ようだ (だろう; らしい)】 |
(ks). 山川さんがフランス語を勉強しているそうです。
I heard that Mr. Yamakawa is studying French.
| (i){V/Adjective い} informal | そうだ | |
| {話す /話した}そうだ | I heard that someone (will) talk/talked | |
| {高い /高かった}そうだ | I heard that something is/was expensive | |
| (ii){Adjective な stem/ Noun} | {だだった}そうだ | |
| {静かだ/静かだった}そうだ | I heard that something is/was quiet | |
| {先生だ/先生だった}そうだ | I heard that someone is/was a teacher |
(a). 清水さんはお酒を飲まないそうです。
I heard that Mr. Shimizu doesn't drink any alcohol.
(b). 日本の肉はとても高いそうだ。
I heard that meat in Japan is very expensive.
(c). 利子さんは英語がとても上手だそうです。
I heard that Toshiko speaks very good English.
(d). キングさんは英語の先生だそうだ。
I heard that Mr. King is a teacher of English.
1. Sentence informal そうだ expresses hearsay. That is, this pattern is used when the speaker conveys information obtained from some information source without altering it.
(⇨ らしい)
2. Information sources are expressed by Noun によると 'according to Noun'.
【Related Expression】
The hearsay そうだ (i.e., そうだ1) and the conjecture そうだ (i.e., そうだ2) are two different expressions. Compare their different connection patterns in [1].
(⇨ そうだ2)
[1]
| そうだ1 (hearsay) | そうだ2 (conjecture) | |
| Verb before そうだ | Verb informal そうだ Example: 話す/話したそうだ |
Verb ますそうだ Example: 話しそうだ |
| Adjective い before そうだ | Adjective い informal そうだ Example: 高い/高かったそうだ |
Adjective い stem そうだ Example: 高そうだ |
| Adjective な before そうだ | Adjective な stem {だ/だった} そうだ Example: 静かだ/諍かだったそうだ |
Adj な stem そうだ Example: 静かそうだ |
| Noun before そうだ | Nound {だ/だった} そうだ Example: 先生だ/先生だったそうだ |
X |
| そうだbefore Noun | X | [Verb ます/Adjective い stem/Adjective な stem} そうな Noun Example: 高そうな本 |
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Auxiliary Adjective (な)
| An auxiliary adjective which indicates that what is expressed by the preceding sentence is the speaker's conjecture concerning an event in the future or the present state of someone or something, based on what the speaker sees or feels. | Look; look like; appear; seem; feel like |
| 【Related Expression: そうだ1; ようだ (だろう; らしい)】 |
(ksa). 雨が降りそうだ・そうです。
It looks like it will rain.
(ksb). あの車が高そうだ・そうです。
That car looks expensive.
| (i)Vます | そうだ | |
| 話しそうだ | It looks like someone will talk | |
| 食べそうだ | It looks like someone will eat | |
| (ii)Adjective い/な stem | そうだ | |
| 高そうだ | Something looks expensive | |
| 静かそうだ | Something looks quiet |
(a). この家は強い風が吹いたら倒れそうだ。
It looks like this house will fall down when a strong wind blows.
(b). あのステーキは美味しそうだった。
That steak looked delicious.
(c). この辺りは静かそうだ。
This neighbourhood looks quiet.
1. {Verbます/Adjective(い/な)stem} そうだ expresses the speaker's conjecture based on visual information. Thus, this expression can be used only when the speaker directly observes something. The speaker's conjecture concerns an event which might take place in the future or the present state of someone or something. In other words, そうだ2 cannot be used to express the speaker's conjecture concerning a past event or state.
2. The adjective いい 'good' and the negative ない 'not exist/not' change to よそ and なさ, respectively, before そうだ2. Examples:
3. Noun or Noun+Copula cannot precede そうだ2, as seen in (4a) and (4b), but Noun+Copula negative nonpast can, as seen in (4c).
To express the intended meaning in (4a) and (4b) らしい is used.
(⇨ らしい)
(4b) is grammatical if そうだ means hearsay.
(⇨ そうだ1)
4. In this construction, the negative forms of verbs usually don't precede そうだ2. Instead, Verbますそうに/もない is used. Examples:
5. そうだ is also used to express the speaker's conjecture concerning his own non-volitional future actions based on what he feels.
6. そうだ is a な type adjective; the prenominal form is そうな. Examples:
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Conjunction
| A conjunction to indicate that what is stated in the preceding sentence is the reason or cause for what is stated in the following sentence. | And; because of that; that is why; therefore; so |
| 【Related Expression: だから; ので】 |
(ks). 昨日は風邪を引きました。それで学校を休んだんです。
I had a cold yesterday. That's why I took a day off from school.
(a). ちょっと大阪で用事がありました。それで昨日いなかったんです。
I had some business in Osaka. That's why I wasn't here yesterday.
(b). A:昨日はちょっと大阪で用事がありました。 B:ああ、それでいらっしゃらなかったんですね。
A: Yesterday I had to run an errand in Osaka. B: Oh, that why you weren't here.
(c). A:昨日小川君とピンポンの試合をしたんだ。 B:それで、先週新しいラケットを買ったんですね。
A: Yesterday I played ping pong with Mr. Ogawa. B: That's why he bought a new paddle last week.
【Related Expressions】
I. "Sentence1. それでSentence2" can be rephrased using ので if それで means cause or reason. Note, however, that the ので construction is a single sentence.
(⇨ ので)
Example:
[1]
The difference is that それで combines two sentences much more loosely than ので.
II. "Sentence1. それでSentence2" can be rephrased using だ/ですから, if Sentence1 indicates a reason or a cause for Sentence2.
[2]
The difference between それで and だから is similar to the difference between ので and から. (⇨ から3; ので) Observe the following sentence.
[3]
Basic Page 414
Conjunction
| If that is the case | If so; then; well then |
| 【Related Expression: それなら】 |
(ks). A:このオレンジは甘くないです。 B:それではこれはどう(ですか)。
A: This orange is not sweet. B: How about this one, then?
(a). A:僕は魚も肉も嫌いです。 B:それでは何を食べるんですか。
A: I hate both fish and meat. B: Then, what do you eat.
(b). A:今日の午後テニスをしませんか。 B:今日の午後はちょっと都合が悪いんですが。 A:それでは明日の午後はどうですか。
A: Wouldn't you like to play tennis this afternoon? B: This afternoon is not convenient for me, but... A: Then, how about tomorrow afternoon?
(c). それでは二十分ぐらい休みましょう。
Well then, let's take a break for about twenty minutes.
(d). それではまた来週の金曜日に来ます。
Well then, I'll come again next Friday.
1. それでは is contracted into それじゃ or それじゃあ in informal speech.
2. それでは is often shortened to では, which is further contracted to じゃあ or じゃ.
3. それでは is used in sentence-initial position, and それ 'that' refers to that which is stated in the preceding sentence, as in Examples (a) and (b), or to the preceding context, as in Examples (c) and (d). In Examples (c) and (d) the speaker uses それでは based on some nonverbal shared knowledge. The shared knowledge for (c) and (d) could be 'the fact of having worked long enough' and 'the fact of having finished today's discussion and an agreement for meeting every Friday', respectively.
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Conjunction
| A conjunction that indicates (1) temporally contiguous actions or states, or (2) a cumulative listing of objects, actions or states. | After that; and then; in addition to that |
| 【Related Expression: から2; し; そして】 |
(ksa). 昨日は二時間ぐらい友達と飲んでそれからうちに帰った・帰りました。
Yesterday I drank with my friend for about two hours and then went home.
(ksb). 昨日は二時間ぐらい友達と飲んだ。それから本屋に寄ってうちに帰った。
Yesterday I drank with my friend for about two hours. Then I dropped by a bookstore and went home.
| (i){Vて/Vます} | それから | |
| {話して /話し},それから | Someone talks, and then~ | |
| {食べて /食べ},それから | Someone eats, and then~ | |
| (ii)Adjective い stem | く(て)、それから | |
| 高く(て)、それから | Something is not only expensive but~ | |
| (iii)Adjective な stem | で、それから | |
| 静かで、それから | Something is not only quiet but~ | |
| (iv)Noun1 (と) Noun 2 (と) | それからNoun3 | |
| 英語(と)日本語(と)、それから中国語 | English, Japanese and Chinese |
(a). 十時まで宿題をしました。それから映画に行きました。
I did my homework until 10 o'clock. And then, I went to the movie.
(b). 昨日は朝銀座に行って、それから映画を見に行った。
Yesterday morning I went to Ginza and then went to see a movie.
(c). レストランではステーキとサラダとそれからチーズケーキを食べました。
At the restaurant I ate steak, salad, and cheesecake.
(d). 湖の色は初めは青く、それから緑になりました。
The colour of the lake was blue in the beginning and then turned green.
(e). 月曜、火曜、それから木曜もとても忙しいです。
I am very busy on Monday, Tuesday, and Thursday, too.
1. それから can be used to indicate something which the speaker almost forgot to mention, as in (1) below:
2. それから 'and then' is often used by the hearer to elicit more information from the speaker, example:
3. Verbて, Verbます, Adjectiveい stemく(て) and Adjectiveな stemで do not have their own tense. The tense is identical with that of the main verb.
【Related Expressions】
1. Verbてから and Verbて、それから are similar but not identical in meaning. Verbてから expresses chronological sequence; Verbて、それから expresses chronological sequence and/or enumeration. For example, [1a] expresses purely chronological order and [1b], chronological order and enumeration.
(⇨ から2)
[1]
II. "Verbて/Verbます、それから", "Adjectiveい stemくて、それから" and "Adjectiveなstemで、それから" are very similar to し when they express enumeration.
[2]
III. そうして/そして and それから are interchangeable when two events do not occurs simultaneously. Compare the following:
[3]
Basic Page 419
Conjunction
| If that is the case, | Then; in that case |
| 【Related Expression: それでは】 |
(ks). A:頭が痛いんです。 B:それなら直ぐ寝なさい。
A: I have a headache. B: In that case, go to sleep right away.
(a). A:映画を見に行きませんか。 B:明日試験があるんです。 A:それなら、明後日はどうですか。
A: Wouldn't you like to go see a movie? B: I have an exam tomorrow. A: Then, how about the day after tomorrow?
(b). A:日本にはどのぐらいいましたか。 B:三年です。 A:それなら、日本のことはよく知っているでしょうね。
A: How long did you stay in Japan? B: Three years. A: Then, you must know a lot about Japan.
1. それ 'that' refers to a previously-spoken sentence. In Key Sentence, for example, それ refers to A's entire sentence. B's sentence can be rephrased as (1):
なら in (1) expresses the speaker's supposition concerning the truth of A’s statement.
(⇨ なら)
2. それなら has a more formal form, それならば and a more informal one, そんなら.
3. For restrictions imposed on the sentence that follows それなら, see the notes in なら.
【Related Expression】
Although それなら and それでは are very similar, they differ in that the former is dependent on verbal context while the latter is not. Thus, towards the end of one's visit with his superior or on an occasion when something is offered, それでは is used, as in [la, b].
[1]
Basic Page 421
Conjunction
| A coordinate conjunction which connects two alternatives expressed by sentences. | Or; either~ or~ |
| 【Related Expression: か1】 |
(ksa). この本が間違っているか(それとも)私が間違っているかどちらだ・です。
It's either that this book is wrong or that I am wrong.
(ksb). 刺身を食べますか。それともすき焼きにしますか。
Will you have sashimi, or will you have sukiyaki?
(a). 僕が来るか(それとも)村井さんが来るかどちらかです。
Either I will come or Mr. Murai will come.
(b). あの人は先生ですか。それとも医者ですか。
Is he a teacher or a doctor?
1. それとも combines statements (Key Sentence (A)) or questions (Key Sentence (B)). In Key Sentence (A), それとも can be omitted.
2. In Key Sentence (B), if the context is clear, abbreviated questions may occur in informal speech. For example, (1) may be used for Key Sentence (B).
Basic Page 422
Conjunction
| A coordinate conjunction that connects two sentences. | And; and then |
| 【Related Expression: それから】 |
(ks). 今日は東京に行った・行きました。そして友達に会った・会いました。
I went to Tokyo today. And I met my friend there.
(a). 昨日は朝ゴルフをしました。そして午後はテニスをしました。
Yesterday I played golf in the morning. And I played tennis in the afternoon.
(b). この映画はつまらない。そして長過ぎる。
This movie is uninteresting. And it's too long.
(c). この花は奇麗です。そして安いです。
This flower is pretty. And it is inexpensive.
1. そして and そうして are normally interchangeable, but if そうして is used in the original sense of 'by doing so', it cannot be replaced by そして.
2. The two sentences in this construction can be combined using the て-form of verbs or adjectives, as in (2). This version is encountered less frequently than the above version and sounds a little redundant, because the て-form alone can mean '~ and'.
Basic Page 423
Auxiliary Verb (Group 2)
| Someone/something does something excessively or is in a state excessively. | Too; do something too much/often; over- |
(ksa). ウィルソンは肉を食べ過ぎる・過ぎます。
Mr. Wilson eats too much meat.
(ksb). このアパートは私達には高過ぎる・過ぎます。
This apartment is too expensive for us.
| (i)Vます | 過ぎる | |
| 話し過ぎる | Talk too much | |
| 食べ過ぎる | Eat too much | |
| (ii)Adjective {い/な} stem | 過ぎる | |
| 高過ぎる | Too expensive | |
| 静か過ぎる | Too quiet |
(a). 私は今朝寝過ぎて学校に遅れた。
I overslept this morning and was late for school.
(b). この机は私の部屋には大き過ぎる。
This desk is too big for my room.
(c). 田中先生の授業は大変過ぎるので辞めました。
I dropped Professor Tanaka's class because it was too demanding.
(d). 森さんは太り過ぎている。
Mr. Mori is too fat.
1. 過ぎる, which as a main verb means 'pass; go beyond some limit', is used as an auxiliary verb with Verbます or Adjective い/な stem and means 'do something excessively' or 'be ~ excessively'
2. The stem of いい 'good' changes to よ before 過ぎる, as in (1).
3. The negative ない 'not exist/not' changes to なさ before 過ぎる.
4. For in "be too ~ for someone/something" is expressed by には, as in Key Sentence (B) and Example (b).
5. 過ぎる is a Group 2 verb; the negative form is 過ぎない, the polite form is 過ぎます and the て form is 過ぎて.
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Adjective (な)
| Something or someone is what someone likes. | Like; be fond of |
| 【Antonym Expression: 嫌いだ】 |
(ks). 私はステーキが好きだ・好きです。
I like steak.
(a). 僕は野球が好きだ。
I like baseball.
(b). ジョンソンさんはジャズが大好きです。
Mr. Johnson loves jazz.
1. 好きだ is a な type adjective which requires the "は~が construction". That is, the experiencer (i.e., the person who likes someone or something) is marked by は and the liked object by が. (⇨ は~が) Note that the liked object is marked by が not by を.
2. In subordinate clauses, the experiencer is also marked by が, as in (1) and (2).
3. "Like a lot" is expressed by 大好きだ, as in Example (b).
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Adjective (い)
| Small in number of quantity. | Few; a small number of; little; a small quantity of ~ |
| 【Related Expression: わずか】 | |
| 【Antonym Expression: 多い】 | |
(ks). この町はいいレストランが少ないです。
In this town good restaurants are few.
(a). この大学は女子学生が少ないです。
The number of female students at this college is small.
(b). 日本は犯罪が少ない。
There are few crimes in Japan.
(c). 日本語が書ける外国人は大変少ない。
Foreigners who can write Japanese are very few.
1. 少ない cannot be used before a noun, except in a relative clause where 少ない is the predicate of the subject of the relative clause.
(Complementiser phrase: Example (a))
2. The distinction between English 'few' vs. 'a few' can be expressed by 少ない and 少しは as in (3) below.
【Related Expression】
少ない differs from a similar word 僅か(だ) in both meaning and use. The latter means 'insignificant number or amount of ~' and is used before a noun or in a predicate position or as an adverb. Only in [1a] below can 僅かだ be replaced by 少ない.
[1]
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Verb (Irregular)
| Someone/Something causes a state or action to take place. | Do; make; play; play the role of ~; wear |
| 【Related Expression: なる; やる】 |
(ksa). 中山さんはテニスをする・します。
Mr. Nakayama plays tennis.
(ksb). リーズさんは英語の先生をしている・います。
Mr. Leeds is an English teacher.
(ksc). 先生はテストを易しくした・しました。
The teacher made his test easy.
(ksd). 木口は息子を医者にした・しました。
Kiguchi caused his son to become a physician.
(kse). 私は中国語を勉強している・います。
I am studying Chinese.
(ksf). 京子は奇麗なスカーフをしている・います。
Kyoko is wearing a beautiful scarf.
(a). 日本人は大抵土曜日も仕事をする。
The Japanese usually work on Saturdays, too.
(b). ビルはハムレットをするつもりだ。
Bill is going to play Hamlet.
(c). 陽子は部屋を奇麗にした。
Yoko made her room clean.
(d). 僕はよく車を運転します。
I often drive a car.
(e). 一男はアメリカ人を妻にした。
Kazuo made a wife of an American.
(f). いいネクタイをしているね。
You're wearing a nice tie, aren't you?
1. する1 means 'to cause some state or action', and corresponds to English 'do' or 'make'.
2. Key Sentence (A) and Example (a) are cases in which the subject is doing/playing something Key Sentence (B) as well as Example (b) are cases where the subject is playing a social or dramatic role. Key sentence (C) and (D) and Example (c) have causative meanings.
3. Key Sentence (C) and Example (c) require that either Adjective い stem+く or Adjective な stem+に (i.e., adverbial form of Adjective (い/な) be used before する. Key Sentence (D) and Example (e) use a Noun+に in front of する.
4. The Direct Objects of Key Sentence (F) and Example (f) are items that cover a small part of the human body such as ネクタイ '(neck)tie', 手袋 'gloves' and 腕時計 'wristwatch'. When used with such direct objects, する means 'wear'.
5. The construction in Key Sentence (D) (i.e., Noun+にする) also has an idiomatic use, meaning 'decide on ~'.
(⇨ にする)
6. Sino-Japanese compounds+する such as 勉強する 'study' and 運転する 'drive' can be used as transitive verbs, as in Key Sentence (E) and Example (d). The Sino-Japanese compound itself can also be used as the direct object of する. For example, compare Key Sentence (E) and Example (d) with (1) and (2), respectively.
Note in Sentences (1) and (2) that the direct object in Key Sentence (E) and Example (d) is connected to the Sino-Japanese compound by the particle の, creating a noun phrase which is the direct object of する.
7. In contemporary Japanese it is very common to use する with loanwords. The majority of loanwords are from English verbs. Some typical examples follow:
| ヒットする | make a hit | ノックする | knock on the door |
| ドライブする | drive a car | キスする | kiss |
| タイプする | type | パスする | pass an exam |
It is also common to use する with sound symbolisms, especially phenomimes and psychomimes.
| びくびくする | be in fear | かっとする | flare up |
| ぼんやりする | be absent-minded | はっとする | be taken aback |
| ぞっとする | shiver | いらいらする | become irritated |
8. する basically means some causative change that is under human control, whereas なる 'become' basically means spontaneous change that is almost beyond human control. Since injury normally occurs due to human carelessness, する is acceptable, but なる is unacceptable, as shown in below. In contrast to injury, illness is assumed to occur regardless of human carefulness or carelessness, so it should not take する. But in actuality it does. Illness can take する when it is talked about as if it were something under human control, for example, cases of past illness (as in (4a)), apologies implying that one has caused illness due to carelessness on one's part (as in (4b)), and statements of one's medical history (as in (4c)). Otherwise, illness cannot take する, as shown in (4d).
9. する can be used in the construction を+Verbます+する, a humble, polite form of verb. The subject of this humble verb must be the speaker or his in-group member.
A further degree of humbleness can be expressed by replacing する with its humble version いたす/いたします.
(⇨ お~する)
【Related Expressions】
I. なる 'become' forms an intransitive-transitive pair with する, although they are not phonetically related. Semantically, なる seems more passive, while する seems more causative. Compare the following pairs of sentences:
[1]
[2]
II. する can be replaced by its informal version やる (Group 1 Verb) when it means 'do/play something' as in Key Sentence (A) or 'play a dramatic/social role' as in Key Sentence (B). Also, if する takes a Sino-Japanese compound as its direct object (as in 勉強をする 'Literally: do a study of'), it can be replaced by やる.
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Verb (Irregular)
| Someone or something has some (semi)permanent attribute. | Have |
| 【Related Expression: は~が】 |
(ks). 洋子は長い足をしている・います。
Yoko has long legs.
(a). 一男は丈夫な体をしています。
kazuo has a strong body.
(b). この机は丸い形をしている。
This table has a round shape.
1. The sentence pattern is:
A bodily part or an attribute must be inalienably possessed by the subject. In other words, it must be such an essential part of the possessor (=subject) that he/it cannot exist without the part or the attribute.
2. In the main clause the verb する always takes the ている form, but in a relative clause ている may be replaced by た as in:
【Related Expression】
Sentences of this construction can be restated using the は~が construction as follows:
Thus, the Key Sentence example can be rephrased as:
[1]
The only perceptible difference between Key Sentence and [1] is that the latter sentence is more analytical than the former. In other words, in Key Sentence 長い足 'long legs' is one unit, but in [1] 足 'legs', is first presented as a single unit and is then further characterized as 長い 'long'.
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Verb (Irregular)
| Something is perceived by someone's non-visual senses. | Fear; smell; hear |
(ks). 子供達の声がした・しました。
I heard children's voices.
(a). この魚は変な味がしますね。
This fish tastes funny, doesn't it?
(b). この切れはざらざらしている。
This cloth feels rough.
(c). この花はいい匂いがする。
This flower smells good.
(d). 私は寒気がします。
I feel a chill.
If something is perceived visually, either the ~をしている structure or the は~が structure is used.
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Verb (Irregular)
| A verb that indicates how much something costs or a duration of time. | Cost; lapse |
(ksa). この時計は十万円する・します。
This watch costs 100,000 yen.
(ksb). 後一年したら大学を出る・出ます。
In another year I'll graduate from college.
(a). A:それはどのぐらいしましたか。 B:二十五万円ぐらいしました。
A: About how much did it cost? B: It cost about 250,000 yen.
(b). もう少しすれば主人が帰ってまいります。
In a short time my husband will be here.
When する4 is used to mean 'lapse of time', it can only be used in a subordinate clause, as in Key Sentence (B) and Ex. (b). Therefore, the following sentence in which する4 is used in the main clause is ungrammatical.
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Conjunction
| A coordinate conjunction which connects two sentences (the second sentence either describes an event which takes place right after the event described in the first sentence or it expresses a logical guess related to the event in the first sentence.) | Thereupon~; then~; and~ |
(ksa). ジョギングを始めました。するとご飯が美味しくなりました。
I began jogging. Then, I began to have a good appetite.
(ksb). A:今日は月曜日ですよ。 B:するとあのデパートは休みですね。
A: Today is Monday, you know. B: Then, that department store is closed, isn't it?
(a). 私は自転車を買いました。すると弟も欲しがりました。
I bought a bike. Then, my younger brother wanted one, too.
(b). 頭が痛かったのでアスピリンを飲みました。すると痛みがすぐ止まりました。
I took an aspirin because I had a headache. Then, the headache disappeared right away.
(c). A:息子は今高校三年です。 B:すると、来年は大学受験ですね。
A: My son is now a junior at high school. B: Then, he is going to take a college entrance examination next year, isn't he?
と of すると is the conjunction と4. (⇨ と4) Therefore, in Key Sentence (A), Sentence2 normally expresses an event that is beyond the control of the speaker; that is why Sentence2 cannot be a command, a request, or a suggestion.
【Related Expressions】
I. すると is the shortened form of そうすると. These two constructions have identical meanings and can be used interchangeably. They are related to another expression それでは 'then', but unlike それでは, the second sentence in the (そう)すると to construction cannot be a command, request, suggestion, or something which can be controlled by the subject of the sentence. (⇨ それでは) Thus,
II. それでは 'then' can replace the すると in Key Sentence (B) but not the すると in Key Sentence (A), because それでは requires that the speakers of Sentence1 and Sentence2 be different.
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Auxiliary Adjective (い)
| An auxiliary adjective which expresses a desire to do something. | Want (to do something); would like (to do something) |
| 【Related Expression: 欲しい1; 欲しい2】 |
(ksa). 私は日本へ行きたいです。
I want to go to Japan.
(ksb). 僕は今ピザを・が食べたいです。
I want to eat pizza now.
(ksc). 鈴木さんはアメリカへ行きたがっている・います。
Mr. Suzuki is showing signs of wanting to go to America./ Mr. Suzuki wants to go to America.
| Vます | たい | |
| 話したい | Want to talk | |
| 食べたい | Want to eat |
(a). 僕は冷たいビールを・が飲みたい。
I want to drink a cold beer.
(b). 今日は何を・が食べたいですか。
What do you want to eat today?
(c). 三木さんは車を買いたがっている。
Mr. Miki wants to buy a car.
1.たい is an い type auxiliary adjective which expresses a person's desire to do something. Since Verbますたい expresses a very personal feeling, it is usually used only for the first person in declarative sentences and for the second person in interrogative sentences. For the third person, Verbますがっている 'literally: is showing signs of wanting to do something' is usually used, as in Key Sentence (C) and Example (c). (⇨ がる) Verbますたい with the third person subject is acceptable, however, in the following situations:
(⇨ のだ)
2. In some situations, if the verb in Verbますたい is a transitive verb, the direct object can be marked either by が or by を, as seen in Key Sentence (B), Examples (a) and (b). In general, the choice between が and を seems to depend on the degree of desire. That ist when the desire to do something is high, が is preferred; when it is low, を is used. Compare (4) and (5):
Under the following conditions, が cannot be used even if the degree of desire is high.
(A) When a long element intervenes between the direct object and the verb:
(B) When the main verb is in the passive form:
(C) When the preceding noun is not the direct object:
3. In the construction Verbますたがっている, が can never be used to mark the direct object.
4. Verbますたい cannot be used to express an invitation. The following sentences are inappropriate in invitation situations.
In these situations negative questions are used, as seen in (11).
(⇨ ましょう)
【Related Expressions】
The idea of 'want' in English is expressed by either たい, 欲しい1 or 欲しい2. たい is used when the experiencer wants to do something. 欲しい1 is used when the experiencer wants something. 欲しい2 is used when the experiencer wants someone to do something.
Basic Page 445
Phrase
| The speaker or whomever he empathises with cannot cope with a situation expressed by the て phrase. | Unbearably~; extremely; be dying to do~ |
| 【Related Expression: しかがない】 |
(ksa). 今日は暑くて堪らない・堪りません。
It is unbearably hot today.
(ksb). 数学が嫌いで堪らない・堪りません。
I really hate math.
| Adjective い stem | くて堪らない | |
| 寒くて堪らない | Something is unbearable cold | |
| Adjective な stem | で堪らない | |
| 不便で堪らない | Something is unbearable inconvenient |
(a). この本は面白くて堪りません。
This book is extremely interesting.
(b). 父が死んで、悲しくて堪りません。
My father died and I'm awfully sad.
(c). 美味しい魚が食べたくて堪りません。
I'm dying to eat some good fish.
(d). 僕はあの子が好きで堪らない。
I just love that girl.
(e). 兄は田中先生の授業が嫌で堪らなかった。
My older brother really hated Mr. Tanaka's class.
1. て/で堪らない is an idiomatic phrase used to express the fact that some situation is unbearable in the extreme for the speaker or someone with whom he empathizes.
2. The adjectives used before て/で refer to human feelings.
3. There is no affirmative counterpart of this construction, * ~て/でたまる.
【Related Expression】
て堪らない (literally: ~ and I can't stand it) can be replaced by て仕方がない (literally: ~ and I don't know what to do about it). The only difference is that the former is more emotive than the latter. But when て仕方がない is directly preceded by Vebても, it cannot be replaced by 堪らない, as shown in [1].
[1]
Basic Page 447
Noun
| A noun that indicates a benefit, a purpose, a reason or a casue. | On account of ~; for the benefit of ~; for the good of ~; for the sake of ~; on behalf of ~; for the purpose of ~; in order to ~; because of ~; owing to ~ |
| 【Related Expression: から3; に5; ので; のに2】 |
(ksa). 学生は試験のために勉強する・勉強します。
Students study in preparation for exams./ Students study because there are exams.
(ksb). 私は日本のことを知るため(に)日本へ行く・行きます。
I'll go to Japan (in order) to learn about Japan.
(ksc). 今年は雪があまり降らないため(に)スキーが出来ない・出来ません。
Because it doesn't snow very much this year, we can't ski.
(ksd). 外国人のためのいい辞書がない・ありません。
There aren't (any) good dictionaries for foreigners.
| (i){V/Adjective い} informal | ために | |
| {話す /話した}ために | In order to talk/because someone talks/talked | |
| {食べる /食べた}ために | In order to eat/because someone eats/ate | |
| {高い /高かった}ために | Because something is/was high | |
| (ii)Adjective な stem | {なだった}ために | |
| {静かな/静かだった}ために | Because something is/was quiet | |
| (iii)Noun | {のだった}ために | |
| {先生の/先生だった}ために | For the sake of the teacher/because of the teacher/because someone is/was a teacher | |
| (iv)Demonstrative Adjective | ために | |
| {この /その}ために | For the sake of this/that, because of this/that |
(a). 日本人は会社のためによく働きます。
The Japanese work hard for the sake of their company.
(b). 雪のため(に)学校が休みになった。
The school was closed because of the snow.
(c). ジャクソンさんは研究のため(に)ドイツに行った。
Mr. Jackson went to Germany for the purpose of research.
(d). 私は父が死んだため(に)大学に行けなかった。
I couldn't go to college because my father died.
(e). 体を強くするため(に)毎日プールで泳いでいる。
I'm swimming every day in the pool in order to strengthen my body.
(f). 親が甘かったため(に)子供が駄目になった。
Because the parents were soft, the children got spoiled.
(g). 字が下手なため(に)人に笑われた。
I was laughed at because my handwriting is so poor.
(h). フランスに行ったのは香水を買うためだ。
It was for the purpose of buying perfume that I went to France.
1. 為に expresses cause or reason when it is preceded by an Adjective い or an Adjective な, as in Examples (f) and (g), or when the main clause describes a noncontrollable situation and/or when the 為に clause is in the past tense, as in Example (d). In these cases, it never expresses purpose. Consider the additional examples in (1).
(1a) gets the reason/cause interpretation, because the main clause describes a noncontrollable situation, whereas (1b) gets the purpose interpretation, because the main clause describes a controllable situation.
2. The に of 為に can be dropped, as in Examples (b), (c), (d), (e), (f) and (g), if a phrase(s) intervenes between the main verb and 為に.
【Related Expressions】
I. When 為 is used to mean reason or cause, it can be replaced by から or ので. Thus, Key Sentence (C) and Example (d) can be rephrased as [1a] and [1b], respectively.
[1]
The difference between 為 and other markers of reason/cause is that 為 is more formal than the others and is seldom used in informal conversation.
II. When 為 is used to mean purpose, it can be replaced by either Verb informal nonpastのに or Verbますに Verb of motion. However, 為に can be replaced by のに only when one does something in the process of achieving some goal. Thus, [3a] can be paraphrased as [3b] but [4a] cannot be paraphrased as [4b].
[3]
[4]
Note also that 為 can be replaced by Verbますに Verb of motion only when 為 is used with a Verb of motion. The difference between 為 and other markers of purpose is that 為 is the most formal and least colloquial of the three.
Basic Page 452
Conjunction
| A subordinate conjunction which indicates that the action/state expressed by the main clause in a sentence takes place after the action/state expressed by the subordinate clause. | If; when; after |
| 【Related Expression: ば; なら; と4; 時】 |
(ks). 山田さんが来たら私は帰る・帰ります。
When/If Mr. Yamada comes, I'll go home.
| {V/Adjective (い/な)N+copula} informal past | ら | |
| 話したら | If/when someone talks/talked | |
| 高かったら | If something is/were expensive | |
| 静かだったら | If something is/were quiet | |
| 先生だったら | If someone is/were a teacher |
(a). 先生に聞いたら直ぐ分かった。
When I asked my teacher, I understood right away.
(b). 私は大学を出たら小学校の先生になります。
I'll be an elementary school teacher after graduating from college.
(c). 私は忙しいですから、面白かったら読みますが、面白くなかったら読みませんよ。
I'm busy, so I'll read it if it's interesting, but I won't if it's not interesting.
(d). 嫌いだったら残して下さい。
If you don't like it, please leave it.
(e). 英語だったら分かると思います。
I think I'll understand it if it's English.
1. The meaning of Sentence1たらSentence2 varies depending on the contents of Sentence1 and Sentence2 and also on the situation in which this construction is used. However, Sentence always represents an antecedent and Sentence2 a subsequence. For example, in Key Sentence, Mr. Yamada's coming precedes the speaker's returning home. Likewise, in Example (a), the speaker's asking his teacher precedes his understanding something. If this relation does not hold, this construction cannot be used. For example, (1) cannot be expressed by the たら construction because the event of Sentence1, the speaker's going to Chicago, does not precede the event of Sentence2, his going there by car.
(In this situation, 時 is used. (⇨ 時)) For the same reason, たら is ungrammatical in the situation in (2).
(In this case, なら is used. (⇨ なら))
2. In Sentence1たらSentence2, it is often the case that Sentence1 represents a condition and Sentence2 an event which occurs under that condition. Therefore, the whole sentence basically means 'when Sentence1 is satisfied, Sentence2 takes place' or 'Sentence1 brings about Sentence2', as in Examples (c), (d) and (e).
3. As seen in Key Sentence, たら may mean 'when' in one case and 'if' in another. たら means 'when' if Sentence1 is a certainty; if not, たら means 'if'. Thus, in (3), たら means 'when'.
もし before Sentence1たら makes sentences unambiguous; it always means 'if Sentence1'. Example:
4. In Sentence1たらSentence2, Sentence2 can be a command, a request, a suggestion, an invitation or a volitional sentence.
| ⎧a. 来なさい。 | |
| ⎪b. 来てください。 | |
| ⎪c. 来たらどうですか。 | |
| ⎩d. 来ませんか。 |
| ⎧a. come to my place. | |
| ⎪b. please come to my place. | |
| ⎪c. why don't you come to my place? | |
| ⎩d. wouldn't you like to come to my place? |
5. Sentence1たらSentence2 can also be used in counterfactual situations, as in (7).
6. When Sentence2 in "Sentence1たらSentence2" represents a past action, the action cannot be one intentionally taken by the agent after the action or event represented by Sentence1. Thus, the (a) sentences in (8) and (9) are acceptable, but the (b) sentences are not.
【Related Expressions】
ば, なら and と4 have similar functions but they are different trom たら in the following ways:
I. In Sentence1たらSentence2, if the event in Sentence1 precedes the event in Sentence2, those events can be past events. This is also the case with Sentence1とSentence2, but not with Sentence1ばSentence2 and Sentence1ならSentence2, as in [1].
[1]
II. As stated in Note 4, Sentence2 in Sentence1たらSentence2 can be a command, a request, a suggestion, an invitation or a volitional sentence. This is also the case with Sentence2 in Sentence1ばSentence2 and Sentence1ならSentence2 but not with Sentence2 in Sentence1とSentence2. Example:
[2]
II. Although Sentence2 in Sentence1たらSentence2, Sentence1ばSentence2 and Sentence1ならSentence2 can be a command a request, a suggestion, an invitation or a volitional sentence, the meanings are not exactly the same. The following examples show the differences clearly.
[3]
As seen above, [3a] is ambiguous; it is not clear that Ben is coming. If Ben's coming is certain, [3a] indicates the time the speaker will leave. If Ben's coining is uncertain, [3a] indicates the condition under which the speaker will leave. In both cases, however, Ben's coming precedes the speaker's leaving. [3b] is similar to the second case of [3a] (i.e., the case in which Ben's coming is uncertain). However, [3b] focuses more on the condition. That is, [3b] implies something like 'the condition under which I go home is Ben's coming here'. In [3b] also, Ben's coming precedes the speaker's leaving. Sentence1 in [3c] also indicates the condition under which the speaker returns home. In this case, however, Ben's coming does not necessarily precede the speaker's leaving because the condition under which the speaker goes home is that Ben's coming !s true, not that Ben comes (to a certain place).
IV. As stated in Note 5, Sentence1たらSentence2 can be used in counterfactual situations, and so can Sentence1ばSentence2 and Sentence1ならSentence2. However, Sentence1とSentence2 cannot be used in such situations except for the idiomatic expression Sentenceといい/よかった 'It would be good/It would have been good if Sentence'. Example:
[4]
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Phrase
| A phrase which expresses a suggestion (literally: How would you feel if you do something?) | Why don't you do ~?; what about doing ~? |
| 【Related Expression: 方がいい】 |
(ks). もっと日本の本を読んだらどうですか。
Why don't you read more Japanese books?
| Vinformal past | らどうですか。 | |
| 話したらどうですか。 | Why don't you talk~ ? | |
| 食べたらどうですか。 | Why don't you eat~ |
(a). サラダも食べたらどうですか。
Why don't you eat salad, too?
(b). 山村先生に聞いたらどうですか。
Why don't you ask Professor Yamamura?
1. Verb informal past らどうですか is an idiomatic phrase derived from the "Sentence1 たら Sentence2" construction and expressing a suggestion.
(⇨ たら)
2. The informal version is Verb informal past らどう? More polite versions are Verb informal past らどうでしょう(か) and Verb informal past らいかがでしょう(か).
(⇨ だろう)
【Related Expression】
ほうがいい also expresses suggestion, but this phrase is close to a command (especially when it is preceded by Verb informal past), and, therefore, is stronger than たらどうですか.
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Phrase
| A phrase which expresses an inexhaustive listing of action or states. | Do things like~ and~; sometimes~ and sometimes~ |
(ksa). 私達は歌ったり躍ったりした・しました。
We did things like singing and dancing.
(ksb). このレストランのステーキは大きかったり小さかったりする・します。
Steaks at this restaurant are sometimes big and sometimes small.
(ksc). A:毎日テープを聞いていますか。 B:いいえ、聞いたり聞かなかったりです。
A: Are you listening to tapes every day? B: No, I listen at one time and don't listen at another (only off and on).
| {V/Adjective (い/な) Noun+Copula} informal past | り(する) | |
| 話したり(する) | Someone (does) things like talking | |
| 高かったり(する) | Something is sometimes expensive | |
| 静かだったり(する) | Something is sometimes quiet | |
| 先生だったり(する) | Someone is sometimes a teacher |
(a). 私はニューヨークでミュージカルを見たりコンサートを聞いたりした。
In New York I did things like seeing musicals and listening to concerts.
(b). トムは来たり来なかったりする。
Tom comes at one time and doesn't at another time (Tom doesn't always come).
(c). 明日は雨が降ったり止んだりするでしょう。
It will probably rain off and on tomorrow.
(d). この店の魚は新しかったり古かったりする。
This shop's fish is sometimes fresh and sometimes old.
(e). 日本語の先生は日本人だったりアメリカ人だったりします。
Teachers of Japanese are sometimes Japanese and sometimes American.
1. The "XたりYたりする" construction generally expresses an inexhaustive listing of actions or states. "Inexhaustive" means that in a given situation there may be additional, unstated actions or states. (The ex-haustive listing of actions or states is expressed by the て form. (⇨ て))
(Complementiser phrase: と1; や)
2. する usually follows "XたりYたり" regardless of the part of speech of X and Y, and expresses the tense, the aspect (e,g., progressive, perfect) and the formality level of the sentence.
3. This construction usually lists two actions or two states, but it can list more than two actions or two states, as in (1).
Sometimes only one action or state is listed in this construction, as in (2).
4. If "XたりYたりする" is not the final segment of a sentence and the predicate is an adjective, する may be omitted, as in (3).
If the predicate is a verb, however, する cannot be omitted as in (4).
5. As seen in Key Sentence (C) and Example (f), a slightly different pattern, XたりYたりだ, is also used in some situations. This pattern is used when a speaker describes someone's or something's inconstant state.
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Conjunction
| Even if someone did something or something were in some state (the desired result would not come about) or even if someone or something is in some state. | Even if ~ |
| 【Related Expression: ても】 |
(ksa). あの人には話したって分からない・分かりません。
Even if I tell him that, he won't understand it.
(ksb). 僕はその切符を高くたって買う・買います。
I will buy the ticket even if it is expensive.
| (i)Vinformal past | って | |
| 話しって | Even if someone talks/talked | |
| 食べだって | Even if someone eats/ate | |
| (ii)Adjective い stem | くたって | |
| 高くたって | Even if something is/were expensive | |
| (iii){Adjective な stem/ N} | だっ(たっ)て | |
| 静かだっ(たっ)て | Even if something is/were quiet | |
| 先生だっ(たっ)て | Even if someone is/were a teacher |
(a). お金があったって車は買いたくない。
Even if I had money, I wouldn't want to buy a car.
(b). 本を買ったって、忙しくて読めない。
Even if I buy books, I'm too busy to read them.
(c). 汚くたって構いません。
I don't care even if it is dirty.
(d). 遠くて不便だってマイ・ホームなら構いません。
Even if it is far away and inconvenient, it doesn't matter if it is 'my home'.
(e). どんなにいい先生だって時々間違います。
No matter how good a teacher may be, he sometimes makes mistakes.
1. たって is used strictly in informal spoken Japanese, and is used to indicate something counter to fact. However, the counterfactual (or subjunctive) nature of this construction is not very strong. See Example (a).
2. たって can take どんなに (as in Example (e)) meaning 'no matter how'. More examples follow.
【Related Expression】
たって can be replaced by ても. The difference is that ても can be used in spoken and written language and that it is less emotive than たって. Thus, if Example (a) is replaced by the following sentence, the counterfactuality of having money is nullified, and the entire sentence sounds much less emotive.
[1]
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て Form
| The て form ending of verbs and い type adjectives (The て form ending of な type adjectives and the て form of the copula is で. | And; -ing |
(ks1). ジムは日本へ行って勉強した・勉強しました。
Jim went to Japan and studied (there).
(ks2). ここのステーキは安くて美味しい・美味しいです。
Steaks here are inexpensive and delicious.
(ks3). このアパートは静かでいい・いいです。
This apartment is quiet and good.
(ks4). 私の父は先生で高校で英語を教えている・います。
My father is a teacher and teaches English at senior high school.
| (i) Group 1 verbs | ||
| すverbs | 話す→話して | Someone talks and |
| くverbs | 歩く→歩いて | Someone walks and |
| Exception | 行く→行って | Someone goes and |
| ぐverbs | 泳ぐ→泳いで | Someone swims and |
| む/ぶ/ぬverbs | 飲む→飲んで | Someone drinks something and |
| 遊ぶ→遊んで | Someone plays and | |
| 死ぬ→死んで | Someone dies and | |
| つ/う/るverbs | 待つ→待って | Someone waits and |
| 買う→買って | Someone buys something and | |
| 取る→取って | Someone takes something and | |
| (ii)Group 2 verbs | Vstemて | |
| 食べて | Someone eats something and | |
| (iii)Irregular verbs | 来る→来て | Someone comes and |
| する→して | Someone does something and | |
| (iv)Adjective い | Adjective い stemくて | |
| 高くて | Something is expensive and | |
| (v)Adjective な | Adjective な stemで | |
| 静かで | Something is quiet and | |
| (vi)Noun+copula | Nで | |
| 先生で | Someone is a teacher and |
(a). 私はコートを脱いでハンガーにかけた。
Taking off my coat, I hung it on a hanger.
(b). ワインを飲み過ぎて頭が痛い。
I've drunk too much wine and have a headache.
(c). 私の部屋は狭くて暗い。
My room is small and dark.
(d). このスープは辛くて飲めない。
This soup is salty (or (spicy) hot) and I can't drink it.
(e). 私はテニスが大好きでよく友達とする。
I love tennis and often play with my friends.
(f). ゆみ子は今大学三年で専攻は日本文学です。
Yumiko is a junior at college now and her major is Japanese literature.
(g). 伊藤先生は今週病気で、かわりに村田先生が教えた。
Professor Itou was ill this week and Professor Murata taught for him.
1. The て form functions, in part, to link sentences. That is, if the last element of the predicate of a clause is the て form, it means that that clause is not the end of the sentence and that another predicate or clause follows it. For example, in Example (b) the last element of the predicate of the first clause is 過ぎて, the て form of 過ぎる 'do something too much'，and 過ぎて is followed by another clause 頭が痛い 'literally:(my) head aches'.
2. The meaning of the て form varies according to context, but generally, it corresponds to 'and' or '-ing' in participial constructions.
3. When the て form links two predicates, the relationship between the two is often one of the following:
[A1: the action or state expressed by the first predicate; A2: the action or state expressed by the second predicate]
4. The て form can be repeated more than once in a clause. Just like the particle と1 makes an exhaustive listing of nouns, the て form can list verbs and adjectives exhaustively. (Related: たり~たりする; や) Example:
5. て form verbs are also used with such expressions as いる1 'be doing ~', から 'after' and はいけない 'must not do ~'.
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Conjunction
| [x] is used when that which is expressed in the main clause is not what is expected from the content of the dependent ([x]) clause. | Even if; although |
| 【Related Expression: けれど; のに1; たって】 |
(ksa). 私は雨が降っても行く・行きます。
I'll go there even if it rains.
(ksb). 私は寒くても出かける・出かけます。
I'll go out even if it is cold.
(ksc). 僕がトムでも同じことをしただろう・でしょう。
Even if I were Tom, I would probably have done the same thing.
| (i){V/Adjective(い/な)} て | も | |
| 話しても | Even is someone talks | |
| 食べても | Even if someone eats | |
| 高くても | Even if it is expensive | |
| 静かでも | Even if it is quiet | |
| (ii) Noun | でも | |
| 先生でも | even if someone is a teacher |
(a). 中山さんは本を買っても読みません。
Mr. Nakayama doesn't read books even if he buys them.
(b). 私は四時間歩いても疲れなかった。
I didn't get tired although I walked for four hours.
(c). 何を食べても美味しいです。
No matter what I eat, it tastes good.
(d). 誰に聞いても分からなかった。
No matter who I asked, I couldn't get the answer.
(e). A:煙草を吸ってもいいですか。 B:はい、いいです。
A: May I smoke? B: Yes, you may.
(f). どんなに日本語が難しくてもやってみます。
No matter how difficult Japanese may be, I will try it.
(g). どんなに丈夫でも体には気をつけた方がいい。
No matter how healthy you are, you'd better take good care of yourself.
(h). 井上さんが先輩でも僕ははっきり言うつもりだ。
I intend to speak straightforwardly, even if Mr. Inoue is my senior.
1. The basic meaning of ても is the same as the English phrase 'even if ~'
2. てもいいですか as in Example (e) is an idiomatic expression used to request permission to do something. If the answer is in the affirmative, it is "はい、いいです。" (Yes, you may.) If it is in the negative, it is "いえ、いけません。" (No, you may not.)
3. Interrogative word ても means 'no matter Interrogative word', as in Examples (c), (d), (f), and (g). Typical usages are listed below:
| 誰に話しても | no matter who someone talks to |
| 何を話しても | no matter what someone talks about |
| どこで話しても | no matter where someone talks |
| いつ話しても | no matter when someone talks |
| どう話しても | no matter how someone talks |
| どんなに話しても | no matter how much someone talks |
【Related Expressions】
ても is comparable but not identical to けれど 'although' and のに 'in spite of the fact that'. The semantic difference is exactly that of English 'even if' vs. 'although'. (⇨ けれど; のに1) Thus,
[1]
However, if て is used with an interrogative word, it cannot be replaced by けれど or のに.
[2]
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Phrase
| A phrase which expresses persmission or concession. | May; It is all right if |
| 【Antonym Expression: はいけない】 |
(ksa). A:ここで煙草を吸ってもいいですか。 B:はい、いいです。
A: May I smoke here? B: Yes, you may.
(ksb). 高くてもいい・いいです。
It is all right if it's expensive.
(ksc). 学生でもいい・いいです。
It is all right if you are a student.
| {V/Adjective(い/な)/Noun+copula} て | もいい | |
| 話してもいい | May talk; it is all right if someone talks | |
| 高くてもいい | It is all right if something is expensive | |
| 静かでもいい | It is all right if something is quiet | |
| 先生でもいい | It is all right is someone is a teacher |
(a). この椅子を使ってもいいですか。
May I used this chair?
(b). 今日の宿題は作文です。短くてもいいですが面白いのを書いて下さい。
Today's homework assignment is a composition. It is all right if it's short, but please write an interesting one.
(c). A:テニスをしませんか。 B:下手でもいいですか。
A: Wouldn't you like to play tennis? B: Is it alright if I'm poor at it?
(d). A:何か冷たいものを飲みたいんですが。 B:ビールでもいいですか。
A: I want to drink something cold. B: Will beer do?
1. When てもいい is preceded by a verb, it means permission.
2. なくてもいい, the negative て form with もいい, means 'It is all right is ~not ~' or 'do not have to do ~'. (Complementiser phrase: なければならない)
Examples:
3. Other expressions like よろしい(です), the polite form of いい 'good, all right', and 構いません 'don't mind' can be used in place of いい(です). The degrees of politeness in these expressions are as follows:
(4)| いい(です)→ | 構いません→ | よろしい(です) |
| ←less polite | more polite→ |
Examples:
Note that 構う 'mind' must be negated in this expression.
4. てもいい sometimes appears with interrogative words like 何 'what' and いくら 'how much'. In this case, the expression means 'It is all right no matter what/who/how much/etc. ~' or 'It doesn't matter what/who/how much ~.' (See ても, Note 3.) Examples:
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Particle
| A particle which lists things exhaustively. | And |
| 【Related Expression: に (and); と2; や】 |
(ks). マイクとディック(と)は学生だ・です。
Mike and Dick are students.
(a). 私は英語と日本語を話す。
I speak English and Japanese.
(b). ミルズさんは来年ドイツとフランスとスペインへ行くつもりだ。
Mr. Mills is planning to go to Germany, France and Spain next year.
(c). ステーキはナイフとフォークで食べる。
We eat steak with a knife and fork.
(d). 山本さんとスミスさんがテニスをしている。
Mr. Yamamoto and Mr. Smith are playing tennis.
(e). 日本語とトルコ語は似ている。
Japanese and Turkish are alike.
1. と is used to list things exhaustively. The final と is usually omitted, but the others are not. Thus, "A, B, C and D" is usually expressed as "AとBとCとD."
2. と connects noun phrases only. Thus, it cannot be used for 'and' in sentences, as seen in (1) - (3).
(⇨ て)
3. "Noun1とNoun2(とNoun3...)" is a noun phrase; it can occur anywhere nouns can occur.
4. When Noun1とNoun2 is used as the subject of a sentence, the sentence may be ambiguous. In Example (d), for example, without adequate context we cannot tell if Mr. Yamamoto and Mr. Smith are playing tennis together. If the predicate contains reciprocal words such as 似る 'resemble', 同じだ 'be the same' and 結婚する 'marry', however, sentences with "Noun1とNoun2" in subject position are not ambiguous, as seen in Example (e).
【Related Expressions】
I. When Example (d) means 'Mr. Yamamoto and Mr. Smith are playing tennis together' it can be restated using と2 'with', as in [1].
[1]
Note that if the speaker states [1a] or [1b] instead of Example (d), he is speaking from Mr. Yamamoto's or Mr, Smith's viewpoint, respectively.
II. や is also used to list things, but that listing is inexhaustive. Examples:
[2]
III. The particle に can be used to combine two or more objects that usually come as a set.
[3]
The difference between に and と is that に always implies that one or more than one object has been added to the first object as an indispensable member of the entire set. と, however, does not necessarily carry that implication.
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Particle
| A particle marking the noun phrase which maintains a reciprocal relationship with the subject of a clause. | With; as; from |
| 【Related Expression: に4; と1】 |
(ks). 私はアンディーと一緒にパーティーに行った・行きました。
I went to a party (together) with Andy.
(a). トムはジョンとよくテニスをする。
Tom often plays tennis with John.
(b). 一郎はみどりと結婚した。
Ichiro married Midori.
(c). この車は僕の車と同じです。
This car is the same as my car.
(d). 日本のきゅうりはアメリカのきゅうりと少し違います。
Japanese cucumbers are a little different from American ones.
1. When Y is the subject of a clause, X to indicates that X and Y have a reciprocal relationship. For example, in Example (a), the fact that Tom often plays tennis with John necessarily means that John often plays tennis with Tom; in other words, it means that they have a reciprocal relationship. Thus, と often corresponds to the English 'with', as in 'in the company of'. と also appears with such reciprocal verbs and adjectives as 結婚する 'marry', 喧嘩する 'quarrel', 話し合う 'discuss with', 似る 'resemble', 違う 'differ' and 同じだ 'be the same'. (See Examples (b), (c) and (d).)
2. In reciprocal sentences, the subject and X in X to are interchangeable. For example, Example (b) can be restated as in (1).
Example (b) is described from Ichiro's point of view, while (1) is described from Midori's point of view.
(⇨ と1, Related Expression I)
【Related Expression】
Some reciprocal expressions take Xに or Xと depending on the meaning, as in [1] and [2].
[1]
[2]
The difference is that と implies a "bidirectional" action while に implies a "unidirectional" one. For example, [2a] implies that both Akira and Kimiko were moving, whereas in [2b] only Akira was moving. Thus, と is unacceptable in [3] because 柱 'post' is immobile.
[3]
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Particle
| A particle which marks a quotation, sound or the manner in which someone/something does something. | That; with the sound of; in the manner of |
(ks). ヒルさんは私に日本語で「こんにちは。」と言った・言いました。
Mr. Hill said to me in Japanese, "Hello!"
| (i)Quotation | と | |
| 「私は学生です。」と | "I am a student" | |
| 私は学生だと | That I am a student | |
| (ii)Phonomime | と | |
| バタバタと | With a clattering noise | |
| (iii)Phenomime | と | |
| ゆっくりと | Slowly | |
| (iv)Psychomime | と | |
| うきうきと | Cheerfully |
(a). トムは日本へ行きたいと言っている。
Tom says that he wants to go to Japan.
(b). これは十六世紀に建てられたと書いてあります。
It is written that this was built in the sixteenth century.
(c). 私はバスで行こうと思う。
I think I will go by bus.
(d). 子供達はバタバタと走れ回った。
The children ran around with a clattering noise.
(e). 真知子はしっかりと私の手を握った。
Machiko grabbed my hand firmly.
(f). ベンはむっつりと座っている。
Ben is sitting sullenly.
1. と is basically used to mark a quotation; the literal meaning of という is 'say with the (the sound) ~'. This use of と, however, has been extended further to cover indirect quotations, as in Examples (a) and (b), and even thoughts (i.e., internal voice), as in Example (c). Note that in Japanese と is necessary for both direct and indirect quotations, as seen in Key Sentence and Example (a).
2. と is used to mark the content of such actions as 思う 'think; feel', 考える 'think (with the intellect)', 書く 'write', 聞く 'hear', and 説明する 'explain'.
3. と is also used with phonomimes, as in Example (d). Again, the idea is that someone/something makes the sound marked by と when doing something. Note that sound symbolisms in Japanese are not children's words. Rather, they are an important part of the Japanese vocabulary.
4. When a sound is repeated twice like バタバタ in Example (d), と can be omitted. When a sound is not repeated, however, と does not drop. Examples:
5. The use of と with phonomimes is extended to phenomimes and psychomimes, as in Examples (e) and (f), though these are not representations of actual sounds.
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Conjunction
| A subordinate conjunction which marks a condition that brings about an uncontrollable event or state. | If; when |
| 【Related Expression: たら (ば, なら): 時】 |
(ks). ニューヨークに行くと面白い店が沢山ある・あります。
If you go to New York, there are many interesting shops.
| {V/Adjective (い/な) Noun+copula} informal nonpast | と | |
| 話すと | If someone talks | |
| 高いと | If something is expensive | |
| 静かだと | If something is quiet | |
| 先生だと | If someone is a teacher |
(a). それは先生に聞くとすぐ分かった。
I understood it immediately when I asked my teacher.
(b). タイヤは古いと危ないですよ。
Tires are dangerous if they are old.
(c). 魚が嫌いだと日本へ行った時困りますか？
If you don't like fish, will you have trouble when you go to Japan?
(d). 学生だと割引があります。
If you are a student, there is a discount.
1. In Sentence1とSentence2, Sentence1 must be nonpast even if it expresses a past event or action, as in Example (a). Tense in expressed in Sentence2.
2. In Sentence1とSentence2, Sentence2 cannot be a command, a request, a suggestion, an invitation or a volitional sentence. The following sentences are all ungrammatical.
(1)
| ⎧a. | 来なさい。 | |
| ⎪b. | 来てください。 | |
| ⎪c. | 来たらどうですか。 | |
| ⎩d. | 来ませんか。 |
| ⎧a. | come to my place. | |
| ⎪b. | please come to my place. | |
| ⎪c. | why don't you come to my place? | |
| ⎩d. | wouldn't you like to come to my place? |
(For the correct structures, see たら, Note 4.)
★Semantic Derivations of と
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Phrase
| An expression which presents as the topic of a following discourse a phrase which has just been uttered. | Speaking of~ |
| 【Related Expression: ったら; って】 |
(ks). A:この本は田中さんに借りたんです。 B:田中さんと言えばもう病気は治ったのかしら。
A: I borrowed this book from Mr. Tanaka. B: Speaking of Mr. Tanaka, I wonder if he's gotten over his illness yet.
(a). A:次の日曜日は京都へ行くつもりだ。 B:京都と言えば、春子が京都大学の入学試験に通ったそうだ。
A: I'm going to Kyoto next Sunday. B: Speaking of Kyoto, I heard that Haruko passed Kyoto University's entrance exam.
(b). A:小西君はよく休むね。 B:よく休むと言えば、山本君も最近見ませんね。
A: Mr. Konishi is absent frequently, isn't he? B: Talking about about (someone's) frequent absences, we don't see Mr. Yamamoto these days either, do we?
1. と言えば literally means 'if you say that ~', but it is used as a topic presentation expression meaning 'speaking of'.
2. Usually a noun phrase is presented by と言えば, but any sentence element is possible. For example, in Example (b), a verb phrase is presented.
3. The informal form of と言えば is って言えば.
【Related Expressions】
There are several other expressions used to present topics.
I. ったら is the abbreviation for と来たら or to と行ったら and is used to present noun phrase topics in informal conversation. It is more emphatic than the topic marker は and sometimes means something like 'when it comes to ~' or 'in the case of ~'. Example:
[1]
II. って the abbreviation for と言うと, 'when you say ~', or と言うのは 'what you say (or call) ~', is also used to present topics in informal conversation. Like to と言えば any sentence element can precede って, and that element is usually a part of the conversation partner's previous utterance. Examples:
[2]
[3]
Basic Page 486
Phrase
| A phrase marking information which identifies or explains the noun following the phrase. | Called; that says ~; that |
(ksa). 「雪国」という小説を読んだ・読みました。
I read a novel called Snow Country.
(ksb). 山田さんが入院したという知らせを聞いた・聞きました。
I heard the news that Mr. Yamada has been hospitalised.
(ksc). もっと頑張らなくては(ならない)という気持ちがある・あります。
I have the feeling that I have to keep hanging in there.
(a). 「七人の侍」という映画を見たことがありますか。
Have you ever seen the film called Seven Samurai?
(b). ジューンが日本へ行くという話は本当ですか。
Is the story that June is going to Japan true?
(c). その人に会いたくないという気持ちはよく分かります。
I am well aware of your feeling that you don't want to see him.
(d). 友達が今日来るということをすっかり忘れていた。
I completely forgot the fact that my friend is coming today.
1. という is a combination of the quote marker と and いう 'call, say'.
(⇨ と3)
2. The head noun in Key Sentence (B) is a noun of communication, such as 話 'story', ニュース 'news', 知らせ 'information', 手紙 'letter' and 噂 'rumor'. The head noun in Key Sentence (C) is a noun of human emotion, such as 悲しみ 'sadness', 感じ 'feeling', 気 'feeling', 気持ち 'feeling', 恐れ 'fear' and 喜ぶ 'joy'.
3. という is optional if the preceding element is not a noun or a clause which represents a quotation, as in Key Sentence (C) and Examples (c) and (d).
4. When という is used at the end of a sentence, it means hearsay ("I heard that ~, They say ~, It is said that ~"). The sentence final という is used only in written Japanese, as in (1).
(⇨ そうだ1)
Basic Page 488
Conjunction
| A conjunction that lists two or more items, actions or states as inexhaustive examples. | And; or |
| 【Related Expression: たり; や】 |
(ksa). 私はバッハとかモーツアルトとかベートーベンが好きだ・好きです。
I like Bach, Mozart and Beethoven, among others.
(ksb). 疲れた時はお風呂に入るとか早く寝るとかしなさい。
When you are tired, do things like taking a bath or going to sleep early.
| (i)Noun | とか Nounとか… | |
| 学生とか先生とか… | Students and teachers… (among others) | |
| (ii)Sinformal | とか Sinformalとかする | |
| テレビを見るとか本を読むとかする | Do such things as watching TV or reading books |
(a). 日本の茶道とか生け花とかいうものをよく知らない。
I don't know much about things like the Japanese tea ceremony and flower arranging.
(b). A:どんな日本の映画を見ましたか。 B:黒沢の「七人の侍」とか「生きる」とか「影武者」を見ました。
A: What kind of Japanese movie did you see? B: I saw Kurosawa's Seven Samurai, Ikiru and Kagemusha.
(c). A:日曜日にはどんなことをしていますか。 B:音楽を聞くとか、本を読むとかしています。
A: What sorts of things do you do on Sundays? B: I do things like listening to music or reading books.
1. The conjunction とか is a combination of the quote marker と3 and か1. That is why とか is often followed by the verb 言う 'say', as in Example (a). When とか is followed by 言う, as in (1), it is not a conjunction; it is a quote marker. The か indicates the speaker's uncertainty about the quoted report.
2. Noun1とか言うNoun2 meaning 'Noun2 that is called Noun1' is another example of とか used in the above sense.
3. SentenceとかSentenceとかする is used when a statement refers to something in general rather than to something specific. Thus, this structure is inappropriate in (3).
(See Related Expression.)
【Related Expression】
たり~たりする, like SentenceとかSentenceとかする, indicates an inexhaustive listing of examples. It differs from SentenceとかSentenceとかする, however, in that it can be used in both general and specific statements. As noted in Note 3, the とか construction can only be used in general statements. Thus, the grammatical version of (3B) is [1].
[1]
When たり~たりする indicates alternative actions or states, it cannot be replaced by とか.
[2]
Basic Page 490
Noun
| A dependent noun which indicates the time when someone/something will do/does/did something or the time when someone/something will be/is/was in some state. | At the time when; when |
| 【Related Expression: たら; と4】 |
(ksa). 私は日本にいた時(に)お茶を習った・習いました。
I learned the tea ceremony when I was in Japan.
(ksb). 浩は試験の時(に)風邪を引いた・引きました。
Hiroshi caught a cold at the exam time.
| (i){V/Adjective い} informal | 時 | |
| {話す /話した}時 | When someone talks/talked | |
| {高い /高かった}時 | When something is/was expensive | |
| (ii)Adjective な stem | {なだった}時 | |
| {静かな/静かだった}時 | When something is/was quiet | |
| (iii)N | {のだった}時 | |
| {先生の/先生だった}時 | When someone is/was a teacher |
(a). 松本さんは朝ご飯を食べる時いつもテレビを見る。
Mr. Matsumoto always watches TV when he eats his breakfast.
(b). テリーはジュースが安い時に沢山買っておいた。
Terry bought a lot of juice when it was cheap.
(c). 僕は静かな時しか本を読まない。
I read only when it's quiet.
(d). 私が大学生だった時妹はまだ三つだった。
When I was a college student, my sister was only three.
(e). これは出発の時に渡します。
I'll give this to you at the time of your departure.
1. 時, by itself, means 'time', but when it is used as a dependent noun with a modifying phrase or clause, it means 'at the time when' or 'when'.
2. The clause preceding 時 is a type of relative clause; therefore, the basic rules for relative clauses apply to this construction. (⇨ Relative Clause) The following two rules are particularly important:
(A) If the subject of the 時 clause is different from that of the main clause, it is marked by が. Compare (1) with Key Sentence (A):
(B) The predicate form is usually informal except that だ after Adjective な stem and Noun changes to な and の, respectively.
3. The particle に after 時 is optional. With に, time is emphasized and sometimes comes under focus. Compare the two sentences in (2).
4. If Sentence2 in Sentence1時Sentence2 is in the past tense and Sentence1 expresses a state, the tense of Sentence1 can be either past or nonpast, as in (3).
5. When Sentence1 in Sentence1時Sentence2 expresses an action, the meaning of the sentence changes depending on the tenses of Sentence1 and Sentence2.
(A) When the verb in Sentence1 is not a movement verb:
(B) When the verb in Sentence1 is a movement verb:
(C) When the action in Sentence1 and the action in Sentence2 take place simultaneously or concurrently:
【Related Expressions】
Unlike when-clauses in English, 時 clauses do not indicate condition. In other words, 時 clauses are genuine time clauses. In order to indicate condition as expressed in when-clauses, conjunctions like たら and と are used. (⇨ たら; と4) Thus, if [1] expresses a condition which causes the hearer surprise, 時 cannot be used.
[1]
In this case, tara or to must be used, as in [2].
[2]
Basic Page 495
Phrase
| A place is in a location which takes a certain amount of time to get to. | ~ is (in) a place where it takes ~ to get to |
(ks). 私のうちは駅から歩いて十分のところだ・です。
My house is in a place where it takes ten minutes to get to from the station on foot./ On foot my house is ten minutes from the station.
(a). 学校はうちからバスで三十分のところです。
My school is in a place where it takes thirty minutes to get to from home by bus./ By bus it takes thirty minutes to get from home to school.
(b). その病院はここから車で十五分のところだ。
The hospital is in a place where it takes fifteen minutes to get to from here by car./ By car the hospital is fifteen minutes from here.
ところだ is a simplified form of ところにある 'be located in a (where).' This expression can be simplified even more, as seen in (1).
Basic Page 496
Phrase
| Someone/something is in the state where he/it is just about to do something, is doing something, has done something, or has been doing something. | Be just about to do something; be in the midst of doing something; have just done something; have been doing something; almost did something |
| 【Related Expression: ばかり; 時】 |
(ksa). 春江は晩ご飯を食べるところだ・です。
Harue is just about to eat her supper.
(ksb). 春江は晩ご飯を食べているところだ・です。
Harue is in the midst of eating her supper.
(ksc). 春江は晩ご飯を食べたところだ・です。
Harue has just eaten her supper.
(ksd). 春江は晩ご飯を食べていたところだ・です。
Harue has been eating her supper.
(kse). 私はもう少しで宿題を忘れるところだった・でした。
I almost forgot (was about to forget) my homework.
(ksf). 私は危ないところをジーンに助けてもらった・もらいました。
I was saved by Gene was I was in a crisis (literally: dangerous state).
(ksg). お仕事中のところをすみません。
I'm sorry to bother you in the midst of your work.
| (i)Vinformal | ところだ | |
| {話す /話した}ところだ | Be just about to talk/have just talked | |
| {食べる /食べた}ところだ | Be about to eat/have just eaten | |
| (ii)Vて{いる /いた} | ところだ | |
| {話している /話していた}ところだ | Be in the midst of talking/have been talking | |
| {食べている /食べていた}ところだ | Be in the midst of eating/have been eating | |
| (iii)Adjective い informal nonpast | ところ | |
| 忙しいところ | The state in which someone is busy | |
| (iv)Adjective な stem | なところ | |
| 大事なところ | The state in which something is important | |
| (v)Noun の | のところ | |
| 休みのところ | The state in which someone is off duty/on vacation |
(a). 僕は今出かけるところです。
I'm just about to go out now.
(b). テリーと踊っているところをマーサに見られてしまった。
The state in which I was dancing with Terry was seen by Martha./ Martha saw me when I was dancing with Terry.
(c). ご飯を食べ終わったところにまり子が訪ねて来た。
Mariko came (to see me) at the state in which I had just finished my meal./ Mariko came to see me when I'd just finished my meal.
(d). 三章まで読んだところで寝てしまった。
I fell asleep when I had read up to the third chapter (literally: in the state in which I had read it up to the third chapter).
(e). 私は危なく溺れるところだった。
I was almost drowned.
(f). お忙しいところをどうもありがとうございました。
Thank you very much (for helping me) in the state when you are busy./ Thank you very much for sparing your precious time with me.
(g). 利男は一番大事なところでよく勉強しなかったから何も分からなくなってしまった。
Toshio has come to the point of not understanding anything because he didn't study well in the state where (the class) was the most important. / Toshio has gotten totally lost because he didn't study hard when it was most important.
(h). お休みのところをすみません。
I'm sorry (to disturb) the state in which you are off duty./ I'm sorry to bother you when you are off duty/on vacation.
1. ところ itself means 'place', but it can also mean 'state' or 'time' when it is used with a modiiying verb, adjective or noun.
2. As seen in Key Sentence (A) - Key Sentence (D), verbs which precede ところ are either past or nonpast and either progressive or non-progressive, and each one of the four verb forms expresses a different aspect of the action.
3. As seen in Key Sentence (E), when the preceding verb is nonpast and non-progressive and the following copula is in the past tense, the sentence may mean 'someone or something almost did something.' (The literal meaning is 'someone or something was about to do something.') When ところだった means 'almost did something', such adverbs as もう少しで 'just by a little' and 危なく 'nearly' are often used also, as in Key Sentence (E) and Example (e).
4. ところ can be followed by either the copula, as in Key Sentence (A) - Key Sentence (E), Examples (a) and (e), or such particles as を, に, へ and で, as in Key Sentence (F) and Key Sentence (G), Examples (b) - (d) and (f) - (h).
5. When adjectives or nouns with の precede ところ, ところ is usually followed by a particle rather than the copula, as in Examples (f) and (h). The following sentences are ungrammatical:
【Related Expressions】
I. When ところ is used as a dependent noun, its function appears to be similar to that of 時. However, these two expressions are different in that ところ basically indicates a state, while 時 indicates a time. Thus, [1] makes sense by itself, but [2] does not.
[1]
[2]
II. Verbいる/いたところだ is similar to Verbいる/いた. The difference is that the former focuses more on the state or the scene while the latter concentrates on the action. Compare the usages of the two expressions in [3] and [4].
[3]
[4]
III. Verb informal pastところだ is similar to Verb informal pastばかりだ. However, their implications are different. That is, the former indicates that someone/something is in the state of having just done something, while the latter implies that someone/something did something and not much time has passed since then. Thus, ところだ is strange in [5] because 一週間前 'a week ago' is too far in the past to be used to express "have just done something".
[5]
Basic Page 501
Particle
| A compound particle which indicates the capacity, role or function of someone or something. | As; in the capacity of |
(ks). 田中さんはセールスマンとして採用された・されました。
Mr. Tanaka was hired as a salesman.
| Noun | として | |
| 先生として | As a teacher |
(a). 私は医者としてあなたに言います。
I'll tell you (this) as a doctor.
(b). 木村さんとは友達として付き合っているだけです。
I'm just keeping company with Mr. Kimura as a friend.
(c). この部屋は物置として使っている。
I'm using this room as a storeroom.
Basic Page 502
Particle
| A compound particle which indicates a standard for comparisons. | For |
| 【Related Expression: にしては】 |
(ks). このステーキは日本のステーキとしては安い・安いです。
This steak is inexpensive for Japanese steak.
| Noun | としては | |
| 先生としては | For a teacher |
(a). ジョンソンさんは日本語の一年生としては日本語が上手だ。
Mr. Johnson is good at Japanese for a first-year student (of Japanese).
(b). これは日本のアパートとしては大きい方です。
For a Japanese apartment, this is one of the bigger ones.
【Related Expression】
にしては is also used to present a standard for comparisons. However, it is different from としては in terms of the speaker's presupposition. That is, sentences with Xにしては presuppose that the person or the thing referred to by the subject is X, whereas those with Xとしては have no such presupposition. In Example (a), for example, Mr. Johnson may or may not be a first-year Japanese student. However, if にしては is used, it is presupposed that he is actually a first-year Japanese student. The two expressions are also different in that ni shite wa can be used when the speaker doesn't know exactly what he is comparing with the standard he presents, but としては cannot be used in such situations. For example, suppose that someone receives a package and doesn't know its contents. In this situation, he can say 本にしては, assuming that the package contains books, but he cannot say 本としては as in [1].
[1]
Basic Page 503
Noun
| An intention or conviction of a speaker (or a person with whom the speaker can empathise) about his future or past actions or current state. | Intend to ~; be convinced that ~; believe; feel sure that ~; be going to; mean |
| 【Related Expression: はず; ようと思う】 |
(ksa). 私は来年結婚するつもりだ・です。
I intend to get married next year.
(ksb). 父はまだ若いつもりだ・です。
My father is convinced that he is still young.
(ksc). 私はよく読んだつもりだ・です。
I'm convinced that I read it carefully.
(ksd). これはお礼のつもりだ・です。
This is my intention of appreciation.
| (i)Vinformal | つもりだ | |
| {話す /話した}つもりだ | Intend to talk/someone is convinced he talked | |
| (ii)Adjective い informal nonpast | つもりだ | |
| 強いつもりだ | Someone is convinced that he is strong | |
| (iii)Adjective な stem | なつもりだ | |
| 元気なつもりだ | Someone is convinced that he is healthy | |
| (iv)Noun | のつもりだ | |
| 先生のつもりだ | Someone is convinced that he is a teacher |
(a). 休みには何をするつもりですか。
What do you intend to do during the vacation?
(b). 僕は大学に行くつもりはない。
I have no intention of going to college.
(c). あんな人にはもう会わないつもりです。
I do not intend to see that kind of person.
(d). 私はまだ元気なつもりだ。
I'm convinced that I'm still healthy.
(e). 話したつもりでしたが、話さなかったんですね。
I thought I talked to you about it, but I didn't, did I?
(f). この仕事は遊びのつもりです。
This work is intended to be a pastime.
(g). それで勉強しているつもりですか。
Are you sure you can study like that?
1. つもり is a dependent noun and must be preceded by a modifier. The minimal modifier is その 'that'.
2. The subject of a statement containing つもりだ must be the first person or someone with whom the speaker empathizes. In a question, however, the subject must be the second person or someone with whom the hearer empathizes.
3. つもりだ can be negated in two ways. The verb/adjective in front of つもり can be negated, as in Example (c), or つもり can be negated as つもりはない (not *つもりではない), as in Example (b). The difference between these two negative versions is that the second version implies stronger negation than the first one, as shown by (3) below:
【Related Expressions】
I. つもり should not be confused with はず which means 'expectation' rather than 'conviction'.
(⇨ はず)
II. つもりだ is comparable but not identical to ようと思う. Firstly, ようと思う can replace つもりだ only in Key Sentence (A), that is, only when a verb precedes つもりだ. Secondly, ようと思う indicates a spur-of-the moment decision while つもりだ indicates a more stable conviction/intention. Thus, if you are shown a car by a car salesman, you can say:
[1]
But it is strange to say:
Or, if you see an interesting ad for a stereo set in the newspaper, you can say [2a] but not [2b].
[2]
Basic Page 507
Particle
| A colloquial topic-introducer. | Speaking of~ |
| 【Related Expression: (の)は; と言えば (ったら)】 |
(ksa). アメリカ人ってフットボールが好きだ・好きですね。
Speaking of Americans, they love football, don't they?
(ksb). 漢字を覚えるって大変だ・大変ですね。
To memorize kanji, it's terribly hard, isn't it?
| Noun | って | |
| 先生って | Speaking of the teacher | |
| {V/Adjective い} informal nonpast | って | |
| 話すって | To talk (topic) | |
| 高いって | To be expensive (topic) |
(a). 漢字って面白いですよ。
Speaking of kanji, they are interesting, I tell you.
(b). 日本人ってよく写真を撮りますね。
Speaking of Japanese people, they love taking pictures, don't they?
(c). 外国で暮らすって難しいね。
Living in a foreign country is hard, isn't it?
(d). 木が多いっていいものだね。
It's good to have many trees, isn't it?
(e). 家が広いっていいですね。
It's good to have a spacious house, isn't it?
1. You should not use Adjective な stem って unless it is an Adjective な that can be used also as a noun as in: 健康 'healthy/heal', 孤独 'lonely/loneliness', 親切 'kind/kindness', etc.
2. You should not confuse って1 with って2 of hearsay. (⇨ って2) Consider the following sentences:
3. って1 tends to co-occur witn the sentence-final particles ね or よ.
【Related Expression】
When って is attached to a noun as in Key Sentence (A) and Examples (a) and (b), it is close in meaning to the topic marker は. When って is attached to a sentence as in Key Sentence (B) and Examples (c), (d) and (e), it is close in meaning to (という)のは. って, however, is more colloquial and emotive than は or (という)のは. In fact, if the predicate does not express the speaker's emotive judgment/evaluation って cannot be used. Thus,
[1]
Basic Page 510
Particle
| A colloquial quotation marker. | That |
| 【Related Expression: そうだ1; と3】 |
(ks). ジェーンは踊らないって。
Jane said that she wouldn't dance/ They say that Jane won't dance.
(a). 今晩は雪が降るって。
They say it's going to snow tonight.
(b). 僕も行こうかって思いました。
I wondered if I should go there, too.
1. Quote+って2 is a colloquial version of Quote+と3. (⇨ と3) Any quotation which can precede と3 can precede って.
2. When there is a human topic in the って construction as in Key Sentence, the sentence is ambiguous as to whose quotation it is. The person who is quoting can be either the topic person or 'they'. But if a reporting verb 言う 'say' is used after って, then the sentence means 'The person (topic) says that ~'.
3. When って is not followed by a verb, the understood verb is 言う 'say'. Other verbs (i.e., 思う 'feel, think') cannot be deleted after って, as shown in Eample (b).
【Related Expressions】
I. 言った/言いました 'said', 言っている/います 'is saying' or 言っていった/いました 'was saying' can be deleted after って2, as seen in Key Sentence and [1] below, but not after と3 as seen in [2].
[1]
[2]
The difference between って2 and と3 is that the former is more emphatic and emotive owing to its glottal stop.
II. When the subject of the understood 言う is an unspecified person(s), as in the second interpretation of Key Sentence, って2 is similar to the hearsay そうだ1 'they say ~'. って2, however, is more colloquial and informal than そうだ1. (⇨ そうだ1) Xが言っていたけど 'X was saying but' or its variants are used when specifying an informational source in the って construction, not the usual Xによると, as shown in [3].
[3]
Basic Page 512
Conjunction
| During a period when a certain situation remains in effect. | While; before; during |
| 【Related Expression: 間(に); 前に; 中(に)】 |
(ksa). 前田さんはアメリカにいるうちに英語が上手なった・なりました。
Mr. Maeda's English improved while he was in America.
(ksb). 何もしないうちに今年も終わった・終わりました。
Before I've achieved anything, this year is over.
(ksc). 走っているうちにお腹が痛くなった・なりました。
My stomach started to ache while I was running.
(ksd). 若いうちに本を沢山読みなさい。
Read many books while you're young.
| (i)Vinformal nonpast | うちに | (Verb: stative) |
| いるうちに | While someone is there | |
| 話せるうちに | While someone can talk | |
| (ii)Vinformal negative nonpast | うちに | |
| 話さないうちに | Before someone talks | |
| 食べないうちに | Before someone eats | |
| (iii)Vている | うちに | |
| 話しているうちに | While someone is talking | |
| 食べているうちに | While someone is eating | |
| (iv) Adjective い informal nonpast | うちに | |
| 高いうちに | While something is expensive | |
| (v)Adjective な stem | なうちに | |
| 静かなうちに | While something is quiet | |
| (vi)Noun の | のうちに | |
| 休みのうちに | During the vaction |
(a). 雨が降らないうちにテニスをして来ます。
I'll go and play tennis (and come back) before it rains.
(b). 忘れないうちに言っておきたいことがある。
There is something I want to tell you before I forget.
(c). 考えているうちに分からなくなった。
While thinking about it, I got lost.
(d). 働けるうちに出来るだけ働きたい。
I'd like to work as much as possible while I can work.
(e). 温かいうちに飲んで下さい。
Please drink it while it is warm.
(f). 休みのうちによく寝ておきます。
I'll sleep a lot during the vacation.
1. The うちに clause expresses the general time during which a given action or state occurs. うちに is preceded by verbs describing states or progressive actions, or by adjectives, or by nouns expressing duration such as 春 'spring', 昼間 'day time' and 週刊 'week'. (For examples, see Key Sentence (A), (C), (D) and Example (f), respectively.)
2. The tense before うちに is always nonpast, regardless of the tense of the main clause.
3. The verb before うちに is frequently negated, as in Key Sentence (B), Examples (a) and (b).
【Related Expressions】
I. When it indicates an interval of time, 間 refers to the 'time space' between two points, i.e., the beginning and the end. In other words, the time space indicated by 間 can be measured in clocktime. うち, however, does not refer to such measurable time space; it simply means 'time space within'. Thus, in a situation where a mother wants to read books while her child is away at school, either うち or 間 can be used, as in [1a]. However, in a situation where we want to play tennis before it rains, we cannot substitute 間 for うち, as in [1b], because it is impossible to specify a time boundary.
[1]
II. The うちに construction cannot be used for situations where a noun is an event noun such as 授業 'class', 会議 'conference' and 試合 'game'.
[2]
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Particle
| A particle which marks a topic or a contrastive element. | Talking about~; as for~; the |
| 【Related Expression: が】 |
(ksa). 私は学生だ・です。
I am a student.
(ksb). 杉田さんは行きますが私は行きません。
Mr. Sugita will go (there) but I won't go.
(a). ジョーンズさんは今日本語を勉強している。
Mr. Jones is studying Japanese now.
(b). この町には大学が二つある。
There are two universities in this town.
(c). 私はビールは飲みますが酒は飲みません。
I drink beer but don't drink sake.
(d). 春子には人形を、秋子には絵本をあげた。
I gave Haruko a doll and Akiko a picture book.
1. The origin of は can be traced to the conditional marker ば. (Compare the spellings of は and ば) (⇨ ば) However, in contemporary Japanese, は is used, in general, to mark information which the speaker assumes to be part of the hearer's register. In other words, when は marks X, the speaker usually assumes that the hearer knows what X refers to. Thus, noun phrases which can be marked by は in ordinary circumstances are as follows:
(A) Common nouns whose referents have already been introduced into the discourse linguistically or extra-linguistically. Example:
(B) Proper nouns. Examples:
(C) Nouns whose referents can be uniquely identified (that is, they are one of a kind). Examples:
(D) Generic names. Examples:
It is noted that は never marks interrogative words such as 何 'what' and 誰 'who' .Thus, (5) is ungrammatical.
This is because interrogative words do not refer to a known thing and, therefore, their referents can never be in the hearer's register.
2. More specifically, は marks a topic and/or a contrastive element. When は is used as a topic marker, as in XはY, X is something the rest of the sentence (i.e., Y) is about, and the focus of the sentence falls on Y or part of Y. The topic Xは normally appears at the beginning of a sentence.
3. は is also used to mark a contrastive element, as in Key Sentence (B), Examples (c) and (d). However, whether は is being used as a topic marker or as a contrastive marker is not always clear. This is not clear particularly when there is one element X marked by は but there is no other element Y explicitly contrasted with X. Here are some general rules for determining whether a given は is topical or contrastive.
(A) When more than one は appears in a sentence, as in "XはYはZは...", the first は is usually understood to be the topic marker, the second は is more contrastive than the first one, the third one is more contrastive than the second, and so on. Examples :
(B) When Xは is pronounced with stress, it marks a contrastive element. Examples:
4. When は is used in negative sentences, it marks the negated element. This is a special use of は as a contrastive marker. Compare the following sentences:
(10a) simply states that the speaker didn't go to Boston yesterday. (10b) negates yesterday, implying that the speaker went to Boston on other days or that he usually goes to Boston on that day but didn't yesterday. Likewise, (10c) negates to Boston, implying that the speaker went somewhere but it was not to Boston.
5. There are rules for particle ellipsis when は marks noun phrases with case markers (i.e., particles such as the subject marker が (= が1) and the direct object marker を (= を1)).
(A) When は marks Xがa or Xを, が or を must drop. (Examples (a) and (c))
(B) When は marks Xへ or Xに6 (location), へ or に optionally drop, (Example (b))
(C) When は marks Xに1/に2/に3/に4 (time, indirect object, agent, contact), Xで, Xと, Xから, Xまで or Xより, the case marker usually remains and は follows it, forming a double particle. (Example (d)) More examples follow:
6. The topical は does not appear in subordinate clauses, as in (13).
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Particle
| A sentence final particle used in weak assertive or volitional sentences by a female speaker. |
(ks). 私も明日のパーティー行くわ。
I'll go to tomorrow's party, too.
(a). 大木さんはもう帰りましたわ。
Mr. Ooki has already gone home.
(b). 久子はまだ学生ですわ。
Hisako is still a student.
(c). この部屋は小さいわ。
This room is small.
1. The sentence particle わ is used only in female speech and expresses the speaker's weak assertion or volition. In addition, わ sometimes expresses the speaker's intimacy or friendliness.
2. わ can follow any declarative sentence, but cannot follow the volitional forms of verbs. Thus, the following sentence is ungrammatical.
Note that わ cannot be used in questions.
3. Other sentence particles such as ね and よ can occur with くぁ. In this case, わ must precede these particles.
Basic Page 521
Structure
| Someone or something is/was someone or something or is/was in some state, or will do/does/did something. |
(ksa). これは本だ・です。
This is a book.
(ksb). コンサートは八時からだ・です。
The concert is from eight o'clock.
(a). あの人は先生だ。
That person is a teacher.
(b). 私はジョーンズです。
I am Jones.
(c). 授業は四時までです。
My classes are till four o'clock.
(d). 今度の試合はワシントン大学とだ。
The next game is against the University of Washington.
1. The particle used with the noun or noun phrase between のは and だ usually drops if the particle does not have any concrete meaning (as in the cases of が and を), or if the meaning of the entire sentence is somehow predictable. Examples follow.
In (5b) and (6b) the particles から and と normally drop, because 出発した 'departed' and 一緒に 'together' generally co-occur with から and と, respectively.
3. The element between のは and だ cannot be a manner adverb. The following sentences are all unacceptable.
Unlike English, the copula だ in this construction is normally in the present tense.
5. The number of のは~だ sentences which can be produced from one sentence is limited only by the number of elements which can be placed between のは and だ. For example, four such sentences can be derived from (10).
6. Normally the の clause takes は, marking the entire clause as presupposed, old, unimportant information, and the element between のは and だ represents a new, important piece of information. But sometimes the の clause takes が, marking the clause as new, important information. In this case the element between のが and だ indicates unimportant information.
【Related Expression】
の in the present construction should not be confused with the の used as a nominalizer. Sentence [1] is the のは~だ construction and [2], the nominalized sentence.
(⇨ の3)
[1]
[2]
One way to differentiate between the two constructions is to see if the sentence can be restated by deleting のは and だ and placing the element before のは in an appropriate position. For example, [1] can be restated as [3], but [2] cannot be restated, as seen in [4].
[3]
[4]
Basic Page 525
Structure
| A construction which relates a non controllable state of something or someone to a topic |
(ks1). 私は英語が分かる・分かります。
To me, English is understandable.
(ks2). 花子は目が奇麗だ・奇麗です。
Speaking of Hanako, her eyes are pretty.
(ks3). 辞書はウェブスターがいい・いいです。
Talking about dictionaries, Webster's is good.
(a). 高志はテニスが上手だ。
Takashi is good at tennis.
(b). 私はボーイフレンドが欲しい。
I want a boyfriend.
(c). 僕はフットボールが好きだ。
I like football.
(d). 象は鼻が長い。
Elephants have long trunks.
(e). 私はお腹が空いた。
I am hungry.
(f). ミラーさんは背が高い。
Mr. Miller is tall.
(g). 日本はステーキが高い。
Steak is expensive in Japan.
(h). 海は日本海が奇麗だ。
Talking about the sea, the Japan Sea is clean.
(i). 日本の野球はどこが強いですか。
Talking about baseball in Japan, who is strong?
1. "AはBがC" is one of the basic constructions in Japanese. In this construction, C usually expresses something about B and "BがC" expresses something about A, as illustrated in (1).
2. Sentences utilizing this construction may be categorized into three classes:
3. Listed below are the verbs and adjectives which usually require the "AはBがC" construction. (Sentences with these verbs and adjectives belong to Class (A) in Note 2.)
Basic Page 528
Phrase
| A phrase which indicates prohibition. | Cannot do something; must not do something; don't do something; should not do something |
| 【Related Expression: はならない】 |
(ks). この部屋に入ってはいけない・いけません。
You must not enter this room.
| Vて | はいけない | |
| 話してはいけない | Must not talk | |
| 食べてはいけない | Must not eat |
(a). 教室でものを食べてはいけません。
You must not eat (food) in the classroom.
(b). 花子はまだ酒を飲んではいけない。
Hanako must/can not drink alcohol yet.
1. In Verbてはいけない, the second person subject is usually omitted, as in Key Sentence and Example (a).
2. Verbてはいけない is often used as a negative answer to "Verbてもいいです (May I ~?)."
(⇨ てもいい)
【Related Expression】
Verbてはならない also expresses prohibition. Verbてはならない, however, sounds a little stronger than Verbてはいけない.
Basic Page 529
Verb (Group 1)
| Can figure out (spontaneously) various facts –such as content, nature, value, meaning, cause, reason, result– about something whose existence is presupposed. | Be comprehensible; understand; can tell; figure out |
| 【Related Expression: 知る】 |
(ks). 私(に)はこの言葉が分からない・分かりません。
To me this word is not comprehensible./ I don't understand this word.
(a). 私にはこの映画の意味が分からない。
I don't understand the meaning of this movie.
(b). この問題は難しくて分からない。
This problem is too difficult to understand.
(c). 明日までにこの仕事が出来るかどうか分かりません。
I can't tell if I can finish this work by tomorrow.
(d). A:田中さんを知っていますか。 B:ええ、知っていますが、あの人はどうもよく分かりません。
A: Do you know Mr. Tanaka? B: Yes, I know him, but he is somehow incomprehensible to me.
1. The basic pattern for this verb is the は～が pattern. (⇨ は~が) The experiencer of 分かる takes に optionally, as in Key Sentence.
2. Because 分かる is already a potential verb, it cannot take the potential form 分かれる 'can understand'.
3. 分かる normally takes が to indicate the object of comprehension, but must take を when 'non-spontaneous comprehension' is involved, as in causative sentences (1a) or sentences in which the experiencer makes a conscious effort to understand something (1b).
【Related Expression】
分かる indicates 'the process of figuring sometning out' and is different from 知る which basically means 'to get some raw information from some outside source'. The primary difference between the two verbs is illustrated in the following sentences:
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
Basic Page 531
Phrase
| The speaker's conclusion obtained through deductive, logical judgment or calculation on the basis of what he has heard or read. | No wonder; so it means that ~; that's why; should ~; I take is that ~; naturally |
| 【Related Expression: はずだ】 |
(ksa). 毎日三時間も日本語を勉強いるんですか。よく出来るわけですね。
Are you studying Japanese (as long as) three hours every day? No wonder your Japanese is good.
(ksb). 明日試験ですか。じゃあ今晩忙しいわけですね。
Do you have an exam tomorrow? Then, you must be busy tonight.
| (i){V/Adjective い} informal | わけだ | |
| {話す /話した}わけだ | I take it that someone talks/talked | |
| {食べる /食べた}わけだ | I take it that someone eats/ate | |
| {高い /高かった}わけだ | I take it that something is/was expensive | |
| (ii)Adjective な stem | {なだった}わけだ | |
| {静かな/静かだった}わけだ | I take it that something is/was quiet | |
| (iii)Noun | {というだった}わけだ | |
| {先生という/先生だった}わけだ | I take it that someone is/was a teacher |
(a). スミスさんは十年間もテニスをしたのだから上手なわけだ。
Mr. Smith has played tennis for ten years, so he should be good at it.
(b). A:来月から四ヶ月フランスに行きます。 B:すると、六月に帰ってくるわけですね。
A: I'll go to France next month and stay there for four months. B: Then, I take it that you're returning here in June?
(c). 毎日プールで泳いでいるんですか。丈夫なわけですね。
Are you swimming in the pool everyday? No wonder you're healthy.
(d). 昨日は三時間しか寝ていない。道理で眠いわけだ。
Yesterday I slept only three hours. No wonder I am sleepy.
(e). えっ？足立さんが入院したんですか。パーティーに来なかったわけだ。
What? Was Mr. Adachi hospitalized? No wonder he didn't come to the party.
(f). A:山田さんは英語のことは何でも知っています。 B:生き字引というわけですか。
A: Mr. Yamada knows everything about English. B: You mean he is a living dictionary?
(g). 父の言うことが分からないわけではないが、どうしても医者になりたくない。
It is not that I don't understand what my father is saying; I simply don't want to become a medical doctor.
1. わけ can be used as a full noun, meaning reason as in (1) and (2) below:
2. わけで is the て form of わけだ.
【Related Expression】
はずだ 'expect' is similar but not identical to わけだ. はずだ can express a speaker's expectation when there is no preceding context; わけだ cannot. In other words, わけだ is highly dependent on verbal context.
(⇨ はずだ)
[1]
Basic Page 535
Suffix
| A suffix attached to names of stores, inns and Japanese style restaurants or to persons engaged in certain occupations | Store |
(a). 花屋 本屋 薬屋 肉屋 パチンコ屋 パン屋 魚屋 酒屋
Florist bookstore drug store butcher pinball parlor bakery fishmonger liquor store
(b). 酒屋さんに電話してビールを三ダース持って来てもらった。
I called the man at the liquor store and had him bring me three dozen beers.
(c). あの人は政治家ではなくて政治屋だ。
He is not a statesman but a mere politician.
The suffix 屋 is sometimes used to downgrade a person. This use, however, is very restricted. Examples follow:
Note that these examples are all derived from Verbます+屋, as in 恥ずかしがり+屋, いばり+屋 and 気取り+屋.
Basic Page 536
Conjunction
| A coordinate conjunction that is used to list two or more items (nouns or noun phrases) in an inexhaustive fashion. | And |
| 【Related Expression: と1; とか】 |
(ks). 山田さんや小川さんが来た・来ました。
Mr. Yamada and Mr. Ogawa (and others) came.
(a). 山本さんやスミスさんがテニスをしている。
Mr. Yamamoto, Mr. Smith and others are playing tennis.
(b). 僕はビールやワインを飲んだ。
I drank beer, wine and other things like that.
(c). 土田さんは大川さんや鈴木さんに手紙を書いた。
Mr. Tsuchida wrote a letter to Mr. Okawa and Mr. Suzuki (and others).
1. や is used to combine two or more nouns or noun phrases. It cannot be used to combine predicates. Thus, (1) is unacceptable.
Instead of (1) we have to use たり~たりする to express an inexhaustive listing of predicates, as in (2).
(⇨ たり~たりする)
2. NounやNoun can be used as a noun phrase in any position where a single noun can be used. It can be used as the subject, as in Key Sentence and Example (a), or as the direct object as in Example (b), or as the indirect object as in Example (c).
3. NounやNoun cannot appear in the position of X in the XがYだ construction, because が in XがYだ is a highly exhaustive listing marker.
(⇨ が1)
This idea can be conveyed using the construction in (4):
【Related Expression】
とか is used to make a rather general, inexhaustive listing of items as examples, whereas や is used to make an inexhaustive listing of items related to a specific time and place. Consider the following examples:
[1]
Basic Page 538
Adverb
| An adverb indicating that the actual situation expectedly/anticipatively conforms to a standard based on past experience, comparison with other people, or common sense. | Still; also; after all; as expected; you know |
| 【Related Expression: 結局; さすが(に)】 | |
| 【Antonym Expression: まさか】 | |
(ks). ベイリーさんはやはり来なかった・来ませんでしたね。
As expected, Mr. Bailey hasn't come, has he?
(a). 雪子さんは今でもやはり奇麗です。
Yukiko is still pretty.
(b). お兄さんはテニスが上手ですが、弟さんもやっぱり上手ですよ。
The other brother is good at tennis, and the younger brother is also good at it.
(c). やはり日本のビールは美味しいですね。
As expected, Japanese beer is good.
(d). 僕はやはり結婚することにしました。
I've decided to get married, after all.
1. やはり is a speaker-oriented adverb because its use is based on the speaker's subjective and presuppositional standards. Its overuse in conversation makes a discourse overly subjective, but its proper use in conversation makes a discourse sound like real Japanese.
2. やはり can be positioned sentence-initially or sentence-medially, just like other adverbs. Thus, in Key Sentence やはり can be positioned in two ways.
The sentence-initial やはり is more emphatic than the sentence-medial やはり. The sentence-final やはり as in (1c) sounds like an after-thought, and its usage is slightly marginal.
3. やっぱり is a more emphatic and emotive version of やはり, owing to its glottal stop 'っぱ'.
【Related Expressions】
I. さすが is an adverb/adjective な whose meaning is similar to やはり. さすが, however, has only one meaning 'as expected' and indicates that the speaker is very much impressed or surprised by the given situation.
[1]
さすが(に) can replace やはり only when やはり means 'as expected', as in Key Sentence and Example (c).
II. The adverb 結局 'after all, in short' can replace やはり only when the latter means 'after all', as in Example (d). More examples follow:
[2]
In [2] 結局 sounds more formal than やはり, because the former is a Sino-Japanese word, while the latter is a Japanese word. Yet both can be used in conversational Japanese.
III. The adverb まさか 'by no means, on no account, surely not' is used when a given situation is far from the speaker's expectation. In that sense, it is an antonym of やはり. まさか is used with a negative predicate or is used all by itself, meaning 'Unbelievable!, You don't say!'.
[3]
Basic Page 541
Auxiliary Adjective (い)
| Something or someone is easy to~. | Easy to; ready to; be apt to; prone to; do something easily |
| 【Antonym Expression: 難い】 |
(ks). この漢字は覚え易い・易いです。
This kanji is easy to memorise.
| Vます | 易い | |
| 話し易い | Easy to speak | |
| 食べ易い | Easy to eat |
(a). あの人のうちは見つけ易い。
His house is easy to find.
(b). 佐藤先生は話し易いです。
Professor Sato is easy to talk to.
(c). このペンは書き易い。
This pen is easy to write with.
(d). 上野さんは一緒に仕事がし易かった。
Mr. Ueno was easy to work with.
(e). 豆腐は腐り易い。
Tofu rots easily.
1. Verbます易い is an い type compound adjective and conjugates as an Adjective い, as seen in the following：
| Informal | Formal | ||
| Affirmative | Nonpast | 話しやすい | 話しやすいです |
| Affirmative | Past | 話しやすかった | 話しやすかったです |
| Negative | Nonpast | 話しやすくない | 話しやすくないです 話しやすくありません |
| Negative | Past | 話しやすくなかった | 話しやすくなかったです 話しやすくありませんでした |
2. The following sentences (1) - (4) are closely related to Examples (a) - (d).
The noun phrases in (1) through (4) above, such as the direct object を, the indirect object に, the instrumental phrase で, and the comitative phrase と are the sources for the topic (subject) of Examples (a), (b), (c) and (d), respectively. It is important to note that all these particles drop in the 易い construction, and that the topic is the new subject of the 易い construction.
3. If the subject of the 易い construction is under focus, it is marked by が, as in (5).
(⇨ が1)
The antonym of 易い is 難い 'hard to ~', and it is used in exactly the same way as 易い.
(⇨ 難い)
Basic Page 547
Auxiliary Adjective (な)
| An auxiliary な type adjective which expresses the likelihood of something/someone or the likeness of something/someone to something/someone. | Look like; look as if; be like; appear; seem |
| 【Related Expression: だろう; らしい; そうだ1; そうだ2】 |
(ksa). 杉山さんはアメリカへ行くようだ・ようです。
It appears that Mr. Sugiyama is going to America.
(ksb). 上田さんはボクシングが好きなようだ・ようです。
Mr. Ueda appears to like boxing.
(ksc). あの人は田中先生のようだ・ようです。
That person looks like Professor Tanaka.
(ksd). A:石井さんはもう帰りましたか。 B:はい、そのようです。
A: Has Mr. Ishii gone home already? B: Yes, it looks like it.
| (i){V/Adjective い} informal | ようだ | |
| {話す /話した}ようだ | It seems that someone (will) talk/talked | |
| {高い /高かった}ようだ | It seems that something is/was expensive | |
| (ii)Adjective な stem | {なだった}ようだ | |
| {静かな/静かだった}ようだ | It seems that something is/was quiet | |
| (iii)Noun | {のだった}ようだ | |
| {先生の/先生だった}ようだ | It seems that someone is/was a teacher | |
| (iv)Demonstrative | ようだ | |
| そのようだ | It seems so |
(a). 木村さんは昨日お酒を飲んだようだ。
It seems that Mr. Kimura drank sake yesterday.
(b). この問題は学生にはちょっと難しいようだ。
This problem seems to be a little difficult for the students.
(c). ここは昔学校だったようだ。
It seems that this place used to be a school.
(d). この酒は水のようだ。
This sake is like water.
1. ようだ expresses the likelihood of something/someone, or the likeness of something/someone to something/someone. In either case, when the speaker uses ようだ, his statement is based on firsthand, reliable information (usually visual information).
2. ようだ can be used in counter-factual situations, as in Ex. (d). In this case, the adverb まるで 'just' can be used for emphasis.
3. ようだ is a な type adjective and has the prenominal form ような and the adverbial form ように. (⇨ ように2) Examples:
4. The colloquial version of ようだ is みたいだ, which is also a な type adjective. The uses of みたいだ are exactly the same as those for ようだ. The formation rules are as follows:
【Related Expressions】
The conjecture expressions Sentenceだろう, Sentenceらしい and Sentenceそうだ2 convey ideas similar to Sentenceようだ. The differences are as follows：
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
The following examples demonstrate the differences among these four expressions. The sentences in [1] present examples with the adjective 高い 'expensive' before the conjecture auxiliaries.
[1]
Here, [1a] is mere conjecture, [1b] expresses the speaker's conjecture based on what he has heard and/or read. (If the sentence involves little conjecture, it is almost like hearsay. (⇨ そうだ1)) [1c] is also the speaker's guess, but in this case it is based on what he sees. [1d] expresses the speaker's judgment about the price of the book. Note that in [1d] the speaker knows the book's price; therefore, this is not a guess. [2] provides examples with the noun 先生 'teacher' preceding the conjecture words. The differences in meaning among the sentences here are the same as those explained in [1], except that [2c] is ungrammatical.
[2]
In [3], the verb 降る 'fall' precedes the conjecture auxiliaries.
[3]
Here, [3a] is the speaker's guess. [3b] is the speaker's conjecture based on what he heard or it is almost like hearsay. [3c] is also the speaker's guess, but, in this case, he is probably looking at the sky. Like [3c], [3d] is based on what the speaker sees, but in this case the information is reliable, and involves the speaker's reasoning process.
The diagram in [4] summarizes the characteristics of the four conjecture expressions and そうだ1 (hearsay).
[4]
| information→ |
[耳],[本]→ |
そうだ1 (hearsay) |
→report | |
| information→ |
[目]→ |
conjecture→ |
そうだ2 |
→report |
| information→ |
[耳],[本]→ |
conjecture→ |
らしい |
→report |
| information→ |
reasoning/judgment→ |
conjecture→
|
ようだ
|
→report |
| information→ |
?→ |
conjecture→ |
だろう |
→report |
Basic Page 553
Conjunction
| Do something in such a way that ~. | So that |
(ksa). 読めるように字を奇麗に書いて下さい。
Please write it neatly so that I can read it.
(ksb). 風邪を引かないように気をつけている・います。
I'm taking care of myself so that I don't catch a cold.
| Vinformal nonpast | {potential/ negative}ように | |
| {話せる/話さない}ように | So that someone can talk/does not talk | |
| {食べられる/食べない}ように | So that someone can eat/does not eat |
(a). 僕が分かるようにスミスさんはゆっくり英語を話してくれた。
Mr. Smith spoke English slowly so that I could understand him.
(b). 遅れないようにタクシーで行きました。
I went there by taxi so that I wouldn't be late.
(c). 病気が治るように薬を飲んだ。
I took medicine so that I would recover from illness.
(d). 子供が本を読むように面白そうな本を買って来た。
I bought some interesting-looking books so that my child would read books.
1. Although ように1 can be used with almost any informal nonpast verb, it is most commonly used with potential verb forms (as in Key Sentence(A) and Example (a)) and negative verb forms (as in Key Sentence (B) and Example (b)).
2. ように言う 'tell someone to do something', ようになる 'reach the point where ~' and ようにする 'try to ~' are idiomatice uses of ように
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Auxiliary Adjective (な)
| An adverbial form of ようだ | As; like |
(ksa). 私が言うように書いて下さい。
Please write it down as I tell you.
(ksb). 今日は春になったように暖かい・暖かいです。
Today is as warm as if it had become spring.
(ksc). ドロシーは日本人のように日本語を話す・話します。
Dorothy speaks Japanese like a Japanese.
| (i){V/Adjective い} informal | ように | |
| {話す /話した}ように | As someone talks/talked; as if someone (had) talked | |
| {高い /高かった}ように | As something is/was expensive; as if something were/had been expensive | |
| (ii)Adjective な stem | {なだった}ように | |
| {静かな/静かだった}ように | As something is/was quiet; as if something were/had been quiet | |
| (iii)Noun | {のだった}ように | |
| {先生の/先生だった}ように | Like a teacher/as someone was a teacher; as if someone were/had been a teacher |
(a). 前に話したように私は来月会社を辞めます。
As I told you before, I'm going to quit the company next month.
(b). 上田さんのように走れますか。
Can you run like Mr. Ueda?
(c). 若い時のようには元気がなくなった。
I don't feel as strong as I used to when I was young.
(d). 土井さんはいつものように朝六時に起きた。
As usual Mr. Doi got up at six in the morning.
(e). 兄がスポーツが上手なように弟も上手だ。
Just like the older brother, the younger brother is also good at sports.
(f). 猫が可愛いように犬も可愛い。
Dogs are cute, just like cats.
1. ように1 expresses purpose but ように2 doesn't; it expresses similarity, especially in appearance.
(⇨ ように1)
2. ように2 can express a counterfactual situation as in Key Sentence (B). The adverb まるで 'just' is often used to emphasize counterfactuality. Examples follow:
Basic Page 556
Phrase
| Tell someone in such a way that he will do something. | Tell~ to~; say~ in such a way |
(ks). 先生は学生に宿題をするように言った・言いました。
The teacher told his students to do homework.
| Vinformal nonpast | ように言う | |
| 話すように言う | Tell someone to talk | |
| 食べるように言う | Tell someone to eat |
(a). 坂本さんは雪江に図書館の前で待っているように言いった。
Mr. Sakamoto told Yukie to be waiting in front of the library.
(b). すみませんが、小林さんに明日朝九時にここへ来るように言って下くださいませんか。
I'm sorry, but could you please tell Mr. Kobayashi to come here at 9 o'clock tomorrow morning?
(c). 私は聞こえるようにはっきり言ったんですが…
I said it in such a way that it was clearly audible, but...
1. ように言う can be used either as an indirect imperative as in Key Sentence and Examples (a) and (b), or to mean 'say in such a way that ~,' i.e., the use of ように1 (⇨ ように1) In the former case, the verb must be a controllable verb a verb that represents something controllable by human volition, such as する 'do', 待つ 'wait', 来る 'come', 読む 'read' and 買う 'buy'. In the latter case the verb must be a noncontrollable verb, such as 分かる 'understand', 聞こえる 'be audible' (Example (c)), or a potential form of verbs.
2. When ように言う is used as an indirect imperative, the verb 言う can be replaced by other verbs such as 頼む 'ask', 命じる 'order' and 求める 'request'.
The direct imperative versions of (1) are something like (2). Notice that there is more than one direct imperative form if the directive verb is 言う.
Basic Page 559
Phrase
| Some change takes place gradually. | Reach the point where~; come to~; it has come to be that~; have finally become |
| 【Related Expression: ことになる; なくなる; ようにする】 |
(ksa). ジャクソンさんは日本語が話せるようになった・なりました。
Mr. Jackson has reached the point where he can speak Japanese.
(ksb). 林さんは酒を飲まないようになった・なりました。
Mr. Hayashi has reached the point where he does not drink sake./ Mr. Hayashi doesn't drink sake any more.
| Vinformal nonpast | ようになる | |
| {話す /話さない}ようになる | Someone reaches the where he talks/doesn't talk | |
| {食べる /食べない}ようになる | Someone reaches the point where he eats/doesn't eat |
(a). 難しい日本語が読めるようになりました。
I am finally able to read difficult Japanese.
(b). パットは私と話さないようになった。
Pat doesn't talk with me any more.
(c). もうすぐ面白さが分かるようになりますよ。
You'll soon come to understand the fun of it, I tell you.
(d). この道は今通れないようになっている。
This street has reached a point where people cannot pass./ At present we cannot use this street.
1. Although ようになる usually indicates a gradual change, when it is preceded by an affirmative verb the change may not take place gradually. Thus, an adverb such as 急に 'suddenly' can co-occur with an affirmative verb and ようになる as seen in (1).
When ようになる is preceded by a negative verb (as in Key Sentence (B)), however, the change must take place gradually. If the change is not gradual, なくなる is used in place of ないようになる.
(See Related Expression II.)
2. ようになっている emphasizes a current state that has come about after a long process, as in Example (d).
3. There are two ways to negate this construction, but the meanings are completely different. The verb before ように can be negated, as in (2a), or the verb なる can be negated, as in (2b).
(2a) means that the speaker can't memorize kanji any more, and (2b) means that he is not yet able to memorize kanji.
4. ように by itself can be used as an adverbial phrase, along with main verbs other than なる.
【Related Expressions】
I. ことになる 'it has been decided that ~' and ようになる are related expressions in that both of them indicate some change, but they differ in that the former implies a passive decision, while the latter suggests a change brought about by a long process. Compare the following sentences:
[1]
II. When the verb before ようになる is negated, as in Key Sentence (B), this construction can be compared to the なくなる construction.
[2]
The ないようになった version in [2a] implies a more gradual change than the なくなった version in [2b]. Thus, adverbs such as 急に 'suddenly' or 突然 'suddenly' can co-occur with [2b] but not with [2a].
Basic Page 562
Phrase
| Someone causes some circumstantial or behavioural change to take place. | Do~ in such a way that~; see to it that~; make sure that~; bring it about that~ |
| 【Related Expression: ようになる】 |
(ks). 私は毎日運動するようにする・します。
I'll make sure that I do exercises everyday.
| Vinformal nonpast | ようにする | |
| {話す /話さない}ようにする | Someone makes sure that he/someone else talks/doesn't talk | |
| {食べる /食べない}ようにする | Someone makes sure that he/someone else eats/doesn't eat |
(a). 出来るだけ日本語で話すようにしています。
I'm making sure I speak Japanese as much as possible.
(b). 山川には会わないようにした。
I've made sure that I won't see Yamakawa.
(c). 分からないことは先生に聞くようにしている。
I made a point of asking my teacher about the things I don't understand.
(d). 毎朝八時に来るようにして下さい。
Please make sure that you come at eight every morning.
(e). 後ろからもよく見えるようにしました。
I've seen to it that people can see from the rear seats, too.
(f). 成績がよくなるようにした。
I've made sure that my grades will improve.
1. ようにしてる expresses someone's habitual act of making sure that he or someone else will do (or will not do) something, as shown in Examples (a) and (c).
2. The subjects in the ように clause and in the main clause may or may not be identical. In (1a), the subjects are different, but in (1b), they are identical.
3. There are two ways to negate this construction, but the meaning changes according to the pattern. The verb before ように can be negated as in (2a), or the verb する can be negated as in (2b).
(2)In (2a) Ogawa is directly involved in preventing Yamamoto from studying, but in (2b) Ogawa just didn't bother to assist Yamamoto's studying.
4. When an Adjective (い/な) or Noun is used before ようにする, the verb なる is used as follows:
(i)
| Adjectiveいstemくなる | ようにする | |
| {高くなる/高くなくなる} | ようにする | make sure something becomes/won't become expensive |
(ii)
| {Adjectiveなstem/Noun}になる | ようにする | |
| 静か{に/ではなく/じゃなく}なる | ようにする | make sure something is/won't be quiet |
| 先生{に/ではなく/じゃなく}なる | ようにする | make sure someone is/won't be a teacher |
【Related Expression】
ようになる 'reach the point where' is the intransitive counterpart of ようにする. The former only indirectly implies human efforts behind some change that will occur or has occurred, but the latter straightforwardly indicates human efforts. For example, in [1a] the speaker can get up early in the morning almost effortlessly, but in [1b] he has to make sure that he can get up early in the morning.
[1]
Basic Page 564
Particle
| A particle which indicates that something/someone is being compared with something/someone. | Than; rather ~ than ~; more ~ than ~ |
| 【Related Expression: 方が~より】 |
(ksa). 日本語はスペイン語より(も)面白い・面白いです。
Japanese is more interesting than Spanish.
(ksb). 車で行くほうがバスで行くより(も)安い・安いです。
Going by car is cheaper than going by bus.
(ksc). 私は旅行するより(も)うちにいたい・いたいです。
I'd rather stay at home than go on a trip.
(ksd). これより(ほか(に))方法はない・ありません。 バスで行くより(ほか(に))仕方がない・ありません。
There is no other way than this. There is no other way than to go by bus.
| (i)Noun | より | |
| これより | Than this | |
| (ii){V/Adjective い} informal nonpast | より | |
| 話すより | Than talking | |
| 高いより | Than being expensive | |
| (iii)Adjective な stem | なより | |
| 静かなより | Than being quiet | |
| (iv)Noun | であるより | |
| 先生であるより | Than being a teacher |
(a). 漢字は平仮名より難しい。
Kanji is more difficult than hiragana.
(b). 林さんは私より速く走れる。
Mr. Hayashi can run faster than I can.
(c). 僕はステーキより魚の方が好きだ。
I prefer fish to steak.
(d). 図書館で勉強するほうが家で勉強するよりよく出来る。
Studying at the library is more productive than studying at home.
(e). それは赤と言うより茶色に近かった。
That was closer to brown rather than saying it was red.
(f). 日本語を勉強したかったら、アメリカの学校で勉強するより日本へ行きなさい。
If you want to study Japanese, go to Japan rather than studying at a school in America.
1. Either a noun phrase or a sentence precedes より. When verbs precede より, they are usually nonpast. However, there are a few cases where past tense verbs are used, as in (1).
2. In Key Sentence (A), Key Senence (B) and Key Sentence (C), も is optional after より and does not change the meaning ot the sentence.
Basic Page 567
Particle
| A particle which indicates a set point in terms of space or time. | In~ of; inside; outside; before; after |
| 【Related Expression: から1】 |
(ks). メキシコは赤道より北にある・あります。
Mexico is located north of the equator.
(a). この線より内側に入ってはいけません。
You must not get inside this line.
(b). 三時より前に来て下さい。
Please come before three o'clock.
(c). これより先はバスがありません。
There's no bus service from here (beyond this point).
The use of より as a marker indicating a set point in terms of location can be extended to more abstract locations, as in (1).
【Related Expression】
から can be used in place of より2 when から indicates a set point in space, as in [1].
(⇨ から1)
[1]
When より indicates a point in time, however, から can replace it only if it indicates a starting time. Thus, から in [2a] is grammatical, but から in [2b] is not.
[2]
It is also noted that より2 implies a comparison of two things, while から has no such implication.
Basic Page 569
Phrase
| The speaker desires of decides to do something. | ~think~ will |
| 【Related Expression: つもり】 |
(ksa). 私は日本歴史を読もうと思う・思います。
I think I will read Japanese history (books).
(ksb). 私はもう酒を飲むまいと思う・思います。
I think I will not drink alcohol any longer.
| (i)Vinformal volitional | と思う | |
| 話そうと思う | I think I will talk | |
| 食べようと思う | I think I will eat | |
| (ii)Vinformal nonpast | まいと思う | |
| 話すまいと思う | I think I will not talk | |
| 食べるまいと思う | I think I will not eat |
(a). 夏休みに日本アルプスに登ろうと思います。
I think I will climb the Japan Alps during summer vacation.
(b). 森さんはワープロを買おうと思っています。
Mr. Mori is thinking of buying a word processor.
(c). 僕はあの人とはもう話すまいと思う。
I think I won't talk to that person any more.
1. When the subject is not the first person, as in Example (b), the nonpast form of 思う cannot be used. Thus, the following sentence is unacceptable.
The reason why (1) is unacceptable is that 思う represents an internal feeling of the speaker alone. Therefore, when the subject is the third person, 思う has to be replaced by the stative 思っている which means 'he (= the third person subject) has indicated that he feels ~, in such a way that the speaker can see and/or hear what he feels'. Observe the following sentence.
It is also to be noted that ようと思う cannot be used as a question.
2. The negative version of ようと思う is Verb informal nonpast まいと思う, as seen in Key Sentence B and Example (c).
3. The verb that precedes よう must be a verb that represents sometning controllable by human volition. Thus, the following sentences are all ungrammatical, because the verbs are noncontrollable.
A passive verb can be used with ようと思う, however, if the speaker perceives the passive situation as somehow controllable, as in (5).
Basic Page 572
Particle
| A particle that indicates equal distribution of quantity. | By; at a time. |
(ks). 私は漢字を毎日五つずつ覚える・覚えます。
I memorize five kanji every day.
(a). 毎月三冊ずつ本を買っています。
I'm buying three books per month.
(b). ゴルフが少しずつ上手になって来た。
I have become a better golfer bit by bit.
(c). 私は子供達に本を二冊ずつやった。
I gave two books to each of the children.
(d). どのクラスにも女子学生が六人ずついた。
There were six girl students in each class.
1. The particle ずつ is used only after a quantifier (= an expression of quantity).
2. A sentence without ずつ can express virtually the same fact. Compare Key Sentence and Example (a) with (1a) and (1b), respectively.
A sentence with ずつ focuses on equal distribution of quantity, but a sentence without ずつ doesn't.
Intermediate Page 3
Conjunction (used in writing and formal speech only)
| A conjunction which marks a cause that involves excessive action. | Because of too much~; because~ too much; so~ that~ |
| 【Related Expression: 過ぎる】 | |
(ksa). 私はその晩興奮のあまり寝られなかった。
I was so excited that I couldn't sleep that night.
(ksb). この教科書は文法を重視するあまり面白くないものになってしまった。
This textbook has turned out to be an uninteresting one because it stressed grammar too much.
| (i)Noun | のあまり | |
| 心配のあまり | Because of too much anxiety | |
| (ii)Vinformal | あまり | |
| 用心するあまり | Someone is so cautious that |
(a). 秋子は恐怖のあまり声も出なかった。
Akiko was so frightened that she couldn't even make a sound.
(b). 私は喜びのあまり思わず隣の人に抱きついてしまった。
I was so happy that I hugged the person beside me without thinking.
(c). 日本の英語教育は文法が強調されるあまり会話力の養成が疎かになっているようだ。
As for English education in Japan, it seems that because grammar is emphasized too much, the development of conversational skills is neglected.
(d). 今度の会合は形式を重んずるあまり内容が乏しくなってしまった。
The last meeting ended up having little content because it focused too much on formalities.
1. Clauses and phrases involving the conjunction あまり can be rephrased using the adverb あまり and the conjunction ので or ために, as in (1).
(⇨ あまり㊦)
2. Adjective い and Adjective な cannot precede あまり, as seen in (2) and (3).
3. Verb informal can be either past or nonoast when it represents a past action or event, as in (4), although the nonpast form is more common.
【Related Expression】
The auxiliary verb 過ぎる expresses a similar idea. For example, Key Sentence (A) and (B) can be rephrased using 過ぎる, as in[1].
[1]
However, there are some differences between あまり and 過ぎる. First, あまり is always a part of an adverbial clause or phrase which expresses a cause. 過ぎる, however, does not always express cause and can be in the predicate of a main clause. Second, あまり is used only when the verb or noun represents a psychological action or state. Thus, the following sentences are unacceptable.
[2]
[3]
Third, 過ぎる is used in both spoken and written Japanese while あまり is limited in use to formal written Japanese.
(⇨ 過ぎる㊦)
Intermediate Page 6
Structure
| A structure indicating that something happens in proportion to the increase of extent/degree of action or state. | The~, the~ |
| 【Related Expression: ほど】 | |
(ksa). 日本語は勉強すれ ば (勉強)するほど面白くなります。
The harder you study Japanese, the more interesting it will become.
(ksb). パーティーは人が多ければ多いほど楽しい。
At a party the more the merrier.
(ksc). 機械は簡単{であればある/なら簡単な}ほど壊れにくい。
A machine is harder to break, the simpler it is.
| (i) V1 Conditional V2 Informal nonpast | ほど | Where Verb1=Verb2 |
| 話せば話すほど | The more someone talks, the more~ | |
| (ii)Adjective い1 conditional Adjective い2 informal nonpast | ほど | Where Adjective い1 = Adjective い2 |
| 高ければ高いほど | The more expensive something is, the more~ | |
| (iii)Adjective な1stem | {であるばある なら Adjective な2 stemな}ほど | Where Adjective な1=Adjective な2 |
| {静かであるばある / 静かなら静かな}ほど | The quieter something/someone is, the more~ |
(a). この酒は飲めば飲むほど美味しくなります。
The more you drink this sake, the tastier it becomes.
(b). 大学はよければよいほど入るのが難しいです。
The better the university, the harder it is to get in.
(c). アパートは駅に近ければ近いほど(家賃が)高い。
The closer apartments are to the station, the more expensive they are (to rent).
(d). 普段元気なら元気なほど体に気を付けた方がいいですよ。
The healthier you are, the more careful you should be about your health.
1. The construction of ば~ほど is very close in meaning to 'the more ~, the more ~' construction in English.
2. Other conditionals たら and と cannot be used in this construction. Thus, the following use of と and たら are ungrammatical.
3. When the verb is a する verb as in Key Sentence (A), it takes the form of either Noun すれば Noun するほど or Noun すればするほど as in Key Sentence (A). If the verb is not a する verb as in Example (a), it always takes the form of Verb conditional Verb informal nonpast ほど.
4. The conditional form なら is used only with Adjective な. So, the following sentences are ungrammatical.
Intermediate Page 8
Compound Particle/Conjunction
| A compound particle/conjunction which is used to connect two nouns or two sentences, the first of which is something normally expected and the second of which is something normally unexpected. | Not only~ but also |
| 【Related Expression: ばかりで(は)なく~も; だけで(は)なく~も; どころか】 | |
(ksa). 日本では子供ばかりか大人さえ漫画を読んでいる。
In Japan not only children but even adults are reading comic books.
(ksb). あの人は絵を見て楽しむばかりか、自分でも絵を描く。
He not only enjoys looking at pictures; he also draws them.
| (i){V/ Adjective い} informal | ばかりか | |
| {話す/話した}ばかりか | Not only does/did someone speak | |
| {高い/高かった}ばかりか | Not only is/was something high | |
| (ii)Adjective な stem | {なだった}ばかりか | |
| {静かな/静かだった}ばかりか | Not only is/was something/someone quiet | |
| (iii){Noun /Nounだった} | ばかりか | |
| {先生/先生だった}ばかりか | Not only is/was someone a teacher |
(a). アメリカでは大学生ばかりか、中学生、高校生さえ日本語を勉強している。
In America not only college students but even junior and senior high school students are studying Japanese.
(b). 僕の寮の部屋は狭いばかりか、窓さえないんです。
My room in the dorm is not just small; it doesn't even have a window.
(c). トムは漢字が読めないばかりか、平仮名さえ読めない。
It's not just kanji that Tom cannot read; he cannot read even hiragana.
(d). 父は食べるのが大好きなばかりか、料理をするのも大好きです。
My father not only loves to eat, he also loves to cook.
1. Before ばかりか comes something/someone normally expected and after ばかりか comes something/someone normally unexpected. If the order of the two is reversed an unacceptable sentence like the following results.
2. The particle さえ can be replaced by the particle も especially in spoken Japanese.
【Related Expressions】
I. The pnrases ばかりで(は)なく~も and だけで(は)なく~も are very similar to ばかりか~(さえ). Among those three constructions ばかりか~(さえ) expresses the highest degree of unexpectedness between the content of Sentence1 and Sentence2. If such unexpectedness is missing, the ばかりか~(さえ) construction sounds awkward. Examples follow.
[1]
[2]
(⇨ だけで(は)なく~(も)㊦)
II. Sentence1 どころか Sentence2, a construction indicating that someone/something is very far from a/n (un)desirable state, is quite different from Sentence1 ばかりか Sentence2, when Sentence1 is affirmative and Sentence2 is negative or when Sentence1 is negative and Sentence2 is affirmative. Examples follow.
[3]
[4]
If both Sentence1 and Sentence2 are affirmative or negative, the two constructions are interchangeable.
[5]
[6]
Intermediate Page 11
Auxiliary
| An auxiliary which expresses the speaker's judgment that someone/something should do something or should be in some state. | Should; ought to |
| 【Related Expression: はず; 方がいい; ものだ; なければならない】 | |
(ksa). この論文は書き直すべきだ。
This thesis should be rewritten.
(ksb). そんなことを人に言うべき{では/じゃ}ありません。
You shouldn't say that kind of thing to people.
(ksc). 君も来るべきでしたよ。
You should have come, too.
(ksd). 山田には話すべき{では/じゃ}なかった。
I shouldn't have told that to Yamada.
(kse). 話すべきことは全部話しました。
I told you everything I should tell you.
| (i)Vinformal nonpast | べきだ | |
| 行くべきだ | Should go | |
| Exception | する→{すする}べきだ | Should do |
| (ii){Adjective な stem/Noun} | であるべきだ | |
| 積極的であるべきだ | Someone should be positive | |
| 目的であるべきだ | Something should be an objective |
(a). 自分のことは自分です(る)べきだ。
You should look after yourself. (literally: You should do your own business by yourself.)
(b). 今、家を買うべきじゃないよ。
You shouldn't buy a house now.
(c). それは課長にも言っておくべきだったね。
We should have told that to our boss, too, shouldn't we?
(d). 彼は結婚なんかす(る)べきじゃなかったんだ。
He shouldn't have married.
(e). 我々はもっと創造的であるべきだ。
We should be more creative.
(f). この状態が現実であるべきだ。
This state should be the reality.
(g). 調査の結果、驚くべきことが分かった。
As a result of the investigation, a surprising thing (literally: something one should be surprised at) was discovered.
(h). 田中は全く軽蔑すべき男だ。
Tanaka is indeed a despicable man (literally: a man whom one should despise).
(i). あるべき所に記述がない。
There's no description where there should be one.
1. Tense and negation are expressed by conjugating べきだ. [See Key Sentences (A) - (D) and Examples (a) - (d).]
2. The prenominal form of べきだ (i.e., the form which modifies a noun) is べき. [See Key Sentence (E) and Examples (g) - (i).]
3. べきだ usually expresses the idea that someone/something should do something or be in some state because it is his/her responsibility or duty, because it is the right thing or a good thing to do, or because it is the right state or a good state to be in. [See Key Sentence (A) - (E), Examples (a) - (f) and (i).]
4. べきだ also expresses the idea that someone is expected to do s.t. [See Examples (g) and (h).]
5. Adjective い stem+くあるべきだ, as in (1), is a possible form but this form is not commonly used.
6. べきだ is not used when the speaker is younger than the hearer or lower than the hearer in status. For example, (2) is not appropriate in the given situation.
【Related Expressions】
I. ものだ also expresses the idea that one should do something as one's duty, as in [1].
[1]
However, ものだ is used only in a generic statement to express a social norm. Thus, in a specific situation, as in [2], it cannot be used.
[2]
(⇨ もの(だ)㊦)
II. In terms of forcefulness, べきだ is weaker than なければならない and stronger than たほうがいい, as in [3].
[3]
| a. | 君はもっと勉強しなければならな。 | stronger |
| You must study harder | ↑ | |
| b. | 君はもっと勉強すべきだ。 | | |
| You should study harder. | | | |
| c. | 君はもっと勉強した方がいい。 | ↓ |
| You'd better study harder. | weaker |
III. はず also expresses the idea of "should." However, はず is used when the speaker's expectation is involved. Compare the following sentences.
[4]
[5]
(⇨ はず㊦)
Intermediate Page 16
Suffix
| A suffix which indicates the amount of something. | For~; ~worth; amount equivalent to~; portion |
| 【Related Expression: 前】 | |
(ksa). ガソリンを十ドル分入れておきました。
I put in ten dollars worth of gas.
(ksb). 私は今日三日分の仕事を片付けた。
Today I did three days worth of work.
(ksc). 現金の不足分は小切手で払います。
I'll pay the remaining amount (literally: the amount for which cash is short) by check.
| (i) Number+Counter | 分 (のNoun) | |
| 五人分の食料 | Food for five people | |
| (ii)Noun | 分 | |
| 減少分 | The amount by which something decreased |
(a). 会議の資料を六人分用意しておいて下さい。
Please get six sets of materials ready for the meeting.
(b). ここは後でサインをしますので二行分あけておいて下さい。
Please leave two lines (of space) here because someone will sign there later.
(c). 私達は四か月分のボーナスをまらった。
We were paid a bonus equivalent to four months pay.
(d). トラック三台分のごみが出た。
Three trucks-full of garbage came out.
(e). 政府は十万人分の食糧を被災地に送った。
The government sent food for 100,000 people to the disaster-stricken area.
(f). 学校当局は諸経費の増加分を授業料の値上げでカバーしようとしている。
The school authorities are trying to cover the increase in expenses by raising tuition.
Either a number+counter or a noun precedes 分. When a number+counter precedes, it means something worth that amount (e.g., Key Sentence (A)) or equivalent to that amount (e.g., Key Sentence (B)). When a noun precedes 分, it means the amount or portion of something represented by the noun (e.g., Key Sentence (C)).
【Related Expression】
The suffix 前 also expresses a portion of something, as in [1], but this use is limited to food. A number+人 precedes 前.
[1]
Intermediate Page 18
Conjunction (used in writing and formal speech only)
| A conjunction that expresses something that is contrasted with what is expressed in the previous sentence. | But; however; yet; nevertheless |
| 【Related Expression: だけど; でも; が; けれど(も); のに; しかし】 | |
(ksa). 日本の経済力は伸びている。だが、いつまで続くかは分からない。
Japanese economic power is growing, but we can't tell how long it will last.
(ksb). 都会の生活は便利だ。だが、ストレスが多すぎる。
Urban life is convenient. But there are too many stresses.
| S1 informal | だが、S2 informal | |
| あの人の話は面白い。だが、内容がない。 | His talk is interesting, but there is no content |
(a). 私は彼女とは初めて会った。だが、前から知っていたような親しみを感じた。
I met her for the first time; but I felt close to her as if I had known her for a long time.
(b). 山本は医者に何度も煙草を辞めるように言われた。だが、辞める気はないらしい。
Yamamoto was told by his doctor to quit smoking, but he doesn't seem to have any intention of quitting.
(c). あの人には才能がある。だが、その才能を使っていない。
He is talented, but he is not using his talents.
(d). 今日の試験のために寝ないで勉強した。だが、さっぱり出来なかった。
I studied hard for today's exam without sleeping, but I couldn't do it at all.
(e). 妹はよく勉強するし、頭もいい。だが、成績はなぜかよくない。
My younger sister studies hard and she is intelligent, but somehow her grades are not good.
だが is not used in spoken Japanese unless it is followed by ね as in (1).
In spoken Japanese it is usually replaced either by けれど(も) or by でも. The formal version ですが can be used in both spoken and written Japanese.
【Related Expression】
The first difference between だが and が/けれど(も) /のに/しかし/だけど/でも is the way they combine two sentences. だが, だけど, しかし and でも are always used as a sentence-initial conjunction, but が and のに are normally used as a non-sentence-initial conjunction, and けれど(も) is used either as a sentence-initial conjunction or a non-sentence-initial conjunction.
Sentence-initial conjunctions:
| a. | Sentence1。だがSentence2。 | *Sentence1だがだが、Sentence2。 |
| b. | Sentence1。だけどSentence2。 | *Sentence1だけど、Sentence2。 |
| c. | Sentence1。しかしSentence2。 | *Sentence1しかし、Sentence2。 |
| d. | Sentence1。でもSentence2。 | *Sentence1でも、Sentence2。 |
Non-sentence-initial conjunctions:
| e. | Sentence1が、Sentence2。 | ???Sentence1。がSentence2。 |
| f. | Sentence1のに、Sentence2。 | *Sentence1。のにSentence2。 |
(Non-)Sentence-initial conjunction:
| g. | Sentence1けれど(も)、Sentence2。 | Sentence1。けれど(も)、Sentence2。 |
The second difference concerns semantic difference. が and けれど(も) can be used to in two senses of 'but' and 'and.'
[1]
For the difference between けれど(も) and のに, see のに. (⇨ のに㊦) Among the four sentence-initial conjunctions, the most colloquial is でも, followed by だけど and the least colloquial one is だが, followed by しかし.
Intermediate Page 21
Conjunction
| A coordinate conjunction indicating that even if one accepts a premise expressed in the preceding sentence(s) one cannot jump to an expected conclusion from the premise. | However, it doesn't follow from this that~; but it doesn't mean that~; because of that |
| 【Related Expression: からと言って】 | |
(ksa). チェンさんは日本語が苦手だ。テストではいつも半分も出来ない。だからと言って、頭が悪いわけではない。
Mr. Cheng is not good at Japanese. On a test he cannot even finish half of it. But it doesn't follow from this that he is not smart.
(ksb). 吉田さんは日本人だ。しかも、小説家だ。だからと言って、日本語が教えられるとは限らない。
Ms. Yoshida is Japanese. And she is a novelist. But she may not be able to teach Japanese.
| S1 | (S2…)だからと言って Sn | Where Sn often ends with わけではない or とは限らない |
| 彼は若い。経験も浅い。だからと言って教えられない {わけではない/とは限らない}。 | He is young. He has little experience. But it doesn’t follow from this that he cannot teach |
(a). ジョンは奥さんのことをちっとも褒めない。時々口をきかないこともある。だからと言って、奥さんを愛していないわけではない。
John does not praise his wife at all. Sometimes he doesn't talk with her. But it doesn't mean that he doesn't love her.
(b). 僕は毎日運動をしている。食べ物にも注意している。しかし、だからと言って、長生きする保証はない。
I am doing exercise every day. I am also paying attention to what I eat. But it doesn't guarantee that I will live long.
(c). 日本人は集団行動が好きだと言われる。何をするにも一緒にやる。しかし、だからと言って、個人行動が全くないわけではない。
They say that Japanese like group activities. Whatever they do, they do together. But it is not the case that there are no individual activities.
(d). 魚は健康にいい。しかし、だからと言って、魚ばかり食べていたら、体に悪いはずだ。
Fish is good for you. But if you ate nothing but fish, it would be bad for you.
(e). 日本語はよく難しい言語だと言われる。文法が複雑だし、漢字を覚えるのも大変だ。だからと言って、外国人が学べないわけではない。
Japanese is often said to be difficult. The grammar is complex and kanji are hard to memorize. But that doesn't mean foreigners cannot learn it.
1. だからと言って is a conjuction which indicates that while the speaker/writer accepts an assertion/fact in the preceding sentence, he argues that what is normally expected from the assertion/fact is not (necessarily) applicable. Thus, for example, Sentence1 and Sentence2 of Key Sentence (A) may lead to an assertion that Mr. Cheng is not smart. But the speaker denies that extrapolation in Sentence3. To paraphrase it, it is something like: 'Mr. Cheng is poor at Japanese and he can't even get half way through tests. So you probably think he is not smart, but I don't think that’s true.'
2. だからと言って often occurs with わけではない or とは限らない, as shown in all the examples except Example (d).
Intermediate Page 23
Phrase
| A phrase which expresses the idea that just doing something is enough for something. | Just V-ing is enough; can just~; just by V-ing |
(ksa). 君はここに座っているだけでよい。
You can just sit (literally: be sitting) here.
(ksb). 私は筆跡を見ただけで誰が書いたか分かった。
I knew who wrote it just by looking at the handwriting.
| V informal | だけで | |
| {読む/読んだ}だけで | Just by reading |
(a). この植木は二週間に一度水をやるだけでよい。
Watering just once every other week is enough for this plant.
(b). この用紙にサインしていただくだけで結構です。
It will be enough if you just sign this form.
(c). 本当に来るだけでいいんですか。
Are you sure that I don't have to do anything except attend?
(d). その会議では私はただ座っているだけでよかった。
At that meeting all I had to do was sit there.
(e). 村上君は一週間勉強しただけであの試験に通ったそうだ。
I heard that Murakami passed that exam just by studying for one week.
(f). お金を入れてボタンを押すだけで暖かいラーメンが出てくる自動販売機がある。
There is a vending machine which serves hot ramen (literally: from which hot ramen comes out) just by inserting coins and pushing a button.
(g). 頭金一万円を払うだけで品物をお届けします。
If you just pay 10,000 yen as deposit, we'll deliver the product.
(h). 聞くだけで胸が悪くなるような話だ。
Just hearing that story makes me sick. (literally: It is a story that makes me sick just by hearing it.)
The choice of the tense of the verb before だけ depends on (1) whether or not the action expressed by the verb (Action 1) was taken in the past, and (2) whether or not the action/event expressed by the verb (Action 1) precedes the action/event expressed by the main verbal (Action 2). If A1 precedes A2 and A1 is a past action, the verb must be in the past tense (example, Key Sentence (B) and Example (e)). If A1 precedes A2 and A1 is not a past action, the verb is commonly in the nonpast tense, although the past tense is also acceptable (example, Examples (f) - (h)). If A1 does not precede A2 and A1 is a past action, the verb is commonly in the nonpast, although the past tense is also acceptable (example, Example (d)). If A1 does not precede A2 and A1 is not a past action, the verb must be in the nonpast (example, Key Sentence (A) and Examples(a) - (c)).
(⇨ だけ㊦)
Intermediate Page 25
Suffix
| A suffix that indicates that something/someone is covered or filled with something undesirable. | Full of; filled with; covered with |
| 【Related Expression: まみれ】 | |
(ksa). スミスさんはいつも泥だらけの靴を履いています。
Mr. Smith is always wearing shoes covered with mud.
(ksb). この作文は間違いだらけです。
This composition is full of mistakes.
| (i)Noun1 | だらけのNoun2 | |
| ごみだらけの部屋 | A room filled with rubbish | |
| (ii)Noun1はNoun2 | だらけだ | |
| 部屋はごみだらけだ | The room is full of rubbish |
(a). 長いこと掃除をしていなかったらしく、床も机の上もほこりだらけだった。
Apparently they have not cleaned the room for a long time and the floor and the tables were covered with dust.
(b). 病院に担ぎ込んだ時、その男の顔は血だらけだった。
When we carried him into the hospital, the man's face was covered with blood.
(c). 泥だらけの足で入って来ないで。
Don't come in with muddy feet.
(d). 借金だらけの生活をしています。
I am living a life with many debts.
(e). この貝は砂だらけで食べにくい。
This seashell contains a lot of sand, so eating is difficult.
だらけ is used when something is covered with something undesirable, but if something is covered with something desirable だらけ cannot be used.
【Related Expression】
The difference between だらけ and まみれ is that the latter means 'totally covered/mixed with dirty liquid/powder such as blood, sweat, mud or dust,' excluding intangible objects, whereas the former can be used not only with liquid/powder but also to cover holes/pimples, and intangible objects, as in Key Sentence (B) and Example (d). More examples to show the difference follow:
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
Intermediate Page 27
Particle
| A particle which indicates a basic quantity, for each of which certain amount is associated. | For; per |
| 【Related Expression: につき】 | |
(ks). この翻訳は一ページで二千円お払いします。
We will pay 2.000 yen per page for this translation.
(a). このアルバイトは一時間で千円払ってくれます。
They will pay me 1,000 yen per hour for this part-time job.
(b). 昨日は一日で本を五百ページ読んだ。
Yesterday I read 500 pages in a day.
(c). 食べて飲んで、五人で、七万ぐらいでした。
We ate and drank and it cost us about 70,000 yen for five persons.
(d). この林檎は一山で二百円です。
These apples are 200 yen for one pile.
で can be omitted if the relation between the basic amount and the associated amount is more or less fixed as in Key Sentence, Examples (a) and (d). In Example (b) five hundred pages for one day is not fixed, so it is impossible to say 一日五百ページ. The same is true of Example (c) in which the cost of 70,000 yen for five people is not fixed.
【Related Expression】
In the sense of 'per,' the particle で can be replaced by につき, if the relation between the basic amount and the associated amount is fixed as in Key Sentence, Examples (a) and (d). There is also a stylistic difference: につき is more formal than で.
[1]
[2]
[3]
Intermediate Page 29
Auxiliary (used in writing and formal speech only)
| An auziliary which indicates the writer's conjecture which is not based on any particular information or evidence. | Probably |
| 【Related Expression: だろう; まい】 | |
(ks). 日本経済は今後も成長を続けるであろう。
The Japanese economy will probably still keep growing (literally: from now on, too).
| Sinformal | であろう | |
| {話す/話した}であろう | Will probably talk/probably talked | |
| {高い/高かった}であろう | Is/was probably expensive | |
| {静か/静かだった}であろう | Is/was probably quiet | |
| {先生/先生だった }であろう | Is/was probably a teacher | |
| Exception | {Adjectiveな stem/Noun}であろう |
(a). このようなブームはもう二度と起こらないであろう。
Such a boom will probably not happen again.
(b). この次に起こる地震は非常に大きいであろうと予想される。
It is expected that the next earthquake will (probably) be very strong.
(c). その交渉は極めて困難であろう。
That negotiation will probably be very difficult.
(d). この辺りは昔、湖だったであろうと思われる。
I think that this area was probably a lake a long time ago.
Intermediate Page 31
Copula (used in writing and formal speech only)
| A copula which is used in formal writing and formal speech. | Be |
| 【Related Expression: だ】 | |
(ksa). 「坊っちゃん」は漱石の初期の代表作である。
Botchan is representative of Soseki's early work.
(ksb). 今年の水不足は極めて深刻である。
The water shortage this year is extremely serious.
| (i)Noun | である | |
| 先生である | Be a teacher | |
| (ii)Adjective な stem | である | |
| 静かである | Be quiet |
(a). 人間は考える葦である。
“Man is a thinking reed.”
(b). 日本語があいまいな言語であるというのは誤りである。
(The idea) that Japanese is an ambiguous language is wrong.
(c). 大型車に一人で乗るのは不経済である。
Using a big car for one person is uneconomical.
(d). 彼に何度も手紙を書いたが無駄であった。
I wrote him many letters but it was useless.
(e). 日本語では文脈から分かることは原則として言わないのである。
In principle, in Japanese we do not say what is understood from context.
(f). 彼らが出来ないのは練習していないからである。
It is because they haven't practiced that they can't do it.
Intermediate Page 34
Conjunction
| A conjunction indicating that someone/something is very far from an expected state. | Far from; not just; even |
| 【Related Expression: ばかりか~(さえ)】 | |
(ksa). 私は日本語が話せるどころか、一度も勉強したことがありません。
I am far from being able to speak Japanese. I haven't studied it at all.
(ksb). ジムは日本語の会話が出来ないどころか、簡単なあいさつも出来ない。
Jim is not just unable to converse in Japanese; he cannot even make simple greetings.
| (i){Vinformal /Adjective い} informal nonpast | どころか | |
| 食べるどころか | Far from eating | |
| 大きいどころか | Far from being big | |
| (ii){Adjective な stem (な)/Noun} | どころか | |
| 元気(な)どころか | Far from being healthy | |
| 病気どころか | Far from being ill |
(a). スミスさんは日本語の新聞が読めるどころか、平仮名も知らない。
Mr. Smith is far from being able to read a Japanese newspaper; he doesn't even know hiragana.
(b). ジョンソンさんは漢字が書けないどころか、平仮名も書けない。
Mr. Johnson is not just unable to write kanji; he cannot write even hiragana.
(c). スミスさんは日本語が書けないどころか、日本語で小説が書けるぐらいだ。
Mr. Smith is far from being unable to write Japanese; he can even write a novel in Japanese.
(d). クラークさんは刺身が食べられるどころか、納豆まで食べられる。
Mr. Clark is not just able to eat sashimi; he can even eat nattou.
(e). あの人は本を読むどころか、新間も読まない。
He is far from reading books; he doesn't even read newspapers.
(f). 父は運動をするどころか、家から一歩も出ない。
My father is far from doing exercises; he doesn't even step out of the house.
(g). 今年の八月は暑いどころか、寒かった。
This August was far from being hot; it was cold.
(h). 私の父は丈夫(な)どころか、寝たきりです。
My father is far from being healthy; he is bedridden.
(i). 食事はご馳走どころか、豚のえさみたいだった。
The meal was far from being a feast; it was like food for pigs.
Intermediate Page 36
Adverb
| An adverb to indicate that one cannot make a definite statement about something due to lack of hard evidence. | I don't know why but; I cannot manage to; just; from what I gather; seem; no matter how~; I gather that~; for some reason |
(ksa). この文の意昧がどうもよく分からない。
I tried, but I cannot understand the meaning of this Japanese sentence very well.
(ksb). 鈴木さんはどうも京都大学に入りたいらしい。
I gather that Mr. Suzuki wants to enter Kyoto University.
(ksc). あの先生の授業はどうも面白くない。
I don't know why, but that instructor's class is uninteresting.
| (i)どうも~ | {V /Adjective (い/な)} negative | |
| どうも話せない | No matter how one tries, someone can’t talk | |
| どうも食べられない | No matter how one tries, someone doesn’t eat | |
| どうもよくない | I don’t know why but something isn’t good | |
| どうも上手じゃない | I don’t know why, but someone is not good at something | |
| (ii)どうも~ | {V /Adjective い} informal {らしい/ようだ} | |
| どうも話す{らしい/ようだ} | I gather that someone is going to talk | |
| どうも食べる{らしい/ようだ} | I gather that someone is going to eat | |
| どうも高い{らしい/ようだ} | I gather that something is expensive | |
| (iii) どうも~ | Adjective な stem {らしい/ようだ} or Adjective な stem だった{らしい/ようだ} | |
| どうも静か{らしい/ようだ} | I gather that something is quiet |
(a). このごろどうも体の詞子がよくないんです。
I don't know why, but lately I don't feel very good.
(b). あの人の日本語はどうも聞きにくい。
I don't know why, but his Japanese is hard to listen to.
(c). 先生、この間題の意味がどうもつかめないんです。
Professor, I can't manage to grasp the intent of this problem.
(d). こんな田舎に住むのはどうも不便だ。
It is just inconvenient to live in such countryside.
(e). うちの子はテレビばかり見て、どうも本を読まない。
I don't know why, but our kids are always watching TV and do not read books.
(f). あの先生はどうも厳しいようだ。
That teacher seems strict to me.
(g). ジョンは日本語を話すのは上手だが、読むのはどうも下手なようです。
John is good at speaking Japanese but for some reason he seems poor at reading it.
(h). その男がどうも犯人に違いないと思っていたが、やっぱりそうだった。
I gathered that he must be the one who did it, and my guess was right.
(i). 父は症状からしてどうもがんになったらしい。
Judging from the symptoms my father seems to have cancer.
(j). 彼女が今朝電車の中で僕に言ったことがどうも気になった。
What she said to me this morning in the train somehow bothered me.
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Structure
| A structure that indicates an exclamation about the degree to which an action or state takes/took place. | How~(!) |
| 【Related Expression: どれほど~(こと)は; いかない~(こと)か】 | |
(ksa). 兄は病気が治ってどんなに嬉しかったことか。
How glad my elder brother was when he recovered from his illness!
(ksb). 父は母をどんなに愛していたことか。
How dearly my father loved my mother!
(ksc). 日本へ行くまで日本がどんなに狭いか分からなかった。
I didn't realise how small Japan was until I got to Japan.
| (i) | どんなに～(こと)か | |
| どんなに難しいことか。 | How difficult something is! | |
| (ii) | どんなに～か Predicate | |
| どんなに面白いか知らない。 | Someone doesn’t know how interesting something is |
(a). 英夫は由美子に結婚を断られた時にどんなに残念に思ったことか。
How disappointed Hideo must have felt when Yumiko refused to marry him.
(b). 勉強が嫌いだった良夫には大学に入るのがどんなに難しかったか。
For Yoshio, who didn't like to study, how hard it was to enter college!
(c). 圭子はどんなにフランスに留学したかったことか！
How strongly Keiko wanted to go to France!
(d). 学生達はその厳しい先生をどんなに強く憎んだことか！
How strongly the students hated their strict teacher!
(e). 駅前のアパートはどんなに便利だったことか！
How convenient my apartment right in front of the station was!
(f). 一郎は親のもとを離れた時、親がどんなに寂しがったか分からなかった。
Ichiro didn't realise how lonely his parents must have felt when he left them.
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Adverb
| An adverb that indicates the speaker/writer's feeling that no matter what s/he does or how s/he does it, the situation will not change. | In any case; anyway; at all events; after all; at all |
(ksa). 受けても、どうせ、駄目だから、文部省の留学生試験を受けないことにしました。
I decided not to try for the Education Ministry's Scholarship, because I'd be doomed to failure.
(ksb). どうせ外国旅行をするんなら、若いうちにした方がいい。
If you make a trip abroad at all, it's better to do it when you are young.
(a). どうせこんな沢山の宿題、出来るわけがないから、遊ぶことにしたよ。
I cannot do this much homework anyway, so I've decided to play.
(b). 人間はどうせ死ぬんだから、あくせく働いても仕方がない。
Since we humans are bound to die, it is no use working hard.
(c). どうせ捨てられるのに、どうして彼の後を追うの?
Why are you following him, when you are well aware that you are going to be dumped after all?
(d). どうせあの女性とは結婚出来ないよ。早くあきらめた方がいいよ。
You cannot marry that woman anyway. You'd better give her up as soon as possible.
(e). Ａ：君はこんなことが分からないのかい? Ｂ：どうせ私は馬鹿ですよ。
A: Don't you understand this simple matter? B: I'm stupid, as you know.
(f). どうせ来週日本へ行きますから、その辞書は日本で買います。
I'm going to Japan next week anyway, so I'll buy that dictionary over there.
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Phrase
| With an appearance/style/tone/manner of~. | In~ manner; after~ style; a la~; like |
| 【Related Expression: ように】 | |
(ksa). 私の家の庭は日本風に大きい石が置いてあります。
The yard of my house has big rocks arranged in Japanese style.
(ksb). あんな風に勉強していたらいい成績は取れないだろう。
If he studies like that, he won't get good grades.
(ksc). 私は先生に頭がいいんだからもっと勉強しろという風によく言われた。
I was often told by my teacher that I have to study harder because I am smart.
| (i) {Noun/こんな/そんな/あんな/どんな} | 風に | Like {Noun/this/that/that~ over there}, in what manner? |
| 西洋風に | In Western style | |
| こんな風に | Like this | |
| (ii) Sinformal | という風に | Like |
| 行かないという風に(聞いている) | (I hear) that someone doesn’t go there | |
| 今日はデート、明日はコンサートという風に | Like a date one day and a concert the next |
(a). Ａ：これはどんな風に持ったらいいんですか。 Ｂ：こんな風に持って下さい。
A: How should I hold this? B: Please hold it like this.
(b). あんな風に毎日飲んでいたら、きっと病気になるでしょう。
If he keeps drinking like that every day, he will surely become ill.
(c). このカレーライスはインド風に、とても辛くしてあります。
We have made this curried rice very spicy like an Indian version.
(d). ジェミーが日本風のお辞儀をした時にはびっくりした。
I was surprised when Jemmy bowed in Japanese style.
(e). 京子は、今日はお花、あすはダンスという風に、毎日何かを習いに行っている。
Kyoko goes out every day to take lessons, like flower arrangement one day and dance, the next.
(f). お母さんが入院なさったという風に人から伺いましたが、いかがですか。
I heard that your mother has been hospitalized, but how is she?
(g). 教育改善のためなら、いくらお金を使ってもいい、という風になればいいんですがね。
I wish things could change in such a way that we can spend as much money as we want to, if it is for educational improvement.
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Suffix
| A suffix to express an undesirable tendency in someone or something. | Tend to; be prone to; be apt to; be liable to; be subject to; often |
| 【Related Expression: ぎみ】 | |
(ksa). 田中君は最近授業を休みがちだ。
Tanaka tends to miss classes these days.
(ksb). それは日本に短期間滞在した外国人にありがちな誤解だ。
That's the kind of misunderstanding which foreigners who stay in Japan for a short period of time are subject to.
(ksc). 私は小さい時病気がちでした。
I was often ill when I was very young.
(ksd). この辺りは昼間留守がちの家が多い。
Around here many people are often away from their houses during the day. (literally: Around here there are many houses which residents are often away from during the day.)
| (i) Vます | がちだ | |
| 忘れがちだ | Tend to forget | |
| (ii) Noun | がちだ | |
| 留守がちだ | Tend not to be home |
(a). 夏はややもすると塩分が不足しがちだ。
Our bodies are apt to lack salt in the summer.
(b). この時計は最近遅れがちだ。
This watch tends to lose time these days.
(c). 人はともすると自分の都合いいように物事を考えがちだ。
People tend to think (about things) in a way that suits themselves.
(d). 若いうちはとかく物事一途に考えがちだ。
Young people tend to think (about things) too seriously and narrow-mindedly.
(e). 私は最近週末もうちを空けがちです。
These days I seldom stay home even on weekends.
(f). これはアメリカ人の学生が犯しがちな間違いだ。
This is the kind of mistake which American students are apt to make.
(g). 明日は曇りがちの天気でしょう。
It will be mostly cloudy tomorrow.
(h). 私のクラスには病気がちの学生が何人がいる。
There are some students in my class who often get ill.
(i). 彼女は遠慮がちに話した。
She talked hesitantly (literally: with a tendency to hesitate).
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Auxiliary Adjective (い)
| An auxiliary adjective which expresses the idea that for someone to do something is virtually impossible or impossible. | Cannot; unable; can hardly; difficult to; impossible |
| 【Related Expression: かねる; 難い; づらい】 | |
(ksa). 彼のしたことは許しがたい。
What he did is unforgivable.
(ksb). この旅行は私にとって忘れがたい思い出になるだろう。
This trip will be an unforgettable one (literally: memory) for me.
| Vます | がたい | |
| 信じがたい | Hard to believe; unbelievable |
(a). 彼の行為は理解しがたい。
His behaviour is hard to understand.
(b). あの先生は偉すぎて私には近寄りがたい。
That professor is so respected that I can hardly approach him.
(c). この二つの作品は甲乙付けがたい。
Between these two works, it is hard to say that one is better than the other.
(d). このプロジェクトは成功したとは言いがたい。
It is hard to say that this project was a success.
(e). ジョーンズ氏は得がたい人物だ。
Mr. Jones is an irreplaceable person (literally: a person hard to get).
(f). 我々は彼の犯行に関する動かしがたい証拠をつかんだ。
We obtained an indisputable piece of evidence concerning his crime.
(g). 私は過去に彼から耐えがたい屈辱を受けた。
I was intolerably humiliated by him in the past. (literally: received an intolerable humiliation from him.)
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Adverb
| An adverb to introduce an event which takes place contrary to one's expectation/intention, or an action or event which is converse to that stated in the preceding sentence or clause. | Contrary to one's expectation; contrary to one's intention; conversely |
| 【Related Expression: かえって】 | |
(ksa). 薬を飲んだら、逆に熱が出た。
Contrary to expectations, when I took medicine, I got a fever.
(ksb). 叱られると思ったのに、逆にほめられた。
I expected to be scolded but, contrary to my expectation, I was praised.
(ksc). 会話を強調すると文法が不正確になる。逆に文法を強調すると話せなくなる。
1. If we emphasize conversation, their grammar becomes inaccurate. 2. Conversely, if we emphasize grammar, they are (literally: become) unable to speak.
(a). しばらく練習をしなかったら、逆に成績が伸びた。
I didn't practice for some time; then, contrary to expectations, my performance improved.
(b). 寝すぎると、元気にならないで、逆に疲れてしまう。
If you sleep too much, you don't feel well; instead (literally: conversely), you feel tired.
(c). 文句を言ってやろうと思っていたら、逆に文句を言われてしまった。
I was thinking of complaining; then, contrary to my intention, I had to listen to complaints.
(d). 一生懸命仕事をしたのに、逆に仲間に嫌われてしまった。
I worked very hard, but, contrary to expectations, my peers hated me.
(e). ガールフレンドを喜ばせようとしたのに、逆に怒らせてしまった。
I tried to please my girlfriend, but, contrary to my intention, I made her angry.
(f). その試験に落ちるだろうと思っていたのに、逆に一番で通ってしまった。
I was expecting to fail the exam, but, contrary to my expectation, I passed it in first place.
(g). 人に親切にすることは一般にいいことだと考えられている。しかし、親切にすることが、逆に人を傷つけることもある。
In general, being kind to people is considered to be a good thing. However, contrary to one's intention, being kind sometimes hurts people.
(h). この子は優しくすると付け上がる。逆に厳しくするとすぐ泣く。
If I try to be gentle to the boy, he takes advantage of my gentleness. Conversely, if I try to be strict, he cries readily.
(i). いい演技をする為には緊張しすぎてはいけない。しかし、逆にリラックスしすぎてもいい演技は出来ない。
In order to perform well, you mustn't be too tense. But, conversely, if you are too relaxed, you cannot perform well, either.
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Particle
| A particle which indicates the extent or the degree to which someone/something does something or is in some state. | The~, the~; as; to the extent |
| 【Related Expression: ば~ほど; くらい】 | |
(ksa). この音楽は舞台に近いほど聞きやすい。
The closer (you sit) to the stage, the easier this music is to hear.
(ksb). 上空に行くほど酸素が薄くなる。
Oxygen is less dense at higher altitudes. (literally: Oxygen becomes thinner as you go higher/ the extent to which you go higher in the air.)
(ksc). 私は難しい仕事ほどやる気が出てくる。
I get more motivated by a harder job.
| (i) {V/Adjective い}informal nonpast | ほど | |
| 勉強するほど | The more someone studies | |
| 高いほど | The more expensive something is | |
| (ii)Adjective な stem | {なである}ほど | |
| 便利{なである}ほど | The more convenient something is | |
| (iii)Relative Clause+Noun | ほど | |
| 考え方が論理的な人ほど | The more logical a person’s way of thinking is | |
| よく勉強する学生ほど | A student who studies harder; the harder a student studies |
(a). 子供は小言を言うほど反発するものだ。
The more you nag children, the more they disobey you.
(b). 私は静かなほど落ち着かない。
The quieter it is, the more uneasy I feel.
(c). 駅に近くなるほど家賃が高くなる。
The closer to the station, the higher the rent.
(d). 運動するほど体の調子が変になる。
The more I exercise, the worse I feel.
(e). 元気な人ほど無理をしがちだ。
Stronger people tend to strain themselves more.
(f). あまり働かない者ほど不平が多い。
Lazier people complain more.
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Noun
| A dependent noun which means "something/someone other than". | Other than; except (for); but; besides; as well as |
| 【Related Expression: ほか】 | |
(ksa). 山田さん以外の人はみんなそのことを知っています。
Everybody except Yamada knows it.
(ksb). 日本語以外に何か外国語が話せますか。
Can you speak any foreign language besides Japanese?
(ksc). 私には酒を飲む以外に何も楽しみがない。
I have nothing to enjoy other than drinking.
| (i)Noun | 以外(のNoun) | |
| コーヒー以外(の飲み物) | (drinks) other than coffee | |
| (ii)Sinformal | 以外 | だ after Adjective な stem and Noun changes to である |
| 勉強する以外 | Besides studying | |
| 高い以外 | Besides the fact that something is expensive | |
| 便利である以外 | Besides the fact that something is convenient | |
| 先生である以外 | Besides the fact that someone is a teacher |
(a). 私は日本酒以外の酒は飲まない。
I do not drink any alcohol but sake.
(b). 我々の会社では現在オーストラリア以外の国と取引はない。
At present our company is not dealing with any countries but Australia.
(c). アメリカ以外の国からも沢山研究者が来た。
Many researchers came from countries other than America, too.
(d). 原因はこれ以外に考えられない。
I can't think of any causes other than this.
(e). 私は散歩以外にも毎日軽い運動をしている。
I take (other) light exercise every day as well as taking a walk.
(f). ここで待っている以外ない。
There is nothing to do but wait here. (literally: There is no other way but waiting here.)
(g). 安い以外に何かいいことがありますか。
Is there any merit besides the price (literally: besides the fact that it is cheap)?
(h). この文は少し漢字の間違いがあるが、それ以外は完全だ。
This sentence (or passage) contains a few kanji mistakes, but other than that, it is perfect.
(i). 従業員以外立入禁止。[Door sign]
[Door sign] Employees only. (literally: Entry of those other than employees is prohibited.)
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Conjunction
| A conjunction indicating the speaker/writer's feeling that there should be a very strong logical/natural connection between what precedes the conjunction and what follows it. | Since; now that; once; if~ at all; as long as; so long as |
| 【Related Expression: 限り(は); からには】 | |
(ksa). 日本に来た以上(は)、日本語をしっかり勉強したい。
Since I came to Japan, I would like to study Japanese hard.
(ksb). 学生である以上(は)、勉強すべきだ。
So long as you are a student, you should study.
| (i)Vinformal | 以上(は) | |
| 先生である以上は | As long as someone is a teacher |
(a). 日本語を始めた以上、よく話せて、聞けて、読めて、書けるようになるまで頑張ります。
Now that I have begun to study Japanese, I will hang in there until I can speak and understand what I hear, and read and write well.
(b). 新車を買う以上は、出来るだけ燃費のいいのを買いたいです。
If I buy a new car at all, I would like to buy one with good gas mileage.
(c). 親である以上、子供の教育に関心があるのは当然でしょう。
If you are any sort of parent, you should be interested in your child's education.
(d). 貰った以上は、あなたが何と言おうと、私の物です。
Now that you have given this to me, it is mine, no matter what you say.
(e). 体をよく動かしている以上は、人間の体は衰えないらしい。
So long as you are very active, your body seems to stay strong.
(f). 人と約束した以上は、それを守らなければならない。
Once you have made a promise to someone, you have to keep it.
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Adverb
| An adverb that indicates the speaker/writer's emotive conviction. | Really; truly; indeed |
| 【Related Expression: 本当に; 確かに】 | |
(ksa). アメリカ人の目から見ると、日本の社会はいかにも閉鎖的だ。
From an American perspective, Japanese society is indeed closed.
(ksb). 外は雪が降っていて、いかにも寒そうだ。
It is snowing outside, and it looks really cold.
(ksc). 彼の書斎の本棚には古今東西の本が詰まっていて、いかにも学者の部屋らしい。
The bookshelves of his study room are packed with books of all ages and countries, and it surely looks like a scholar's room.
(ksd). 先生は最近いかにもお忙しいよう/ 様子だ。
These days the professor appears to be really busy.
(kse). 日本人は集団行動がいかにも好きではあるが、個人行動をしないわけではない。
The Japanese indeed like group behaviour, but it is not the case that they do not behave individually.
(ksf). 彼はいかにも紳士であるかのように振る舞っているが、なかなかの策士だ。
He is behaving as if he were truly a gentleman, but he is quite calculated.
(a). 彼の発想はいかにも日本的だ。
His manner of thinking is very Japanese.
(b). その教授の知識はいかにも百科全書的だ。
The professor's knowledge is really encyclopaedic.
(c). デーヴィッドは文部省の奨学金が貰えて、いかにも嬉しそうだった。
David was able to get a Ministry of Education scholarship and he looked really happy about it.
(d). 父は退院して、いかにも元気そうになった。
My father left the hospital and became really healthy-looking.
(e). 彼女は明るく、陽気で、いかにもアメリカ人らしい。
She is light-hearted and cheerful, and is truly like an American.
(f). 僕の大学の友人はいかにも金持ちらしく、いつも洒落た物を着ている。
A friend of mine in college appears to be truly rich, and is always wearing fancy clothes.
(g). ジョンは恋人と別れて、いかにも落ち込んでいるようだった。
John split up with his girlfriend and looked truly depressed.
(h). みゆきは母を失って、いかにも悲しんでいる様子だった。
Miyuki lost her mother and looked really saddened.
(i). いかにもおっしゃる通りです。
It is exactly as you have said.
(j). 日本語はいかにも難しい言語ではあるが、マスター出来ないわけではない。
Japanese is indeed a difficult language, but it is not the case that you cannot master it.
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| Verb forms which indicate commands or requests. | (don't) V.; No -ing; (not) to V |
| 【Related Expression: こと; なさい; てはいけない】 | |
(ksa). もうよせよ。
Stop it now.
(ksb). ここには十二月三十一日までに払えと書いてある。
It says here to pay before December 31.
| (i)Group 1 verbs | Vconditional | Affirmative |
| 書け | Write! | |
| (ii)Group 2 verbs | Vstem {ろ (spoken)/よ(written)} | Affirmative |
| 答えろ | Answer! | |
| 答えよ | Answer! | |
| (iii)Irregular verbs | Affirmative | |
| 来い | Come! | |
| しろ | Do! (spoken) | |
| せよ | Do (written) | |
| (iv)Vinformal nonpast | な | Negative |
| 話すな | Don’t talk! | |
| 食べるな | Don’t eat! |
(a). 黙れ！
Shut up!
(b). 動くな！
Don't move!
(c). 山中首相は即時退陣せよ！[A demonstrator's placard]
[A demonstrator's placard] Yamanaka must go! (literally: Prime Minister Yamanaka must leave his office immediately!)
(d). 次の分を英訳せよ。[An examination direction]
[An examination direction] Translate the following sentences into English.
(e). 次の質問に答えよ。[An examination direction]
[An examination direction] Answer the following questions.
(f). 乗るなら飲むな。飲んだら乗るな。
If you drive, don't drink. If you drink, don't drive.
(g). 現金は送るなと書いてある。
It says (literally: is written) not to send cash.
(h). 課長にあまりタクシーは使うなと言われた。
I was told by my boss not to use taxis often.
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Structure
| A structure used to describe two concurring, contrastive actions/states of someone or something. | On the one hand~, on the other hand |
(ks). 神田先生は、一方では大学で物理学を教えながら、他方では日本語の研究をなさっている。
Professor Kanda teaches physics at college on the one hand and does research on Japanese language on the other.
| Nounは | 一方ではS1 Conjunction,他方ではS2 | |
| この薬は、一方では症状を軽くするが、他方では強い副作用がある | This medicine, on (the) one hand, alleviates symptoms but on the other hand, it has strong side effects |
(a). あの男は、一方では静かな日本画を描いたりしているが、他方ではサッカーのような激しいスポーツをしている。
That man draws quiet Japanese paintings on the one hand, but plays a very competitive sport like soccer on the other.
(b). Ｘ氏は、一方で慈善事業をやりながら、他方でかなりあくどい商売をしているという噂だ。
On one hand, Mr. X is engaged in charities, but, on the other hand, rumour has it that he is engaged in a ruthless business.
(c). あの大統領は、一方では減税を約束しておきながら、他方では側近の税金の無駄使いをあまり重要視していない。
The President has promised tax-cuts. But on the other hand he doesn't think much about waste of taxpayers' money by his entourage.
(d). 留守番電話は、一方ではかかる方にもかける方にも便利な面もあるが、他方ではお互いに直接話が出来ないから、不自然な面もある。
The answering machine is, on the one hand, very convenient for both person who calls and a person who is called, but, on the other hand, unnatural because you can't talk directly with the other person.
(e). ストレスは、一方では害になることもあるが、他方では生活のいい刺激にもなるそうだ。
It is said that stress is sometimes harmful for humans, but, on the other hand, it also seems to be a good stimulus for human life.
(f). 外国生活は、一方では新しい文化に接することが出来て楽しい面もあるが、他方ではカルチャーショックで大変困ることもある。
Life in a foreign country is, on the one hand, enjoyable because one can encounter new culture, but, on the other hand, it is sometimes hard because of culture shock.
Intermediate Page 76
Suffix
| A suffix which indicates the idea of "from the viewpoint of," "for the sake of," "for the reason," or "in terms of". | From the viewpoint of; for (the sake of); for (the reason); in (terms of); relating to; in –ing |
| 【Related Expression: の上では】 | |
(ksa). この映画は教育上よくない。
This film is not good from an educational point of view.
(ksb). 便宜上私がこの部屋の鍵を預かっているんです。
I keep the key to this room for the sake of convenience.
(ksc). 時間の制約上細かい説明は省略させていただきます。
I will skip a detailed explanation for lack of time (literally: time limitation).
(ksd). 計算上はこれで正しい。
In terms of calculation, this is correct.
(kse). 健康上の理由で引退することにした。
I've decided to retire for health reasons (literally: for a reason relating to my health).
(ksf). 「使用上の注意」をよく読んで下さい。
Read "Warnings for Use" carefully.
| Noun | 上 | |
| 衛生上 | From the viewpoint of hygiene |
(a). このような行為は道義上許せない。
Such conduct cannot be forgiven from an ethical point of view.
(b). この条件はこれからの取引上極めて不利だ。
This condition is extremely disadvantageous for our future business.
(c). 仕事の都合上こんな高いマンションに住んでいるんです。
I live in such an expensive condominium because it's convenient for commuting to work (literally: for business convenience).
(d). 仕事の関係上、今この町を離れるわけにはいかないんです。
For business-related reasons, I cannot leave this town.
(e). 理論上はこうなるはずなのだが、実際どうなるかは分からない。
In theory it should turn out like this, but it's not known how it will actually turn out.
(f). 法律上は彼の行為は罪にならない。
Legally his conduct is not criminal.
(g). この製品にはデザイン上の欠陥がいくつかある。
This product has some design defects.
(h). 彼女は一身上の都合で会社を辞めることになった。
She is going to quit her company for personal reasons.
(i). この部品は製作上いくつかの問題がある。
There are some problems in manufacturing this part.
Intermediate Page 80
Adverb
| Contrary to one's expectation an opposite result comes about. | On the contrary; rather |
| 【Related Expression: むしろ】 | |
| 【Antonym Expression: やはり; やっぱり】 | |
(ks). 薬を飲んだら、かえって病気がひどくなった。
I took medicine, and the illness got worse (contrary to my expectation).
(a). Ａ：一時間も泳いで、疲れたでしょう。 Ｂ：いや、かえって元気になったよ。
A: You must be tired after swimming as long as one hour. B: No, on the contrary, I feel fit now.
(b). 日本へ行ったら日本語が上手になるかと思って、日本へ行ったんですが、日本人と英語でばかり話していたので、かえって、下手になって帰って来ました。
I went to Japan, believing that my Japanese will improve (if I go) there, but I spoke only in English with Japanese there, so (contrary to my expectation) my Japanese became worse when I came back here.
(c). 就職のことで三人の先生にアドバイスをしてもらったのですが、アドバイスが全然違うので、かえって、分からなくなってしまいました。
I was given advice on job searching from three professors, but their advices are so different that I am rather at a loss.
(d). いわゆる一流大学で勉強するより小さな私立大学で勉強する方が、かえって、いい教育を受けることが出来る。
(Contrary to your expectation) if you study at a small, private college, you can receive better education than to study at the so-called first-rate university.
(e). アルコールも適量飲めば、かえって、体にいいそうだ。
Alcohol is said to be rather good for your health if you drink it in moderate quantity.
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Conjunction
| A conjunction which expresses the idea "as long as (a certain condition is met)" or "as long as (= to the extent)". | As long as; as far as; while; to the extent; until; unless |
| 【Related Expression: あいだは; うちは】 | |
(ksa). 私がここにいる限り心配は無用です。
As long as I am here, you don't have to worry.
(ksb). 田中さんが来ない限りこの会議は始められない。
As long as Mr. Tanaka is not here (literally: does not come), we cannot begin this meeting.
(ksc). これが事実である限り彼は有罪を免れないだろう。
As long as this is the fact, he probably cannot escape being found guilty.
| (i)Vinformal | 限り | |
| 見る限り | As far as someone sees | |
| 調べた限り | As long as someone examined | |
| 読まない限り | As long as someone does not read; until someone reads | |
| 出来る限り | As long as someone can do; to the extent someone can do | |
| (ii)Nounで | {あるない}限り | |
| 学生である限り | As long as someone is a student; while someone is a student | |
| 日本人でない限り | As long as someone is not Japanese; unless someone is Japanese |
(a). 今の状態が続く限りプロジェクトは始められない。
As long as the present situation continues, we cannot start out project.
(b). この事件に関する限り彼は無実だ。
As long as this incident is concerned, he is innocent.
(c). 私の知っている限り彼は正直者です。
As far as I know, he is an honest man.
(d). その書類は私が読んだ限り誤りはなかった。
As far as I read, the document contained no errors.
(e). 教育者である限りそんなことは口にすべきではない。
While you are an educator, you shouldn't say things like that.
(f). この試験に通らない限り上級クラスに入れません。
Until you pass this exam, you cannot enrol in the advanced class.
(g). 事態が変わらない限り今以上の援助は不可能です。
Until the situation changes (literally: As long as the situation doesn't change), we cannot provide additional support.
(h). アメリカ人でない限りこの仕事には就けない。
Unless you are an American, you cannot be employed for this job.
(i). 私達は力の続く限り漕いだ。
We rowed as long as our strength lasted (literally: to the extent that our strength lasted).
(j). 出来る限りやってみます。
I will try my best (literally: try to do as long as I can do).
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Suffix
| A suffix which expresses the idea of "(last) only until" or "limited". | The last; only until; from~ on; limited to; only |
(ksa). 今度限りで彼のパーティーには行かないつもりだ。
This is the last time I am going to any of his parties.
(ksb). 切符は一人二枚限りです。
Tickets are limited to two per person.
| (i)Noun (time) | 限り | |
| 今週限り | Limited to this week; this week is the last week | |
| (ii)Number+Counter | 限り | |
| 一度限り | Limited to one time; only once |
(a). この映画館は今月限りで閉館されます。
This movie house is open only until the end of this month.
(b). 今日限りで酒も煙草もやめます。
From today on I will give up both drinking and smoking.
(c). セールは明日限りです。
Tomorrow is the last day of the sale.
(d). その場限りの約束はしない方がいい。
You'd better not make an empty promise (literally: a promise limited to the moment).
(e). 貸し出しは一回三冊限りです。
Check-out is limited to three books at a time.
(f). 書き直しは一回限りです。
You can rewrite only once. (literally: Rewriting is limited to one time.)
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Structure
| A structure to mark two choices or possibilities about which the speaker/writer is not sure. | Whether~ or; or |
(ksa). 来年日本へ行けるか行けないかまだ分かりません。
I don't know whether or not I can go to Japan next year.
(ksa). 傘を駅に置き忘れたのか事務所に忘れたのか、はっきり覚えていません。
I don't remember well whether I left my umbrella at the station or in my office.
| (i){V1/Adjective い1} informal | か {V2/Adjective い2} informalか | |
| {遊ぶ/遊んだ}か {勉強する/勉強した}か | Whether someone plays/played or studies/studied | |
| {面白い/面白かった}か {つまらない/つまらなかった}か | Whether something is/was interesting or boring | |
| (ii){Adjectiveな1 stem/ Noun1} | {Øだった}か {Adjectiveな2 stem/Noun2}{Øだった}か | |
| {便利/便利だった}か {不便/不便だった}か | Whether something is/was convenient or inconvenient | |
| {男/男だった}か {女/女だった}か | Whether someone is/was a man or a woman | |
| (iii){Adjectiveな1 stem/ Noun1} | {Øだった}か {Adjectiveな2 stem/Noun2}negativeか | Where Adjective な1= Adjective な2,Noun1=Noun2 |
| {便利/便利だった}か 便利{じゃで} {ない なかった}か | Whether something is/was convenient or not | |
| {男/男だった}か 男{じゃで} {ない なかった}か | Whether someone is/was a man or not |
(a). 大学を出てから就職するか大学院に入るかまだ決めていません。
I haven't decided yet whether to get a job or go to graduate school after graduation from college.
(b). お客さんが肉が好きか魚が好きか、聞いておいて下さい。
Please ask the guest in advance whether he likes meat or fish.
(c). 夏休みにはヨーロッパを旅行するか、ソウルで仕事をするか、まだ決めていません。
I haven't yet decided whether I should travel in Europe or work in Seoul during the summer break.
(d). 会議が木曜日だったか金曜日だったか、忘れてしまいました。
I forgot whether the meeting was on Thursday or Friday.
(e). 初めてタマラと会ったのがパーティーでだったか、プールでだったか、覚えていません。
I don't remember whether it was at a party or at the pool that I first met Tamara.
(f). 木村さんが大学で経済を専攻したのか、政治を専攻したのか、知っていますか。
Do you know whether Mr. Kimura majored in economics or politics at college?
(g). 最近は男か、男でないか、分からないような男が多い。
Lately, it's hard to tell whether a lot of men are men or not.
(h). 会議は月曜か水曜(か)にして下さい。
Please make the meeting Monday or Wednesday.
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Particle (used in conversation only)
| A sentence final particle that indicates a self addressed question or a question addressed to an in group member. | I wonder if~ |
(ksa). 今週末には何をしようかな。
I wonder what I should do this weekend.
(ksb). この問題、君に分かるかな。
Can you figure out this problem?
| (i){V/Vvolitional} informal | かな | |
| {話す/話した/話そう}かな | I wonder if someone talks/if someone talked/if I should talk | |
| (ii)Adjective い informal | かな | |
| {大きい/大きかった}かな | I wonder if something is/was big | |
| (iii){Adjective な stem/Noun} | {Øだった}かな | |
| 静か{Øだった}かな | I wonder if something is/was quiet | |
| 先生{Øだった}かな | I wonder if someone is/was a teacher | |
| (iv)Wh-word | {Øだった}かな | |
| いつ{Øだった}かな | I wonder when something is/was |
(a). 今日は何曜日だったかな。
I wonder what day of the week today is.
(b). 来学期から日本語を始めようかな。
I wonder if I should start Japanese next semester.
(c). 日本での生活はどうかな。
I wonder what life is like in Japan.
(d). 今日の晩ご飯は何かな。
I wonder what today's dinner will be.
(e). アパートの家賃は高いかな。
I wonder if the apartment rent is high.
(f). 先生はお元気かな。
I wonder if my teacher is in good health.
(g). 音楽会の切符があるんだけど、君は行けるかな。
There is a concert ticket, but I wonder if you can go.
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Adverb
| An adverb that indicates that the proposition expressed in the sentence is not always true. | Not always; not necessarily |
| 【Related Expression: いつもは~ない; みんなは~ない; 全ては~ない; 全部は~ない】 | |
(ksa). 頭のいい人が、必ずしも成功するとは限らない。
A bright person does not always succeed.
(ksb). 高い料理が必ずしも美味しいわけではない。
Expensive dishes are not always delicious.
(ksc). 記憶力のいい人が必ずしも外国語が上手だとは言えない。
One cannot always say that people with good memories are good at foreign languages.
(ksd). 日本人が必ずしもいい日本語の先生だとは思わない。
I don't think that a Japanese is always a good Japanese language teacher.
| (i)必ずしも{Vinformal/Adjectiveい} | とは{限ら /言え/思わ}ない | |
| 必ずしも{静か/先生}ではない | Something is not always quiet/someone is not always a teacher |
(a). 結婚しても必ずしも幸福になるとは言えない。
One cannot always say that marriage brings happiness.
(b). 運動をよくする人が必ずしも長生きするとは限らない。
People who exercise regularly do not always live long.
(c). 日本へ行った学生が日本語が上手になるかとうと、必ずしもそうではない。
Students who have been to Japan do not always become proficient in Japanese.
(d). お金は人を必ずしも幸福にはしない。
Money does not always bring happiness to people.
(e). 優れた研究者が必ずしも優れた教育者であるわけではない。
It is not always the case that an able researcher is an able educator.
(f). 良薬は口に苦しと言うが、苦い薬が必ずしもいいとは限らない。
They say good medicine is bitter, but bitter medicine is not always good.
(g). 眼鏡をかけて、カメラを下げて、集団で歩いている東洋人が必ずしも日本人ではない。
An oriental wearing glasses, carrying a camera and walking in a group is not always a Japanese.
Intermediate Page 96
Auxiliary Verb (Group 2)
| An auxiliary expressing that someone cannot do something even if s/he wants to do it. | Cannot; be not in a position to; hardly possible; hard; hesitate to do |
| 【Related Expression: がたい; 難い】 | |
(ksa). そのことは私には分かりかねますから、部長にお聞きになって下さい。
I am not in a position to figure out that matter, so please ask the departmental chief.
(ksb). あの男はどんな馬鹿なことでもやりかねない。
He might (literally: can) do any stupid thing.
| Vます | かねるかねない | |
| 飲みかねる | Someone cannot drink something | |
| 飲みかねない | It is possible for someone to drink something/someone might drink something |
(a). 来週はロンドンへ出張しますので、誠に申し訳ございませんが、名古屋での会議には出席できかねます。
Next week I am making a business trip to London, so I cannot attend the meeting in Nagoya.
(b). これだけの書類を一月では処理いたしかねますが。
I cannot handle this many documents in a month.
(c). 大変遺憾に存じますが、ご依頼には応じかねます。
It is a great regret, but we cannot comply with your request.
(d). こんな高価な贈り物、頂きかねます。
I cannot accept such an expensive gift.
(e). 彼は私の気持ちを量りかねているようだ。
He appears to find it hard to understand my feelings.
(f). 非常に言い難いことなので、さすがの部長も切り出しかねている。
It is such a delicate matter, so even the departmental chief finds it hard to break the ice.
(g). みどりさん、ご主人がお待ちかねよ。
Midori, your husband is waiting for you with impatience (literally: cannot wait).
(h). あいつはとんでもないことを言いかねないから、注意した方がいいよ。
He might say outrageous things, so watch out.
(i). あの男はちょっとしたことで暴力を振るいかねない。
That man might use violence at the slightest provocation.
(j). この事件は内閣総辞職にも発展しかねない。
It is possible for this incident to develop into resignation of the entire cabinet.
(k). 暴動すら起こりかねないような緊迫した情況だった。
It was such a tense situation that even a riot could have taken place.
Intermediate Page 99
Structure (used in writing and formal speech only)
| A structure that expresses a wide range of things. | Starting with~ ending with~; from ~to~ |
| 【Related Expression: から~まで】 | |
(ks). スミスさんは週刊誌から学術書に至るまで、幅広い日本語が読める。
Mr. Smith can read Japanese widely, ranging from weekly magazines to scholastic books.
(a). その新聞記者は首相の公の生活から私生活に至るまで、何でも知っている。
That newspaper reporter knows everything about the premier, ranging from his public life to his private life.
(b). 私が日本へ行った時、友人の山田さんは空港への出迎えからホテルの予約に至るまで、実に親切にしてくれた。
When I went to Japan, my friend Mr. Yamada was very kind to me. He did everything from picking me up at the airport to making the hotel reservation for me.
(c). その女の人は私に家族のことから自分の悩みに至るまで、細かに話した。
That lady told me everything in detail, starting with her family and ending with the worries of her life.
(d). 社長が現れた時には、守衛から副社長に至るまで、門の前で待っていた。
When the president of the company arrived, everyone from the guards to the vice-president was waiting in front of the gate.
(e). ルーシーは靴から帽子に至るまで、緑の装束だった。
Lucy was dressed in green, from her shoes to her hat.
Intermediate Page 101
Structure
| A structure that expresses coverage from one time/location into the other. | Through~ into~; through~ on to; from~ till/tn |
| 【Related Expression: から~まで】 | |
(ks). 今年の夏、七月から八月にかけて中国大陸を旅行した。
This summer I travelled on the Chinese continent from July through August.
| Noun | からNounにかけて | |
| 一月から二月にかけて | From January through February |
(a). 今週は木曜から金曜にかけて雪が降るでしょう。
This week it will probably snow from Thursday through Friday.
(b). 日本は六月から七月にかけて梅雨が続く。
In Japan the rainy season continues through June and July.
(c). 高気圧が朝鮮半島から九州にかけて張り出している。
High atmospheric pressure extends from the Korean Peninsula up through Kyushu.
Intermediate Page 103
Conjunction
| A conjunction which introduces the reason for someone's action or for someone's having some idea, and conveys disapproval of the action or idea. | Just because; even if; even though |
| 【Related Expression: から; たって; ても】 | |
(ksa). 子供だからと言って許すわけにはいかない。
I cannot forgive him just because he is a child.
(ksb). 何も不平を言わないからと言って現状に満足しているわけではない。
Even though I don't complain, it doesn't mean that I'm satisfied with the present situation.
(ksc). 試験に受からなかったからと言ってそんなに悲観することはない。
You don't have to be so pessimistic because you didn't pass the exam.
| Sinformal | からと言って | |
| 高いからと言って | Because/even if/even though it is expensive |
(a). 弁償したからと言って済む問題ではない。
It is not a problem which will be solved because you have paid/ will pay compensation.
(b). 上司の命令だからと言って黙って従うわけにはいかない。
I cannot obey the order without asking questions even if it is from my boss.
(c). アメリカへ行ったからと言って勝手に英語が上手になるものではない。
Your English will not improve (itself/ automatically) even if you go to America.
(d). 毎日授業に出ているからと言って真面目に勉強していることにはならない。
Even though he goes to class every day, it doesn't mean that he is studying seriously.
(e). こんなことを言うからと言って別に批判しているわけではない。
Even though I tell you such a thing, it doesn't mean that I'm criticizing you.
(f). 自分の問題じゃないからと言って知らん顔をしているのはよくない。
It's not right for you to be indifferent just because it's not your problem.
(g). 女だからと言って侮ってはいけない。
Don't take her lightly just because she is a woman.
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Auxiliary(used in writing and formal speech only)
| An auxiliary indicating the writer's conjecture which is not based on any particular information or evidence. | Probably |
| 【Related Expression: だろう】 | |
(ks). 十年後の自分を予想するのは難しかろう。
It is probably difficult to predict what one's self will be like in ten years time.
| (i)Adjective い stem | かろう | |
| 面白かろう | Someone/something is probably interesting | |
| よかろう | Someone/something is probably good | |
| なかろう | Someone/something does not probably exist | |
| (ii){Adjective い stem く (は)/Adjective な stem/Noun} | なかろう | |
| 面白く(は)なかろう | Someone/something is probably not interesting | |
| 困難ではなかろう | Something is probably not hard | |
| 学者ではなかろう | Someone is probably not a scholar |
(a). この研究を一年で完成するのは極めて難しかろう。
It is probably extremely difficult to complete this research in one year.
(b). 日本人の中にも創造性のない教育に反対する人は多かろう。
Even among the Japanese, there are probably a lot of people who oppose education without creativity.
(c). 私のように文化は宗教のようなものだと考えている人は少なかろう。
Few people probably think, as I do, that culture is something like religion.
(d). アメリカの大学のように、日本の大学でも学生に教師の評価をさせるとよかろう。
It would probably be good if Japanese universities allowed students to evaluate instructors as American universities do.
(e). 人種偏見ほど人間に根深いものはなかろう。
Nothing is probably as deep-rooted in humans as racial prejudices.
(f). 近い将来に日米関係に大きな変化はなかろう。
There will probably not be a big change in the US-Japan relationship in the near future.
(g). あの二人の間柄は親しくはなかろう。
The relationship between the two is probably not close.
(h). 残業手当てを要求することは無理ではなかろう。
It is probably not unreasonable to ask for pay for overtime work.
(i). 彼にはアリバイがあるのだから、犯人ではなかろう。
He has an alibi, so he is probably not the culprit.
Intermediate Page 109
Phrase
| A phrase to indicate a manner of doing something. | Do something in a~ fashion/manner/way |
| 【Related Expression: ように】 | |
(ksa). 林田先生は厳しい教え方をする。
Professor Hayashida teaches in a strict manner.
(ksb). 昭は変わったものの見方をする。
Akira views things in a peculiar fashion.
(ksc). ブラウンさんは日本人のような考え方をする。
Mr. Brown thinks like the Japanese.
(ksd). 誰にでも分かるような書き方をして下さい。
Please write in such a way that anyone can understand it.
| (i) | {Adjective い informal/Adjective な stem な/Vinformal} + (Noun の) +Vます方をする | |
| ひどい負け方をする | Lose in a terrible way | |
| ユニークなものも見方をする | View things in a unique fashion | |
| よく分かる教え方をする | Teach clearly (literally: in a way one can understand well) | |
| (ii)Noun | のような+(Nounの)+ Vます方をする | |
| 子供のようなものの言い方をする | Talk like a child (literally: talk in a child like manner) | |
| (iii)Vinformal | ような+(Nounの)+ Vます方をする | Adjectives rarely occur before ような |
| 人が感動するような話し方をする | Speak in such a way that people are impressed |
(a). あのピッチャーは面白い投げ方をする。
That pitcher throws (a ball) in an interesting way.
(b). 吉田君は乱暴な運転のし方をするので乗せてもらうのが怖い。
I'm afraid of getting a ride from Yoshida because he drives carelessly (literally: in a wild fashion).
(c). 正はほかの学生と違った勉強のし方をしているようだ。
Tadashi seems to study in a different way from other students.
(d). 私には野村先生のような考え方は出来ない。
I cannot think like Professor Nomura.
(e). 勉強が楽しくなるような考え方をしてほしい。
We'd like to be taught in such a way that we (come to) like studying.
(f). この問題について私と同じような考え方をする人は多くないでしょう。
There wouldn't be many people who think about this problem in the same way as I do.
(g). 田村はその大臣をよく知っているような話し方をする。
1. Tamura's talk sounds like he knows the minister well. 2. Tamura talks as if he knew that minister well.
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Conjunction
| A conjunction to indicate the speaker's assertion that a popular belief is not right. | You would think that~ but (that is not right) |
(ks). 日本人はみんな寿司が好きかと言うと、そうではない。嫌いな人もいる。
You would think that all the Japanese like sushi, but that is not true. Some Japanese don't like it.
| (i)~{V/Adjective い} informal | かと言うと、S | |
| {話す /話した}かと言うと | You would think that someone talks/talked but~ | |
| {高い /高かった}かと言うと | You would think that something is/was expensive but~ | |
| (ii){Adjective な stem/ Noun} | {Øだった}かと言うと、S | |
| {静か /静かだった}かと言うと | You would think that something is/was quiet but~ | |
| {先生/先生だった}かと言うと | You would think that someone is/was a teacher but~ |
(a). がんは治らない病気かと言うと、そうではない。早期発見をすれば治ると言われている。
You would think that cancer is not curable, but that is not true. If it is detected early it is said to be curable.
(b). 日本に行って、二、三年住めば日本語が上手になるかと言うと、そうでもないようだ。かえって下手になることもある。
You'd think that if you went to Japan and lived there for a few years, your Japanese would become good, but that doesn't seem to be true. On the contrary, your Japanese may become worse than before.
(c). 大学の時にいい成績の学生が社会で成功するかと言うと、必ずしもそうではないようだ。
You'd think that a college student with good grades would be successful in society, but that doesn't always seem to be the case.
(d). 毎日運動をすれば長生きをするかと言うと、そうでもなさそうだ。
You'd think that if you did exercise every day, you would live long, but that does not seem to be true.
(e). 日本語は難しいかと言うと、話したり聞いたりすることはそんなに難しくない。
You'd think that Japanese would be hard, but speaking and listening are not that hard.
(f). ボストンでの車なしの生活が不便だったかと言うと、全然そうではなかったんです。
You'd think that my life without a car in Boston must have been inconvenient, but it wasn't at all.
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Conjunction/Compound Particle
| An action/state that is expressed in the subordinate clause is balanced by another action/state expressed in the main clause, or something/someone that is replaced by something/someone else. | Instead of; instead; but (to make up for~); so (to make up for~); in place of |
| 【Related Expression: が; から; けれど(も); ないで; ので; しかし; ずに】 | |
(ksa). 昼間遊ぶ代わりに夜勉強するつもりだ。
I am going to enjoy myself in the daytime, so/but (to make up for it) I will study at night.
(ksb). 山田さんにはちょっと余分に働いてもらった代わりに特別手当てを出した。
Mr. Yamada worked for us a bit extra, so/ but (to make up-for it) we paid him special compensation.
(ksc). 前のアパートは設備が悪かった代わりに家賃が安かった。
The former apartment had bad facilities, so/but (to make up for it) the rent was cheap.
(ksd). 今朝は、コーヒーの代わりにココアを飲んだ。
This morning I drank cocoa instead of coffee.
| (i){V/Adjective い} informal | 代わりに | |
| 話す代わりに | Instead of talking | |
| 高い代わりに | Instead of being expensive | |
| (ii)Adjective な stem | {なだった}代わりに | |
| 静か{なだった}代わりに | Is/was quiet but (to make up for~) | |
| (iii)Noun | {のだった}代わりに | |
| 先生の代わりに | In place of the teacher | |
| いい先生だった代わりに | Someone was a good teacher, but (to make up for~) |
(a). 今日は図書館で勉強する代わりに寮の部屋で勉強した。
Today I didn't study in the library. Instead, I studied in my dorm room.
(b). 私はトムに日本語を教えてあげた代わりに彼に英語を教えてもらった。
I taught Tom Japanese, so (to make up for it) he taught me English.
(c). 高い長距離電話をかける代わりに、手紙をよく書いています。
Instead of making expensive long distance calls I often write letters.
(d). 私のアパートは家賃が高い代わりに、駅に近くてとても便利です。
My apartment is expensive, but it is close to the station and very convenient.
(e). 私達の日本語の先生は厳しい代わりに学生の面倒見がいい。
Our teacher is strict, but (instead) he takes good care of his students.
(f). 大学の先生は給料が低い代わりに自由がある。
College professors' salaries are low, but (instead) they have freedom.
(g). 父は体が弱い代わりに意志がとても強い。
My father is physically weak, but (instead) he has a very strong will.
(h). この辺は静かな代わりに、店も遠くて不便です。
This area is quiet, but (instead) it's inconvenient because the stores are far away.
(i). 日本語の授業にいつもの山田先生の代わりに田中という新しい先生がいらっしゃった。
To our Japanese class came a new teacher Ms. Tanaka instead of our regular teacher Ms. Yamada.
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Noun
| A noun which expresses the idea "as a result of". | As a result of; after; upon |
(ksa). 投票の結果、その提案は反対多数で否決された。
As a result of the vote, the proposal was rejected by the majority's opposition.
(ksb). 妻と相談した結果、家を買うことにした。
After my wife and I discussed it, we decided to buy a house.
| (i)Noun | の結果 | |
| 試験の結果 | As a result of an exam | |
| (ii)Vinformal nonpast | 結果 | |
| 話した結果 | Upon/after talking |
(a). 相談の結果、今回の旅行は延期することになった。
After discussion, it's been decided that the planned trip will be postponed.
(b). 検査の結果、妻の体はどこにも異状がないことが分かった。
As a result of the examination, my wife was found to be healthy (literally: it was found that there was no abnormality with my wife's body).
(c). 調査の結果、新しい事実が発見された。
As a result of the investigation, new facts emerged.
(d). 警察で調べた結果、原因は煙草の火の不始末と分かった。
As a result of the police investigation, it was determined that the cause (of the fire) was the careless handling of a cigarette butt.
(e). 特別のダイエットをした結果、十キロの減量に成功した。
I've succeeded in losing ten kilos as the result of a special diet.
(f). 新しい教科書を使った結果、学生の成績が著しく伸びた。
As a result of using a new textbook, the students improved their performance remarkably (literally: the performance of the students improved remarkably).
(g). ゴルフの個人指導を受けた結果、自分の問題点が明らかになった。
Upon taking a private golf lesson, my problems became clear.
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Adverb (used in conversation only)
| An adverb that indicates that something exceeds the speaker's and/or hearer's expectation to a considerable degree. | Quite; rather; pretty |
| 【Related Expression: 案外; いがいと; 割合】 | |
(ks). ここの寿司は、結構美味しいね。
The sushi in this place is quite good, isn't it?
(a). この車は古いんだけど、結構よく走りますよ。
This car is old, but it runs quite well, you know.
(b). あの人は間抜けに見えるでしょう。でも、結構頭がいいんです。
He looks dumb, but he is quite sharp.
(c). 四月だというのに、結構寒いね。
It is April, but it is rather cold, isn't it?
(d). 小さい町なのに、結構いいレストランがあるね。
There are quite a few good restaurants in this small town, aren't there?
(e). この料理は量は少ないけど、結構胃にもたれるね。
This dish is small in quantity, but it is pretty heavy on the stomach.
(f). 今日は日曜日なのに高速が結構混んでいるね。
Today is Sunday, but the highway is rather crowded, isn't it?
(g). 父は楽天的な人でしたが、失職した時に結構悩んだようです。
My father was an optimist, but when he lost his job, I think he suffered quite a bit.
(h). カラオケは初めてだったが、結構楽しかった。
It was my first karaoke, but it was rather enjoyable.
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Demonstrative Adjective
| A demonstrative adjective which indicates a time or time period around the moment of speech. | The last; this past; this; this coming |
(ksa). 秋山さんはこの春結婚します。
Miss Akiyama will marry (this spring/ this coming spring).
(ksb). 山下君はこの一週間授業を休んでいます。
Yamashita has been absent from class for the past (one) week.
| (i)この | Noun | |
| この秋 | This autumn; this coming autumn | |
| (ii)この | Number+Counter | |
| この一年 | This past year; this coming year |
(a). この間吉岡さんに会いました。
I met Mr. Yoshioka the other day.
(b). このたびこの会の会員に加えていただきました。
I became a member of this club at this time.
(c). この際車を買おうか。
Shall we buy a car given this occasion?
(d). この辺で妥協したらどうですか。
Why don't we compromise now (literally: around this time)?
(e). この夏は日本の女流作家の研究しています。
This summer I'm doing research on Japanese female writers.
(f). この一週間は忙しくて何もできないだろう。
I'll be busy this coming week and probably won't be able to do anything (else).
(g). この次はいつお目にかかれますか。
When could I meet you next?
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Demonstrative Adjective
| A demonstrative which refers to someone or something mentioned as an example in previous discourse. | Such; like this |
| 【Related Expression: ああした; こういった; こういう; こんな; このような; そうした】 | |
(ks). こうした問題はこの国では聞かれないようである。
We do not seem to hear about problems like this in this country.
| こうした | Noun | |
| こうした人々 | Such people |
(a). こうした行為がどのような結果を招くかは誰の目にも明らかだ。
It is clear to anyone what kind of result such behaviour brings about.
(b). こうした経験は日本へ行ったことのある者なら誰にでもあるはずだ。
Anyone who has been to Japan would have had such an experience.
(c). 私はこうした話には耳を貸さないことにしている。
I make it a rule not to listen to such stories.
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Particle
| A particle which emphasizes a word, phrase, or clause. | The very~; it is~; that~; only (when, after, because, etc.); in particular; precisely; definitely; [an italicized or underlined word] |
(ksa). これこそ我々が探し求めていたものだ。
This is the very thing that we've been looking for.
(ksb). Ａ：どうもすみませんでした。 Ｂ：いいえ、こちらこそすみませんでした。
A: I'm very sorry. B: No, it's me who should say that (literally: be sorry).
(ksc). 一人でやってこそ勉強になるのだ。
You can learn something only when you do it by yourself.
(ksd). 君が正直に話してくれたからこそ問題は最小で済んだんだ。
We could minimize the problem only because you explained (literally: told) it to us honestly.
| (i)Noun (particle) | こそ | |
| この人こそ | This man in particular | |
| 彼にこそ | To him in particular | |
| (ii)Vて | こそ | |
| ここへ来てこそ | Only when/after someone comes here | |
| (iii)Sinformal | こそ | |
| 知らないからこそ | Only because someone doesn’t know |
(a). A: 一体一週間も何をしていたんだ。 B: そう言う君こそ何をしていたんだ。
A: What on earth were you doing for a whole week? B: You say that but what were you doing?
(b). こんな時(に)こそ全員で力を合わせて問題を解決しなければならない。
On this kind of occasion, in particular, we all have to cooperate in order to solve the problem.
(c). 今年こそこの試験に通ってみせる。
I will pass this exam definitely this year.
(d). それでこそ我々のリーダーだ。
That is precisely the kind of behaviour we expect from our leader.
(e). ここにいてこそいい仕事も見つかるのだ。
You can find a good job only by being here.
(f). 親友だからこそこんなことまで君に言うんだよ。
It's because you are my friend that I can tell you (even) such a thing.
(g). 出来ないからこそ人より余計に練習しなければならないのだ。
It’s precisely because you can’t do it that you have to practice more than others do.
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Auxiliary Noun (used in writing and formal speech only)
| An auxiliary noun to express a command. | (don't) V; should (not); (not) ought to; may not |
| 【Related Expression: Imperative】 | |
(ksa). 発表は十五分以内で行うこと。
Each presentation should be completed (literally: done) within fifteen minutes.
(ksb). プールサイドを走らないこと。
Do not run on the pool deck.
(ksc). 詳細は二十三ページ(を)参照のこと。
See page 23 for details.
| (i)Vinformal nonpast | Affirmative/negativeこと | |
| 話すこと | Should speak | |
| 話さないこと | Should not speak | |
| (ii)VNoun | のこと | |
| 使用のこと | Should use |
(a). 私語は慎むこと。
Refrain from whispering.
(b). 先に必ずテープを聞くこと。
Be sure to listen to the tape beforehand.
(c). 辞書は見ないこと。
You may not consult any dictionaries.
(d). 裸足で歩き回らないこと。
Do not walk around barefoot.
(e). 弁当(を)持参のこと。
Bring your own lunch.
(f). 制服(を)着用のこと。
Wear uniforms.
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Compound Particle
| A compound particle which indicates a means or a cause. | By V-ing; because; result in; cause |
| 【Related Expression: から; ことにより; よって; ので; 為(に)】 | |
(ksa). 私は週末にゴルフをすることで気分転換を図っています。
I try to lift my spirits by playing golf on weekends.
(ksb). 彼が仲裁の場に出ていったことで仲裁は余計にこじれた。
His appearance at the mediation scene complicated the situation even more. (literally: The situation got even more complicated because he appeared at the mediation scene.)
| (i)Vinformal nonpast | ことで | Means |
| 行くことで | By going | |
| (ii)Sinformal | ことで | Cause |
| {行く /行った}ことで | Because someone will go/went | |
| {高い /高かった}ことで | Because something is/was high | |
| (iii)Adjective な stem | なことで | Exception |
| 便利なことで | Because something is convenient | |
| (iv)Noun | であることで | Exception |
| 女であることで | Because someone is a woman |
(a). 私が十万円出すことで問題は解決した。
The problem was solved by my paying 100,000 yen.
(b). 彼女はものを言わないことで私へ精一杯の抵抗を示しているのです。
She is demonstrating her utmost resistance to me by not talking.
(c). 朝晩簡単な体操をするだけのことで素晴らしい健康が保てます。
You can maintain wonderful health just by taking simple exercise in the morning and evening.
(d). 私が参加することであなたに迷惑はかかりませんか。
Wouldn't my participation cause you trouble?
(e). 彼のパーティーに行かなかったことで彼の気持ちを害したのでなければよいが。
I hope I didn't hurt his feelings because I didn't go to his party (literally: by not having gone to his party).
(f). 私は英語が下手ことで時々損をしている。
I am sometimes put at a disadvantage because I am poor at English.
(g). この国では外国人であることで得をすることがある。
In this country there are times when you benefit for being a foreigner.
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Phrase
| A phrase which indicates that an action or event leads to a certain situation or logical conclusion. | End up (with); cause; come to mean that |
(ksa). これ以上聞くのは彼を余計に苦しめることになる。
Asking more than this will cause him to suffer too much.
(ksb). 今これをしておかなかったら後で大変なことになる。
If we don't do this now, we will end up with an awful situation later.
(ksc). この手形が落ちなければ会社は倒産ということになる。
If we cannot have this draft cashed, our company will end up in bankruptcy.
(ksd). こんな結果になったということは我々の準備に手落ちがあったことになる。
Ending up with such a result means that there was something wrong with our preparation.
(kse). 今回何も起こらなかったということはこのシステムで大丈夫だということになる。
The fact that nothing happened this time means that the system is alright (literally: the situation is alright with this system).
| (i)Vinformal nonpast | ことになる | |
| 行くことになる | End up going; lead someone to go | |
| (ii)Adjective い informal nonpast | ことになる | |
| 難しいことになる | End up with a difficult situation | |
| (iii)Adjective な stem | なことになる | |
| 大変なことになる | End up with an awful situation | |
| (iv)Noun | ということになる | |
| 失敗ということになる | End up with a failure; come to mean that something is a failure | |
| (v)Sinformal | ことになる | Exceptions: Adjective な stem だ→Adjective な stem or formation (vi); Nounだ→Nounである or formation (iv) or (vi) |
| 間違っていたことになる | Come to mean that something was wrong | |
| 大丈夫なことになる | Come to mean that something is alright | |
| 外国人であることになる | Come to mean that someone is a foreigner | |
| (vi)Sinformal | ということになる | |
| 大丈夫だということになる | Come to mean that something is alright |
(a). 今怠けていると試験の時ひどいことになるよ。
If you don't work now, you'll end up with a terrible situation when you take the exam.
(b). そんなことをしたら二度と人前に出られないことになる。
If I/ you do such a thing, I/ you will end up not being able to appear in public again.
(c). A社が百万円寄付してくれれば合計一千万円に達することになる。
If Company A donates one million yen, the total sum will become (literally: end up with) ten million yen.
(d). すべてがうまくいけば来年卒業ということになります。
If everything goes well, (it means that) I will graduate next year.
(e). 葉書が戻って来たということは彼はもうこの住所には住んでいないことになる。
That the postcard came back means that he doesn't live at this address any longer.
(f). これが一キロ二千円ということはこちらの方が高いということになる。
That this costs 2,000 yen a kilo means that this is more expensive.
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Phrase (used in writing and formal speech only)
| A phrase which is used to present an event as the cause of something. | Be due to the fact that; be caused by; be brought about by; be the result of; because |
| 【Related Expression: からだ; ためだ】 | |
(ksa). 今回の失敗は事前の話し合いが不十分だったことによる。
The failure this time is the result of insufficient discussion beforehand (literally: due to the fact that the preceding discussion was insufficient).
(ksb). 進が非行に走ったの両親の愛情が不足していたことによる。
Susumu's delinquency was caused by his parents' lack of affection. (literally: The fact that Susumu ran to juvenile delinquency is because his parents were not affectionate enough with him.
| Sinformal | ことによる | Exceptions: Adjective な stem なことによる; Noun であることによる |
| 家賃が高いことによる | Because the rent is expensive | |
| 表現が不正確なことによる | Because the expression is inaccurate | |
| 母が日本人であることによる | Because one’s mother is Japanese |
(a). 彼の現在の成功は平生の努力を怠らなかったことによる。
His present success is due to the fact that he worked hard every day (literally: did not neglect daily effort).
(b). 彼らの離婚は二人の価値観があまりに違っていたことによる。
Their divorce was caused by the fact that their value systems were very different.
(c). 彼が負けたのは勝ちを焦りすぎたことによる。
His loss is due to the fact that he tried to win quickly.
(d). 彼の才能がこれ程までに開発されたのは鈴木氏に師事したことによる。
That his talent was developed to this degree is due to the fact that he studied with Mr. Suzuki.
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Phrase
| A phrase which expresses the idea that there is no need to do something or that there is no possibility of doing something. | There is no need to; not necessary; there is no possibility that; there is no chance to |
| 【Related Expression: はずはない】 | |
(ksa). あんな男の言うことを聞くことはない。
There's no need to listen to a man like that.
(ksb). 彼女が今日の会議を忘れることはないと思います。
I think that there is no possibility that she will forget today's meeting.
| Vinformal nonpast | ことはない | Affirmation |
| 行くことはない | There’s no need to go/there is no possibility that someone will go |
(a). あんな奴に親切にしてやることはない。
There is no need to be kind to a guy like that.
(b). 何もそんなに慌てることはない。
There is no need at all to be in such a hurry.
(c). 君が来ることはないと思います。
1. I don't think it will be necessary for you to come here. 2. I think that there is no possibility that you will come here.
(d). 彼がわざわざ出て行くことはないでしょう。
1. There will probably be no need for him to take the trouble to go out there. 2. There is no possibility that he will go out there.
(e). もうお目にかかることはないかもしれませんね。
I might not have a chance to see you again.
(f). 多分私が教えることはないと思います。
I don't think there is a possibility that I will teach.
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Inflectional Ending (used in writing and formal speech only)
| A continuative form of the い type adjective. | And; so |
| 【Related Expression: くて】 | |
(ksa). 加奈子の性格は明るく、無邪気だった。
Kanako's personality was cheerful and innocent.
(ksb). せっかく講演をしに行ったのに、聴衆が少なく、がっかりした。
I went all the way to give a lecture, but the audience was so small that I felt discouraged.
(a). カルフォルニアの空は青く、美しかった。
The Californian sky was blue and beautiful.
(b). トムの東京のアパートの部屋は暗く、狭い。
Tom's apartment room in Tokyo is dark and small.
(c). バッハの音楽は歯切れがよく、幾何学的だ。
Bach's music is very crisp and geometrical.
(d). ニューヨークタイムズは質が高く、購読者の数も多い。
The New York Times is high in quality and has many subscribers.
(e). 世界の平和は得られにくく、維持しにくい。
World peace is hard to achieve and hard to maintain.
(f). あの哲学者の思想は分かりやすく、文章も簡潔だ。
That philosopher's ideas are easy to understand and his writing is simple, too.
(g). 去年の冬は雪が多く、車の運転が大変だった。
Last winter there was much snow and it was hard to drive around.
(h). 私は失敗が恐ろしく、新しいことが何も出来ない。
I'm afraid of failure, and I can't do anything new.
(i). 洋子は一人でいるのが寂しく、最近猫を飼い始めた。
Yoko felt lonely living alone, so she got a pet cat recently.
Intermediate Page 151
Particle
| A particle which is used to express the degree of a state. | To the extent that; so~ that~ (almost)~; at least; the only~; rather than~ |
| 【Related Expression: ほど】 | |
(ksa). 私達は一歩も歩けないくらい疲れていた。
We were so tired that we couldn't even take a step. (literally: We were tired to the extent that we couldn't even walk one step.)
(ksb). 今晩は暖かいのでストーブが要らないくらいだ。
It is so warm this evening that we (almost) don't need a heater.
(ksc). 山田さんくらいよく物を忘れる人はいない。
There's no one who is as forgetful as Yamada (literally: who forgets things as much as Yamada does).
(ksd). 私は料理は下手ですが、ご飯くらい(は)炊けます。
I am a poor cook (literally: bad at cooking), but I can at least cook rice.
(kse). 今この仕事が出来るのは彼くらいのものだ。
He is the only person who can do this job now. (literally: The person who is capable enough to do this job is he.)
(ksf). そんなことをするくらいなら死んだ方がましだ。
I would rather die than do such a thing.
| (i)Sinformal | くらい | The same as relative connection rules |
| 泳げるくらい | To the extent that one can swim | |
| (先生も) 出来なかったくらい | To the extent that (even our teacher) couldn’t do it | |
| 恐ろしいくらい | To the extend that (I) am frightened | |
| 気の毒なくらい | To the extent that (i) feel sorry | |
| (ii)Noun | くらい | |
| 山田さんくらい | To Yamada’s degree |
(a). その家は直しようがないくらい傷んでいた。
That house was so damaged that it couldn't be repaired. (literally: That house was damaged to the extent that it couldn't be repaired.)
(b). 次郎はひどく酔っていて立っていられないくらいだった。
Jiro was so drunk that he couldn't hold himself upright.
(c). こんな本、十ドルでもまだ高いくらいだ。
Even ten dollars would still be too expensive for a book like this.
(d). 内田さんくらいかわいそうな人はいない。
This is no one who is as pitiful as Uchida.
(e). あの時くらい苦しかった時はない。
I have never suffered as much as I did that time.
(f). 信頼していた人に裏切られる(こと)くらい辛いことはない。
There is nothing as painful as being betrayed by someone you have trusted.
(g). いくら安い所でもシャワーくらい付いているでしょう。
Even though it is a cheap place, there should at least be a shower.
(h). そんな物に二万円も出すのはあなたくらいのものですよ。
You are the only person who would pay as much as 20,000 yen for such a thing.
(i). あんな男の下で働くくらいなら乞食になった方がましだ。
I would rather be a beggar than work under such a man.
Intermediate Page 155
Conjunction
| A conjunction which expresses the speaker's contempt, anger, or disagreement about someone's action, behaviour, or state. | Although; in spite of the fact that; and yet; but |
| 【Related Expression: にもかかわらず; のに】 | |
(ksa). 山田さんは日本人のくせにあまり漢字を知らない。
Although Mr. Yamada is Japanese, he doesn't know many kanji.
(ksb). 山内はよく知っているくせに何も教えてくれない。
In spite of the fact that Yamauchi knows a lot about it, he doesn't tell me anything.
| (i)Noun | のくせに | |
| 子供のくせに | Although~ is a child | |
| (ii){V/Adjective い} informal | くせに | |
| {出来る/出来た} くせに | Although~ can/could | |
| {弱い/弱かった} くせに | Although ~ is/was weak | |
| (iii)Adjective な stem | {な だった} くせに | |
| {下手な / 下手 だった} くせに | Although~ is/was bad at something |
(a). 彼は大学生のくせに漫画ばかり読んでいる。
Although he is a college student, all he does is read comics.
(b). 良子はまだ学生のくせに高いマンションに住んでいる。
Although Yoshiko is still a student, she lives in an expensive condominium.
(c). 隆司は下手なくせに私とテニスをしたがる。
Takashi is a bad (tennis) player, and yet he wants to play with me.
(d). 怖いくせに無理するなよ。
You are afraid. Don't pretend to be strong.
(e). 孝男はお金もないくせに外車を欲しがっている。
Takao doesn't have money, and yet he wants a foreign car.
(f). 吉田は前は私を見ても挨拶もしなかったくせに、私が部長になった途端に急に愛想がよくなった。
Before (the time I became a division chief), Yoshida never greeted me when he saw me, but he suddenly became friendly when I became a division chief.
(g). 昨日まで見習いだったくせに大きな口をきくな。
Don't talk big! You were only a trainee until yesterday!
Intermediate Page 159
Phrase
| There is no point in going as far as to do something. | Not necessary (to bother) to; do not need (to go as far as) to; do not have to |
| 【Related Expression: 必要はない; ほどのこともない; には及ばない】 | |
(ksa). これは簡単な計算だから計算器を使うまでもない。
This is a simple calculation, so it is not necessary (to bother) to use a calculator.
(ksb). 言うまでもなくジヨージ・ワシントンはアメリカの初代大統領だ。
Needless to say, George Washington was the first president of the United States.
| Vinformal nonpast | までもない |
| 話すまでもない | Not necessary (to bother) to talk |
(a). 彼がみんなに尊敬されたのは言うまでもない。
It goes without saying that he was respected by everybody.
(b). 大した用事じゃないからあなたがわざわざ行くまでもないでしょう。
It is not important business, so it is probably not necessary for you to (take the trouble to) get there.
(c). 行けば分かることですから電話して聞くまでもありません。
We can find out when we get there, so we don't need to call and ask about it.
(d). 今更申すまでもありませんが、山中先生はこの分野では指導的な立場にあるお方です。
Needless to say (now), Professor Yamanaka is a leading figure in this field.
(e). それは説明するまでもなく明らかなことだ。
It is so obvious that no explanation is necessary.
(f). 待つまでもなく妻は買い物から帰ってきた。
My wife came back from shopping without my having to wait for her.
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Auxiliary (used in writing and formal speech only)
| An auxiliary which expresses the speaker's negative volition or conjecture. | Will not; will probably not; be probably not |
(ksa). もう橋本には何も頼むまい。
I will not ask any more favours of Hashimoto.
(ksb). これは恐らく誰も気が付くまい。
Probably no one will notice this.
(ksc). 参加者はそれほど多くはあるまい。
There probably won't be many participants.
(ksd). この教え方はあまり効果的ではあるまい。
This teaching method is probably not very effective.
(kse). これは何かの間違いではあるまいか。
I have a feeling that this is some kind of mistake. (literally: Is this not some kind of mistake?)
| (i)Vinformal nonpast | まい |
| 行くまい | (I) will not go; probably won’t go |
| 教えるまい | (I) will not teach; probably won’t teach |
| (ii)Adjective い stem | くはあるまい |
| 高くはあるまい | Something is probably not expensive |
| (iii){Adjective な stem/Noun} | ではあるまい |
| 静かではあるまい | Something is probably not quiet |
| 先生ではあるまい | Someone is probably not a teacher |
(a). 清のパーティーにはもう行くまい。
I will not go to Kiyoshi's parties any more.
(b). 日本へ行こうか行くまいか迷った。
I couldn't decide whether I should go to Japan or not.
(c). 彼は多分誰の言うことも聞くまい。
He probably won't listen to anyone.
(d). それは今我々には必要ではあるまい。
It is probably not necessary for us now.
(e). この問題はこの学校の学生にはそれほど難しくはあるまい。
This problem is probably not very difficult for these students.
(f). ジョージが真相を知っているのではあるまいか。
I have a feeling that George knows the truth.
Intermediate Page 165
Adverb
| An adverb that indicates the speaker's strong belief that something is not expected to (have) become a reality. | Incredible; never thought; never dreamed; surely not; impossible; don't tell me that~; not at all likely; absolutely not. |
| 【Related Expression: よもや】 | |
(ksa). まさか美智子があんな男と結婚するとは思わなかった。
I never dreamed that Michiko would many that kind of a guy.
(ksb). まさかあたしの誕生日を忘れたんじゃないでしょうね。
Don't tell me that you forgot my birthday!
(ksc). まさか彼がこんな寒い日に来るはずはないですよ。
Surely he won't show up on such a cold day!
(ksd). 最近父から手紙が来ないけれど、まさか具合が悪いのではあるまい。
Lately I haven't heard from my father, but God forbid that he might be ill.
(kse). Ａ：七十のおじいさんが高校に入ったんだって。 Ｂ：まさか。
A: I heard that an old man of 70 entered a high school. B: Incredible!
| (i)まさかSとは | {思わなかった/考えてもみなかった} |
| まさか雪が降るとは{思わなかった/考えてもみなかった} | {I didn’t believe/I never though} that it would snow |
| (ii)まさかS | {んじゃ/のでは} ないだろうね |
| まさか会社を辞める{んじゃ/のでは}ないだろうね | Don’t tell me that you are going to quit the company |
| (iii)まさかS | はずがない |
| まさか四月に雪が降るはずがない | It is not at all likely that it will snow in April |
| (iv)まさかS | まい |
| まさか雪は降るまい | Don’t tell me it’s going to snow |
(a). まさか自分が交通事故に巻き込まれるとは思いませんでしたよ。
I never thought that I would be involved in a traffic accident.
(b). まさか司法試験に一度でパス出来るとは考えてもいなかった。
I never dreamed that I could pass the bar examination on my first attempt.
(c). 青い顔をしているけど、まさか病気じゃないでしょうね。
You look pale. Are you sure you are not ill?
(d). まさかこんな高いダイヤモンドの指輪を買ってくれたんじゃないでしょうね。
I don't believe that you brought me such an expensive diamond ring!
(e). まさかあんないい人が人を殺すなんてあるはずがない。
Don't tell me a good person like that killed someone.
(f). まさか彼が日本語の先生になるとは考えてもみなかった。
I never thought that he would become a Japanese language teacher.
(g). まさかあの人がそんなことを言うはずはないでしょ。
It's not at all likely that she has said such a thing!
(h). もう五月なのだから、まさか雪は降るまい。
Since it is May it is very unlikely that it will snow.
(i). 母は入院中だから、まさか私の結婚式に出席するわけにはいくまい。
Because my mother is in the hospital right now, it is impossible to expect her to attend my wedding.
(j). A: スミスさんは日本語を一年しか勉強していないのに、ペラペラですよ。 B: まさか。
A: Smith has studied Japanese for only one year, but he is fluent, you know. B: Impossible!
Intermediate Page 169
Adjective (な)
| A phrase indicating that although someone/something (or some situation) is not satisfactory it is better than someone/something else. | Better; less objectionable; preferable; might as well~ |
| 【Related Expression: いい】 | |
(ksa). こんな給料をもらう(くらい)なら辞めた方がましだ。
If this is the salary, it would be better to quit.
(ksb). 今度の日本語の先生は前の先生よりずっとましだ。
This new Japanese teacher is much better than the former teacher.
(ksc). もう少しましなコーヒーはありませんか。
Isn't there coffee that's a bit better?
(a). こんな大学に入るくらいなら、仕事をした方がましだ。
I might as well work as enter such a college.
(b). こんな苦しい生活をするくらいなら、死んだ方がましだ。
It is better to die than to lead such a life.
(c). 学校へ行くくらいなら家でテレビでも見ていた方がましだ。
It's better to watch TV at home rather than going to school.
(d). こんな不味いご飯を食べるくらいなら何も食べない方がいい。
It's better not to eat anything rather than eating such an untasteful meal.
(e). あのレストランよりこのレストランの方がましだ。
This restaurant is better than that restaurant over there.
(f). ここの夏も暑いですが、東京の夏よりましですね。
Summer here is hot, too, but it's better than summer in Tokyo.
(g). 僕の車もとても古いけど、君のよりましだ。
My car is also very old, but it is better than yours.
(h). 給料は二万円でも、ないよりましだ。
Although the salary is just 20,000 yen it's better than nothing.
(i). お宅は狭いと言っても私の家に比べたらずっとましですよ。
You say your house is small, but it is much better than our house, you know.
(j). もう少しましな人間になろうと思っています。
I am thinking of becoming a slightly better person.
(k). このホテルはひどいですね。この辺にもう少しましなホテルはないんでしょうか。
This hotel is awful. Isn't there a slightly better hotel around here?
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Conjunction (used in writing and formal speech only)
| A conjunction which connects two choices or possibilities expressed by noun phrases or sentences. | Or; either~ or~ |
| 【Related Expression: か~; か~かどちらか; それとも】 | |
(ksa). 現金(か)、または小切手でお払い下さい。
Please pay either in cash or by check.
(ksb). Ａ(か)、またはＢのどちらかを選びなさい。
Select either A or B.
(ksc). 電話番号を聞き違えたか、またはもうこの電話は使われていないのだろう。
I guess that either I misheard the phone number or this number (literally: phone) is no longer in use.
| (i)Noun (か)、 | またはNoun |
| 日本語(か)、または語英語 | Either Japanese or English |
| (ii)Sinformal か | またはSinformal |
| 手紙を書くか、または電話をする | Either write a letter or make a phone call |
(a). 黒(か)、または青のボールペンを使って下さい。
Please use a black or blue ballpoint pen.
(b). 三年以下の懲役(か)、または百万円以下の罰金。
Imprisonment up to three years or a penalty up to one million yen.
(c). 昼は仕事があるから、夜間コースを取るか、または家庭教師を探すしかない。
I have to work during the day, so I have no choice but to take a night course or look for a tutor.
(d). 二週間前に出したはずの手紙がまだ先方に着いていない。私の秘書が出し忘れたか、または郵便局が間違えたのだろう。
A letter that I assumed was mailed two weeks ago has not reached the addressee yet. It is probably that my secretary forgot to mail it or that the post office made a mistake.
Intermediate Page 174
Suffix
| A suffix which represents an ordinal number. | -th; -th one |
(ksa). 私の車は右から二台目です。
My car is the second one from the right.
(ksb). それは上から三つ目の引き出しに入っています。
It is in the third drawer from the top.
| Number+Counter | 目 |
| 四人目 | The fourth (person) |
(a). 山本先生は前から二列目、左から三人目の人だ。
Mr. Yamamoto is the person third from the left in the second row.
(b). 一回目は失敗した。
I failed the first time.
(c). この日本語プログラムは今年で五年目になる。
This Japanese program is in its fifth year (this year).
(d). 五周目からは林先生がこのクラスをお教えになります。
From the fifth week on Mr. Hayashi will teach this class.
(e). 上野さんは一番目に演奏する。
Miss Ueno will perform first.
(f). A: 今のバイオリンは何台目ですか。 B: 六台目です。
A: How many violins have you used so far? B: The present one is my sixth.
Intermediate Page 176
Suffix
| A suffix which forms a compound that means a side of X, or an aspect of X. | (on) the side of; (from) the aspect of; (from) the standpoint/viewpoint of; in terms of |
| 【Related Expression: 点(で)】 | |
(ks). 彼か学業面では優秀だが、精神面に少し弱さがあるようだ。
He is excellent in terms of his academic performance (literally: on the side of his academic performance) but he seems to have some psychological weakness (literally: have some weakness on the side of his psychology).
| Noun | 面 |
| 運営面 | The aspect of operation; the standpoint of operation |
(a). この食堂は衛生面によく気を配っている。
This restaurant pays close attention to hygiene (literally: the hygienic aspect).
(b). 藤田さんは技術面からのみものを見る傾向がある。
Mr. Fujita tends to view things from the technical standpoint alone.
(c). ここの土地所有者は税金面で優遇措置を受けている。
The land owners here receive favourable treatment in terms of tax.
(d). あの候補者の演説は政策面での説得力に欠ける。
That candidate's speech is not convincing (literally: lacks persuasive power) from the standpoint of policy.
(e). 彼女は日本へ行っても語学面は心配しなくてもいい。
She does not need to worry about language (literally: the aspect of language) when she goes to Japan
(f). この車は性能面を高く評価された。
This car was highly regarded in terms of performance.
Intermediate Page 177
Auxiliary Verb (Group 2)
| The speaker's strong determination to achieve something for others to see. | Can manage to; will definitely do; am determined to |
(ks). 僕は小説を書いて、芥川賞を取ってみせる。
I will definitely write a novel and get the Akutagawa Prize.
| Vて | みせる | (Group 2) |
| 読んでみせる | I will definitely read it/I will show you how to read it |
(a). 僕はこの会社の社長になってみせる。
I am determined to become the president of this company.
(b). 私はあのハンサムな男の子と結婚してみせるわ。
I can manage to marry that handsome guy.
(c). 三百ページの本を一時間で読んでみせるぞ。
I will definitely read a 300-page book in one hour.
(d). 今年こそは修士論文を書き上げてみせる。
This year I will definitely finish writing my M.A. thesis.
(e). 一男は百メートルを十一秒で走ってみせた。
Kazuo managed to run 100 meters in 11 seconds.
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Particle
| A particle which implies that something else is also (not) the case. | Also; too; (not) either; (not) even |
(ksa). 吉岡さんは今年七十歳だが、毎日一キロ走る。時々泳ぎもする。
Although Mr. Yoshioka is seventy this year, he runs one kilometre every day. He occasionally swims, too.
(ksb). この本は有益で、その上、面白くもある。
This book is beneficial and, on top of that, it is also interesting.
(ksc). この映画は面白くないし、特に教育的でもない。
This movie is not interesting and not particularly educational, either.
(ksd). 奥田氏は弁護士であり、作家でもある。
Mr. Okuda is a lawyer and also a novelist.
(kse). 由利子は最近廊下ですれ違っても見向きもしない。
Recently Yuriko does not (even) look at me even if we pass each other in the hall.
| (i)Vます | もするもしない |
| 読みもする | Also read |
| 読みもしない | Do not read, either; do not even read |
| (ii)Adjective い stem | くもあるくもない |
| 安くもある | Something is also cheap |
| 安くもない | Something is not cheap, either; something is not even cheap |
| (iii){Adjective な stem/Noun} | でもあるでもない |
| 便利でもある | Something is also convenient |
| 便利でもない | Something is not convenient, either; something is not even convenient |
| 先生でもある | Someone is also a teacher |
| 先生でもない | Someone is not a teacher, either; someone is not even a teacher |
(a). 猿だっておかしければ笑いもするでしょう。
Apes also laugh if something is funny, right?
(b). 健一は新婚早々三日も家を空けたが、和代は泣かなかった。そして、怒りもしなかった。
Ken'ichi didn't go home for three days right after their marriage, but Kazuyo didn't cry. She didn't get mad, either.
(c). あのアパートはあまり便利ではないし安くもない。
That apartment is not convenient and not inexpensive, either.
(d). 周遊券は便利な上、経済的でもある。
Excursion tickets are convenient; on top of that, they are also economical.
(e). 田口さんなんて友達でもないのに、どうしてそんなにしてあげるの。
Mr. Taguchi is not even a friend. How come you do so much for him?
(f). 安くもないのに、そうしてそんなものを買うんですか。
Why are you going to buy a thing like that which is not even cheap?
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Structure
| A structure which expresses the idea that a certain amount of something is sufficient to do something. | Be enough to/for; if~ at least; if~ as much/many as~, it will be enough to |
(ks). この美術館は三時間もあれば全部見られる。
Three hours are enough to see everything in this art museum. (literally: If you have as many as three hours, you can see everything in this art museum.)
| Number+Counter | もVconditional |
| 五人も来れば | If five people come, it will be enough to~ |
(a). 二万円も持って行けば足りるでしょう。
20,000 yen will probably be enough. (literally: If you take as much as 20,000 yen with you, it will probably be sufficient.)
(b). ビールは二ダースも買っておけば大丈夫だ。
As for beer, if we buy two dozen, it will be enough (literally: we will be all right).
(c). 一週間もすれば歩けるようになります。
It will take no more than a week until you can walk (literally: until you become able to walk).
(d). 二、三回も聞けば大体分かる。
Listening two or three times is/will be sufficient for understanding most of it.
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Structure
| A structure which presents two states or actions of someone or something. | Both~ and~; neither~ nor~; also; (not) either |
(ksa). 腰が痛くて立ちも座りも出来ない。
Because I have a backache, I can neither stand nor sit still.
(ksb). 私は俳句が大好きで、よく読みもするし自分で作りもする。
Loving haiku, I read them a lot and I write them myself (too).
(ksc). あのアパートはよくも安くもない。
That apartment is neither good nor cheap.
(ksd). 彼の作品は面白くもあり読みやすくもある。
His writings are interesting and also easy to read.
(kse). 彼女の英語は特に上手でも下手でもない。
Her English is neither particularly good nor bad.
(ksf). 彼は親戚でもなければ友達でもない。
He is neither a relative nor a friend.
(ksg). 私達のクラスには中国人の学生もいればスペイン人の学生もいる。
In my class, there are Chinese students and there are Spanish students too.
| (i)Vます | もVます もする/しない |
| 読みも書きもする | Both read and write |
| 読みも書きもしない | Neither read nor write |
| Vます | も{し/するし/すれば} Vますもする |
| 読みも{し/するし/すれば}書きもする | Read and also write |
| Vます | も{せず/しないし/しなければ} Vますもしない |
| 読みも{せず/しないし/しなければ}書きもしない | Do not read and do not write, either |
| (ii)Vnoun | もVnounもする/しない |
| 料理も掃除もする | Both cook and clean |
| 料理も掃除もしない | Neither cook nor clean |
| Noun | も{し/するし/すれば}Nounもする |
| 料理も{し/するし/すれば}掃除もする | Cook and also clean |
| Noun | も{せず/しないし/しなければ}Nounもしない |
| 料理も{せず/しないし/しなければ}掃除もしない | Does not cook and does not clean, either |
| (iii)Adjective い stemく | もAdjective い stemくもある/ない |
| うれしくも悲しくもある | Both happy and sad |
| うれしくも悲しくもない | Neither happy nor sad |
| Adjective い stemく | も{なく/ないし/なければ} Adjective い stemくもない |
| うれしくも{なく/ないし/なければ}悲しくもない | Not happy and not sad, either |
| (iv){Adjective な stem/Noun}で | も{Adjective な stem/Noun}でもある/ない |
| 便利でも経済的でもある | Both convenient and economical |
| 便利でも経済的でもない | Neither convenient nor economical |
| {Adjective な stem/Noun}で | も{あり/あるし/あれば}{Adjective な stem/Noun}でもある |
| 便利でも{あり/あるし/あれば}経済的でもある | Convenient and also economical |
| {Adjective な stem/Noun}で | も{なく/ないし/なければ}{Adjective な stem/Noun}でもない |
| 便利でも{なく/ないし/なければ}経済的でもない | Not convenient and not economical, either |
(a). 私はドイツ語なら読みも話しも出来る。
When it comes to German, I can both read it and speak it.
(b). この教科書は難しすぎもせずやさしすぎもせず、ちょうどいい。
This textbook is not too difficult and not too easy, either; it's just right.
(c). ボブの奥さんは料理もしなければ掃除もしない。
Bob's wife does not cook and does not clean (the house), either.
(d). この物語は面白くもなければおかしくもない。
This story is not interesting and not funny, either.
(e). 奥田氏は弁護士でもあり、作家でもある。
Mr. Okuda is a lawyer and also a novelist.
(f). この言葉の意味は字引も引いたし友達にも聞いたが結局わからなかった。
I checked the word in the dictionary and also asked my friend, but I didn't get the meaning after all.
(g). あの人は頭もいいしハンサムもあるが、どうも好きになれない。
That man is smart and handsome, too, but I'm unable to like him for some reason.
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Noun (used in writing and formal speech only)
| A dependent noun which is used to create a sentence structure which presents a characteristic of something. | (is) that which~; (is) something which~; (are) those which~ |
(ksa). 現在のコンピュータのほとんどはフォン・ノイマン型と呼ばれているものである。
Most of the present computers are those which are called (literally: things which are called) the von Neumann model.
(ksb). Ｃ社が盲人用障害物感知器の試作品を発表した。この装置は目の不自由な人が皮膚への刺激を通して、前にある障害物などを感知出来るようにしたもの(である)。
S1: C Company announced an experimental model of an obstacle detector for the blind. S2: This device enables (literally: is something which has enabled) blind people to recognize (literally: feel) obstacles ahead of them through stimuli to their skin.
(ksc). 米国の貿易赤字はしばらくこのまま続くものと予想される。
It is predicted that the U.S. trade deficit will remain as it is for a while.
(a). この本の内容はいかなる人間社会にも当てはまる一般的なものである。
The content of this book generally applies to any society (literally: is something general which applies to any human society).
(b). これは革命的発見とも言うべきものだ。
This is something which should be called a revolutionary discovery.
(c). C社がM型ワープロの五パーセント値下げに踏み切った。これは、最近低下している同社のワープロシェアの巻き返しを狙ったもの(である)。
C Company has decided to reduce the price of M-type word-processors by five percent. Their aim is to regain (literally: This is to aim at regaining) their recently declining share of the word-processor market.
(d). 大学入試制度調査会の第一回会合が昨日都内のホテルで行われた。この調査会は、最近しばしば批判の対象になっている、現行の大学入試制度の見直しのために発足したものである。
The first meeting of the Study Group for University Entrance Examinations was held at a hotel in Tokyo yesterday. This study group was started for the purpose of reviewing the present university entrance examination system which is criticized frequent
(e). この問題は時期が来れば自然に解決されるものと見られている。
This problem is expected to solve itself when the time comes.
(f). エレクトロニクスの世界は今後も急速な進歩を続けていくものと予想される。
It is predicted that the world of electronics will continue advancing rapidly from now on, too.
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Particle (used in conversation only)
| An exclamatory sentential particle which is used in informal male speech. | How~!; what~! ~!; I wonder; I wish |
(ksa). 彼はよく食べるなあ。
He eats a lot!
(ksb). 素晴らしい映画だなあと思った。
I was so impressed by that (wonderful) movie. (literally: What a wonderful movie, I thought.)
(ksc). まだ間に合うかなあ。
I wonder if I can still make it in time.
(ksd). 河合君、早く来ないかなあ。
I wish Kawai would come soon.
(kse). 車があったらいいなあ。
I wish I had a car. (literally: It would be nice if I had a car.)
| (i)Sinformal | |
| 高いなあ | It’s expensive!/How expensive! |
| (ii)Sinformal | かなあ |
| 高いかなあ | I wonder if it’s expensive |
| (iii)Vnegative informal | かなあ |
| くれないかなあ | I wish someone would give me something |
(a). よく飲んだなあ。
We drank a lot!/ Did we drink!
(b). あのけちの吉田がよく金を出したなあ。
I'm surprised that that stingy guy Yoshida gave money.
(c). 家が欲しいなあ。
I want a house so badly.
(d). 山内さん、今日は来ないかなあ。
I wonder if Mr. Yamauchi is not coming today.
(e). 何か面白い映画はないかなあ。
I wonder if there is (literally: isn't) an interesting movie.
(f). 彼女、こんなことを言っても怒らないかなあ。
I wonder if she will (literally: won't) get mad if I say such a thing.
(g). タイガース、今日勝たないかなあ。
I wish the Tigers would win today.
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Compound Particle
| A compound particle that indicates an approximate quote of words or ideas. | (things) like~; ~ or something like |
(ks). 日本の文化はユニークだなどと言う人がいるが、私はそうは思わない。
There are people who say things like Japanese culture is unique, but I don't think so.
| (i){V/Adjective い}informal | などと |
| 話すなどと | (say) something like someone talks |
| つまらないなどと | (say) something like something is uninteresting |
| (ii){Adjectiveな stem/Noun} | {だ/だった}などと |
| 便利{だ/だった}などと | (say) something like something is/was convenient |
| 学生{だ/だった}などと | (say) something like someone is/was a student |
(a). お金がないから、日本へ行くなどということは夢です。
I don't have money, so ideas like going to Japan are just dreams.
(b). 毎日運動しろなどとは言いませんから、週に二、三度運動したらどうですか。
I'm not saying you should exercise every day, but why don't you do it 2 or 3 times a week.
(c). ジョンソンさんは日本語で何でも話せるなどと言っている。
Mr. Johnson says things like he can say anything in Japanese.
(d). 困った時は助けてくれるだろうなどと甘く考えてはいけない。
Don't think indulgently things like people will help you when you are in trouble.
(e). 日本へ留学しようとしているケントさんは、うまく日本の生活に適応出来るかなどと心配している。
Mr. Kent, who is about to go to Japan to study, is worried about things like whether he will be able to adjust to Japanese life.
(f). みんなが君のことをクラブのホープだなどと言っているよ。
Everybody is saying something like you are the hope of our club.
(g). 尊敬しています、などと言われると照れくさい。
When I am told that they respect me, I feel embarrassed.
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Conjunction (used in writing and formal speech only)
| A disjunctive conjunction used normally in written Japanese with the meaning of 'although'. | Although; even though; nevertheless |
| 【Related Expression: が; けれど(も); のに】 | |
(ksa). この部屋は狭いながら(も)居心地がよい。
Although his room is small, it is comfortable.
(ksb). 山口はそのことを知りながら(も)黙っていた。
Yamaguchi kept silent, although he knew about the matter.
| (i){Vます/Vてい} | ながら(も) |
| ながら(も) | Although someone says~ |
| 分かっていながら(も) | Although someone understands something/someone |
| (ii){Adjective い informal/Adjective な stem/Noun} | ながら(も) |
| 大きいながら(も) | Although something is big |
| 静かながら(も) | Although something/someone is quiet |
| 子供ながら(も) | Although someone is a child |
(a). あの人は若いながら(も)、なかなか有能だ。
He is young, but he is very capable.
(b). 教授のゼミは厳しいながら(も)学ぶところが多かった。
Although my professor's seminar was tough, I learned a lot from it.
(c). ベッキーの日本語はたどたどしいながら(も)言おうとしていることは分かった。
Becky's Japanese is halting, but I was able to figure out what she had to say.
(d). この辺は不便ながら(も)、車も少なく、空気が綺麗だ。
This area is inconvenient, but there is little traffic and the air is clean.
(e). 残念ながら、明日の音楽会には行けません。
To my regret, I cannot go to tomorrow's concert.
(f). ひとみは子供ながら(も)、よく考えてものを言う。
Hitomi is just a child, but she says things very carefully (literally: after thinking hard).
(g). この車は小型ながら(も)よく走る。
This car runs well, although it is such a small car.
(h). 日本の単身赴任のサラリーマンは苦しみながら(も)、会社のために働いている。
Japanese white-collar workers who have to leave their families behind for work transfers work for the company even though their lives are hard.
(i). ボブは日本にいながら(も)、洋食ばかり食べている。
Bob is in Japan, but he eats only Western-style food.
(j). 煙草は体に悪いと分かっていながら(も)、吸ってしまう。
Even though I know cigarettes are bad for my body, I end up smoking them.
(k). 弟は沢山本を買っていながら(も)、少しも読んでいない。
My younger brother has bought many books, but he has not read any of them.
(l). 彼は何度も日本へ行っていながら(も)、日本語が少しも話せない。
Although he has been to Japan many times he cannot speak Japanese at all.
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Phrase
| A double negative phrase used to make a conditional affirmative statement. | It isn't the case that~ not~; it is not that~ not~ |
| 【Related Expression: ことは】 | |
(ks). Ａ：日本語の新聞は読まないんですか。Ｂ：いいえ、読まないこと{も/は}ないんですが、時たまですね。
A: Don't you read Japanese newspapers? B: I do read them, but very rarely. (literally: It isn't the case that I don't read them, but very rarely.)
| {V/Adjectiveい/な/Copula}negative | ないこと{もは}ない |
| 話さないこと{もは}ない | I do speak, but~ |
| 高くないこと{もは}ない | Something is expensive/high, but~ |
| 不便{で/じゃ}ないこと{もは}ない | Something is frequent, but~ |
| 学者{で/じゃ}ないこと{もは}ない | Someone is a scholar, but~ |
(a). A: この辺は夏涼しくないんですか。B: いや、涼しくないこともないんですが、時々ひどく暑くなります。
A: Isn't it cool around here during the summer? B: Yes, it is cool, but sometimes it gets terribly hot.
(b). A: お父さんはお元気じゃないんですか。B: いや、元気じゃないことはないんですが、血圧が少し高いようです。
A: Isn't your father in good health? B: Yes, he is healthy, but his blood pressure is a bit high.
(c). A：日本語は難しくありませんか。B: いえ、難しくないこともないんですが、日本語の難しさは強調されすぎていると思いますよ。
A: Isn't Japanese difficult? B: Yes, it is difficult, but it seems that the difficulty of Japanese is overemphasized.
(d). A：山田さんは政治学者じゃないんですね。B: いや、政治学者じゃないこともないんですが、どちらかというと政治家です。
A: Mr. Yamada isn't a political scientist, is he? B: Yes, he is a political scientist, but he is more of a politician.
(e). 日本人は集団行動が好きだとよく言われている。確かに、集団行動をしないことはないのだが、個人行動をとる日本人も結構いる。
Japanese are said to like group behaviour. Certainly, they do behave as a group, but there are quite a few Japanese who behave individually.
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Adverb
| An adverb used to indicate the speaker's feelings that something is impressive or his annoyance at slowness or difficulty in achieving something. | Quiet; fairly; considerable; (not) easily; pretty; (not) readily |
| 【Related Expression: 非常に; かなり; 結構; 大変; とても】 | |
(ksa). ブラウンさんは日本語がなかなか上手ですね。
{Mr. Brown is/ Mr. Brown, you are} remarkably good at Japanese.
(ksb). この生け花はなかなか見事に生けてある。
This flower arrangement is done quite nicely.
(ksd). 今年は桜の花がなかなか咲きません。
It will be a long time before the cherry blossoms are out this year. (literally: This year the cherry blossoms do not bloom easily.)
(kse). あの男は仕事がなかなか出来るねえ。
That guy does his job quite well, doesn't he?
| (i)なかなか | Adjective(い/な)affirmative |
| なかなか面白い | Quite interesting |
| なかなか便利だ | Quiet convenient |
| (ii)なかなか | Vaffirmative |
| なかなかやる | Someone performs something quiet well |
| (iii)なかなか | Vnegative |
| なかなか分からない | Cannot understand something easily |
| (iv)なかなか | Adverb |
| なかなか上手に話す | Someone speaks quite well |
| (v)なかなか(の) | Noun |
| なかなか(の)学者 | Quite a scholar |
(a). 山田部長の奥さんはなかなか(の)美人だ。
The wife of our departmental chief Yamada is quite a beauty.
(b). この庭園はなかなか綺麗ですね。
This garden is quite beautiful, isn't it?
(c). この数学の問題はなかなか難しそうだ。
This math problem looks quite difficult, doesn't it?
(d). 君はなかなかコンピュータに強いそうじゃないか。
I heard that you are quite good with computers.
(e). この大学の学生はなかなかよく出来る。
The students at this college are pretty good.
(f). あのピアニストはモーツァルトをなかなかうまく弾く。
That pianist plays Mozart quite well.
(g). テニスは毎日練習しているのに、なかなか上手にならないんです。
I am practicing tennis every day, but I cannot become good at it readily.
(h). 約束の時間になっても友達がなかなか来なかったので家に帰ってしまった。
The meeting time long passed, but my friend didn't show up for a long time, so I went home.
(i). あの人はどんなに説明しても、僕の言うことがなかなか分からないようだ。
No matter how hard I try to explain, he doesn't seem to understand me easily.
(j). 風邪がなかなか治らないので、困っているんです。
I'm having a difficult time, because my cold won't go away easily.
(k). 河豚は怖くて、なかなか食べられないんだ。
I am scared of blowfish and cannot eat it easily.
(l). 中村先生はなかなか話せる先生だ。
Mr. Nakamura is a teacher who (literally: can talk with us) can understand us.
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Inflection Ending (used in writing and formal speech only)
| a continuative form of ない used in written Japanese (to indicate a reason/cause for what follows if ない is attached to Adjective (い/な) and contrast if it is attached to a Noun+Copula. | Not~ and; not~ but |
| 【Related Expression: ず】 | |
(ksa). 日本語の期末試験はあまり難しくなく、ほっとした。
The Japanese final examination was not very hard, and I felt relieved.
(ksb). 私の研究対象は現代史ではなく、古代史だ。
My research area is not modern history, but ancient history.
| (i)Adjective い stem | くなく |
| 大きくなく | Something/someone is not big and~ |
| (ii){Adjective な stem/Noun} | ではなく |
| 静かではなく | Something/someone is not quiet and~ |
| 先生ではなく | Someone is not a teacher but~ |
(a). 今年の冬はあまり寒くなく、オーバーも二、三度しか着なかった。
It wasn't very cold this winter and we wore our overcoats only two or three times.
(b). 昨日見た映画は実に面白くなく、途中で寝てしまった。
The movie I saw yesterday was so boring that I went to sleep during it.
(c). 私には日本語を聞くのが容易ではなく、大分苦労した。
To listen to Japanese was not easy, and I had quite a difficult time.
(d). 彼女と別れた時はそれほど悲しくなく、自分でも驚いた。
I was surprised that I did not feel so sad when I parted with her.
(e). 私には日本語を教えてくれたのは日本人ではなく、アメリカ人だった。
The person who taught me Japanese was not a Japanese but an American.
(f). 僕が好きなのは日本料理ではなくタイ料理だ。
What I like is not Japanese cuisine, but Thai cuisine.
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Phrase
| A phrase that indicates the speaker's uncertainty about something. | I don't know for sure, but |
(ks). 何でも山本さんは奥さんと別れて、一人で暮らしているそうですよ。
I don't know for sure, but they say that Mr. Yamamoto has separated from his wife and lives alone.
(a). 何でもこの辺は物価が非常に高いそうですよ。
I don't know for sure, but they say things are expensive in this neighbourhood.
(b). 何でもあの人は株で大分もうけたようですよ。
I don't know for sure, but he appeared to have earned a lot of money through stocks.
(c). 何でも戸田さんの息子さんはシカゴ大学で経営学修士を取ったらしいですよ。
I don't know for sure, but it seems that Mr. Toda's son received an MBA at the University of Chicago.
(d). 何でも日本とアメリカの西海岸を五時間ぐらいで飛ぶ飛行機を開発しているという話ですよ。
I don't know for sure, but there's some talk that they are developing an airplane that flies between Japan and the west coast of the States in about five hours.
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Adverb (used in conversation only)
| An adverb that indicates the speaker's emotive feeling about some extreme state of affairs. | As a matter of fact; no matter what; believe it or not; you may be surprised, but~; in fact; unbelievably |
| 【Related Expression: とにかく】 | |
(ksa). うちの父は頑固なんだ。何しろ一度言い出したら絶対に引き下がらないんだから。
My father is obstinate. As a matter of fact, once he says he will do something, he never changes his mind.
(ksb). Ａ：この大学の教育はいいらしいね。Ｂ：うん、何しろ学生六人に先生一人だからね。
A: I heard that education at this college is good. B: Yeah, you may be surprised, but the student-instructor ratio is 6 to 1.
(ksc). 一日中ボスにがなり立てられるんで、何しろ、ストレスが多いんだ。
Because my boss hollers at me all day long, I'm unbelievably stressed.
(a). あの人は金持ちですよ。何しろベンツを三台も持っているんですからね。
He is rich, you know. Believe it or not, he has three Mercedes Benz.
(b). 今年の冬は本当に雪が多かったです。何しろ、雪の降らない日の方が少ないくらいでしたからね。
It snowed a lot this winter. In fact, there were less snow-free days than snowy days, you know.
(c). あの人はよく煙草を吸いますよ。何しろ一日に六十本ぐらい吸うんですから。
He is a heavy smoker. In fact, he smokes about 60 cigarettes a day.
(d). A: 日本は人が多いねえ。B: うん、何しろ、面積はアメリカの二十五分の一なのに、人口は二分一だからね。
A: Japan is crowded, isn't it? B: Yeah, as a matter of fact, the size is one twenty fifth of America but the population is one half, you know.
(e). 何しろ、忙しいんだ。寝る時間もないんですよ。
I'm unbelievably busy. I don't have any sleeping time, you know.
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Phrase (used in writing and formal speech only)
| A phrase that is used to express insurmountable psychological or physical feelings. | Cannot help -ing; irresistibly; unbearably |
| 【Related Expression: 堪らない】 | |
(ksa). 病気の母のことが心配でならない。
I'm very much worried about my sick mother. (Literally: I cannot help worrying about my sick mother).
(ksb). 日本の歴史をもっと深く知りたくてならない。
I'm dying to know Japanese history more deeply.
(ksc). 一人で住んでいる母親のことが気になってならない。
I cannot help worrying about my mother who is living alone.
| (i)Adjective (い/な)て | ならない |
| 嬉しくてならない | I cannot help feeling happy |
| 残念でならない | I cannot help feeling sorry |
| (ii)Vて | ならない |
| 気がせいてならない | I cannot help feeling pressed |
(a). 夫が単身赴任しているので、寂しくてなりません。
My husband has gone alone for work and I cannot help feeling lonely.
(b). 二人の婚約が決まって、嬉しくてならないようだ。
The couple have decided to get engaged and they look overjoyed.
(c). 松本清張の推理小説は面白くてならない。
The mystery novels by Seicho Matsumoto are irresistibly interesting.
(d). 隣の家のステレオがやかましくてならない。
Our neighbour’s stereo is unbearably noisy.
(e). 山田先生がこの大学をお辞めになるので、残念でならない。
Since Professor Yamada is going to quit this university, I cannot help feeling disappointed.
(f). 東京の夏は暑くてならない。
The summer in Tokyo is awfully hot.
(g). 駅の階段を急いで上がったら、息が苦しくてならなかった。
When I rushed up the stairs at the station, it became unbearably painful to breathe.
(h). 買ってきたばかりのテレビがすぐ壊れてしまい、腹が立ってならなかった。
I got really mad because the TV set which I just bought got broken right away.
(i). 仕事がうまく行っていないので、気が滅入ってならない。
I feel helplessly depressed because my business isn't going well.
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Strength
| A phrase to indicate two representative choices/examples. | ~ or~ (for example); like~ or~ |
| 【Related Expression: か~か; たり~たり; とか~とか】 | |
(ksa). 文法が分からなかったら、私なり鈴木先生なりに質問しなさい。
If you don't understand grammar, ask me or Professor Suzuki.
(ksb). 読めない漢字は辞書を引くなり、日本人に聞くなりしなさい。
As for kanji you can't read, find out the reading either by looking it up in a dictionary or by asking a Japanese.
| (i)Noun | なりNounなり{が/を} | |
| 田中君なり山田君なり{が/を} | Either Tanaka or Yamada | |
| (ii)Noun | Noun1 Particleなり Noun2 Particleなり | Where Particle=other particles than が/を |
| 山へなり海へなり | To the mountain or to the oceans | |
| 田中君になり山田君になり | Either to Tanaka or to Yamada | |
| (iii)Noun | Noun1なり Noun2 Particle | Where the Particle is に,へ,と,で,から |
| ラジオなりテレビなりで | Either on the radio or TV | |
| (iv)Vinformal nonpast | なり Vinformal nonpast なり | |
| 読むなり、書くなり | Reading or writing |
(a). 私なり山田なりが空港に迎えに参ります。
Either I or Yamada will go to the airport to pick you up.
(b). 何か連絡することがありましたら電話なりファックスなりでお願いします。
If you have something that you want to report, please do it by telephone or by fax.
(c). 両親なり親友なりに会って、ゆっくり話したいんです。
I would like to see my parents or a close friend, and talk leisurely.
(d). 今は忙してく旅行が出来ないが、春休みなり夏休みなりにするつもりだ。
Right now I'm so busy that I can't make a trip, but I intend to make one during the spring break or summer vacation.
(e). テニスがしたかったら、トムなりチャールズなりとしたらいいでしょう。
If you want to play tennis, why don't you play with Tom or Charles?
(f). アパートを探しているんなら、不動産屋に行くなり、新聞の広告を見るなりしたらどうですか。
If you are looking for an apartment, you should go to a realtor or look at the newspaper ads.
(g). 散歩するなり、泳ぐなり、何か運動をした方がいいですよ。
You'd better do some exercise, like taking a walk or swimming.
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Compound Particle
| In a way/style that is proper to someone/something. | In one's own way; in one's own style |
(ksa). あの人はあの人なりによく考えているらしい。
He appears to think hard in his own way.
(ksb). 動物は動物なりのコミュニケーションが出来る。
Animals are capable of their own communication.
| (i)Noun1はNoun2 | なりに | Where Noun1=Noun2 |
| 学生は学生なりに | Students~in their own way | |
| (ii)Noun1はNoun2 | なりのNoun3 | Where Noun1=Noun2 |
| 先生なりの考え | Teachers' own idea |
(a). 小さい大学は小さい大学なりによさがある。
Small colleges have their own merits.
(b). 私は私なりに、人生観を持っています。
I have my own outlook on life.
(c). 自転車は自転車なりに、車は車なりに、長所、短所がある。
A bike and a car have their own merits and demerits.
(d). 健康な人は健康な人なりに、体に気をつけた方がいい。
Healthy people had better take care of themselves in their own way.
(e). 私は老人が老人なりに生活を楽しめる社会が好きだ。
I like a society in which old people can enjoy life in their own way.
(f). 私は私なりに一生懸命働くつもりです。
I intend to work very hard in my own way.
(g). この問題について、父は父なりの考えを持っているようです。
My father seems to have his own idea about this issue.
(h). ジャズ音楽はジャズ音楽なりの魅力がある。
Jazz music has its own charm
(i). 金持ちは金持ちなりの悩みがあるのだ。
Rich people have their own suffering.
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Compound Particle
| If something/someone is missing. | Without |
| 【Related Expression: が(い)なければ; なしには】 | |
(ks). 実力なしでは世の中は渡れない。
Without real talents one cannot get along in the society.
| Noun | なしでは |
| 先生なしでは | Without a teacher |
(a). あなたなしでは生きていけない。
Without you I cannot keep on living.
(b). お金なしではいい教育は受けられない。
Without money we cannot receive good education.
(c). 暇なしでは人生はつまらなくなってしまう。
Without leisure time life will become dull.
(d). 仕事なしでは生活が出来ない。
Without a job one cannot live a life.
(e). 基礎研究なしでは科学は発展しない。
Without basic research science would not develop.
(f). 車なしではちょっと不便だ。
Without a car it is a bit inconvenient.
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Phrase (used in writing and formal speech only)
| A phrase that indicates duty, obligation or necessity. | Must; have to; should |
| 【Related Expression: なければならない】 | |
(ksa). 日本を知るためには一度は日本へ行かねばならない。
In order to know Japan one has to go to Japan at least once.
(ksb). 日本は市場をもっと広く開放せねばならない。
Japan has to open its market wider.
| Vinformal negative | ねばならない | |
| 話さねばならない | Someone has to talk | |
| 食べねばならない | Someone has to eat | |
| せねばならない (irregular) | Someone has to do it |
(a). 今後も同じ研究を続けねばならない。
I have to continue the same research from now on.
(b). 人種偏見をなくさねばならない。
We should get rid of racial prejudice.
(c). 会議の内容を帰国後本社に報告せねばならなかった。
I had to report the agenda of the conference to the main office after returning to my country.
(d). 自然保護を叫ばねばならない。
We have to voice preservation of nature.
(e). 日本はこれから世界をリードせねばなりません。
From now on Japan has to lead the world.
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Particle
| A sentence final particle that expresses the speaker's feeling of great regret or sympathy. |
| 【Related Expression: のに】 |
(ksa). 昨日来れば夏子に会えたでしょう・だろうに。
If you had come here yesterday, you could have met Natsuko.
(ksb). 老人が一人で暮らすのはさぞ寂しいでしょう・だろうに。
It must be lonely for an old man to live alone.
| (i){Verb/Adjective い}informal | {でしょう/だろう}に |
| {話す/話した}{でしょう/だろう}に | Would talk/would have talked |
| {高い/高かった}{でしょう/だろう}に | Would {be/have been} expensive |
| (ii){Adjective な stem/ Noun} | {Ø/だった} {でしょう/だろう}に |
| {静か/静かだった} {でしょう/だろう}に | Would {be/have been} quiet |
| いい{先生/先生だった} {でしょう/だろう}に | Would {be/have been} a good teacher |
(a). 後一年ぐらい日本にいたら日本語がもっと上手になるでしょうに。
If you could stay in Japan another year or so your Japanese would become more proficient.
(b). お金が沢山あればこんな家でも買えるでしょうに。
If we had a lot of money, we would be able to buy this sort of house.
(c). 僕にいい仕事があったら美智子さんと結婚出来ただろうに。
If I had had a good job I could have married Michiko.
(d). 飛行機で行けば簡単に行ける所でしょうに。
If you go by plane, you could easily get there.
(e). 彼はもう少し慎重に金を使えば、貯金出来るだろうに。
If he uses his money a little more carefully, he could save his money.
(f). 駅の近くのアパートに住んだら便利でしょうに。
If you lived in an apartment near the station, it would be convenient.
(g). 子供を二人も大学に行かせるのにはお金がかかるでしょうに。
It must cost a lot of money to send two children to college.
(h). 飛行機の切符をなくして、さぞ困ったことでしょうに。
You must have had a difficult time when you lost your airplane ticket.
Intermediate Page 237
Compound Particle (used in writing and formal speech only)
| A compound particle that indicates occasion of doing something or of having done something in formal Japanese. | On the occasion of; at; in; before; prior to |
| 【Related Expression: 前に; に際して; 際(に); 時】 | |
(ksa). 新入社員の入社に{当たって/当たり}社長はホテルでパーティーを開いた。
On the occasion of new employees' entering the company, the president threw a party at a hotel.
(ksb). 和也は大学を卒業するに{当たって/当たり}、指導教官に今後の進路について相談した。
On the occasion of graduating from college, Kazuya consulted with his academic adviser on his future direction.
| (i)Noun | に{当たって当たり} |
| 結婚に{当たって当たり} | On the occasion of the marriage |
| (ii)Vinformal nonpast | に{当たって当たり} |
| 話すに{当たって当たり} | On the occasion of talking |
(a). 私の留学に当たり、父は自分の経験を話してくれた。
On the occasion of my study abroad, my father told me about his own experience.
(b). 日本の経済を研究するに当たって、国会図書館で資料集めをした。
Before I did research on the Japanese economy, I collected materials at the National Diet Library.
(c). 総理はサミット出席に当たり、閣僚と会議をした。
The Premier had a conference with cabinet members before attending the summit.
(d). 小説家は時代小説を書くに当たり、その時代の歴史を詳しく調べた。
Before writing a historical novel, the novelist did an in-depth survey of the history of the period he dealt with.
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Compound Particle (used in writing and formal speech only)
| Contrary to or in contrast to. | Against; contrary to; in contrast to; in violation of; while; whereas |
| 【Related Expression: にひきかえ; に対して; と逆に】 | |
(ksa). 今年の東京国際マラソンは大方の予想に反して無名の選手が優勝した。
Contrary to the majority's expectations, an unknown runner won the Tokyo International Marathon this year.
(ksb). 我が社はテレビの売れ行きが伸びているのに反してオーディオ製品の売れ行きが下がっている。
In our company, in contrast to the increase in sales of TV sets, the sales in audio products are decreasing.
(ksc). Ｓ１：日本ではいい大学に入るのは難しいが卒業するのは易しいと言われている。Ｓ２：これに反して、アメリカではいい大学でも入学が比較的易しいが卒業するには相当勉強しなければならない。
S1: It is said that to enter good universities in Japan is difficult but to graduate from them is easy. S2: In contrast to this, in America even good universities are relatively easy to enter, but students must study quite hard to graduate from them.
(ksd). 妙子は意思に反する結婚を押しつけられた。
Taeko was forced to marry. (literally: A marriage which was against Taeko's will was forced upon her.)
| (i)Noun | に反して | |
| 予想に反して | Contrary to expectation | |
| (ii)Sinformal | のに反して | Connection rules: the same as のだ |
| よく勉強するのに反して | In contrast to the fact that someone studies hard | |
| (iii)Demonstrative Pronoun | に反して | |
| これに反して | In contrast to this | |
| (iv)Noun | に反するNoun | |
| 予想に反する結果 | A result which is contrary to someone’s expectation |
(a). 浩は両親の期待に反して高校を出てからコックになった。
Contrary to his parents' wishes, Hiroshi became a chef after finishing high school.
(b). 彼は自分の意思に反して賄賂を受け取ってしまった。
He was forced to accept a bribe. (literally: He received a bribe against his will.)
(c). この規則に反して従業員を働かせた場合は一か月の営業停止になる。
Your business will be suspended for one month if you work your employees in violation of these rules.
(d). 奥村さんのうちはご主人が無口なのに反して奥さんが人一倍のおしゃべりだ。
In Okumura's family, whereas the husband is quite, the wife is very talkative.
(e). 日本での初等教育は生徒に知識を与えることに主眼が置かれている。これに反して、アメリカでは生徒の創造性や個性を伸ばすことに重点が置かれている。
The principle consideration of elementary education in Japan is to provide students with knowledge. In America, in contrast (to this), emphasis is put on increasing students' creativity and individual talents.
(f). 今回の選挙は一般の予想に反する結果に終わった。
The election this time ended up with results which were against the general prediction.
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Phrase (used in writing and formal speech only)
| A phrase that is used to indicate that an action/state mentioned in the topic phrase or clause is nothing but something. | Be nothing but~; be simply~ |
| 【Related Expression: に過ぎない】 | |
(ksa). あの人の言葉は美辞麗句にほかならない。
His words are nothing but flowery words.
(ksb). 日本語を勉強しているのは将来日本で仕事をしたいからにほかならない。
The reason that I am studying Japanese is simply because I want to work in Japan in the future.
(ksc). 外国語学習はほかの国の人の考え方を学ぶことにほならない。
Foreign language learning is nothing but learning about the ways people in other countries think.
| (i)(Nounは)Noun | にはかならない |
| (彼の話は)冗談にはかならない | His talk is nothing but a joke |
| (ii)~のは~から | にはかならない |
| 働くのはお金が欲しいにはかならない | The reason that we work is simply because we want money |
| (iii)~は~こと | にはかならない |
| 読書は著者と対話することにはかならない | Reading is nothing but a dialogue with the author |
(a). モーツァルトの音楽は天使の声にほかならない。
Mozart's music is nothing but an angel's voice.
(b). 結婚は人生の墓場にほかならない。
Marriage is nothing but a graveyard of life.
(c). 彼の言動は自己宣伝にほかならない。
His speech and behaviour are nothing but self-advertisement.
(d). 親が子供を厳しくしつけるのは子供を愛しているからにほかならない。
The reason why parents discipline their children strictly is simply because they love their children.
(e). 彼女が僕に寄って来るのは僕を利用したいからにほかならない。
The reason why she comes close to me is simply because she wants to use me.
(f). 私の日本語がこれほど上達したのは大学の時の日本語の先生のおかげにほかならない。
The reason why my Japanese made such progress is simply because of my college Japanese instructor.
(g). この大学の学生の質がいいのは選抜が厳しいからにほかならない。
The reason why the student quality of this college is so good is simply because the selection is tough.
(h). 核兵器の使用は人類の破滅を招くことにほかならない。
The use of nuclear weapons invites nothing but (literally: is nothing but to invite) the annihilation of humanity.
(i). ほかならない君のためだから、やってあげよう。
It's for you of all people, so I'll do it.
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Compound Particle
| Not limiting something to~. | Not limited to~ (but also); not only~ (but also) |
| 【Related Expression: だけで(は)なく~も】 | |
(ks). 見合い結婚は日本に限らずほかの国でも行われている。
Arranged marriage is not limited to Japan; it is practiced in other countries, too.
| Noun | に限らず |
| 日本語に限らず | Not limited to Japanese |
(a). 音楽はクラシックに限らず何でも聞きます。
Talking about music, I listen to any music, not just classical music.
(b). このバーは男性だけに限らず女性の間にも人気がある。
This bar is popular not only among men but also among women.
(c). 果物は何に限らず好きです。
My preference for fruit is unlimited (literally: not limited to something); I like any kind.
(d). 何事に限らず仕事は誠意をもって行うことが大切だ。
Whatever you do (literally: Not limited to anything), it is important to do it with sincerity.
Intermediate Page 250
Compound Particle
| A compound particle to show that only X is different from others. | (X) of all (X's); only |
(ks). うちの子供に限ってそんなひどいことはしませんよ。
Our child, of all children, would not do such a terrible thing.
| Noun | に限って |
| あの日に限って | Only on that day |
| あの人に限って | Only that person |
(a). 中野先生はたいてい研究室にいっらっしゃるのに、今日に限っていらっしゃらなかった。
Professor Nakano is usually in his office, but today, of all days, he wasn't there.
(b). 傘を持って来ない日に限って雨が降るんですよ。
Only on the day when I don't bring my umbrella, it rains, you know.
(c). 急ぐ時に限って、バスがなかなか来ない。
Of all times, when I am in a hurry, the bus doesn't come for ages.
(d). 嫌なことがある時に限って、嫌なことが重なる。
Only when something unpleasant happens, do other unpleasant things occur.
(e). この小説家の書いたものに限って、つまらないものはない。
Only works written by this novelist are never boring.
Intermediate Page 252
Compound Particle (used in writing and formal speech only)
| Related to. | Concerning; with regard to; about; on |
| 【Related Expression: について; のこと】 | |
(ksa). 消費税に関して与野党の意見が対立した。
With regard to the sales tax, the opinions of the leading party and the opposition parties conflicted.
(ksb). 人間の言語習得に関してはまだまだ不明のことが多い。
Concerning human language acquisition, there are still many unknown things.
(ksc). 先週、東京で超伝導に関する学会が開かれた。
Last week a conference on superconductivity was held in Tokyo.
| (i)Noun | に関して |
| 首相の訪米に関して | Concerning the Prime Minister’s visit to the U.S. |
| (ii)Noun | に関するNoun |
| 首相の訪米に関する世論 | Public opinion concerning the Prime Minister’s visit to the U.S. |
(a). その学会で吉岡氏の発表に関して多くの批判がなされた。
There was a lot of criticism concerning Mr. Yoshioka's presentation at the conference.
(b). その件に関しましては、まだ発表できる段階ではありません。
With regard to that issue, we are not yet at the stage where we can announce anything.
(c). 最近老人問題に関する記事が目に付く。
We see many articles about problems of the elderly these days.
(d). 大気汚染に関する報告書が委員会に提出された。
A report concerning environmental pollution was submitted to the committee.
Intermediate Page 254
Compound Particle
| A compound particle to express replacement or substitution of a regular person/thing by someone/something. | In place of; replacing; on behalf of |
| 【Related Expression: 代わりに】 | |
(ks). 病気の山田先生に代わって、鈴木先生が教えて下さった。
In place of Professor Yamada, who is ill, Professor Suzuki taught us.
| Noun | に代わって |
| 母に代わって | In place of my mother |
(a). 戦後ガラスに代わってプラスチックが出てきた。
After the war plastics became available replacing glass.
(b). レコードに代わってCDが出て、音質がとてもよくなった。
In place of records, CDs have become available, and the sound quality has improved a great deal.
(c). 私が父に代わって、空港までお客さんを迎えに行った。
In place of my father, I went to the airport to pick up our guest.
(d). 御出席の皆様に代わりまして、一言ご挨拶を述べさせていただきます。
On behalf of everyone present here, let me say a word of greeting.
(e). 申し訳ございませんが、社長は今日都合が悪いので、私が社長に代わって参りました。
I am very sorry that the president was unable to attend, but I have come in his place.
Intermediate Page 256
Compound Particle
| If we compare (it) with/to; comparing (it) with. | Compared with/to; when compared with/to; in comparison to |
(ks). 欧米に比べて日本の住宅事情は極めて貧困だ。
Compared to (the situations) in Europe and the U.S., the housing situation in Japan is extremely poor.
| Noun | に比べると比べて |
| 去年に比べると比べて | Compared with last year |
(a). 日本に来る前に比べると今は大分日本語でものが言えるようになった。
I can speak Japanese fairly well now (literally: I have become able to say things in Japanese fairly well) compared to my level before I came to Japan.
(b). 今年は去年に比べて雨の日が多いようだ。
In comparison to last year, we seem to have more rainy days this year.
(c). 十年前の暮らしに比べると今の暮らしは天国です。
Compared with our life ten years ago, our present life is heavenly (literally: is heaven).
(d). この新しい(コンピュータ)モデルは、古いモデルと比べて演算が三倍速くなっている。
When compared with the older (computer) model, the operation speed of this new model is three times as fast.
Intermediate Page 257
Compound Particle/Conjunction (used in writing and formal speech only)
| Without any relation to a preceding event/situation. | Although; though; in spite of; despite; notwithstanding; nevertheless |
| 【Related Expression: けれど(も); のに】 | |
(ksa). 懸命な努力にもかかわらず、健一は大学入試に失敗した。
In spite of his strenuous efforts, Ken'ichi failed the college entrance examination.
(ksb). あの人はよく運動をする(の)にもかかわらず、太っている。
He is fat, although he exercises a lot.
(ksc). 試験が難しかった(の)にもかかわらず、よく出来た。
Although the exam was hard, I did well.
(ksd). 冬山は危険なのである(の)にもかかわらず、一郎は山へ出かけた。
Although Winter mountains are dangerous, Ichiro left for the mountain.
| (i)Noun {Ø/なの/である(の)/だった(の)/であった(の)} | にもかかわらず |
| 先生{Ø/なの/である(の)/だった(の)/であった(の)}にもかかわらず | In spite of being/having been a teacher |
| (ii)Vinformal (の) | (の)にもかかわらず |
| {勉強する/勉強した}(の)にもかかわらず | In spite of studying/having studied |
| (iii)Adjective い informal (の) | (の)にもかかわらず |
| {つまらない/つまらなかった}(の)にもかかわらず | Although something is/was boring |
| (iv)Adjective な stem{なの/である(の)/だった(の)/であった(の)} | にもかかわらず |
| 元気{なの/である(の)/だった(の)/であった(の)}にもかかわらず | Although someone is/was healthy |
(a). 激しい雨(だった)にもかかわらず、サッカーの試合は続いた。
In spite of the fierce rain, the soccer game continued.
(b). 安い値段(なの・である)にもかかわらず、その家はまだ売れていない。
Despite the inexpensive price, that house is not sold yet.
(c). 浩は美香を愛していた(の)にもかかわらず、結婚しなかった。
In spite of the fact that Hiroshi loved Mika, he didn't marry her.
(d). 昨日は徹夜して勉強した(の)にもかかわらず、試験は出来なかった。
Although I studied all night last night, I didn't do well on the exam.
(e). キャロルは日本に三年も住んでいた(の)にもかかわらず、日本語は大変下手だ。
Although Carol lived in Japan for three years, her Japanese is very poor.
(f). 日本経済力は強くなっている(の)にもかかわらず、日本人はそれを実感出来ない。
In spite of the fact that the Japanese economy has become strong, the Japanese people cannot feel the effects.
(g). 私のアパートは広い(の)にもかかわらず、家賃が安い。
My apartment is spacious, but the rent is cheap.
(h). 旅行が好き(なの・である(の))にもかかわらず、どこに行く暇もない。
I like to travel, but I don't have time to go anywhere.
Intermediate Page 261
Compound Particle
| With something as a basis. | Based upon |
| 【Related Expression: をもとに(して)】 | |
(ksa). 事実に基づいてお話しします。
I will give you the facts. (literally: I will talk on the basis of facts.)
(ksb). これは五百年前の史料に基づく研究だ。
This is a study based on historical documents from 500 years ago.
| (i)Noun | に基づいて基づく |
| 調査に基づいて | Based on a survey |
| (ii)Noun | に{基づく基づいた}Noun |
| 調査に{基づく基づいた}報告 | A report based on a survey |
(a). この製品はアメリカ製だがすべてJISに基づいて設計されている。
Although this product is made in America, the design is based entirely on the Japanese Industrial Standards (literally: is designed based entirely on).
(b). このビルはある有名な建築家の設計に基づいて建てられた。
This building was (built) based on a famous architect's design.
(c). この報告は去年行われたアンケート調査に基づいて書かれたものである。
This report was (written) based on a (questionnaire) survey conducted last year.
(d). 野村氏の講演は氏の二十年間の教育経験に基づく話で、極めて示唆に富むものであった。
Mr. Nomura's lecture was based on his 20-year teaching experience (literally: was a talk based on) and was full of suggestions.
(e). これは一つの仮説に基づいた議論です。
This is a discussion based on a hypothesis.
Intermediate Page 262
Phrase
| A phrase that expresses the time when an uncontrollable state or a habitual action occurs. | When it becomes; when it comes to; when; if |
(ksa). 夏になると、摂氏三十度を越す日が多いです。
In summer (literally: When it becomes summer), there are many days that exceed 30 degrees Celsius.
(ksb). 父は食べ物のことになると、とても喧しかった。
When it comes to the matter of food, my father was very particular.
| (i)Noun (time) | になると |
| 八になると | When it becomes 8 o’clock; at 8 o’clock |
| (ii)Noun (non-time) | になると |
| 雨になると | When it becomes rain |
(a). 四月半ばになると、この辺は桜が綺麗に咲きます。
In this area, in the middle of April, the cherry trees bloom beautifully.
(b). ニューイングランドと言われるアメリカの東北地方は、秋になると、紅葉がとても綺麗です。
In the north-east area of the U.S. called New England, tinted autumn leaves are very beautiful.
(c). 私は夜十一時になると、頭が働かなくなる。
At about 11 p.m., my brain stops working.
(d). 子供の頃、夏になると、両親は僕を海に連れて行ってくれた。
When I was a child, in summer, my parents took me to the ocean.
(e). 大学生の時は、休みになると、よく旅行をした。
When I was a college student, I travelled a lot during vacations.
(f). 彼はフットボールの話になると夢中だ。
When the topic of the conversation is football, he is totally absorbed in it.
(g). 社長は娘のことになると、人が変わったように甘くなる。
The president becomes lenient as if he were a different person, when it comes to the matter of his daughter.
(h). 雪になると、この空港はよく閉鎖になる。
When it becomes snow, this airport is often closed.
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Compound Particle (used in writing and formal speech only)
| A compound particle which indicates the place of an action/event, a state or time. | At; on; in; during |
| 【Related Expression: で; に】 | |
(ksa). 来年の総会はシカゴのヒルトン・ホテルにおいて行われる。
Next year's general meeting will be held at the Hilton Hotel in Chicago.
(ksb). コンピュータは近い将来においてほとんどの家庭に行き渡るだろう。
Computers will probably spread to almost every household in the near future.
(ksc). 先月の東京における環境保護国際会議には全世界から大勢の学者が参加した。
Many scholars from all over the world took part in last month's international conference in Tokyo on environmental protection.
| (i)Noun | において |
| アメリカにおいて | In America |
| (ii)Noun | におけるNoun |
| アメリカにおける学生生活 | Student life in America |
(a). １９９２年のオリンピックはバルセロナにおいて開催された。
The 1992 Olympiad was held in Barcelona.
(b). 過去においてはこのようなことはあまり問題にならなかった。
Such things were hardly considered to be problems before (literally: in the past).
(c). この作文は文法においてはあまり問題はない。
This composition doesn't have many problems in terms of grammar.
(d). 本校における男女学生の比率は二対一である。
The ratio of male students to female students at this school is 2 to 1.
(e). 木村博士は遺伝学における権威者として知られている。
Dr. Kimura is known as an authority in (the field of) genetics.
(f). 過去五年間における彼の業績は実に素晴らしいものであった。
His achievements during the past five years were truly remarkable.
(g). 十月十二日における彼のアリバイは成立していない。
His alibi on the twelfth of October has not been established.
Intermediate Page 268
Compound Particle/Conjunction
| Something spontaneously and gradually occurs in accordance with some change. | As, accordingly; in proportion to; in accordance with; following |
| 【Related Expression: につれて; つれ】 | |
(ksa). 日本の経済力が強くなるに{従って/従い}、日本語学習者が増えてきた。
As Japan's economic power has become stronger, Japanese language learners have increased, accordingly.
(ksb). 契約に{従って/従い}雇用期間を三年とする。
In accordance with the contract, your tenure shall be three years.
| (i)Vinformal nonpast | に{従って従い} |
| その本を読むに{従って従い} | As someone reads the book |
| (ii)Noun | に{従って従い} |
| 指示に{従って従い} | In accordance with the instructions |
(a). 収入が増えるに従って、支出も増える。
As our income increases, our expenditure, too, increases.
(b). 年を取るに従い、体力が衰える。
As you grow older, your physical strength declines.
(c). 文明が進むに従い、人間のストレスが多くなる。
As civilization progresses, human stresses increase.
(d). 日がたつに従って、父の病気は回復してきた。
As the days went by, my father recovered from his illness.
(e). 太陽が沈んで行くに従って、温度がどんどん下がった。
As the sun went down, the temperature went down rapidly.
(f). 約束に従い、借金を一か月後に返した。
In accordance with the promise I returned the loaned money after a month.
(g). 社長の命令に従って、彼はただちにマニラに飛んだ。
In accordance with the president's order, he flew to Manila immediately.
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Phrase (used in writing and formal speech only)
| Something or someone is nothing more than what is stated in terms of amount, degree, status, significance, etc. | Nothing more than; not more than; mere; merely; only; just; as little/few as; that's all |
| 【Related Expression: だけだ; ただの】 | |
(ksa). これは私の私見に過ぎない。
This is nothing more than my personal opinion.
(ksb). 今期の売り上げの伸びは三パーセントに過ぎない。
The sales increase this term is as little as three percent.
(ksc). あの男は(ただ)言われたことをしている(だけ)に過ぎない。
That man is not doing more than what he was told to do.
| (i)Noun | に過ぎない |
| 学生に過ぎない | Just a student |
| (ii)Number+Counter | に過ぎない |
| 五人に過ぎない | As a few as five people |
| (iii)Vinformal(だけ) | に過ぎない |
| 話している(だけ)に過ぎない | Someone is doing nothing but talking |
| 話した(だけ)に過ぎない | Someone did nothing more than talk |
(a). 彼は私のボーイフレンドの一人に過ぎない。
He is nothing more than one of my boyfriends.
(b). これは数ある中のほんの一例に過ぎない。
This is only one example among many.
(c). 今言ったことは私の希望に過ぎませんので、あまり深刻に考えないで下さい。
What I've just told you is nothing more than my hope, so please don't take it too seriously.
(d). 私の収入はアルバイトを入れても年二万ドルに過ぎない。
My income is only $20,000 even if I include my side job (income).
(e). 私を支持してくれる人は身内を入れても五十人程度に過ぎない。
There are no more than about 50 people who support me (literally: The people who support me are no more than about fifty), even if I include my relatives.
(f). あの子はまだ十五に過ぎないが、なかなかしっかりしている。
That girl is only fifteen, but she is quite mature.
(g). 彼は(ただ)人の意見を受け売りしている(だけ)に過ぎない。
He is doing nothing more than echoing other people's opinions.
(h). 彼の演説は(ただ)原稿を読み上げた(だけ)に過ぎない。
His speech was nothing more than the reading of a prepared manuscript.
(i). 私と山野氏は初対面の時、簡単な挨拶を交わした(だけ)に過ぎない。
Mr. Yamano and I did nothing more than exchange simple greetings when we first met each other.
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Compound Particle
| Regarding something/someone one opposes, compares, or shows interest in regarding something/someone one opposes, compares or shows interest in. | Toward; to; in contrast to; whereas; in regard to; in; per |
(ksa). これまで日本は外国に対して閉鎖的な政策を取ってきた。
Up until now Japan has taken a closed policy toward foreign countries.
(ksb). 日本の大学は入学するのが難しいのに対して、アメリカの大学は卒業するのが難しい。
Japanese colleges are hard to enter; whereas American colleges are hard to graduate from.
(ksc). アメリカでは離婚に{対する/対しての}考え方が大分変わってきた。
In America, attitudes toward divorce have greatly changed.
| (i)Noun | に対して |
| 先生に対して | Towards one’s teacher |
| (ii){V/Adjective い} informal | のに対して |
| {話す/話した}のに対して | Someone talks/talked, whereas~ |
| {若い/若かった}のに対して | Someone is/was young, whereas~ |
| (iii){Adjective な stem/Noun} {な/である/だった/であった} | のに対して |
| 元気{な/である/だった/であった}のに対して | Someone is/was healthy, whereas~ |
| 学生{な/である/だった/であった}のに対して | Someone is/was a student, whereas~ |
| (iv)Noun | に{対する対しての}Noun |
| 結婚に{対する対しての}考え方 | One’s view of marriage |
(a). 鈴木さんは誰に対しても丁寧だ。
Mr. Suzuki is polite towards everybody.
(b). 日本は外国に対して市場をもっと開放すべきた。
Japan should open its market more widely towards foreign countries.
(c). 私は政治に対して強い関心がある。
I have a strong interest in politics.
(d). 手数料は一万円に対して五百円です。
The commission charge will be 500 yen per 10,000 yen.
(e). 市民は増税に対して強く反対している。
The citizens are strongly opposed to the tax hike.
(f). 私は高校生の時から、日本の文化に対して興味があった。
Since my high school days, I have had an interest in Japanese culture.
(g). 去年は自動車事故が少なかったのに対して、今年は大変多かった。
Last year there were very few car accidents, whereas this year the number was very high.
(h). 日本人は褒められた時、よく「とんでもない」と言う。これに対して、アメリカ人はよく「ありがとう」と言う。
When Japanese get compliments, they often say "Oh, not at all." In contrast to this, Americans often say "Thank you."
(i). 女性の地位は日本ではまだ低いのに対して、欧米では比較的高い。
Women's position is still low in Japan, whereas in Europe and America it is relatively high
(j). 東ヨーロッパの国々が民主化に向かっているのに対して、中国大陸と北朝鮮は民主化がまだ遅れているようだ。
Eastern European countries are progressing towards democratization, whereas Continental China and North Korea appear to be slower in democratization.
(k). ロシアに対してのアメリカ人の見方は最近友好的になった。
American views of Russia have recently become friendlier.
(l). 部長は岡田に対して有利な発言をした。
The departmental chief made a remark in Okada's favour.
(m). その経済学者の説に{対する・対して}反論はなかった。
There wasn't a counterargument against the economist's thesis.
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Compound Particle
| From the standpoint of; so far as someone (or something) is concerned. | To; for |
| 【Related Expression: には】 | |
(ks). これは我々にとって無視出来ない問題だ。
For us this is a problem which cannot be ignored.
| Noun | にとって |
| 私にとって | To/for me |
(a). この大学で教えられることは私にとって極めて名誉なことです。
Being able to teach at this university is a big honour for me.
(b). 町の人々にとってこの工場の閉鎖は死活問題だ。
For people in this town, the shutdown of this plant is a matter of life and death.
(c). 今日は私達にとって忘れられない日になるでしょう。
Today will be an unforgettable day for us.
(d). 今度のアメリカの輸入政策は日本企業にとって大きな打撃になる。
America's policy on imports this time will be a big blow to Japanese companies.
(e). 今回の合併は我が社にとってあまり益はない。
There is little benefit for us (literally: for our company) in this merger.
(f). ここは君にとって一番安全な場所だ。
This is the safest place for you.
(g). 今村さんは私にとって遠い親戚に当たる。
Mr. Imamura is a remote relative of mine.
Intermediate Page 280
Compound Particle
| Concerning something/someone. | About; on; concerning; regarding; with regard to; of |
| 【Related Expression: に関して; のこと】 | |
(ksa). 私は日本の政治制度について研究しています。
I am doing research on the Japanese political system.
(ksb). スミスさんは日本へ留学することについて色々私に尋ねた。
Mr. Smith asked me various questions about his going to Japan for study.
| (i)Noun | について |
| 大学について | Concerning college |
| (ii)Sinformalこと | について |
| 私が行くことについて | Concerning my going there |
| (iii){Noun1/Sinformalこと} | についてのNoun2 |
| 初等教育についての意見 | An opinion about elementary education |
| 日本語へ留学することについての問題点 | Problems concerning studying abroad in Japan |
(a). 御家族について話して下さい。
Please talk about your family.
(b). 何について調べているんですか。
What are you investigating?
(c). 毎日の生活について聞いてもいいですか。
May I ask you about your daily life?
(d). 日本に来る前に、日本についてどんなイメージを持っていらっしゃいましたか。
What kind of images did you have of Japan before you came to Japan?
(e). 先生は自分の国について作文を書くようにおっしゃりました。
Our teacher told us to write a composition on our own country.
(f). 私はアメリカ人と結婚することについて両親と相談した。
I talked with my parents regarding my getting married to an American.
(g). 日本人の宗教についての考え方は西洋人のとはかなり違う。
Japanese views on religion are quite different from those of Westerners.
(h). 課長は私が会議に出なかったことについて何か言っていましたか。
Did the section chief say anything about my absence from the meeting?
(i). 新聞社が外国人雇用問題についての意見を求めてきた。
The newspaper company asked about my views on the problem of hiring foreigners.
(j). 日本が軍隊を平和維持のために海外に派遣することについての是非が盛んに討議された。
There have been heated discussions as to whether it is right or wrong for Japan to send its army abroad for peacekeeping purposes.
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Compound Particle
| A compound particle which expresses a rate or ratio. | A; per; for; on; to |
| 【Related Expression: あたり】 | |
(ks). この仕事は一時間につき六ドル貰える。
This job will pay you six dollars an hour. (literally: You can get six dollars an hour doing this job.)
| Number+Counter | につき |
| 一時間につき | Per hour |
(a). 一冊につき百五十円の送料が要ります。
A hundred and fifty yen is necessary per copy for postage. (literally: Postage of one hundred and fifty yen is necessary per copy.)
(b). 五千円につき四十円の手数料をいただきます。
We place a forty-yen service charge on five thousand yen
(c). 米一カップにつき、しょう油大さじ二杯の割合にします。
The ratio should be two tablespoons of soy sauce to a cup of rice.
(d). 切符は一人につき三枚までにして下さい。
Please limit it to three tickets per person.
(e). 間違い一つにつき一点減点します。
I'll take one point off for each mistake.
Intermediate Page 285
Conjunction/Compound Particle
| A phrase used to indicate that a change occurs in accordance with another simultaneous change. | As; in proportion to; with |
| 【Related Expression: に従って/従い; ば~ほど; と共に】 | |
(ksa). 日本語が上達するにつれて日本人の友達が増えた。
As my Japanese became more proficient, the number of my Japanese friends increased.
(ksb). 時代の変化につれて、文化も変わっていく。
Culture also changes with the change of the times.
| (i)Vinformal nonpast | につれて |
| 読むにつれて | As one reads something |
| (ii)Noun | につれて |
| 気温の変化につれて | With the change of temperature |
(a). 病気が治ってくるにつれて、食欲が出てきた。
As I recovered from my illness, I regained my appetite.
(b). 年を取るにつれて、体力がなくなる。
As people grow older, they lose their physical strength.
(c). 日本の生活が長くなるにつれて、日本のよさ、悪さがよく分かってきた。
As I've spent more time in Japan, I have come to understand the good and bad parts of Japan better.
(d). 日本の経済力が伸びるにつれて、日本語の学生が増えてきた。
As Japan's economic strength has grown, Japanese language students have increased.
(e). 秋が深くなるにつれて、紅葉が綺麗になってきた。
As we've moved further into autumn, the coloured leaves have become more beautiful.
(f). 子供は成長するにつれて、親から離れていく。
As children grow up, they become independent of their parents.
(g). 季節の変化につれて、風景も変わる。
The scenery also changes with season changes.
(h). 産業の発展につれて、公害も増えていく。
With industrial development, pollution also increases.
Intermediate Page 289
Conjunction/Compound Particle
| A conjunction/compound particle to indicate a purpose for doing something. | To; in order to; for; for the purpose of~ |
| 【Related Expression: に; 為に; のに】 | |
(ksa). 豊かな生活を送るには健康が第一だ。
In order to lead a rich life, health should be your primary concern.
(ksb). ハイヒールはハイキングには不向きだ。
High-heeled shoes are unsuitable for hiking.
| (i)Vinformal nonpast | には |
| 行くには | For going there |
| (ii)Noun | には |
| 仕事には | For one’s work |
(a). 日本を知るには日本語を学ぶのが一番だ。
The best course for getting to know Japan is to study the Japanese language.
(b). 人生を豊かにするには趣味を沢山持つことが大事だ。
To enrich your life it is important is to have many hobbies.
(c). 人の性格を見抜くには深い洞察力が必要だ。
In order to see through a person's personality, one needs to have deep insight.
(d). 外国語の能力を伸ばすにはその国に行くのが一番だろう。
The best way for developing one's proficiency in a foreign language would be to go to the country of that language.
(e). 世界の平和を維持するにはエリートの交流より庶民のレベルの交流が肝心だ。
To maintain world peace, exchange among the general public rather than exchange among elites is essential.
(f). 期末レポートを書くにはワープロが欠かせない。
A word processor is a must for writing a term paper.
(g). あの人を説得するには時間がかかる。
It takes time to persuade him.
(h). このクラブの会員になるには会員の推薦状が必要だった。
In order to become a member of this club a member's letter of recommendation was necessary.
(i). この鞄は長旅には便利だ。
This bag is suitable for a long travel.
(j). この研究にはかなりの時間とお金がかかる。
This research needs a considerable amount of time and money.
Intermediate Page 297
Compound Particle
| A particle that indicates means, cause, agent of passive sentence, or dependency on a situation. | According to; due to; owing to; because of; depending on; from~ to; by means of; on the basis of; with; by |
| 【Related Expression: に; で; の為に】 | |
(ksa). 漢和辞典によって知らない漢字を調べる。
We examine unknown kanji with a Chinese character dictionary.
(ksb). 先生によって、勿論、教え方が違います。
Teaching methods are, of course, different, depending on the teacher.
(ksc). 戦争によって父を亡くした。
We lost our father, owing to the war.
(ksd). この研究所は文部省によって設立された。
This research institute was established by the Ministry of Education.
(kse). 奨学金がもらえるかどうかによって大学入学を決めます。
I will decide my entrance to college, depending on whether I can get a scholarship or not.
(ksf). 何を食べるかによって健康状態は変わる。
Our health condition changes according to what we eat.
(ksg). 我々は本を読むことによって視野を広げることが出来る。
We can expand our horizons by reading books.
| (i)Noun | によって |
| 政府によって | By the government |
| (ii){V/Adjective い}informal | かどうかに{よってより} |
| {来る/来た}かどうかに{よってより} | Depending on whether someone comes/came or not |
| {面白い/面白かった}かどうかに{よってより} | Depending on whether something is/was interesting or not |
| (iii){Adjective な stem/Noun} | {Ø/だった}かどうかに{よってより} |
| {静か/静かだった}かどうかに{よってより} | Depending on whether something is/was quiet or not |
| (iv)Embedded Wh-Question | に{よってより} |
| 何を食べたかに{よってより} | Depending on what someone ate |
| 誰が来るかに{よってより} | Depending on who comes |
(a). この頃は宇宙中継によって世界のニュースをテレビで見ることが出来る。
These days we can watch world news on TV via satellite live broadcasting.
(b). その老人達はわずかの貯金によって生活している。
The old people are living on little savings.
(c). その問題は話し合いによって解決出来るはずだ。
We should be able to solve that problem by means of negotiation.
(d). 人によって、年のとり方が違う。
Depending on the person, the aging process differs.
(e). 僕はその日の気分によって、違う音楽を聞きます。
Depending on the day's mood, I listen to different music.
(f). 定年は会社によって違う。
Retirement ages vary from company to company.
(g). その青年は麻薬によって青春時代を失ってしまった。
The young man lost his adolescence because of drugs.
(h). 彼は難病によって再起不能になった。
He became unable to come back because of the difficult disease.
(i). この絵はピカソによって描かれた。
This picture was painted by Picasso.
Intermediate Page 302
Phrase
| A phrase indicating that something takes place or does not take place because of something. | Because of |
| 【Related Expression: の為(に)】 | |
(ks). ホールさんは今仕事の関係で東京に行っています。
Mr. Hall has gone to Tokyo on a business-related matter.
| Noun | の関係で |
| 会社の関係で | Because of the company |
| 天気の関係で | Because of the weather |
(a). 鈴木は単位の関係で今年は卒業出来ないそうだ。
I heard that Suzuki cannot graduate this year because of insufficient credits/ units.
(b). 時間の関係で、残念ですが、詳しくお話し出来ません。
Because of the time limit, I am sorry I cannot go into detail.
(c). 部屋の広さの関係で、四十人以上はお呼び出来ません。
Because of the size of the room we cannot invite more than 40 people.
(d). 桃子は年齢の関係で、採用されなかったようだ。
It seems that Momoko was not hired because of her age.
(e). レズリーは会社の関係でよく海外に出張するらしい。
I was told that Leslie makes frequent company-related business trips abroad (literally: makes frequent trips abroad because of his company).
(f). みゆきは御主人の仕事の関係でロンドンに三年住むそうだ。
I heard that because of her husband's work Miyuki is going to live in London for 3 years.
(g). 予算の関係で、そのプロジェクトは中止になった。
Because of the budgetary situation, the project has been cancelled.
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Phrase
| Things of/about. | About; in terms of; related to |
| 【Related Expression: に関して/関する; について】 | |
(ksa). 私は明日の講義で日本文化のことを話すつもりだ。
I'm going to talk about Japanese culture in my lecture tomorrow.
(ksb). 彼女のことはもう忘れた方がいいよ。
You'd better forget about her now.
(ksc). 日本留学のことでちょっとご相談があるんですが。
I'd like to talk to you about studying in Japan.
(ksd). 実は、明日の会議のことなんですが。
Actually, it's (=the reason I'm calling is/the reason I came to see you is) about tomorrow's meeting.
| Noun | のこと |
| 試験のこと | About an/the exam |
(a). 昨日荒井さんが君のことを色々聞いていたよ。
Miss Arai asked various questions about you yesterday.
(b). レポートは日本の大学生活のことを書こうと思っている。
For my term paper I'm thinking of writing about college life in Japan.
(c). 子供のことは私が責任を持ちます。
I'll take the responsibility for our children (literally: for things related to our children).
(d). 今回の実習のことでは大変お世話になりました。
I owe you a lot in terms of my internship this time.
(e). あのう、お電話したのは、来週のパーティーのことなんですが。
(The reason) I'm calling (is to talk) about the party next week.
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Phrase
| Because it is a matter of X with which/whom something is habitually the case. | Because~ is habitually/usually/often that way; because |
(ksa). 中島のことだから、今日もまた遅れて来るだろう。
Because Nakajima is always that way (i.e., comes late), he will probably come late again today. (literally: Because it is a matter of Nakajima (who habitually comes late)).
(ksb). 傷みやすい豆腐のことだから、冷蔵庫に入れておいた方がいいですよ。
Because tofu goes bad quickly, you'd better put it in the refrigerator. (literally: Because it is a matter of tofu, which always goes bad quickly . . .)
| Noun | のことだから | |
| 岡田さんのことだから | Because Okada is habitually that way |
(a). 夏のことだから、食べ物には十分気を付けて下さい。
Because it is summer (when foods go bad quickly), please be very careful about what you eat.
(b). お金持ちの日本人のことだから、きっと高くても買いますよ。
Because they are rich Japanese, I'm sure they will buy them even if they are expensive.
(c). カラオケの好きな木下さんのことがから、歌い始めたらマイクを離さないんじゃありませんか。
Because Kinoshita loves karaoke, I have a feeling that he will not let go of the microphone once he starts singing.
(d). 酒好きの山田のことだから、この酒を見たら飲まずには帰らないだろう。
Because Yamada is a sake lover, if he sees this sake, he will probably not leave until he drinks it (literally: without drinking it).
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Phrase (used in writing and formal speech only)
| A particle which expresses a limit imposed upon an action, event, or a state. | Only; just; alone |
| 【Related Expression: だけ】 | |
(ksa). 要点のみ(を)話して下さい。
Please tell me just the main point.
(ksb). これは吉田先生にのみ話してあります。
I have told this only to Professor Yoshida.
(ksc). 勝てるかどうか分からないが、ベストをのみだ。
I don't know whether I can win or not, but I will just do my best.
| (i)Noun | のみ(Particle) |
| 学生のみ(が)来た | Only students came |
| 学生のみ(を)呼ぶ | Invite students only |
| (ii)Noun | {Particle のみのみ Particle} |
| 学生{にのみのみに}話す | Talk only to students/talk to students only |
| (iii)Vinformal | のみだ |
| {行く/行った}のみだ | Only go/went |
(a). この答えは私のみ(が)知っている。
Only I know the answer to this.
(b). 姓のみ記入のこと。
Write your surname only.
(c). 私はただ言われたことをするのみだ。
I will just do what I was told to do.
(d). ただ実行あるのみ(だ)。
The only thing we have to do is to put it into practice.
(e). 外装が終わったのみでまだほかは何も手が着いていない。
We've just finished the exterior and haven't started anything else yet.
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Compound Particle (used in writing and formal speech only)
| Under some object; under the control or influence of someone or something. | Under; in; with |
| 【Related Expression: かで】 | |
(ks). 私は鈴木先生の指導の下で修士論文を書き上げた。
I finished my master's thesis under Professor Suzuki's guidance.
| Noun | の下で |
| 学部長の指揮の下で | Under the direction of the dean |
(a). さんさんたる太陽の下で開会式が行われた。
The opening ceremony was held in (literally: under) the brilliant sun.
(b). 彼はカラヤンの下で指揮法を学んだ。
He studied conducting under (Herbert von) Karajan.
(c). 弁護士(の)立ち会いの下で私達の離婚が成立した。
Our divorce was agreed upon in (literally: under) the presence of attorneys.
(d). 囚人達は厳しい監視の下で強制労働をさせられた。
The prisoners were forced to work under strict supervision.
(e). このインフレの下では金を貯めても意味がない。
With this inflation there's no point in saving money.
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Compound Particle
| As far as~ is concerned. | As far as~ is concerned; as far as~ goes; from the viewpoint/standpoint of; according to; in terms of |
| 【Related Expression: じょうは】 | |
(ks). この計画は書類の上では問題なさそうだ。
There seems to be no problem with this plan as far as the documents are concerned.
| Noun | の上では |
| 理論の上では | In theory; on paper; as far as the theory goes |
(a). 計算の上では二百万円ぐらい儲かることになっている。
According to the calculations, we are supposed to make a profit of (about) two million yen.
(b). このプロジェクトは話しの上ではうまく行きそうだが、何となく不安だ。
Although in theory (literally: As far as the story is concerned,) it looks like this project will work out, I feel somewhat uneasy
(c). 数字の上では川野の方が倉田より強そうだ。
Statistically, (literally: As far as the figures are concerned,) Kawano looks stronger than Kurata.
(d). 大野は仕事の上では完全主義者だが、私生活はだらしがない。
Ohno is a perfectionist at work (literally: as far as his business is concerned) but messy in his private life.
(e). 彼の行為は法律の上では罰しようがない。
There's no way to punish his conduct legally (literally: from the legal point of view).
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Structure
| A structure which focuses on a time when something takes place. | It will be/was~ when/that~ |
(ks). 吉田さんと最後に会ったのは１９８５年の五月のことだ。
It was in May 1985 that I last met Mr. Yamada.
| Sinformal | のはNounのことだ | (the same formation as のだ) |
| 話したのは去年のことだ | It was last year when someone talked… |
(a). 日本語の面白さが分かり始めたのはごく最近のことだ。
It was only recently that I began to understand how interesting Japanese is.
(b). 本格的なロボットが現れたのは１９６０年代後半のことである。
It was in the late sixties when genuine robots came out.
(c). ゲラ刷りが出来るのは来月の終わりのことになるだろう。
It will be around the end of next month when we get galley proofs.
(d). 父が公務員だったのは私がまだ学校へ行く前のことだ。
It was before I went to school that my father was a government worker.
(e). 日本製品の評判が悪かったのは戦後二十年くらいの間のことだ。
It was for a period of about twenty years after World War II that the reputation of Japanese products was bad.
(f). 健一と利子が仲良く歩いているところを見たのはつい一か月ほど前のことなのに彼らはもう別れたという話だ。
Although it was only (about) a month ago when I saw Ken'ichi and Toshiko walking together intimately, I heard they've already split up.
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Auxiliary (used in writing and formal speech only)
| An archaic auxiliary that indicates negation. | Not |
| 【Related Expression: ない; ず】 | |
(ksa). グローバルな時代に自国のことだけを考えるわけにはいかぬ。
In the global age we cannot think of our own country alone.
(ksb). 知らぬことを知らぬと言うには勇気が要る。
When you don't know something, it takes courage to admit it.
| Vnegative | ぬ (Noun/Auxillary) | |
| 知らぬ | Someone doesn’t know someone/something | |
| 知らぬ人 | A person whom someone doesn’t know or someone who doesn’t know something | |
| 知らぬらしい | It appears that someone doesn’t know someone/something | |
| Irregular | せぬ | Does not do something |
| Irregular | おらぬ | Someone does not exist |
(a). 彼は何を聞いても、知らぬとしか答えぬ。
No matter what I ask, he answers only that he does not know.
(b). その日本人は英語が分からぬようだった。
That Japanese did not seem to understand English.
(c). 最近は滅多に酒を飲まぬが、若い頃はよく飲んだものだ。
I seldom drink these days, but I used to drink a lot when I was young.
(d). 日本語が話せる者はこの辺にはおらぬ。
In this area there are not people who can speak Japanese.
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Phrase
| A phrase which expresses the speaker's respect for someone when describing that person's action or state. |
| 【Related Expression: お~になる; られる】 |
(ksa). お急ぎですが。
Are you in a hurry?
(ksb). 今お持ちのカードはもう使えません。
You can no longer use the card you have now.
| (i)お | Vますだ |
| お待ちだ | Someone is waiting |
| (ii)ご | VNだ |
| ご研究だ | Someone is doing research |
| (iii)お | VますのNoun |
| 今日お帰りの方 | Those who are going back today |
| (iv)ご | VNのNoun |
| ご研究の問題 | A problem which someone is doing research on |
(a). もう皆さんお集まりです。
Everybody is here (literally: has gathered) now.
(b). 河野さん、課長がお呼びですよ。
Mr. Kono, the Section Chief wants to see you (literally: is calling you).
(c). コピーはもうお済みですか。
Have you already finished copying?
(d). どんな人をお望みですか。
What kind of person would you like?
(e). お客様はまだお帰りじゃありません。
The guests haven't left yet.
(f). お疲れでしたらこの部屋でしばらくお休み下さい。
If you are tired, please take a rest in this room for a while.
(g). 今お使いのワープロはいつお買いになりましたか。
When did you buy the word processor you are using now?
(h). 先生は今何をご研究ですか。
What are you researching now, Professor?
(i). 天皇陛下がご訪問の国々はどうですか。
Which countries is the Emperor going to visit?
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Phrase (used in writing and formal speech only)
| A phrase that is used to give a primary example. | Starting with; not only~ but also~ |
| 【Related Expression: だけで(は)なく~(も)】 | |
(ks). 私のうちでは、父をはじめ(として)、家族全員スポーツが好きだ。
In my family, starting with my father, all of us like sports.
| Noun | をはじめ(として) |
| 先生をはじめ(として) | Starting with the teacher |
(a). キャシーは、寿司をはじめとして、日本食なら何でも食べる。
Starting with sushi, Cathy eats any Japanese cuisine.
(b). 今年は大阪をはじめ、関西地方はどこも梅雨が短かった。
This year, starting with Osaka, the rainy season was short in all parts of the Kansai district.
(c). この会社は、社長をはじめとして、社員一同が同じ食堂で昼ご飯を食べている。
At this company, starting with the president, all the employees eat lunch in the same cafeteria.
(d). この事件には、警察をはじめ、近くの住民が皆強い興味を示した。
Not only the police but also the nearby residents showed a strong interest in this incident.
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Phrase
| A phrase which expresses a highly polite request. | Please do something. |
| 【Related Expression: 下さい】 | |
(ksa). 少々お待ち下さい。
Please wait a moment.
(ksb). 電話でご注文下さい。
Please order by phone.
| (i)お | Vます下さい |
| お話し下さい | Please talk |
| (ii)ご | VN下さい |
| ご連絡下さい | Please contact (us) |
(a). このペンをお使い下さい。
Please use this pen.
(b). 時間があまりありませんのでお急ぎ下さい。
Please hurry because we don't have much time.
(c). どうぞお気軽にご相談下さい。
Please feel free to consult with us.
(d). 便利でお得な周遊券をご利用下さい。
Please use excursion tickets, which are convenient and economical.
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Verb (Group 2) (used in writing and formal speech only)
| A verb that indicates what the speaker/writer feels spontaneously or his/her hesitation about asserting himself/herself. | Seem; appear; apparently |
(ksa). 来年の景気は今年よりもいいように思われる。
It seems that the business conditions of the coming year will be better than those of this year.
(ksb). この病気の治療は約一か月かかると思われる。
It appears that the treatment of this disease will take approximately one month.
| (i){V/Adjective い}informal | ように思われる |
| {来る/来た}ように思われる | It appears that someone is coming/came |
| {面白い/面白かった}ように思われる | It appears that someone is/was interesting |
| (ii)Adjective な stem | {な/だった}ように思われる |
| 元気{な/だった}ように思われる | It seems that someone/something is/was healthy/sturdy |
| (iii)Noun | {の/だった}ように思われる |
| 学生{の/だった}ように思われる | Someone seems to be/have been a student |
| (iv)Sinformal | と思われる |
| 正しくないと思われる | It appears that something is not right |
(a). 日本の輸出は今後あまり伸びないように思われる。
It seems that Japanese exports are not going to grow so much in the future.
(b). 子供の非行を犯罪映画に結び付けるのは短絡的なように思われる。
It appears too simplistic to relate children's delinquency to crime movies.
(c). この大学の教育は理工系が特にいいように思われる。
Education at this university seems to be particularly good in science and engineering.
(d). 二十一世紀は情報化がもっと進んで、世界が一つの共同体になるだろうと思われる。
It seems to me that in the 21st century society will become more information oriented, and the world will become one community.
(e). 日本語を習う時はローマ字を使わない方がよいと思われる。
When you learn Japanese it seems better not to use romanization.
(f). 健康管理には毎日三十分ぐらいの運動をするのが効果的だと思われる。
To look after your health, it is apparently effective to exercise for about 30 minutes every day.
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Auxiliary Verb (Group 1) (used in writing and formal speech only)
| Vます of the auxiliary verb おる. | Be~ and |
| 【Related Expression: いて】 | |
(ks). この入口は従業員専用になっており、一般の人はここからは入れない。
This entrance is for employees only and other people (literally: general people) cannot enter from here.
| Vて | おり |
| 話しており | Be speaking and |
(a). 彼は最近プラモデルに凝っており、暇さえあれば模型の飛行機に組み立てている。
He is crazy about plastic models these days and is assembling model planes whenever he has free time.
(b). 日本では義務教育がよく行き届いており、識字率はほとんど１００パーセントに近い。
In Japan compulsory education is very thorough (literally: prevails thoroughly) and the literacy rate is almost 100 percent.
(c). この高校は全寮制になっており、全学生が三つの寮で生活している。
This high school is a boarding school (literally: total dormitory system) and all the students live in three dormitories
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Compound Particle
| A compound particle that is used to indicate a medium through which something is done or time through which something takes place. | Through; by the medium of; via; throughout |
| 【Related Expression: を通じて】 | |
(ksa). 私は親しい友達を通してそのピアニストと知り合いになった。
I became acquainted with the pianist through a close friend of mine.
(ksb). 私は一年を通して五回ぐらい海外に行っている。
I go abroad about 5 times a year (literally: throughout the year).
| Noun | を通して |
| 先生を通して | Through my teacher |
(a). お書きになった御本を通して、先生のことは存じ上げておりました。
I knew of you through the books you wrote.
(b). その事件のことは新聞の記事を通して知っていた。
I knew about the incident from newspaper articles.
(c). その政治家は、首相の側近を通して、首相に接近した。
That politician approached the Prime Minister through his entourage.
(d). 二人は手紙のやり取りを通して親しくなっていった。
Through an exchange of letters, the two became close.
(e). ラジオもテレビも全国の放送網を通して放送される。
Both radio and television programs are broadcast through the nationwide network.
(f). 海外生活の経験を通して色々なことを学んだ。
I have learned all sorts of things through my life in foreign countries.
(g). カーテンを通して室内の様子が見えた。
What was inside the room was visible through the curtain.
(h). これらの写真を通して当時の人々の生活を偲ぶことが出来る。
Through these photos, we can relive the lives of people in those days.
(i). 現場に残された指紋を通して犯人が割れた。
They found the criminal through the fingerprints left behind at the scene of the crime.
(j). 父は一生を通して、一度も東京を出たことがない。
My father has never left Tokyo in his life.
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Auxiliary
| An auxiliary which expresses the idea that someone or something keeps doing something, or someone leaves something in an improper state. | Keep -ing; have been -ing; leave |
| 【Related Expression: まま; 続けだ; 続ける】 | |
(ksa). 新幹線が満員で東京から京都までずっと立ちっぱなしだった。
The Shinkansen was so crowded that I stood all the way (literally: kept standing) from Tokyo to Kyoto.
(ksb). 友達にまだお金を借りっぱなしだ。
I borrowed money from a friend of mine and still haven't paid it back.
(ksc). 和彦はラジオをかけっぱなしでどこかへ行ってしまった。
Kazuhiko went out, leaving his radio on.
| Vます | っぱなし |
| 座りっぱなし | (volitional) have been sitting |
| つけっぱなし | (volitional) leave something on |
(a). ブラジルのバレーボール・チームは今日まで勝ちっぱなしだ。
Brazil's volleyball team hasn't lost a game up to now. (literally: Brazil's volleyball team has been winning up to today.)
(b). 今日は朝から電話が鳴りっぱなしだ。
The telephone has been ringing since this morning (literally: since morning today).
(c). 朝からしゃべりっぱなしで喉が痛い。
I have been talking since this morning and my throat is sore.
(d). 車のヘッドライトを一晩中つけっぱなしだったのでバッテリーが上がってしまった。
Because I left my car headlights on all night, the battery died.
(e). 光子は水を出しっぱなしで友達と電話で話している。
Mitsuko is talking with her friend on the phone while leaving the water running.
(f). 茂はやかんをコンロにかけっぱなしにして出て行った。
Shigeru went out somewhere leaving a kettle on the stove.
(g). 開けっぱなしの窓から蚊が沢山入ってきた。
Many mosquitoes came in through the window which was left open.
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Adjective (い) Suffix
| A suffix that indicates someone/something has some distinctive characteristic or an attribute identified by a noun, an adjective, or a verb to which the suffix is attached. | Apt to; easy to; -ish; -like |
| 【Related Expression: 風の; らしい; やすい; ような】 | |
(ksa). サングラスをかけたやくざっぽい男が街角に立っていた。
A yakuza-like man wearing sunglasses was standing at the comer of the street.
(ksb). その女の人は確か黒っぽいセーターを着ていたと思います。
If I remember correctly, I believe she was wearing a blackish sweater.
(ksc). 彼はほれっぽい性格で、どの女の人も好きになってしまう。
He is apt to fall for women, and falls in love with practically any woman.
| (i)Noun | っぽい |
| 子供っぽい | Childish |
| (ii)Adjective い stem | っぽい |
| 安っぽい | Cheapish |
| (iii)Adjective な stem | っぽい |
| 哀れっぽい | Pitiful |
| (iv)Vます | っぽい |
| 忘れっぽい | Easy to forget, forgetful |
(a). 昼食時にはこのレストランはサラリーマンっぽい人達で一杯になる。
During the lunch hour, this restaurant becomes crowded with men who look like salaried workers.
(b). あの女優は実に女っぽいから好きだ。
I like the actress, because she is so womanish.
(c). こんな水っぽい酒、飲めないぞ。
Who can drink such watery sake?
(d). あなた、こんな安っぽいソファを買ってきてどうするの？
What are you going to do with this cheapish sofa that you bought?
(e). 公園のベンチに座って、きざっぽい男とあだっぱい女が話している。
Sitting on a bench at the park a foppish man is talking with a coquettish woman.
(f). うちの息子は飽きっぽいんで、次から次へと新しいことをするんですが、一つとして、ものにならないんですよ。
Our son gets bored easily, and he tries new things one after another, but doesn't get anywhere with any of them.
(g). うたぐりっぽい人って、嫌ですね。
I don't like a person who is distrustful.
(h). じゅうたんは汚れっぽいから、私は使っていません。
Carpets get dirty easily, so I'm not using it.
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Suffix (used in writing and formal speech only)
| During a certain amount of time (something has continued up until the moment of speech or something has never been like the current state). | For; in; since |
| 【Related Expression: ぶり; 以来; かん; 前から】 | |
(ksa). トムは二十年来日本語の勉強を続けている。
Tom has been studying Japanese for the past 20 years.
(ksb). 今年の冬は五十年来の寒さだ。
This winter is the coldest one in 50 years.
| (i)Noun (duration) | 来 |
| 三十年来 | For the past 30 years |
| (ii)Noun (duration) | 来 |
| 六十年来の大地震 | The strongest earthquake in 60 years |
(a). 父は三十年来、同じ会社に勤めています。
My father has been employed in the same company for the past 30 years.
(b). 私はこの研究を十年来続けてきました。
I've been continuing this research for the past 10 years.
(c). 夜半来の雨が、ようやく上がったようだ。
The rain which started after midnight appeared to have finally stopped.
(d). 僕と岡田とは四十年来の友人だ。
Okada and I have been friends for the past 40 years.
(e). 今年の夏は六十年来の暑さだそうだ。
They say that this summer is the warmest in 60 years.
(f). これは三十年来の大雪です。
This is the heaviest snow we have had in 30 years.
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Phrase
| A phrase which signals that the referent of the following noun phrase is definite and that the speaker expects the hearer to understand what the referent is. | The ~(in question); that (same); the usual |
| 【Related Expression: は】 | |
(ksa). 例のプロジェクトはどうなりましたか。
What happened to the project (in question)?
(ksb). 今年の忘年会はまた例の中華料理屋だそうだ。
I heard that this year's year-end party is going to be at that Chinese restaurant again.
| 例の | Noun |
| 例の問題 | The problem (in question) |
(a). 例のレポートは出来ましたか。
Have you finished the report (I requested, you mentioned, etc.)?
(b). 例のコピーが出来ましたよ。
The copy (you asked for) is ready.
(c). 例のダイアナ妃の本、さっそく買って読んだよ。
I bought the book about Princess Diana (everybody is talking about, you recommended, etc.) right away and read it.
(d). A：一時に学生が来るんですよ。B: ああ、例のドイツから来た学生ですね。
A: student is coming at one. B: Oh, that student from Germany (you mentioned), right?
(e). 今晩、会える？B:ええ、いいわよ。A: じゃ、六時に例の喫茶店で。
A: Can we meet this evening? B: sure. A: Then, (let's meet) at the usual coffee house at six.
(f). 吉田さんがまた例の冗談を言ったが誰も笑わなかった。
Mr. Yoshida told us that (same) joke again, but no one laughed.
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(ks). 頭がよくなる薬はない。
There isn't medicine which makes you smart.
(a). 日本語に強くなる本がありますか。
Is there a book that will make you strong in Japanese?
(b). バロック音楽は心が静まる音楽だ。
Baroque music is music that soothes the mind.
(c). これは日本の経営法がよく分かる本です。
This is a book which enables us to understand Japanese management.
(d). 体重が減る運動を教えて下さい。
Please recommend any exercise that will reduce my weight.
(e). 気持ちが明るくなる話が聞きたいです。
I would like to hear something that will cheer me up.
(f). これは太らないお菓子ですから、どうぞ沢山召し上がって下さい。
These are non-fattening cakes, so please eat as much of them as you can.
(g). あの先生の講義はすぐ眠くなる講義だね。
That professor's lecture is a lecture that will make you sleepy.
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| A question which functions as a forceful statement with no expected response. |
(ksa). そんな恥ずかしいことが出来ますか。
I could never do such an embarrassing thing! (literally: Could I do such an embarrassing thing?)
(ksb). 誰があんな人にお金なんか貸すもんですか。
Who would lend money to such a person!
(ksc). 今更何を隠すことがあるだろう(か)。
What is there to hide now!
(ksd). 彼女がこんな所へ来るわけがないじゃない(か)。
There is no reason that she would come to a place like this.
(kse). 何だ、テレビを見ているの(か)。
Oh, you're watching TV!
(ksf). 早くしないか。
Do it quickly!
(a). こんなものがお客様に出せますか。
How could we serve such a thing to guests!
(b). あんな男に何が出来る(もの)か。[male, informal]
What can a man like that do!
(c). 私の気持ちがあなたなんかに分かるもんですか。
You never understand my feelings!
(d). こんな馬鹿なことってあるでしょうか。
How can such a ridiculous thing happen!
(e). どうしてそれが彼に分からないことがあろう(か)。
How could he not understand it!
(f). 彼にそんな難しいことが分かるはずがないじゃない(か)。
How could you expect him to understand such a difficult thing!
(g). 何も泣くことはないじゃない(か)。
Oh, there's no reason to cry!
(h). 男は「開け、ゴマ！」と叫んだ。すると、なんと岩の扉が音もなく開いたではないか。
The man shouted, "Open sesame!" And look what happened: the rock (literally: rock door) opened with no sound!
(i). ああここにいたの(か)。
Oh, you are here!
(j). さっさと歩かないか。
Walk quickly!
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Structure
| A structure that is used to indicate that something animate does not or cannot do something satisfactorily/sufficiently/properly. | Not sufficiently; not satisfactorily; not properly; not well; hardly |
(ks). 飛行機の中ではろくに寝られなかった。
On the plane I couldn't sleep well.
| ろくに | Vnegativeない |
| ろくに食べない | Someone doesn’t eat properly |
(a). ろくに勉強もしないで試験を受けたので、全然出来なかった。
I took the exam without studying properly, so it was a disaster (literally: I couldn't do well at all).
(b). 短いパリ滞在だったので、彼女とはろくに会えなかった。
It was such a short stay in Paris that I hardly met her.
(c). 彼はフランスのことなどろくに知らないのに、よく知っているような口を利く。
He hardly knows about France, but he talks as if he knew a lot about it.
(d). せっかくデパートまで買い物に出かけたのに、買い物中気分が悪くなってろくに買い物もせずに帰って来た。
I went shopping, and got as far as to a department store, but I came home without doing much shopping (literally: shopping properly) because I felt sick while shopping.
(e). 僕の犬はろくに芸もしない。
My dog hardly does any tricks
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Particle (used in conversation only)
| A sentence final particle used in highly informal speech by male speakers to express different degrees of assertion ranging from a light touch comment up to opposition or imposition. | You know; sure; I tell you |
| 【Related Expression: ね; とも; よ】 | |
(ksa). Ａ：就職出来るかな。Ｂ：出来るさ。
A: I wonder if I can get a job. B: Sure you can.
(ksb). Ａ：君は日本語、読めないよね。Ｂ：いや、読めるさ。
A: You cannot read Japanese, right? B: Yeah, sure I can.
(ksc). 人生は長い旅のようなものさ。
Life is something like a long journey.
(ksd). どうして酒を飲んじゃいけないのさ。
How come I can't drink sake?
| (i){V/Adjective い}informal | さ |
| {食べる/食べた}さ | Someone eats/ate it, you know |
| {やさしい/やさしかった}さ | Something is/was easy, you know |
| (ii){Adjective な/Noun} | {Ø/だった}さ |
| {元気/元気だった}さ | Someone is/was healthy, you know |
| {学生/学生だった}さ | Someone is/was a student, you know |
| (iii)Wh-word~ | のさ |
| どうして食べないのさ | Why don’t you eat it? |
| (iv)Noun Phrase | さ |
| これはお茶さ | This is tea, you know |
(a). A: 今日の日本語のテストは難しいかな。B: いや、難しくないさ。
A: I wonder if today's Japanese test is difficult. B: No, it's not difficult, I tell you.
(b). A: このスーツケース、持てるかな。B: 持てるさ。
A: I wonder if I can carry this suitcase. B: I'm sure you can.
(c). A: お前は車を買うか金なんかないよな。B: いや、あるさ。
A: You don't have money to buy a car with, do you? B: Sure I do.
(d). A：ニューヨークの一人歩きは危ないだろう。B: いや、大丈夫さ。
A: Walking alone in New York City must be unsafe! B: No, it's safe, you know.
(e). A: この問題、君には解けないと思うよ。B: こんなもの、易しいさ。
A: I bet you can't solve this math problem. B: This is a cinch, you know.
(f). 人生とはこんなものさ。
Such is life, you know.
(g). 仕事に失敗はつきものさ
Work and failure go together, you know.
(h). どうしてこんな簡単なことが分からないのさ。
How come you don't understand such a simple thing?
(i). A：僕は大学に行くのを諦めたよ。B: 何を言っているのさ。
A: I've given up the idea of going to college, you know. B: What are you talking about?
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Particle
| An emphatic particle which expresses the idea of "even" in non-conditional clauses (or sentences) or the idea of "only" in conditional clauses. | Even; if~ only; if~ just; as long as; the only thing~ need is |
| 【Related Expression: まで; も; すら】 | |
(ksa). 彼女は現代日本語は勿論古典さえ読める。
She can read even classical Japanese, not to mention modern Japanese.
(ksb). この研究所にはアメリカからさえ研究者が来る。
Researchers even from America visit this lab.
(ksc). その歌は子供でさえ知っている。
Even children know this song.
(ksd). ここに置いておきさえすれば後はここの人が全部やってくれます。
If you just leave it here, the people in this place will take care of the rest.
(kse). この仕事さえ片付いたら後は楽なんです。
If we can only finish (literally: If we only finish) this work, the rest will be easy.
| (i)Noun | さえ | |
| 鹿さえ出る | Even deer appear | |
| 刺身さえ食べる | Eat even sashimi | |
| (ii)Noun(Particle) | さえ | |
| アフリカ(へ/に)さえ行った | Went even to Africa | |
| (iii)Noun Particle | さえ | |
| こんな街にさえある | Exist even in such a town | |
| 私にさえ分かる | Understandable even to me | |
| 学校でさえ教える | Teach even at school | |
| 犬とさえ遊ぶ | Play even with a dog | |
| 中国からさえ来る | Come even from China | |
| (iv)Noun (Particle) | でさえ | |
| 専門家でさえ分からない | Even professionals don't understand (literally: one doesn't understand something even if he is a professional) | |
| 果物でさえ食べない | Don't eat even fruit (literally: don't eat something even if it is fruit) | |
| 私からでさえもらわない | Don't accept (something) even from me (literally: don't receive something even if it is from me) | |
| (v)Vて | さえ (いる/もらう/etc.) | |
| 読んでさえいない | Have not even read | |
| 見てさえ分からない | Don't understand even by looking at | |
| (vi)Vます | さえする | |
| 書きさえする | Even write | |
| (vii)Adjective い stem | くさえある | |
| 安くさえある | Be even inexpensive | |
| (viii){Adjective な stem/Noun} | でさえある | |
| 便利でさえある | Be even convenient | |
| 学者でさえある | Be even a scholar |
(a). 彼はもうおかゆさえ喉を通らなかった。
He was no longer able to eat even porridge.
(b). 私はその写真を大人には勿論子供にさえ見せた。
I showed the picture even to kids, not to mention adults.
(c). 彼は私の言うことを聞こうとさえしない。
He doesn't even try to listen to me.
(d). 山田にさえ出来たんだから君にも出来るよ。
Even Yamada could do it, so you can do it, too.
(e). 先生でさえこの問題を解くのに二時間もかかった。
Even my teacher took (as much as) two hours to solve this problem.
(f). クレジットカードさえあればいつでも入会出来ます。
You can join our club any time if you only have a credit card.
(g). 君さえ承知してくれたら今すぐこのプロジェクトを始めるつもりだ。
As long as you agree (to our plan), we are planning to begin this project right away.
(h). まじめに勉強してさえいれば試験は大丈夫だ。
As long as you study seriously, you'll do okay on the exam (literally: the exam will be all right).
(i). 手を上げさえすればすぐ警官が飛んでくる。
If you just raise your hand, a policeman will rush to you.
(j). 高くさえなければ売れるはずだ。
It should sell as long as it's not expensive.
(k). 通勤に便利でさえあればどんなところでもいいんです。
Any location will be fine as long as it is convenient for commuting.
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Noun/Conjunction
| On the special occasion of/when. | When; on the occasion of; at the time of |
| 【Related Expression: 場合; にあったって/あたり; おりに; 時に】 | |
(ksa). 詳しいことは八月に上京する際に、お話し致します。
I will tell you the details when I come down to Tokyo in August.
(ksb). これは大学卒業の際に父が買ってくれたワープロです。
This is a word processor which my father bought me on the occasion of my college graduation.
(ksc). 私達の結婚に際して過分のお祝い物を頂き恐縮しております。
I feel much obliged to have received such an unmerited gift on the occasion of our wedding.
| (i)Vinformal | 際(に) |
| {買う/買った}際(に) | When someone buys/bought something |
| (ii)Nounの | 際(に) |
| 試験の際(に) | At the time of examination |
| (iii)Nounに | 際して |
| 入学に際して | On the occasion of entering a school |
| (iv){この/その/あの} | 際 |
| この際 | On this occasion |
(a). 大阪に転勤する際に、妻子は東京に残した。
When I transferred to Osaka I left my wife and children behind in Tokyo.
(b). 激しい運動をする際には準備運動が必要だ。
When you engage in strenuous exercise, you need to do stretch exercises.
(c). 首相はサミット会談に出席した際に国際収支に関する日本側の立場を説明した。
When the premier attended the summit meeting, he explained Japanese views on balance of international payments.
(d). 出発の際には、わざわざ見送りに来ていただき、ありがとうございました。
Thank you very much for taking the time to see me off at the time of my departure.
(e). 旅行の際には必ずカメラを持って行きます。
When I go on a trip I always take my camera with me.
(f). 近くにおいでの際には、ぜひお立ち寄り下さい。
Please call on us when you happen to be in our neighbourhood.
(g). 日本の近代化の研究に際して日本の国立国会図書館を利用した。
At the time of my research on Japanese modernization I used the National Diet Library of Japan.
(h). この際、私が直接社長に話してみます。
Since this is an important occasion (literally: on this occasion), I will talk directly to the president (and see what happens).
(i). これは帰国の際ホストファミリーのお父さんがくれた腕時計です。
This is a wrist watch which my host family father gave me when I left for home.
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Adverb
| An adverb that expresses the speaker's/writer's strong feeling that something has turned out as s/he expected. | As might be expected; after all; it is only natural that~; naturally; truly; really; indeed; impressive |
| 【Related Expression: やはり】 | |
(ksa). ネルソンさんは日本に三年留学していたので、さすがに日本語が上手です。
Because Mr. Nelson has studied in Japan for three years, naturally he speaks Japanese well.
(ksb). さすが(は)広島のかきだ。実に美味しい。
After all, they are Hiroshima oysters. They are really good.
(ksc). さすが元ボートの選手だけ{あって/に}、体格がいい。
After all, he is a former boating man. He has a fine physique.
(ksd). さすが、パリで十年暮らしただけ{あって/に}、彼は大変フランス通だ。
It is only natural that he is well versed in things French, because he lived in Paris for 10 years.
(kse). 難しい質問に、さすがの大先生も、困ってしまった。
The great teacher that he was, even he had a hard time answering the difficult question.
| (i)さすが | にSentence |
| さすがに、疲れた | It is only natural that I got tired |
| (ii)さすが | (は)Nounだ |
| さすが(は)日本の車だ | After all, it is a Japanese car |
| (iii)さすが | {V/Adjective い}informalだけ{あって/に} |
| さすがよく{勉強する/勉強した}だけ{あって/に} | As might be expected from the fact that someone studies/has studied hard |
| さすが{面白い/面白かった}だけ{あって/に} | As might be expected from the fact that something is/was interesting |
| (iv)さすが | {Noun (Ø/だった)/Adjective な(な/だった)} だけ{あって/に} |
| さすが{若い人/若い人だった} だけ{あって/に} | as might be expected from the fact that someone is/was a young person |
| さすが{綺麗/綺麗だった} だけ{あって/に} | As might be expected from the fact that something/someone {is/was} beautiful |
| (v)さすが | のNounも |
| さすがの天才も | Even a genius |
(a). 昨日は十時間も運転をしたので、さすがに疲れました。
Yesterday I drove a car for 10 hours, so I got tired, as might be expected.
(b). 運動を何もしないで、食べてばかりいたから、さすがに太ってしまった。
It is only natural that I gained weight, because I was just eating without doing any exercise.
(c). いつも、CDで音楽を聞いているんですが、生のコンサートはさすがにいいですね。
I'm always listening to music on CDs, but concerts are good, after all.
(d). さすが(は)本場のイタリア料理だ。日本のイタリア料理とは味が違う。
After all, it is authentic Italian cuisine in Italy. It tastes different from the Italian cuisine in Japan.
(e). さすが(は)科学者だ。観察が鋭い。
After all, he is a scientist. He makes sharp observations.
(f). さすが、若い頃山に登っていただけに、今でも足が強い。
As may be expected of a person who used to climb mountains in his young days, he still has strong legs.
(g). さすがの父も、今度の入院はこたえたようだ。
Even on my father the recent hospitalization seemed to have been hard.
(h). さすがの先生にも、解答が分からなかった。
The great teacher that he was, even he couldn't figure out the solution.
(i). 彼は肉が大好物のようで、大きなステーキを二枚も平らげたのはさすがだった。
He seems to like meat a lot and it was impressive that he ate two large steaks.
(j). ジョンはさすがだね。ビールを十本も飲んでしまったよ。
As might be expected of John, he drank 10 bottles of beer.
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Noun
| A dependent noun expressing a cause which brings about an undesirable result. | Because; due to |
| 【Related Expression: おかげ; 為(に)】 | |
(ksa). 今年は不況のせいで車があまり売れない。
Because of the depression, cars are not selling well this year.
(ksb). 寝不足のせいか体に力が入らない。
Because of lack of sleep, I suppose, I feel weak (literally: the body has no power).
(ksc). 私が失敗したのは彼のせいだ。
It is because of him that I failed.
(ksd). 昨夜飲みすぎたせいで今日は頭がふらふらする。
I am dizzy today because I drank too much last night.
| (i)Nounの | せい (で/か/etc.) | |
| 過労のせいで | Because of overworking | |
| (ii)Sinformal | せい (で/か/etc.) | The same as the relative clause formation |
| 働きすぎたせいで | Because someone worked too hard |
(a). 最近運動不足のせいで体重が増えた。
I've gained weight because of lack of exercise these days.
(b). 雨が少なかったせいで今年は米が不作だそうだ。
It is reported that because there was little rain, we are going to have a bad crop of rice this year.
(c). 年のせいか最近耳が聞こえにくくなった。
Due to my age, I suppose, I cannot hear well these days.
(d). 新しい土地に来て水が変わったせいか近頃お腹の調子がよくない。
Maybe because I have moved to a new place and the water is different, my stomach is uncomfortable these days.
(e). 目が悪くなったのは一日中コンピュータを使って仕事をしているせいだ。
It is because you work with a computer all day that your eyesight has deteriorated.
(f). 彼はよく自分の失敗を人のせいにする。
He often blames others for his own failure (literally: claims that his own failure is due to others).
(g). これは誰のせいでもない。
This is (due to) no one's fault.
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Adverb
| An adverb that indicates the speaker/writer's minimally satisfactory level. | At least |
| 【Related Expression: 少なくとも】 | |
(ksa). 百点とは言いませんが、せめて八十点ぐらいは取りたいです。
I am not saying that I want to get 100 points, but I would like to get at least 80 points.
(ksb). せめて鍋(だけ)でもあれば、ご飯が炊けるんですが。
If we had a pan, at least, we would be able to cook rice.
(ksc). せめて両親には分かってもらいたいんですが。
I wanted at least my parents to understand me.
| (i)せめて | Number+Counter (ぐらい)~ |
| せめて二時間ぐらい | At least two hours |
| (ii)せめて | Noun{ぐらい/(だけ)でも} |
| せめて新聞{ぐらい/(だけ)でも} | At least a newspaper |
| (iii)せめて | Noun Particle |
| せめて妻に | At least to my wife |
(a). せめて一年に十日ぐらい、休暇が取れるといいんですが。
I wish I could take at least 10-day's leave each year.
(b). 日本にいる間に、せめて一度ぐらいは会いに来て下さい。
Please come and see me at least once while you are in Japan.
(c). 美人でなくてもいいけど、せめて、可愛らしい女の子と結婚したい。
It's alright if she is not a real beauty. But I would like to marry at least a cute girl.
(d). 日本に行くんだから、せめて、日本語だけは勉強して来ようと思っています。
I am going to Japan, so, I'm thinking of learning at least Japanese.
(e). せめてもう後一日生きていたら、父の死に目に会えたのに。
If my father lived at least one day longer I could have been with him when he died.
(f). あんなに広い家でなくてもいいけど、せめてもう一部屋あるといいのに。
I don't need that spacious house, but I wish I had at least another room.
(g). 一月もご厄介になるんですから、せめて、皿洗いぐらいはさせて下さい。
I'm going to stay at your house for a month, so please let me wash the dishes, at least.
(h). せめて日本語で日常会話ぐらいは出来るようになりたいです。
I would like to become able to engage in daily conversation in Japanese.
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Conjunction/Noun
| A conjunction/noun to express that an action indicated by a preceding verb or an action implied by a preceding noun is a prerequisite for another action. | As soon as; depend on |
| 【Related Expression: による; たらすぐ】 | |
(ksa). 大阪に着き次第、お電話を差し上げます。
As soon as I get to Osaka, I will call you.
(ksb). 原稿は完成次第お送り致します。
I will send my manuscripts as soon as they are completed.
(ksc). 世の中で成功するかしないかはあなたの努力次第ですよ。
Whether you succeed in the world or not depends on your efforts.
| (i)Vます | 次第 | |
| 読み次第 | As soon as someone has read something | |
| 帰り次第 | As soon as someone has returned | |
| Exception | いらっしゃり次第 | As soon as someone comes/goes there |
| おっしゃり次第 | As soon as someone says it | |
| なさり次第 | As soon as someone does something | |
| (ii)VN | 次第 | |
| 帰国次第 | As soon as someone comes back to his/her country | |
| 到着次第 | As soon as someone/something arrives | |
| (iii)(Xは)Noun | 次第だ/で | |
| (農業は)天気次第だ | Farming depends on the weather | |
| 給料次第で | Depending on the salary |
(a). 夫は仕事が終わり次第、毎日まっすぐ帰宅します。
My husband comes straight home every day, as soon as he has finished his work.
(b). 空港から電話があり次第、お迎えに参ります。
I will go to pick you up as soon as you call me from the airport.
(c). 山岸先生がいらっしゃり次第、会議を始めたいと思います。
As soon as Professor Yamagishi comes here I'd like to begin our meeting.
(d). 東大を卒業次第、京大の大学院に入学するつもりだ。
Upon graduation from the University of Tokyo, I intend to enter the Graduate School of Kyoto University.
(e). お尋ねの件は、判明次第、ご連絡申し上げます。
On the matter you have inquired about, I will inform you as soon as I find out.
(f). レセプションが終了次第、晩餐会を始めます。
As soon as the reception is finished we will start the dinner party.
(g). 就職はコネ次第ですよ。
Finding employment depends on connections.
(h). 「地獄の沙汰も金次第(だ)」ということわざを知っていますか。
Do you know the proverb "Even affairs in hell depend on money”?
(i). ご注文次第で、どんな物でも料理致します。
Depending on your orders, I will cook you anything you like.
(j). 条件次第では、その仕事を引き受けたいと思います。
Depending on the employment terms I would like to accept that job.
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Conjunction
| A conjunction which is used to provide additional important information. | Moreover; furthermore; besides; on top of that; what's more; what's worse; more surprisingly; at that; nevertheless; and yet; even so |
| 【Related Expression: おまけに; その上; それでいて; それも; それに; (それ)にもかかわらず】 | |
(ksa). 最近のテープレコーダーは小さくて軽く、しかも音が素晴らしくよくなった。
The tape recorders available these days are compact and light, and on top of that, their sound has improved greatly.
(ksb). 彼は家を買った。しかも大きい庭付きのを(だ)。
He bought a house, and more surprisingly, a house with a large yard.
(ksc). 彼はいつも夜遅くまで勉強し、しかも朝は誰よりも早く起きる。
He studies till late every night; nevertheless, he gets up earlier than anyone else.
| (i){V/Adjective/Noun+Copula}て | しかも |
| 結婚していて、しかも子供までいる | Someone is married, and what’s more, s/he even has a child |
| 面白くて、しかも只だ | Something is interesting, and what’s more, it is free of charge |
| ハンサムで、しかもお金持ちだ | Someone is handsome, and what’s more, he is rich |
| 失業中で、しかも病気だ | Someone is out of work, and what’s worse, s/he is ill |
| (ii)Vます | しかも |
| よく働き、しかも不平を言わない | Someone works hard, and yet (or nevertheless), s/he does not complain |
| (iii)Adjectiveい/く | しかも |
| 値段が安く、しかも丈夫だ | Something is cheap; furthermore, it’s durable |
| (iv)Sentence1 | しかもSentence2 |
| この仕事は面白い。しかも給料がいい | This job is interesting. On top of that, the pay is good |
(a). 彼女は美人でしかも頭がいい。男子学生が夢中になるのも無理はない。
She is pretty, and what's more, (she is) smart. It is natural that boys (literally: male students) should be crazy about her.
(b). 日本語は語彙が英語と全然違うし文法も難しい。しかも、日本語には漢字がある。
Japanese has entirely different vocabulary from English, and the grammar is also difficult. On top of that, Japanese has kanji.
(c). あのレストランの定食は美味しくて安い。しかも、ボリュームがあるから学生や若いサラリーマンに人気がある。
That restaurant's teishoku (set meal) is good and reasonable. On top of that, it is substantial (literally: it has volume), so it is popular among students and young white-collar workers.
(d). 彼はこの大雨の中を出かけて行った。しかも、傘も持たずに。
He went out in this heavy rain, and more surprisingly, without an umbrella.
(e). 彼は試験に遅刻してしまった。しかも、三十分も。
He was late for the exam, and what's worse, as much as thirty minutes late.
(f). 彼女は英語のほかに四か国語を話す。しかも、すべて母国語話者のように。
She speaks four languages besides English, and more surprisingly, she speaks all of them like a native speaker.
(g). 私は風邪を引いてしまった。しかも、大事な試験の前日にだ。
I caught a cold, and at that on the day before an important exam.
(h). 彼はどんなつらい仕事でも黙ってこなし、しかも、給料についてほかの者ように不平を言わなかった。
No matter how hard the job was, he did it quietly, and what's more, he did not complain about his salary like the others did.
(i). 彼女は何をやっても上手で、しかも、その才能をひけらかさない。
She is good at everything, but even so, she does not show off her talents.
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Conjunction (used in writing and formal speech only)
| A conjunction that is used to indicate that a result/situation follows necessarily from the foregoing situation. | Therefore; accordingly; consequently |
| 【Related Expression: だから】 | |
(ks). 予算が不足している。したがってこの計画は実行できない。
The budget is insufficient. Therefore this plan cannot be implemented.
| Sentence1 | したがってSentence2 |
| 雨がよく降る。したがって緑が多い | It rains a lot. Therefore there is a lot of greenery |
(a). 今週は重役達は朝から晩まで会議で忙しい。したがって好きなゴルフをする暇もない。
This week the executives are busy attending meetings from morning till night. Therefore they don't even have time to play their favourite golf.
(b). 運動をすると、エネルギーを使う。したがって太らない。
If you do exercise, you use energy. Accordingly you don't gain weight.
(c). 日本の車は故障が少ない。したがってよく売れる。
Japanese cars have fewer troubles. Therefore they sell well.
(d). 彼女は日本に五年も住んでいた。したがって日本のことをよく知っている。
She lived in Japan for five years. Therefore she knows a lot about Japan.
(e). 日本では父親はあまり家にいない。したがって母親が子供の教育をすることになる。
In Japan fathers are seldom at home. Therefore mothers are in charge of their children's education.
Intermediate Page 397
Phrase/Conjunction
| A structure which expresses that the speaker/writer cannot easily accept the corollary from the preceding statement owing to some circumstances, although he feels like accepting it. | But; yet; even so |
| 【Related Expression: (そう)ですが; けれど(も); しかし】 | |
(ksa). Ａ：魚が体にいいそうですよ。Ｂ：そうかと言って、毎日魚ばかりを食べているわけにもいかないでしょう。
A: I hear that fish is good for your health. B: But we couldn't eat just fish every day, you know.
(ksb). アメリカの方が土地も家も安いが、そうかと言って、簡単に移住するわけにもいかない。
Land and housing are less expensive in America, but we cannot easily immigrate.
| (i)A: | Sentence1 | |
| B: | そうかと言って、Sentence2 | |
| A: | 漫画は面白いですね | Comic books are fun |
| B: | そうかと言って、漫画ばかり読んでいるわけにもいきませんよ | But you can’t read just comic books, you know |
| (ii)Sentence1が | そうかと言って、Sentence2 | |
| 漫画は面白いですが、そうかと言って、漫画ばかり読んでいるわけにもいきませんよ | Comic books are fun , but you can’t read just comic books, you know |
(a). A: 手ぶらで来て下さいと言っていましたよ。B: そうかと言って、何も持って行かないわけにもいかないでしょうね。
A: He told me not to bring anything. B: But, we cannot go there empty handed, you know.
(b). A: 明日の試験はとても易しいそうですよ。B: そうかと言って、何も勉強しないわけにもいかないでしょう。
A: They say that tomorrow's examination is very easy. B: But still, it can't mean that we don't need to study at all.
(c). A: 来週は連休だから、遊べますね。B: そうかと言って、ゴルフばかりしているわけにもいかないね。
A: There are consecutive holidays next week, so we can have fun. B: But, I cannot just play golf, you know.
(d). A: 煙草は体に悪いですよ。B: そうかと言って、煙草に代わる物が見つからないし。
A: Cigarettes are bad for your health, you know. B: Even so, I cannot find a substitute for cigarettes.
(e). A：毎日三十分くらい運動するといいそうですよ。B: そうかと言って、それだけの時間は作れないしね。
A: They say that it's good to exercise for about 30 minutes every day. B: But it is next to impossible to make that amount of free time, you know.
(f). 漢字をもっと覚えなければならないのは分かっているが、そうかと言って、漢字ばかり覚えているわけにもいかない。
I know I have to memorize more kanji, but even so, I cannot memorize just kanji.
(g). 妻子と別れるのはつらいが、そうかと言って、この海外出張を断るわけにもいかない。
It is painful to leave my wife and kids behind, but I cannot excuse myself from this business trip abroad.
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Conjunction
| A conjunction which connects a situation presented as a reason and an action taken because of that situation | So; because of that; therefore |
| 【Related Expression: それで】 | |
(ks). 友達が夕食は簡単なものでいいと言った。そこで、ピザを注文した。
My friend told me that something simple would be fine for supper. So, I ordered a pizza.
| Sentence1 | そこで、Sentence2 |
| 会議室が使えなくなった。そこで、食堂で打ち合わせをすることにした。 | The conference room has become unavailable. So, we’ve decided to have the meeting in the cafeteria |
(a). 荷物が沢山あるのに雨が降り出した。そこで、タクシーで行くことにした。
I had a lot of baggage and it began to rain. Therefore, I decided to go by taxi.
(b). リーダーの山田さんが来られなくなった。そこで、ミーティングは延期せざるをえなくなった。
It has turned out that our leader Mr. Yamada can't come, so we have no choice but to postpone the meeting.
(c). 試験の日に怪我をして学校へ行けなくなった。そこで、先生に電話して別の日に受けられるか聞いてみた。
I got injured and couldn't go to school on the day of an exam. So, I called my teacher to ask if I could take it another day.
(d). 彼はすべて私が悪かったような言い方をした。そこで、私も黙っていられなくなって、言い返した。
He talked as if it were all my fault. Therefore, I couldn't hold my tongue and I talked back.
(e). 息子が来年大学なんですが英語が苦手で困っているんです。そこで、お願いがあるんですが、息子に英語を教えてやっていただけませんか。
My son is going to college next year but he is not good at English (literally: and has trouble with it). Therefore, I'd like to ask a favour of you. Could you teach him English?
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Conjunction
| A conjunction which connects an event and an action taken at the time of the event | Then; at that time |
(ksa). 私が手を振ったら、そこで拍手をして下さい。
When I wave my hand, (literally: then,) please clap your hands.
(ksb). 彼は飲み物を勧めるかもしれません。そこで、遠慮をしてはいけません。
He might offer you a drink. At that time you mustn't hesitate.
| (i)Sentence1、 | そこでSentence2 | |
| このランプがついたら、そこで充電を始めて下さい | When this light comes on, (literally: then,) start charging it | |
| (ii)Sentence1 | そこでSentence2 | |
| 多分受付が身分証明書を要求するでしょう。そこでこのカードを見せなさい | The receptionist will probably ask for an ID. Show her this card at that time |
(a). 一時間たったら私が「やめ！」と言いますから、そこで書くのをやめて鉛筆を置いて下さい。
In an hour I will say, "Stop!" Then, stop writing and put your pencils down.
(b). 私が合図をしたら、そこで皆さんお立ち願います。
When I give you a signal, (literally: then,) you will all stand up, please.
(c). 酔ったなと思ったら、そこで飲むのをやめるべきです。
If you think you are intoxicated, you should stop drinking at that time.
(d). 小さい子供は時にとんでもないいたずらをする。そこで親は叱らないといけない。
Little children sometimes get into unbelievable mischief. Their parents must scold them then.
(e). 矢野先生が学生を叱った。そこでその学生が素直に謝ればよかったのだが、彼は口答えをした。
Professor Yano scolded a student. It would have been all right if the student had apologized to him meekly at that time, but the student talked back (instead).
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Conjunction
| A conjunction used to indicate that in spite of the negative situation mentioned in the previous part of the sentence/discourse some positive effort is made. | But; in spite of that |
(ksa). トムはフットボールの選手としては小さいが、そこを脚力で補っている。
Tom is small for a football player, but he makes up for it with his swift legs.
(ksb). Ａ：これ以上金を貸すわけにはいかないよ。Ｂ：そこを何とかして下さいませんか。
A: I cannot loan you more money than this. B: But, could you do something about it?
(a). 彼は頭はそれほどよくないが、そこを努力で何とかやっている。
He is not that bright, but he manages to get along on his efforts.
(b). その女優はもう年齢を隠すことは出来ないが、そこを芸で何とか持たせている。
The actress cannot hide her age any longer, but she is somehow preserving herself with her arts.
(c). お忙しいとは存じますが、そこを何とか出席していただけないでしょうか。
I know that you are busy, but I wonder if you could possibly attend it.
(d). A: こんな成績じゃ、君、卒業できないよ。B: そこを、先生、どうにかしていただけないでしょうか。
A: With such poor grades, you cannot graduate, you know. B: But, could you do something about it, Professor?
(e). A: こんな企画に予算を付けるわけにはいかないな。B: 部長、そこを何とか一つお願いします。
A: I cannot allocate a budget for such a project. B: But, chief, could you give me a chance?
Intermediate Page 409
Phrase
| A phrase expressing that something almost happens. | Almost |
| 【Related Expression: もう少し; ちょっとで~するところ(だった)】 | |
(ks). 冷たい雨の中を傘もささないで歩いていたら、風邪を引きそうになった。
While walking in the cold rain without using an umbrella, I almost caught a cold.
| Vます | そうになる |
| 忘れそうになる | Someone almost forgets something |
| わかりそうになる | Someone almost understands something |
| 失職しそうになる | Someone almost loses his/her job |
(a). 私は子供の時、プールで危うく溺れそうになったことがある。
When I was a child I almost drowned in a swimming pool.
(b). 昨日もうちょっとで車にひかれそうになった。
Yesterday I almost got run over by a car.
(c). 地震で僕の家は潰れそうになった。
My house almost got destroyed by an earthquake.
(d). 庭の古い松の木が台風で倒れそうになった。
An old pine tree in the yard almost fell down in the typhoon.
(e). 今日混んだ電車の中で、財布をすられそうになった。
Today in a crowded train I almost got my purse pickpocketed.
(f). 数学の試験で最後の問題がもう少しで解けそうになった時に、時間切れになってしまった。
In the math exam, I was almost able to solve the last problem when the time was up.
(g). やっと日本へ行けそうになった時に、母が病気になってしまった。
When I was almost able to go to Japan my mother got ill.
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Conjunction
| A conjunction which introduces an additional, emphatic statement. | On top of that; besides; moreover; furthermore; what's more; what's worse; not only~ but also |
| 【Related Expression: おまけに; しかも; それに; うえ(に)】 | |
(ksa). 彼は一緒にアパートを探してくれて、その上、引っ越しまで手伝ってくれた。
He looked for an apartment with me, and moreover, he even helped me move.
(ksb). この仕事は給料がいいし、その上、時々外国に行く機会もある。
This job pays a good salary, and what's more, it offers opportunities to go abroad from time to time.
(ksc). バナナは安い。その上、栄養も豊富だ。
Bananas are cheap. On top of that, they are nutritious.
| (i){V/Adjective/Noun+Copula}て | その上 |
| いつでも使えて、その上、無料だ | You can use it any time, and on top of that, it’s free |
| おいしくて、その上、栄養がある | It’s delicious and what’s more， nutritious |
| 不便で、その上、家賃が高い | It’s inconvenient, and moreover，the rent is expensive. |
| 純金製で、その上、ダイヤがはまっている | It’s made of pure gold, and besides, it has a diamond (literally: a diamond is embedded) |
| (ii)Vます | その上 |
| ほめられ、その上、ほうびまでもらった | I was praised，and what’s more, I was given an award |
| (iii)Adjective い | くその上 |
| 話が面白く、その上、読みやすい | The story is interesting, and on top of that, it’s easy to read |
| (iv)Sentence し | その上 |
| その仕事はつまらないし、その上、給料が悪い | The job is boring, and what’s worse, the pay is bad |
| (v)Sentence | その上 |
| その老人は体が不自由。その上、耳が遠い | The old man is disabled. Furthermore, he is hard of hearing |
(a). 彼女は美人で、その上、気立てがいいから、みんなに好かれている。
Everybody loves her because she is not only pretty but also good-natured (literally: because she is pretty, and what's more, she is good-natured).
(b). 先生のうちに就職の相談に行ったら、色々アドバイスを頂いて、その上、夕食までごちそうになった。
When I went to my professor's house to consult him about my job, he gave me all kinds of advice, and on top of that, he even served me dinner.
(c). ジョンのうちに遊びに行ったら、家のペンキ塗りを手伝わされ、その上、芝刈りまでさせられた。
When I went to see John at his place, he got me to help him paint his house, and what's more, he even got me to mow the lawn.
(d). このアパートは通勤に便利で家賃も安く、その上、駐車場まである。
This apartment is convenient for commuting and the rent is reasonable. Moreover, it even has a parking space.
(e). 日本語は構造が英語とかなり違うし、その上、漢字があるから、アメリカ人に習得が難しい。
The structure of Japanese is considerably different from that of English, and on top of that, it has kanji; therefore, it is difficult for Americans to learn.
(f). この学校はいい先生が少なく設備もよくない。その上、生徒の非行も多い。
This school does not have many good teachers and the facilities are not good, either. And besides that, there is a lot of juvenile crime.
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Conjunction
| In spite of the circumstance expressed in the preceding sentence. | Nevertheless; yet; but in spite of that; even so |
| 【Related Expression: (それ)にもかかわらず; ても】 | |
(ks). 両親は二人の結婚に反対している。それでも二人は結婚するつもりらしい。
The parents are opposed to the couple's marriage. Nevertheless, they seem intent to marrying.
| (i)Sentence1(しかし) | それでもSentence2 |
| 悪い天気だった。(しかし)それでも私達は出かけた | The weather was bad. Nevertheless we went out |
| (ii)Sentence2{が/けれど(も)/のに}、 | それでもSentence2 |
| 悪い天気だった{が/けれど(も)/のに}、それでも私達は出かけた | The weather was bad. Nevertheless we went out |
(a). 暑いので扇風機をつけたが、それでもまだ暑かった。
It was so hot that we turned on an electric fan, but it was still hot.
(b). 父はひどい風邪を引いていた。しかしそれでも旅行に出かけた。
My father was suffering from a bad cold. Nevertheless, he went on a trip.
(c). この本はとても高いのに、それでもいい本だから、よく売れている。
This book is very expensive, yet it is selling well, because it is a good book.
(d). 彼はとても忙しいのに、それでもジョギングを一日も欠かさない。
He is very busy, yet he does not miss jogging even a day.
(e). A: そのオーバー、高いね。 B: それでも買うつもり？
A: This overcoat is expensive, isn't it? B: But do you intend to buy it?
Intermediate Page 420
Conjunction
| A conjunction that is used to indicate that the level/degree of a fact or a situation expressed in the second sentence is far above or below the level/degree of a fact or a situation expressed in the first sentence. | On the contrary; far from that; as a matter of fact |
| 【Related Expression: どころか】 | |
(ksa). スミスさんは漢字が書けない。それどころか、平仮名も満足に書けない。
Mr. Smith cannot write kanji. As a matter of fact, he cannot write even hiragana satisfactorily.
(ksb). Ａ：今晩パーティーに行かない？ Ｂ：それどころ{か、/じゃないよ。}親父が入院したんだ。
A: Shall we go to the party tonight? B: No way (literally: Far from it). Dad got hospitalized.
| (i)Sentence1 | それどころかSentence2 | |
| 暑くない。それどころか寒い | It’s not hot. On the contrary, it’s cold | |
| (ii)A: Sentence | ||
| B: | それどころか{が、/ではない。/じゃない。}Sentence | |
| A: | 疲れたね。 | Tired, aren’t we? |
| B: | それどころか{が、/じゃない。}死にそうなんだよ | Far from it. I’m almost dead |
(a). あの人は若くはありませんよ。それどころか、お孫さんが三人もいるんですよ。
She is not young. On the contrary, she has as many as three grandchildren.
(b). お金は一銭もありません。それどころか、借金で苦しんでいるんです。
I don't have a penny. As a matter of fact, I'm suffering from debts.
(c). ジムは日本語の会話が出来ない。それどころか、簡単な挨拶も日本語で出来ない。
Jim cannot speak Japanese. In fact, he cannot even make simple greetings in Japanese.
(d). A: 風邪を引いたんだって？B:それどころか、肺炎になって、入院していたんだ。
A: Did you have a cold? (literally: I heard that you had a cold, but is it true?) B: On the contrary, I had pneumonia and got hospitalized.
(e). A：映画を見に行こうか？B:それどころじゃないよ。今晩が徹夜しなければならないほど忙しいんだ。
A: Shall we go see a movie? B; Are you kidding? (literally: Far from it) Tonight I'm so busy that I have to stay up all night.
(f). A:和子、手伝ってくれる？B:それどころじゃないのよ、今宿題で忙しくて。
A: Kazuko, can you help me? B; No way, I'm busy doing my homework, you know.
(g). クラークさんは刺身が食べられる。それどころか納豆まで食べられる。
Clark can eat sashimi. As a matter of fact, he eats even nattou.
Intermediate Page 423
Interjection (used in conversation only)
| An interjection which signals that the speaker is going to provide an unexpected response to a question. | Well (contrary to your expectation; I'm afraid to say this, but) |
| 【Related Expression: それは; ところが】 | |
(ks). Ａ：奨学金がもらえそうですか。Ｂ：(いえ)それが難しそうなんです。
A: Does it look like you can get a scholarship? B: Well, (no,) it looks difficult.
(a). A: 試験、どうだった？B:それが、駄目だったんだ。
A: How was the exam? B: Well, (I'm sorry to say this, but) it was no good.
(b). A: 来年は日本で働くんですね。B: いや、それが行けなくなってしまったんです。
A: You're going to work in Japan next year, aren't you? B: Well, no, it's turned out that I can't go.
(c). A：彼女に会って話したんだろう。B: それが、会ったことは会ったんだけど、顔を見たら何も言えなくなってしまって。
A: You met her and talked to her, right? B: Well, I did meet her, but when I saw her face, I couldn't say anything.
Intermediate Page 425
Conjunction
| A conjunction which is used to add more specific information to information about a rather uncommon action or state. | What's more; what's worse; at that; furthermore; moreover; on top of that |
| 【Related Expression: しかも】 | |
(ksa). 英語で、それも早口で話されたので全然分からなかった。
Because he spoke (literally: I was talked to) in English, and what's worse, rapidly, I didn't understand anything.
(ksb). 彼女は銀座の、それも一流の店でばかり買い物をする。
She always does her shopping at shops in Ginza, and moreover, at first-class ones.
(ksc). 子供が五人もいて、それもいたずら盛りの男の子ばかりなので、野口さんの奥さんは毎日大変忙しいです。
Because she has as many as five children, and moreover, they are all very mischievous boys, Mrs. Noguchi is extremely busy every day.
| (i)AdverbPhrase1 | それもAdverbPhrase2(Verbal) |
| 日本語で、それもくずし字で書いてある | It is written in Japanese, and what’s worse, in flowing style |
| (ii)AP1 | それもAP2(Noun) |
| ダイヤ(の)、それも二カラットのダイヤの指輪だ | It is a diamond ring, and a 2-karat diamond ring at that |
| (iii)Clause1 | それもClause2 |
| 新築で、それも駅から五分という便利な所にある | It is newly built, and on top of that, it is conveniently located five minutes from the station |
(a). 彼はその場で、それも現金で払ってくれた。
He paid on the spot, and what's more, in cash.
(b). 真冬に、それも裸足で走った。
I ran in midwinter, and what's more, barefooted.
(c). その銀行は都心の、それも東京駅前の一当地に本社ビルを建てた。
The bank built their headquarters building in central Tokyo, and moreover, on the best spot, in front of Tokyo Station.
(d). 彼女は雑誌記者、それもゴシップ雑誌の記者に見つかってしまった。
She was seen by a magazine reporter, and what's worse, a reporter from a gossip magazine.
(e). 忙しい学期末に、それも論文の締め切り直前に手紙を訳してくれと頼まれた。
I was asked to translate a letter when I was busy at the end of the semester, and what's worse, just before the deadline for my term paper.
(f). 硬貨で十万円、それも十円玉ばかりだったからとても重かった。
Because it was one hundred thousand yen in coins, and what's worse, (they were) all ten-yen coins, it was terribly heavy.
Intermediate Page 427
Conjunction
| A conjunction which introduces an additional item or statement. | (and) in addition; moreover; furthermore; what's more; on top of that |
| 【Related Expression: おまけに; しかも; その上; それと】 | |
(ksa). ここのモーニングセットはコーヒーにトースト、それにゆで卵が付いている。
The "morning set" here includes coffee and some toast; in addition, there is a boiled egg (literally: it is accompanied by a boiled egg).
(ksb). 車を買っても置く所がないし、それにあまり乗る機会もない。
Even if we bought a car, there would be no place to park it, and moreover, there would be few occasions to use it
(ksc). 私は家では仕事の話はしないことにしているんです。それに、今晩はとても疲れているので、その話は明日にしてもらえませんか。
I make it a rule not to discuss business at home. In addition, I'm very tired this evening, so could we discuss it tomorrow?
| (i)Noun1{と/に/、}Noun2{と/に/、} | …それにNoun |
| テレビ、ステレオ、それにビデオカメラ | A TV set, a stereo, and, in addition a videocamera |
| (ii)Sentence1し | それにSentence2 |
| その仕事はうまらないし、それに給料が悪い | The job is boring, and what’s worse, the pay is bad |
| (iii)Sentence1 | それに、Sentence2 |
| その老人は体が不自由だ。それに、耳が遠い | The old man is disabled. Furthermore, he is hard of hearing |
(a). 私のうちには私達夫婦と子供が二人、それに猫と犬が一匹ずついる。
My family consists of my wife and me, and two children, and in addition, (there are) a cat and a dog.
(b). いい仕事がないし、それに子供も日本の学校へ行きたがっているので、日本へ帰ろうと思っている。
We are thinking of going back to Japan because there are no good jobs here, and what's more, my child wants to go to a Japanese school.
(c). ピアノなんか買っても誰も弾く者はないし、それにうちは狭いので置く所がありません。
Even if we bought a piano, no one would play it, and moreover, there would be no place to put it because our place is small.
(d). このアパートは明るくて清潔だ。それに家賃が安い。
This apartment is light and clean. Furthermore, the rent is reasonable.
(e). 昔と違って今は相手がどこにいても電話で簡単に話が出来る。それに、テレビ電話を使うと相手の顔を見ながら話すことも出来る。
Unlike the old days, we can easily talk with people over the phone these days no matter where they are. Moreover, if we use a TV telephone, we can talk with someone while watching his or her face.
Intermediate Page 431
Conjunction (used in conversation only)
| A conjunction which introduces an additional item or statement. | And; also; in addition; as well |
| 【Related Expression: それから; それに】 | |
(ksa). 林檎三つとオレンジ二つ、それと、バナナを三本下さい。
Give me three apples and two oranges, and three bananas, as well.
(ksb). スポーツはテニスとゴルフをします。それと、学生時代はアイスホッケーをしていました。
S1: Speaking of sports, I play tennis and golf. S2: In addition, I played ice hockey at school (literally: in my school days).
| (i)Noun1{と/に/、}Noun2{と/に/、} | …それと、Noun |
| ビールとチーズ、それと、ポテトチップ | Beer and cheese, and potato chips as well |
| (ii)Sentence1 | それと、Sentence2 |
| 音楽はコーラスをしています。それと、学生の頃フルートを少しやりました | Speaking of music, I am a member of a chorus. In addition, I played flute a little when I was a student |
(a). 山田さん、木下さん、上野さん、それと、高橋さんもお見えになります。
Mr. Yamada, Mr. Kinoshita, and Mr. Ueno are coming. And Mr. Takahashi, too.
(b). 外国語はドイツ語にフランス語、それと、日本語が少しが話せます。
Talking about foreign languages, I can speak German and French, and a little Japanese.
(c). 留守中に山村さんと浜田さんからお電話がありました。それと、吉田さんからお手紙が出ております。
There were calls from Mr. Yamamura and Mr. Hamada while you were out. Also, a letter came from Mr. Yoshida.
(d). 緊急の問題は先生をどうするかということです。それと、もう一つ、教室の問題も考えなければなりません。
How to get a teacher is the urgent problem. And, for another thing, we have to think about the classroom problem.
(e). この手紙を昼までにタイプしておいてくれる？あ、それと、昨日頼んでおいた飛行機の切符、取れた？
Could you type this letter by noon? Oh, and did (literally: could) you get the air tickets I asked for yesterday?
Intermediate Page 434
Interjection (used in conversation only)
| An interjection which is used when the speaker emphatically provides an expected response to a question. | (yes,) naturally; (yes,) of course; oh, surely |
| 【Related Expression: それが】 | |
(ks). Ａ：勝ちたいでしょうね。Ｂ：(ええ)それは勝ちたいですよ。
A: I bet you want to win (the game). B: (Yes,) of course, I do.
(a). A: 国へ帰りたいと思うことがありませんか。B: (ええ、)それはありますよ。
A: Are there times when you want to go back to your country? B: (Yes,) Of course.
(b). A: この値段だったらみんな買うでしょうか。B: それは買いますよ。そんな値段では絶対買えませんから。
A: I wonder if they would buy (them) for this price. B: They surely would. They could never buy them (anywhere else) for that price.
(c). A: もっと給料が高い方がいいでしょう？B:そりゃ(あ)そうですが…。
A: You would prefer a higher salary, right? B: Naturally, I would, but. . .
Intermediate Page 436
Adverb
| Each of two or more things/persons. | Each; respectively |
| 【Related Expression: めいめい; おのおの】 | |
(ksa). 山田さんと鈴木さんは、果物とお菓子をそれぞれ買った。
Yamada and Suzuki bought fruits and cakes, respectively.
(ksb). 読んだ小説はそれぞれ面白かった。
Each of the novels I read was interesting (in its own way).
(a). 好子、美保子、信夫はそれぞれ十五歳、十三歳、九歳です。
Yoshiko, Mihoko, and Nobuo are 15, 13, and 9 years old, respectively.
(b). 父は私と妹に、それぞれ、一万円のお小遣いをくれた。
Father gave me and my younger sister a 10,000 yen allowance each.
(c). トムは寮の部屋で、僕は図書館で、それぞれ勉強する。
Tom and I study in the dorm room and at the library, respectively.
(d). ボブはベスと、一雄はジェミーと、それぞれ出かけた。
Bob and Kazuo went out with Beth and Jemmy, respectively.
(e). 私達は兄弟だが、趣味がそれぞれ違う。
We are brothers, but each of us has different interests.
(f). 誰でもそれぞれ長所と短所がある。
Each of us has our strengths and weaknesses.
(g). このキャンパスの建物はそれぞれ個性がある。
Each of the buildings of this campus has its own individuality.
(h). レストランではそれぞれ好きな物を食べました。
At the restaurant we ate what each of us like.
(i). 裁判官はそれぞれの席に着いた。
The judges took their respective seats.
Intermediate Page 439
Adverb
| Without having much temporal or physical distance. | At once; soon; right away; immediately; readily; instantly; easily; right |
| 【Related Expression: もうすぐ】 | |
(ksa). 家に帰ったらすぐ、寝てしまいました。
I went to sleep as soon as I got home.
(ksb). 銀行は駅のすぐ前です。
The bank is right in front of the station.
(a). 部長は会社に着くとすぐ、仕事を始めた。
The departmental head started to work as soon as he arrived at the company.
(b). 日本に来たらすぐ、電話して下さい。
Please call me as soon as you come to Japan.
(c). 話したいから、すぐ来て下さい。
I want to talk with you, so please come right away.
(d). 安いテレビを買ったらすぐ、壊れてしまいました。
I bought a cheap TV and it broke right away.
(e). あの人はすぐ怒るから、嫌いだ。
He easily gets angry so I don't like him.
(f). その数学の問題はすぐ解けた。
I could solve that math problem easily.
(g). 私の家はすぐそこです。
My house is right there.
(h). 郵便局はスーパーのすぐ隣です。
The post-office is right next to the supermarket.
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Conjunction
| A conjunction to express that each time someone/something does something, something else takes place. | Every time; each time; on every occasion; whenever |
| 【Related Expression: いつ(で)も; といつ(で)も; 時(に)は】 | |
(ksa). 日本へ行くたびに新しいことを学んで帰ります。
Each time I go to Japan I come home having learned something new.
(ksb). 父は旅行のたびにお土産を買ってきてくれる。
On every trip my father comes back with souvenirs.
| (i)Vinformal nonpast | たびに |
| 食べるたびに | Each time someone eats something |
| 勉強するたびに | Each time someone studies (something) |
| (ii)Noun | のたびに |
| 試験のたびに | On every examination occasion |
| (iii)VN | のたびに |
| 勉強のたびに | On every occasion of study |
(a). あの人と話すたびに心が和みます。
Each time I talk with her my heart softens.
(b). この本は読むたびに新しい発見がある。
Each time I read this book I make new findings.
(c). 僕は東京に行くたびに恩師のお宅を訪ねることにしている。
I make it a point of visiting my professor's residence every time I go to Tokyo.
(d). 私の孫は会うたびに前より大きくなっている。
My grandson is growing bigger than before each time I see him.
(e). モーツアルトの音楽を聞くたびに人生が豊かになった気がする。
Each time I listen to Mozart's music I feel my life is enriched.
(f). 誕生日のたびに夫は薔薇の花を買ってくれます。
On every birthday my husband buys me roses.
(g). うちでは給料日のたびに銀座のレストランで食事をします。
Our family eats at a restaurant in Ginza every payday.
Intermediate Page 445
Adverb
| An adverb which emphasizes the idea of "only". | Only; just; simply; that's all |
| 【Related Expression: たった】 | |
(ksa). 彼のただ一つの欠点は時間にルーズだということだ。
His only (one) defect is that he is not punctual (literally: he is slack about time).
(ksb). 彼女はただの一度も手紙をくれなかった。
She didn't write me even once (literally: only once).
(ksc). 彼はただ弁護士だけが頼りだ。
He has no one else to rely on but his lawyer.
(ksd). 彼女とはただお茶を飲んで話をした(という)だけだ。
I just talked with her over a cup of tea; that's all.
| (i)ただ | One+Counter (のNoun) |
| ただ一人の息子 | The only son |
| ただ一発で | With only one shot |
| (ii)ただ | One+CounterもVerbal(negative) |
| ただ一日も休んだことがない | Have not taken even one day off |
| (iii)ただ | Nounだけ(Particle) |
| Nounだけ(Particle)単語だけ(を)覚える | Remember only words |
| Nounだけ(Particle)力だけで解決する | Solve something only with force |
| (iv)ただ | Verbal(という)だけ(だ) |
| ただ読んだ(という)だけ(だ) | Someone just read it; that’s all |
| ただ安い(という)だけ(だ) | Something is just cheap; that’s all |
| ただ{静かな/静かだという}だけ(だ) | Something is just quiet; that’s all |
| ただ大学教授(だ)(という)だけ(だ) | Someone is just a college professor; that’s all |
(a). 彼はただ一人でやってきた。
He came over alone.
(b). 私達が困っていた時、助けてくれた者はただの一人もいなかった。
Not a single person helped us when we were in trouble.
(c). ただ それだけのことで彼を首にしたんでか。
Did you fire him only for that reason?
(d). ただ言われたことだけをやっていても進歩はない。
There will be no progress if you do only what you are told to do.
(e). 私はただ頼まれたことをしているだけだ。
I am just doing what I was asked to do; that's all.
(f). あの男はただ真面目だというだけだ。
He is just serious; he has no other merit.
(g). 別に大した意味はないんですが、ただちょっと聞いてみたかったんです。
It doesn't have any special meaning, but I just wanted to ask.
(h). ただ 人の言うことを鵜呑みにしていては面白い発想は生まれない。
If you simply swallow what other people say, you won't come up with any interesting ideas.
Intermediate Page 449
Phrase
| Not deserving to be mentioned. | Usual; ordinary; plain; common; rank and file |
| 【Related Expression: 普通の; に過ぎない】 | |
(ks). 私はただの平社員ですから、そんなことは知りません。
I'm only an ordinary employee, so I'm not aware of that.
| ただの | Noun |
| ただの先生 | An ordinary teacher |
(a). ただの風邪だと思っていたら、肺炎だった。
I thought it was an ordinary cold, but it was pneumonia.
(b). あの人はただの学者ではないようですね。
He doesn't appear to be an ordinary scholar, does he?
(c). ただの集まりだと思って、顔を出したら、偉い人達が出席していたのでびっくりした。
I put in an appearance because I thought it was an ordinary gathering, but to my surprise there were big shots attending.
(d). A: お父様はお偉い方だったそうですね。B: いいえ、とんでもありません。ただの大学教師でした。
A: I heard that your father was a great man. B: No, not at all. He was an ordinary college professor.
(e). ただの冗談ですよ。
I'm just kidding, you know.
Intermediate Page 450
Structure
| A structure which expresses the idea "indeed~ but". | Indeed~ but; certainly~ but; truly~ but; it is true that~ but; I admit that~ but; definitely~ but |
| 【Related Expression: ことは~が】 | |
(ks). この車は確かに魅力的だが、値段が高すぎる。
This car is certainly attractive, but the price is too high.
(a). そのパーティーのことは確かに聞いたが、いつだったか思い出せない。
I certainly heard about the party, but I don't remember when it is going to be.
(b). 確かに約束はしたが、今すぐとは言わなかった。
It's true that I promised (to do it), but I didn't say that I would do it right now.
(c). 彼は確かに第一印象がよくないが、本当はいい男なんだよ。
He definitely makes a bad first impression, but actually he is a nice man.
(d). この学校は確かにいい学校だが、僕には向いていない。
I admit that this is a good school, but it's not suitable for me.
(e). 確かに僕が悪かったが、そんなに怒ることはないだろう。
I admit that it was my fault (literally: I was bad.), but you shouldn't be that mad.
(f). 確かに多くの日本人が海外へ出かけるようになった。海外国語を上手に話す人も沢山いる。しかし、本当の国際人と呼べる人はまだ少ない。
It is true that many Japanese go abroad now. There are also many who speak other languages (literally: foreign languages) well. However, there are still few who can be called "true internationalists".
Intermediate Page 452
Conjunction
| Even if an action or a state were realised. | Even if |
| 【Related Expression: ても】 | |
(ks). どんなに低く見積もったところで、工費は五億円を超えるだろう。
No matter how low we estimate the construction expense it will go beyond 500 million yen.
| Vinformal past | ところで |
| 読んだところで | Even if someone read something |
| 飲んだところで | Even if someone drank something |
(a). この薬を飲んだところで、風邪がすぐ治るわけじゃない。
Even if you took this medicine, it would not be the case that your cold would be cured right away.
(b). この本を読んだところで、日本の経済の全体は分からないだろう。
Even if you read this book, you wouldn't understand the entire economy of Japan.
(c). 一週間に一度ぐらい運動したところで、あまり効果はないでしょう。
Even if you exercise once a week, it won't be very effective.
(d). どんなに頑張ったところで、この科目では優が取れるはずがない。
No matter how much I worked, it would be impossible to get an A in this course.
(e). 休みに天気が良くなったところで、どこかへ出かける当てもない。
Even if the weather gets better on the holiday, there is no particular place to go.
(f). 日本語が話せたところで、日本へ行く金もないので、何にもならない。
Even if I were able to speak Japanese, it wouldn't amount to anything, because I cannot afford to go to Japan.
(g). これ以上話し合ったところで、恐らく無駄でしょう。
Even if we discussed it more, it would probably be futile.
(h). 問題が起こったところで、君には迷惑はかからない。
Even if a problem arises, it will not cause you any trouble.
Intermediate Page 455
て Form
| After/since a point in time at which something takes place. | And; since; having done something |
| 【Related Expression: てから】 | |
(ks). こちらにいらっしゃってもう何年になりますか。
How long have you been here/ how many years it is since you came here?
| Vて | Duration |
| 来て二年 | It has been two years since someone came |
(a). 二人は結婚して二年後に離婚した。
The couple got married and two years later they got divorced.
(b). 会社を辞めてもう久しい。
It has been a long time since I quit the company.
(c). この島を訪れてもう何年になるだろうか。
I wonder how many years have already passed since I last visited this island.
(d). この会社で働き始めてこれで四年になります。
It's been four years since I began to work at this company.
(e). この町に来てまだ一週間目です。
It's my first week in this town.
Intermediate Page 456
Phrase
| A phrase which expresses the idea that someone does something or something happens only after something else happens or something else is done. | Not until; only after; for the first time |
(ks). アメリカへ来て初めて竜巻を見た。
It was not until I came to America that I saw a tornado.
| Vて | 初めて |
| 読んで初めて | Only after you read |
(a). 日本で生活して初めて日本人のものの考え方が分かってきた。
It was not until I lived in Japan that I started to understand how Japanese people think.
(b). 日本語を勉強して初めて外国語を学ぶ面白さを知った。
I didn't realise how interesting learning a foreign language was until I studied Japanese.
(c). 考えは文字にしてみて初めてはっきりすることが多い。
It is often not until you write down your idea that it becomes clear.
(d). 病気になって初めて健康の有り難さが分かる。
It is only after you become ill that you realise the value of health.
(e). 生まれて初めて刺身を食べた。
I ate sashimi for the first time in my life.
Intermediate Page 458
Noun
| A noun which expresses the idea of "a point of argument; a point of evaluation; a point of view". | Point; respect; regard; aspect; way; in terms of; -wise; in that; as far as~ is concerned |
| 【Related Expression: 面】 | |
(ksa). 彼はそういう点でまだ大人とは言えない。
He is not (literally: cannot be called) an adult in that respect.
(ksb). 使いやすさの点ではこの辞書はネルソンの漢英辞典に及ばない。
This dictionary is no match for Nelson's Japanese-English Character Dictionary in terms of ease of use.
(ksc). 通勤の便利さという点では今のアパートは最高だ。
In terms of commuting convenience, the present apartment is the best.
(ksd). このテーブルは手作りである(という)点で値打ちがある。
This table is valuable in that it is handmade.
| (i){Demonstrative/Quantifier} | 点(で) |
| この点で | In this regard |
| 二、三の点で | On a couple of points |
| (ii){Noun/Adjective(い/な)stem/さ}の | 点(で) |
| 値段の点で | In terms of price |
| 大きさの点で | In terms of size |
| 静かさの点で | In terms of quietness |
| (iii)NounのAdjective(い/な)stemさという | 点(で) |
| 頭のよさという点で | In terms of brightness |
| 体の柔軟さという点で | In terms of body flexibility |
| (iv)Sinformalという | 点(で) |
| 性能かいいという | In that the performance is good |
(a). 我々が社の製品は全ての点で国外の類似製品より優れている。
Our product is superior to similar foreign products in every way.
(b). 学力の点ではこの学生が一番だろう。
With regard to scholarship, this student is probably the best.
(c). 住みやすさの点では私はこの町の方が前に住んだ町より気に入っている。
In terms of liveability I like this city better than the one where I lived before (this one).
(d). 時間の正確さという点では日本の鉄道は世界一でしょう。
In terms of punctuality the railway systems in Japan are probably the best in the world.
(e). イルカは言葉を話すという点で他の多くの水生動物より高等であると言える。
Dolphins can be said to be superior to other aquatic animals in that they speak (language).
(f). 彼女と私はクラスック音楽が好きだという点で趣味が一致している。
She and I share the same taste in that both of us like classical music.
(g). スミス氏は時代を先取り出来るという点で社長に適任だ。
Mr. Smith is the right person for president in that he can anticipate the trends of the times.
Intermediate Page 461
Conjunction
| A conjunction which presents an action/state as a topic about which a negative comment is given. | If; when; because |
(ksa). そんなに勉強しては、体を壊しますよ。
If you study that hard, you will ruin your health.
(ksb). こんなに寒くては外出できません。
We cannot go out in this cold weather (literally: when it is this cold).
(ksc). 仕事がそんなに嫌いでは困りますね。
It's too bad that you hate your work that much.
| (i)Verb | ては |
| 食べては | When/if one eats; to eat |
| (ii)Adjective(い/な) | ては |
| 大きくては | When/if something/someone is big |
| 不便では | When/if something is inconvenient |
| (iii)Noun | では |
| 病気では(頼めない) | If someone is ill (I can’t ask him to do something) |
| あの先生では(話にならない) | That teacher (would be out of the question) |
(a). そんなに遊んでいては、試験に失敗しますよ。
If you are fooling around like that, you will fail the examination.
(b). あの男が来ては邪魔になる。
If he comes he will get in our way.
(c). こんなに働かされては、病気になってしまうよ。
If I'm forced to work like this, I will end up by becoming ill.
(d). こんなに部屋が汚くては、お客さんが見えた時に恥ずかしい。
Because the room is messy like this, I feel ashamed when I have a guest.
(e). 人が皆個人主義的では、国はやっていけない。
If everybody is individualistic, a country cannot get along well.
(f). こんなに忙しくては、新聞も読めない。
When one is this busy, one cannot read even the newspaper.
(g). あんな女性がデートの相手では、彼は小さくなっているだろう。
If a woman like her is his date, he must feel intimidated.
Intermediate Page 464
Particle
| A particle which makes an adverbial clause, with a verb of saying/thinking/understood after it. | (thinking/saying) that~; because; like; in such a way that~ |
(ksa). 幸夫は来年は家が買えると大変喜んでいる。
Yukio is very happy that he can buy a house next year.
(ksb). 博物館は開いているかなと、電話してみた。
(internal monologue): Wondering if the museum is open I called them.
(ksc). テニスをしょうと出かけたら、途中で雨が降ってきた。
With the intention of playing tennis (literally: Thinking that I will play tennis) I went out, but on my way it started to rain.
(ksd). 父はまだ元気なようだと安心していたが、最近急に弱ってきた。
I felt at ease, thinking that my father still looked healthy, but suddenly he began to grow weak.
(kse). 外国語の能力は単語から文、文から段落、そして段落から複段落と、伸びていく。
Foreign language proficiency develops from words to sentences, from sentences to paragraphs, and then from paragraphs to complex paragraphs.
| (i){V/Adjective(い/な)}informal | と(思って/言って) | Verb of psychology |
| 読めると(思って/言って)嬉しがっている | Someone is happy thinking/saying that s/he can read it | |
| 面白いと(思って/言って)喜んでいる | Someone is happy thinking/saying that something is interesting | |
| 便利だと(思って/言って)嬉しがっている | Someone is happy thinking/saying that something is convenient | |
| (ii)Sentence (internal monologue) | と(思って) | |
| もう会うまいと、縁を切った | Thinking that someone would not see someone else, he severed the relationship | |
| 映画でも見に行こうかなと、出かけた | Wondering if I should go see a movie I left home | |
| (iii)Vvolitional | と(思って/して) | |
| 食べようと(思って/して) | Thinking that s/he would eat it | |
| (iv){V/Adjective(い/な)}informal (conjectural) | と(思って) | |
| 来ないだろうと(思って) | Thinking that s/he might not come | |
| うまらないかもしれないと(思って) | Thinking that something might be boring | |
| 元気だろうと(思って) | Thinking that someone might be healthy | |
| (v)NounParticle Noun, …NounParticle Noun | (そして)NounParticleと(いう{よう/風)に)Verb | |
| 男は二階、と(いう{よう/風)に)女は一階部屋を分かる | Someone divides the rooms in such a way that men are palced upstairs and women in the first floor |
(a). 友達は長い間飼っていた猫が死んでしまったと、悲しがっていた。
My friend looked sad, saying that a cat, which she kept for a long time, had died.
(b). 彼は癌になったかもしれないと心配している。
He is worried that he may have cancer.
(c). その学生はもうちょっとで百点が取れたのにと、悔しがった。
That student felt chagrined that he could almost get 100 points.
(d). 彼女と会うのもこれが最後かと、寂しかったのです。
Thinking that this would be the last time to see her, I felt lonely.
(e). 変な音がしたなと、外に出てみたが、何でもなかった。
Wondering what the strange noise was, I went outside, but it was nothing.
(f). 僕は今晩は酒を飲むまいと、まっすぐ家に帰った。
I came straight home, thinking that I would not drink tonight.
(g). 年内に論文を仕上げようと、懸命に努力しているところです。
Thinking that I should complete the paper before the end of the year, I am right now doing my very best.
(h). 彼にお礼を言おうとやって来たのに、ほかのことばかり話して、お礼を言うのを忘れてしまった。
I came here intending to thank him, but I just talked about something else, and forgot to thank him.
(i). 少しは体にいいだろうと、最近は散歩をしています。
I thought it would make a small improvement to my body, so I am taking walks these days.
(j). 宿題を忘れたので先生に叱られるかもしれないと、ビクビクしていた。
I forgot my homework so I feared that I might be scolded by my teacher.
(k). 日本の四季は、春は三月から五月、夏は六月から八月、秋は九月から十一月、冬は十二月から二月までと、どの季節もほぼ同じ長さになっている。
In Japan the four seasons are of approximately equal length, in such a way that spring is from March through May, summer from June through August, autumn from September through November, and winter from December through February.
Intermediate Page 471
Compound Particle/Conjunction
| A phrase which is used to express the idea that someone does something or something takes place at the same time as another action or event, or that someone or something is in two states simultaneously. | At the same time (as); at the time; when; as; while as well as~ |
| 【Related Expression: と共に; 途端(に)】 | |
(ksa). 彼は大学卒業と同時に銀行に就職した。
He got a job at a bank at the time of (literally: at the same time as) his graduation from college.
(ksb). 部屋に入ると同時に電話が鳴った。
The telephone rang (literally: at the same time) as I entered the room.
(ksc). 彼はこの会社の社長であると同時に大株主でもある。
He is the president of this company and, at the same time, a big stockholder.
| (i)Noun | と同時に |
| 到着と同時に | At the same time as someone’s arrival |
| (ii)Vinformal nonpast | と同時に |
| 着くと同時に | At the same time as someone arrives |
| (iii){Adjective な stem/Noun}である | と同時に{Adjective な stem/Noun}である |
| 便利であると同時に経済的である | Something is economical as well as convenient |
| フットボールの選手であると同時に野球の選手である | Someone is a baseball player as well as a football player |
(a). 彼女は結婚と同時に会社を辞めた。
She quit her company at the time of (literally: at the same time as) her marriage.
(b). 銃声と同時に警官の一人が倒れた。
We heard the shot and saw one of the policemen fall. (literally: One of the policemen fell at the same time as the sound of a gun.)
(c). 新しい単語の学習と同時に文法の復習も忘れてはならない。
You mustn't forget grammar review as well as new vocabulary study.
(d). 私はルースと同時に日本語の勉強を始めた。
I started my Japanese study when (literally: at the same time as) Ruth did.
(e). 電車が止まってドアが開くと同時に客がなだれ込んだ。
The train came to a halt and as the doors opened the passengers rushed into the train (literally: the passengers rushed into the train at the same time as the doors opened).
(f). 新社長は就任すると同時に社名を変更した。
The new president changed the company's name when (literally: at the same time as) he assumed the presidency.
(g). 外国語を勉強する時は、文法を理解すると同時に文型の口頭練習もしなければならない。
When you study a foreign language, while you learn (literally: understand) grammar, you must also practice sentence patterns orally.
(h). この新しい装置は安全であると同時に効率がいい。
This new equipment is safe and, at the same time, its performance is good.
(i). 森鷗外は医者であると同時に小説家でもあった。
Mori Ogai was a novelist as well as a doctor.
Intermediate Page 474
Phrase
| A phrase which is used to clarify a statement in the preceding discourse which might be misleading. | Although~ say/said that~; even though~ say/said that~ |
(ksa). 私には子供がいます。子供と言ってももう大学生ですが。
I have a child. Well, although I said, "child," he is already a college student (literally: he is already a college student, though).
(ksb). Ａ：毎日お忙しいんでしょうね。Ｂ：いえ、忙しいと言っても週末は休んでいますから。
A: You are busy every day, aren't you? B: No, although people may say that I'm busy, I do not work on weekends, so . . .
| (i)Noun | と言っても |
| 先生と言っても | Although (I) say, “teacher” |
| (ii){V/Adjective(い/な)/Noun+Copula}informal | と言っても |
| {行く/行った}と言っても | Although (I) say that someone {will go/went} |
| {安い/安かった}と言っても | Although (I) say that it is/was cheap |
| {静か/静かだった}と言っても | Although (I) say that it is/was quiet |
| {病気だ/病気だった}と言っても | Although (I) say that someone is/was ill |
(a). もう三月だ。しかし、三月と言ってもこの辺はまだ寒い。
It's already March. But even though I say, "March," it is still cold around here.
(b). 山崎先生はまだお若いです。勿論、若いと言っても五十代ですが。
Professor Yamazaki is still young. Of course, even though I said, "young," he is in his fifties (literally: he is in his fifties, though)
(c). 仕事が見つかりました。と言ってもパートなんですが。
I've found a job. Well, although I said, "job", it is part-time (literally: it is a part-time job, though).
(d). A: 韓国語をご存じなんでしょう？B:いや、知っていると言っても二年勉強しただけですから大したことはありません。
A: You know Korean, right? B: No, even though people say that I know it, my knowledge is limited because I studied it only two years.
(e). A：辻村さんが手伝ってくれるそうですよ。B: でも、手伝ってれると言ってもせいぜい二、三時間でしょう。
A: I heard that Mr. Tsujimura will help us. B: But, even though he says that he will help us, it will probably be for a couple of hours at most.
(f). A: あの子は強いですよ。B: いや、強いと言ってもたかが小学生ですよ。
A: That boy is strong, you know. B: Well, even though you say he is strong, he is only an elementary school kid.
Intermediate Page 478
Phrase
| A phrase which expresses a manner or a way in which someone does something. | In such a way that; in such a fashion to suggest/show (etc.) that; as if to say/show (etc.) that |
| 【Related Expression: と言うように】 | |
(ksa). 彼はどうしようもないという風に首を振った。
He shook his head as if to say that there was no way out.
(ksb). 私は河村さんは来られないという風に聞いている。
I have been informed that Mr. Kawamura cannot come. (literally: I have been informed in such a way that I understand that Mr. Kawamura cannot come.)
(ksc). 浩司は鰻、友子は天ぷら、という風にめいめいが自分の好きなものを注文した。
Each of them ordered the (different) things they liked- Hiroshi, eel, Tomoko, tempura, and so on.
| (i)Sinformal | という風に |
| 困ったという風に頭を抱えた | Someone held his head in such a fashion as to suggest that he didn’t know what to do |
| (ii)XはA; YはB | という風に |
| 月曜日はピアノ、という風に火曜日はダンス良子は毎日レッスンがある | Yoshiko has a lesson every day –piano on Monday, dance on Tuesday, and so on |
(a). 彼はもう我慢が出来ないという風に荒々しく立ち上がった。
He stood up in a violent manner showing that he could no longer bear it.
(b). 彼女はもうこれ以上聞きたくないという風に両手で耳を被った。
She covered her ears as if to say that she didn't want to listen to it any more.
(c). 社長には、特に問題はなかったという風に言っておいて下さい。
Please tell the president that (literally: tell it to the president in such a way to convey that) there were no particular problems with it.
(d). この物語は今の社会を風刺しているという風には考えられませんか。
Can't we think that (literally: think in such a way that) this story mocks contemporary society?
(e). そういうことは規則に反するから出来ないという風に説明しておいけばいい。
You can explain that (literally: explain it in a way to mean that) we cannot do things like that because they are against the rules.
(f). 去年はボストン、今年はニューヨークという風に、この協会の大会は毎年東部の大都市で開かれている。
This association's convention is held in a big city on the East Coast every year: last year Boston; this year New York; and so on.
(g). ジョンはケートと、マイクはシンディーと、という風にみんながパートナーを見つけてペアになった。
Everybody found a partner and paired up- John with Kate, Mike with Cindy, and so on.
Intermediate Page 480
Phrase
| A phrase which changes a sentence into a topic noun clause. | That; the fact that |
| 【Related Expression: こと】 | |
(ksa). 彼がこの集まりに来ないということは考えられない。
It is unthinkable that he won't come to this meeting.
(ksb). 手紙が戻って来たということは彼女はもうこの住所にはいないということだ。
The fact that the letter came back means that she no longer lives at this address.
(ksc). 彼が真面目に日本語を勉強していないということは本気で日本で仕事をする気がないのだ。
The fact that he is not studying Japanese seriously means that he is not serious about working in Japan.
| Sinformal | ということは |
| 返事がないということは | The fact that there is no reply |
(a). これだけ丁寧に説明すれば、分からないということはあり得ない。
If we explain it this thoroughly, it is impossible that they won't understand it.
(b). 空がこんなに赤いということは何かよくないことが起こる前兆かもしれない。
This red sky (literally: That the sky is this red) might be an omen that something bad will happen.
(c). 彼が金を貸してくれたということは私は彼に信用されているということだ。
The fact that he lent me money means that I am trusted by him.
(d). 言うことを聞かないということは体罰を与えるしかないということだ。
The fact that he doesn't listen to us means that there is no alternative but to punish him physically.
(e). 私がこれだけ言っても分からないということはどういうことなんでしょう。
What does it mean that he doesn't understand me even though I have talked to him such a lot?
(f). 彼女がパーティーをするということは試験に通ったのだ。
That she is having a party must be because she passed the exam.
(g). 彼が毎日授業に来ているということは勉強を続けることにしたのだろう。
The fact that he is attending the class every day probably means that he has decided to continue studying.
Intermediate Page 484
Conjunction
| A conjunction to indicate that an action/state takes place quite contrary to one's expectation. | But; although; in spite of the fact that~ |
| 【Related Expression: のに】 | |
(ks). 四月だというのに、まだ肌寒い。
It is April, but still chilly (literally: cold on the skin).
| Sinformal | というのに |
| いい天気だというのに | Although it is a fine day |
| 人が来るというのに | Although someone is coming |
| 無駄だというのに | Although it is a waste |
| 危ないというのに | Although it is dangerous |
(a). 明後日はロンドンへ行かなければならないといのに、まだ何も準備していないんですよ。
Although I have to go to London the day after tomorrow, I haven't prepared anything yet, you know.
(b). 彼は母親が危篤だというのに、映画を見に行った。
He went to see a movie in spite of the fact that his mother is in a critical condition.
(c). 年末でとても忙しいというのに、うちの人は一体どこへ行ったのだろう。
It's the end of the year, and we are very busy, but where in the world did my husband go?
(d). 小学四年生だというのに、あの子はもう中学の数学をやっている。
The child is a fourth grader, but he is already studying junior high school math.
(e). 先生がわざわざ本を貸して下さったというのに、読んでいないの？
Your teacher kindly loaned a book to you, but you haven't read it?
(f). 学生は貧乏だというのに、結構いい車を乗り回しているね。
Students are said to be poor, but they are driving around in pretty good cars, aren't they?
Intermediate Page 487
Structure
| A structure which is used to interpreting, explaining, or defining a word, a phrase, or a sentence. | Mean; the meaning of~ is; what~ means is |
| 【Related Expression: と言うことは】 | |
(ksa). パソコンというのはパーソナル・コンピュータのことだ。
Pasokon means personal computer.
(ksb). 過労死というのは働き過ぎがもとで死ぬ(という)ことだ。
Karoushi means to die from overwork.
(ksc). 「足が出る」というのは出費が予定していたより多くなる(という)ことだ。
Ashi ga deru (literally: a foot sticks out) means that an expense exceeds the amount budgeted.
(ksd). 「猿も木から落ちる」というのは上手な人でも時には失敗することがあるということだ。
Saru mo ki kara ochiru (literally: even monkeys fall from trees) means that even a skilful person sometimes makes a mistake.
| (i)Noun/Adjective な stem | というのは | |
| マンションというのは | What manshon means is~ | |
| 独創的というのは | Dokusouteki means~ | |
| (ii){VP/AP/Sentence}informal | というのは | |
| 「首を切る」というのは | What kubi wo kiru (literally to cut one’s head off) means is~ | |
| 「溺れる者はわらをもつかむ」というのは | What oboreru mono wa wara wo mo tukamu (literally a drowning person cluthes even at a straw) means is~ | |
| (iii)のことだ | ||
| 買取のアパートのことだ | ~means an apartment for purchase | |
| (iv)Verb/Adjective | ことだ | The same as the relative clause formation rules |
| (何かをするのが)易しいことだ | ~means ‘easy to do something’ | |
| (何かが)大好きなことだ | ~means ‘to like someone a lot’ | |
| (何かが上手に)なることだ | ~mean ‘to become skilful in something’ | |
| (v){VP/AP/Sentence}informal | ということだ | |
| 細かい所ばかりを見て全体を見ないということだ | ~means that one sees only details and does not see the whole |
(a). マイカーというのは個人が持っている車のことだ。
Maikaa (literally: my car) means a car owned by an individual.
(b). 裏口入学というのは試験を受けないで学校に入ることだ。
Uraguchi-nyuugaku (literally: entering school through the back door) means to enter a school without taking an entrance exam.
(c). 「口が軽い」というのは人に言ってはいけないことをすぐ言ってしまう(という)ことだ。
Kuchi ga karui (literally: one's mouth is light) means easily telling others things one shouldn't.
(d). 「頭を絞る」というのはいいアイディアを出そうとして一生懸命考える(という)ことだ。
Atama wo shiboru (literally: squeeze one's head) means to think hard to get good ideas.
(e). 「猫の額のような」というのは場所がとても狭い(という)ことだ。
Neko no hitai no youna (literally: like a cat's forehead) means that a place is very small (as in a very small yard).
(f). 「花より団子」というのは綺麗なものより食べられる団子の方がいい、外観より実質の方を取るということだ。
Hana yori dango (literally: dumplings rather than blossoms) means that edible dumplings are better than pretty but inedible blossoms; i.e., one should take substance over appearance.
Intermediate Page 492
Phrase
| A phrase which is used when something which someone has mentioned causes an involuntary response. | When~ mention; if~ say that~; when~ say that~; when it comes to |
| 【Related Expression: と言えば】 | |
(ksa). サンフランシスコと言うと、あのケーブルカーを思い出す。
When you mention San Francisco, I remember those cable cars.
(ksb). 日本語を話すと言うと聞こえはいいんですが、実は簡単な挨拶が出来るだけなんです。
It sounds impressive when I say that I can speak Japanese, but the fact is that all I can do is exchange simple greetings.
| (i)Noun | と言うと |
| 長崎と言うと | When it comes to Nagasaki |
| (ii)Sinformal | と言うと |
| 家を買ったと言うと | If I say that I’ve bought a house |
(a). パリと言うと、誰でも真っ先にあのエッフェル塔を思い浮かべるだろう。
When someone mentions Paris, the (literally: that) Eiffel Tower is the first thing likely to come to everyone's mind.
(b). 柔道と言うと、毎日練習した学生時代を思い出す。
When it comes to judo, I remember my school days when I used to practice it every day.
(c). 漫画と言うと馬鹿にする人もあるが、あれはあれで面白いのだ。
Some people ridicule comics (literally: Some people despise you when you mention comics), but comics are interesting in their own way.
(d). 東大卒と言うと偉そうに聞こえるが、私は勉強なんか全然しない劣等生だったんです。
It sounds great when I say that I am a graduate of the University of Tokyo, but I was (in fact) a poor student who didn't study at all.
(e). 会社を辞めたと言うと体裁がいいんですが、彼は本当は辞めさせられたんですよ。
It sounds good when he says that he quit his company, but the truth of the matter is that he was fired (literally: was made to quit).
Intermediate Page 495
Phrase
| A phrase that is used to indicate more accurate characterisation of someone or something. | Rather than; more~ than~ |
(ksa). 今年の夏は涼しいというよりは寒かった。
This summer was cold rather than cool.
(ksb). カーラは臆病というより(は)むしろ用心深い。
Kara is cautious rather than timid.
(ksc). 本田さんは教育者というより(は)むしろ学者に近い。
Mr. Honda is more of a scholar than an educator.
(ksd). あの人は酒を飲むというより(は)むしろ酒に飲まれていると言った方がいい。
One should say that sake drinks him rather than he drinks sake.
| (i)Adjective い informal | というより(は)、(むしろ)Adjective い/な |
| 涼しいというより(は)、(むしろ)寒い | Cold rather than cool |
| (ii)Adjective な stem | というより(は)、(むしろ)Adjective い/な |
| 奇麗というより(は)、(むしろ)可愛い | Cute rather than pretty |
| (iii)Noun | というより(は)、(むしろ)Noun |
| 青いというより(は)、(むしろ)紫 | Purple rather than blue |
| (iv)Vinformal | というより(は)、(むしろ)Verb |
| 食べるというより(は)、(むしろ)飲み込んでいる | Someone is swallowing rather than eating |
(a). 私にはこの音楽は楽しというよりは、むしろ喧しい。
To me this music is noisy rather than enjoyable.
(b). あの人は丁寧というよりは、慇懃無礼だ。
He is politely insolent rather than polite.
(c). 彼の説明は簡潔というよりは、むしろ不十分だと言うべきだ。
We should say that his explanation is insufficient rather than concise.
(d). 父は、父親というよりは、むしろいい友達という感じでした。
I felt that my father was a good friend rather than a father.
(e). 彼は大学教授というよりは、ビジネスマンだ。
He is a businessman rather than a college professor.
(f). 私は教師ですが、教えているというよりは、勉強させてもらっています。
I'm a teacher, but I am learning (literally: I have the privilege of being allowed to study) rather than teaching.
(g). あの母親は子供を愛しているというよりは、むしろ、甘やかしている。
That mother is pampering her child rather than loving him.
(h). 彼と話していると、会話をしているというよりは、一方的に話を聞かされているといった感じだ。
When I talk with him I feel that unilaterally I am forced to listen to his talk rather than being engaged in conversation.
(i). 私が呼んだというより、むしろ彼女の方が押しかけて来たんです。
It's more of a case of her having invited herself than me having invited her.
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Conjunction
| A conjunction that is used to give an uncertain reason for something. | For some reason like~; saying something like~; because~ or something like that |
| 【Related Expression: から; ので】 | |
(ks). 高木さんは大阪に出張するとかでパーティーに来なかった。
Mr. Takagi didn't show up at the party, saying something like he was going to make a business trip to Osaka.
| Sinformal | とかで |
| 日本へ行くとかで | Saying something like someone is going to Japan |
| 学校がつまらないとかで | Saying something like the school is boring |
(a). 友人の竹田は大学の授業が面白くないとかで大学を辞めてしまった。
My friend Takeda quit college, saying something like the college classes weren't interesting.
(b). ミリアムは日米関係に興味があるとかで、大学で国際関係論を専攻した。
Miriam majored in international relations saying something like she was interested in Japan-US relations.
(c). エンジンに故障があったとかで、飛行機の出発が五時間も遅れた。
The flight departure was five hours late for some reason like there was engine trouble.
(d). 受講生が少なかったとかで、四年生の日本語のクラスは取りやめになった。
The 4th-year Japanese class has been cancelled for some reason like the enrolment was low.
(e). 田村は殺人現場に居合わせたとかで、警察に逮捕された。
Tamura was arrested by the police allegedly because he happened to be at the scene of the murder or something like that.
Intermediate Page 500
Noun (used in writing and formal speech only)
| A dependent noun which is used to express the idea that when someone did something, something took place as the result. | When; then |
| 【Related Expression: たら】 | |
(ks). 先生に相談したところ、ぜひ大学院に行くよう進められた。
When I consulted with my teacher, he strongly advised me to go to graduate school.
| Vinformal past | ところ |
| 使ったところ | When someone used (it) |
(a). 部長に頼んでみたところ、喜んで引き受けてくれた。
When I asked my boss (literally: department chief), he was glad to do it.
(b). 友達に話したところ、しばらく考えさせて欲しいと言った。
When I told one of my friends (about that), he said he would like to think (literally: would like me to let him think) (about it) for a while.
(c). これまでに書いた論文を本にしたとろこ、意外によく売れた。
When I published a book of the papers that I had written (literally: till this time), it sold unexpectedly well.
(d). 人に勧められてヨガを始めたところ、非常に効果があることが分かった。
I started yoga because someone recommended it; then, I realised it had a great effect.
(e). 冗談のつもりで言ったところ、思わぬ結果になって驚いている。
I'm surprised that what I said as a joke had unexpected consequences' (literally: that when I said it as a joke, it brought about an unexpected result).
(f). その仕事に興味のある旨、手紙を出したところ、すぐに面接をしたいとの返事があった。
When I wrote to them saying that I was interested in the job, I got a letter immediately saying they wanted to interview me.
Intermediate Page 503
Conjunction
| A conjunction which is used to present what in fact happened or what is in fact the case when something else was/is expected. | However; but |
| 【Related Expression: だが; けれど(も); しかし; それが】 | |
(ksa). 日本式の部屋に泊まりたいと思って旅館を予約した。ところが、通された部屋は洋式だった。
I wanted to stay in a Japanese-style room and made a reservation at an inn. However, the room I was shown to was a Western-style one.
(ksb). Ａ：彼女にプロポーズしたんだろう？どうだった？Ｂ：ところが、駄目だったんだ。
A: You proposed to her, right? What happened? B: It didn't work out. (literally: It was no good.)
(a). 私の娘はアメリカにいる時綺麗な英語を話していた。ところが、日本へ帰って一年もたたないうちにきれいに忘れてしまった。
My daughter was speaking beautiful English when she was in America. However, she forgot it completely within a year (literally: even before one year elapsed) after we came back to Japan.
(b). 日本から来た有名な先生の講演があるというので行ってみた。ところが、その先生は英語が下手で何を言っているのか全然分からなかった。
Because I heard that there was going to be a lecture by a famous professor from Japan, I went (to listen to it). However, his English was so bad that I didn't understand what he was saying at all.
(c). 先生は私達に遅刻してはいけないと何度も言った。ところが、次の日、時間通りに行ってみると先生はまだ来ていなかった。
Our teacher repeatedly told us that we mustn't be late for his class. However, when I went to his class on time the next day, he was not yet there.
(d). アメリカへ来ればいくらでも仕事はあると言われた。ところが、来てみるとアメリカは不況でどこにも仕事はなかった。
I was told that if I came to America, there would be a lot of jobs. However, when I came, there were no jobs anywhere because of the depression.
(e). アメリカでは鋸は押して切る。ところが、日本では引いて切る。
In America you push a saw in order to cut; however, in Japan you pull one to cut.
(f). A: 今晩のパーティー、君も来てくれるね。B: ところが、あいにく行けないの。
A: [male speech] You can come to tonight's party, too, can't you? B: [female speech] No, I'm afraid I can't.
(g). A: 彼女は結婚しているんでしょう？B:そう見えるでしょう？ところが、まだ独身なんですって。
A: [female or polite male speech] (She is married, isn't she? B: [female speech] She looks like it, doesn't she? But I heard that she's still single.
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Conjunction (used in writing and formal speech only)
| A conjunction in written Japanese that is used to express a concession. | No matter~ may be; even if; at~ -est |
| 【Related Expression: ても; たって】 | |
(ksa). よく勉強したから、試験にどんな問題が出ようとも大丈夫だ。
Since I studied hard I feel confident no matter what problem shows up on the test.
(ksb). いかに家事が忙しく・かろうとも母は文句一つ言わなかった。
No matter how busy she was with housekeeping, my mother never uttered a single complaint.
(ksc). どんなに健康であろうとも、一年に一回は健康診断を受けるべきだ。
No matter how healthy you are, you should have a check-up once a year.
(ksd). このプロジェクトは遅くとも来年の四月には完了するだろう。
At the latest, this project will be complete in April of next year.
| (i)Wh-word+Vvol | とも |
| どこへ行こうとも | No matter where someone may go |
| 何を食べようとも | No matter what someone may eat |
| 何があるうとも | No matter what may happen |
| (ii)Wh-word+Adjective い stem | {く/かろう}とも |
| {いかに/どんなに}難し{く/かろう}とも | No matter how difficult something may be |
| (iii)Wh-word+Adjective な stem | であろうとも |
| {いかに/どんなに}好きであろうとも | No matter how much someone likes something |
| (iv)Adjective い stem | くとも |
| 早くとも | At the earliest |
(a). 父は何が起きようともいつも平然としている。
My father is always very calm no matter what is impending.
(b). 私は世界のどこに住もうとも一向に構わない。
I do not care at all where in the world I live.
(c). 万一失敗しようとも、簡単に諦めてはいけない。
Even if by any chance you fail you shouldn't give up easily.
(d). いかに頭がよ{く/かろう}とも、努力しなければいい仕事は出来ない。
No matter how bright you may be, you cannot do a good job unless you make an effort.
(e). どんなに品物が安{く/かろう}とも、質が悪ければ金を捨てることになる。
No matter how cheap merchandise may be, if the quality is poor, you will end up throwing away money.
(f). 金が十分な{く/かろう}とも、生活を楽しむことは出来るはずだ。
Even without enough money we should be able to enjoy life.
(g). どんなに運動が好きであろうとも、運動のやり過ぎはかえって悪い。
No matter how much one may like exercise, too much of it is bad.
(h). この手紙はあなたがいくら読みたくとも読ませるわけにはいかない。
I cannot let you read this letter, no matter how much you want to read it.
(i). 僕は少なくとも、一年に三回は海外出張をしています。
I make business trips abroad at least three times a year.
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Phrase (used in writing and formal speech only)
| A phrase which expresses the idea that someone or something becomes something. | Become |
(ks). 吉田さんが初代の委員長となった。
Mr. Yoshida has become the first committee chairman.
| Noun | となる |
| 必修科目となる | Become a compulsory subject |
(a). その土地は結局国の所有物となった。
That land eventually become state property.
(b). 戦後義務教育は九年間となった。
After the war, (the period of) compulsory education was changed to (literally: became) nine years.
(c). 彼らの結婚は悲劇的な結果となった。
Their marriage ended in tragedy (literally: became a tragic result).
(d). 彼は証拠不十分で無罪となった。
For lack of evidence, he was found (literally: became) innocent.
(e). その試合は雨のため中止となった。
The game was cancelled (literally: became a cancellation) due to rain.
Intermediate Page 512
Phrase
| A phrase which expresses the idea "when it comes to" or "if it is true that". | When it comes to; if it is true that~; if it is the case that~; if it turns out that~ |
| 【Related Expression: とすると】 | |
(ksa). 私は機械のこととなると何も分からない。
When it comes to mechanical things, I don't understand anything.
(ksb). 彼が手伝ってくれないとなると誰かほかの人を頼むしかない。
If it's true that he is not going to help us, we'll have no alternative but to ask someone else.
| (i)Noun | となると | |
| 映画となると | When it comes to movies | |
| (ii)Sinformal | となると | Exception: XがNounとなると |
| 彼が来るとなると | If it is true that he is coming | |
| 彼女が病気となると | If it is the case that she is ill |
(a). 勉はギャンブルとなると人が変わってしまう。
When it comes to gambling, Tsutomu becomes another person.
(b). 日本語が出来る科学者となると数がかなり限られてくる。
When it comes to scientists who can speak Japanese, the number is quite limited.
(c). 何でも仕事となると楽なものはない。
Nothing is easy (literally: There is nothing easy) when it comes to work.
(d). 彼が参加できないとなるとこのプロジェクトは考え直さなければならない。
If it turns out that he cannot participate (in this project), we'll have to reconsider it.
(e). 秘密が漏れたとなるとこの計画は変更しなければならない。
If it is true that the secret (of this plan) has leaked, we must change it.
(f). 彼が新しい社長になるとなると経営方針がかなり変わるだろう。
If he turns out to be the new president, the management policy will probably be considerably different.
(g). この仕事は簡単そうに見えるが、一人でするとなると結構大変だ。
This job looks easy, but if (it is the case that) you do it by yourself, it will be quite tough.
Intermediate Page 514
Noun
| A dependent noun which expresses the idea that someone does something or something takes place in the same way as something else. | (in) the same way as; (in) the way; as |
| 【Related Expression: ように】 | |
(ksa). 説明書の通り(に)やったが、うまくいかなかった。
I did it as the manual shows (literally: in the same way as the manual), but it didn't work.
(ksb). 私の言う通り(に)体を動かして下さい。
Please move your body as I tell you to (literally: in the same way as I tell you).
(ksc). 思った通り彼が一番先に来ていた。
As I expected (literally: thought), he was the first to come.
(ksd). 結果はやはり予想した通りだった。
The result was just as I expected, after all.
| (i)Noun | の通り(に) | |
| 計画の通り(に) | The same way as the plan | |
| (ii)Vinformal | 通り(に) | |
| 見た通り(に) | The way someone saw something | |
| (iii)Demonstrative Adjective | 通り(に) | |
| この通り(に) | The same way as this; this way |
(a). この地図の通り(に)行けば間違いなく行けます。
If you go as this map shows (literally: in the same way as this map), you can get there without fail.
(b). 私はただ言われた通り(に)やっているだけです。
I'm just doing as I'm told (literally: in the way I'm told).
(c). ここに書いてある通り(に)すれば誰にでも出来ます。
If you follow what is (literally: do it in the way) written here, anyone can do it.
(d). 予想した通り誰も宿題をやってこなかった。
As I expected, no one did their homework.
(e). 心配していた通りペンキが足りなくなった。
As I feared, I ran out of paint.
(f). 内容はこの間説明した通りです。
The content is the same as I explained to you the other day.
(g). これは私が考えていた通りのデザインです。
This is the same design as the one I have thought about.
(h). A：これは何語か分かりますか。B: アラビア語です。A: はい、その通りです。
A: Do you know what language this is? B: It's Arabic. A: That's right (literally: the same as you said).
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Phrase
| A phrase indicating that someone assumes something. | Assume that; regard~ as; let; suppose |
| 【Related Expression: にする; となると】 | |
(ksa). 温度は一定(だ)とする。
We assume that the temperature is constant.
(ksb). 一日に五百マイル運転できるとすれば・すると、何日で着きますか。
Assuming that we can drive 500 miles a day, how many days will it take to get there?
(ksc). 温暖化現象がこのまま続いたとしよう。
Suppose the greenhouse effect continued on like this.
| (i)Noun1 は Noun2 | (だ)とする |
| 一ドルは百三十円(だ)とする | We assume that one dollar is 130 yen |
| (ii)Sinformal nonpast | とする |
| 山田さんが来られないとする(ちょっと困る) | If we assume that Mr. Yamada cannot come, (we are at a bit of a loss) |
| 日本へ行くとすれば(いつ行ったらいいだろう) | Assuming that we go to Japan, (I wonder what would be the best time) |
| (iii)Sinformal past | とする |
| 百万円もらったとしよう | Suppose you received ￥1,000,000 |
| あと百日の命だと言われたとする | Let’s suppose that you were told you only had 100 days left to live |
(a). 今、空気抵抗は無視出来るものとする。
Now let's assume that we can ignore air resistance.
(b). 男性の女性に対するこのような行為は性的いやがらせであるとする。
Let's assume such behaviour by men towards women is regarded as a sexual harassment.
(c). 西洋では日本のいわゆる私小説は小説ではないとされる。
In the West the Japanese so-called 'I' novels are not regarded as novels.
(d). 私はアメリカを第二の故郷とすることに違和感を覚えない。
I don't feel uneasy regarding America as my second home country.
(e). 夏の九週間集中日本語講座の単位は六単位とする。
We let the units of the 9-week intensive Japanese course in summer count for 6 units.
(f). 利息は年３．５％とする。
Let the interest rate be 3.5 % annually.
(g). 日本経済がこのまま下降線をたどるとすると、日本語ブームもやがては終わるかもしてない。
If we assume that the Japanese economy keeps going down as it is now, the Japanese language boom may eventually come to an end.
(h). 日本が集団主義的な国だとすれば、欧米は、やはり、個人主義的な国と言えるだろう。
If we assume that Japan is a country of groups, then Europe and the States can be said to be countries of individualism.
(i). 為替レートを一ドル百円とすれば、この家はいくらになりますか。
Assuming that the exchange rate is one dollar to 100 yen, how much will this house amount to?
(j). X+Y＝20で、Xが８だとすれば、Yは１２になる。
If we assume that X = 8 in X + Y = 20, Y will be 12.
(k). 一男を養子とすることには依存はない。
I have no objection to regarding Kazuo as our adopted son.
(l). 大陸の中国が完全に資本主義社会になったとしよう。中国は何年後に経済大国になるであろうか。
Suppose that continental China became a completely capitalized society. How long do you think it would take for the country to become an economic giant?
(m). ニューヨークの物価指数を１００としよう。
Let New York's price index be 100.
Intermediate Page 523
Phrase
| To have a sensory or psychological experience. | Feel~; look~ |
(ks). あの人はちょっとしたことでかっとする。
That person flares up at the slightest provocation.
| Sound Symbolism | とする |
| つるっとする | Someone feels something slippery |
| ほっとする | Someone feels relieved |
(a). あの男の人は目がギョロリとしている。
He has goggling eyes.
(b). 姉は足がすらっとしている。
My older sister has slender legs.
(c). 今日の天気はからっとしていて、気持ちがいい。
It is nice and dry today.
(d). 昔の恋人を東京駅で見かけて、はっとした。
I was taken aback when I saw my old girlfriend at Tokyo station.
(e). ジョンは遅刻して先生に叱られたのに、けろっとしていた。
John was scolded by his teacher when he came in late, but he didn't show any sense of wrong doing.
(f). 日本語の試験が思ったよりよく出来たのでほっとした。
I felt relieved because I did better in a Japanese test than I expected.
(g). 部長は部下に反対された時、むっとした。
The department chief looked offended when he was opposed by his subordinate.
(h). 難しいと思っていた日本語の試験が易しかったのでほっとした。
The Japanese test which I thought would be difficult turned out to be easy, and I felt relieved.
(i). 休みの日は何もしないで、ぼうっとしているのが好きです。
On my days off I like to do nothing and to be completely laid back.
Intermediate Page 525
Noun/Adverb
| A noun/adverb which expresses the idea that 'something occurred the moment someone did something or something took place'. | The moment; just as; as soon as; then |
| 【Related Expression: と同時に】 | |
(ksa). 先生の顔を見た途端(に)宿題があったことを思い出した。
The moment I saw my teacher, I remembered that there was a homework assignment.
(ksb). ドアを開けたら、途端にカレーの匂いがした。
The moment I opened the door, I smelled curry.
| (i)Vinformal past | 途端(に) |
| 座った途端(に) | The moment someone sat down |
| (ii)Vinformal pastら | 途端に |
| 食べたら、途端に | The moment someone ate something |
(a). 部屋に入った途端(に)電話が鳴った。
Just as I entered my room, the telephone rang.
(b). その日本の写真を見た途端(に)家族に会いたくなった。
I wanted to see my family the moment I saw that Japanese photograph.
(c). 彼女は私の顔を見た途端(に)泣き出した。
As soon as she saw me, she started to cry.
(d). コンセントを差し込んだら、途端に家中の電気が消えた。
The moment I put the plug in, all the lights went out in the house.
(e). その牛乳を飲んだら、途端に腹が痛み出した。
As soon as I drank the milk, my stomach started to ache.
(f). 助かったと思った。その途端(に)、力が抜けて気を失ってしまった。
I thought I was saved; then (literally: at that moment), my strength was gone and I lost consciousness.
Intermediate Page 528
Adverb
| An adverb that is used to express the eventual arrival of an expected situation. | Finally; at (long) last; eventually; in the end; after all |
| 【Related Expression: やっと; ついに】 | |
(ks). 朝から降りそうだった雨がとうとう降り出した。
It's been threatening to rain since the morning and finally it started to rain. (literally: The rain which threatened to fall from the morning finally started to fall.)
(a). 弟は医者の忠告を聞かないで煙草を吸い続け、とうとう肺がんになってしまった。
My younger brother didn't take his doctor's advice and kept smoking until he finally got lung cancer.
(b). 日本語の先生が余りにも厳しかったから、その学生はとうとう日本語が嫌いになってしまった。
Because his Japanese instructor was so strict the student eventually came to hate the Japanese language.
(c). その数学の問題は何時間かけても解けなかったので、とうとう諦めてしまった。
I wasn't able to solve the mathematical problem after spending many hours on it, so I finally gave up.
(d). ビルは妻との関係がだんだん悪化し、とうとう別れてしまった。
Bill's relationship with his wife gradually deteriorated and they eventually separated.
(e). この会社で働くのもとうとう今日が最後となった。
At long last this is the last day I work at this company.
(f). 十五年も飼っていた猫がとうとう老衰で死んでしまった。
The cat we had kept for 15 years finally died of old age.
(g). とうとう博士論文を書いてしまった。
At long last I finished writing a Ph.D. dissertation.
(h). 私達の結婚の日がとうとうやって来た。
Our wedding day has finally come.
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Phrase (used in writing and formal speech only)
| A phrase which is used to express the idea that A and B share a common property or do the same thing together, that two things take place at the same time, or that someone or something possesses two properties. | As well as; with; along with; at the same time; when, as; while |
| 【Related Expression: に従って; にともなって; につれて; と同時に; と一緒に; と並んで; と同じく】 | |
(ksa). スタインベックはへミングウィイと共にアメリカの代表的作家の一人だ。
Steinbeck, as well as Hemingway, is a writer representative of American writers.
(ksb). 私は職場の同僚達と共にそのデモに参加した。
I took part in the demonstration with my office colleagues.
(ksc). 病気が回復すると共に食欲も出てきた。
As I'm recovering from my illness, my appetite is coming back.
(ksd). 彼は科学者であると共に哲学者でもあった。
He was a philosopher as well as a scientist.
| (i)Noun | と共に |
| 山田先生と共に | As well as Mr. Yamada; with Mr. Yamada |
| 退職と共に | At the same time as one’s retirement |
| 気候の変化と共に | With the climate change; as the climate changes |
| (ii)Vinformal nonpast | と共に |
| 景気が回復すると共に | As business recovers |
| (iii){Noun/Adjective な stem} | であると共に |
| 医者であると共に | As well as being a doctor |
| 経済的であると共に | As well as being economical |
| (iv)Adjective い informal nonpast | と共に |
| 興味深いと共に | As well as being interested |
(a). 原子力は石油と共に重要なエネルギー源だ。
Atomic energy, as well as petroleum, is an important energy source.
(b). 轟音と共にジェット機が飛び去った。
A jet flew off with a roaring sound.
(c). 武士階級は封建制と共に滅びだ。
The samurai class died with the feudal system.
(d). 終戦と共に激しいインフレが人々を襲った。
Severe inflation hit people when the war ended (literally: with the end of the war).
(e). 景気の回復と共に失業率が下がってきた。
As business is recovering (literally: With the recovery of business), the unemployment rate is coming down.
(f). 年をとると共に耳が遠くなってきた。
As I get older, I am losing my hearing.
(g). 調査が進むと共に新しい事実が次々に明らかになっていった。
As the investigation progressed, one new fact after another was revealed.
(h). 文法を復習すると共に漢字の勉強も忘れてはならない。
While you review grammar, you must not forget to study kanji.
(i). 現在のエネルギー利用技術を改良すると共に新しいエネルギー源を探すことが急務である。
It is urgent that we improve current energy utilization technology while looking for a new energy source.
(j). その提案は建設的であると共に革命的であった。
The discovery was revolutionary as well as constructive.
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Phrase
| A phrase which expresses the idea "not necessarily". | Not always; not necessarily |
(ksa). 体の弱い人が早く死ぬとは限らない。
Frail people do not necessarily die young.
(ksb). 高い物がいつも・必ずしも安い物よりいいとは限らない。
Expensive things are not always/ necessarily better than inexpensive ones.
(ksc). 日本に長く住んでいるから(と言って)日本語が上手だとは限らない。
It is not necessarily the case that people are good at Japanese because they have lived in Japan a long time.
(ksd). 日本に行っても日本語が上手になるとは限らない。
You will not necessarily become good at Japanese even if you go to Japan.
(kse). お金があれば幸福になれるとは限らない。
You will not (literally: cannot) necessarily be happy if you have money.
| Sinformal | とは限らない |
| よくなるとは限らない | Someone will not necessarily get well |
(a). 漫画が子供の教育にとって有害だとは限らない。
Comics are not necessarily harmful to children's education.
(b). 日本人の使う日本語がいつも正しいとは限らない。
The Japanese used by Japanese people is not always correct.
(c). スポーツ選手が必ずしも健康だとは限らない。
Athletes are not necessarily healthy.
(d). 技術の進歩が必ずしも我々に繁栄をもたらすとは限らない。
Progress in technology does not necessarily bring us prosperity.
(e). 先生がそう言ったからと言ってそれが正しいとは限らない。
It is not necessarily correct just because the teacher said so.
(f). 薬を飲んだからと言ってよくなるとは限らない。
You do not necessarily get better because you take medicine.
(g). 頭がよくても人生に成功するとは限らない。
You do not necessarily succeed in your life even if you are smart.
(h). 実力があっても失業しないとは限らない。
It is not necessarily true that you won't lose your job even if you have ability.
(i). 悪い家庭環境に育てば必ず悪い子供になるとは限らない。
It is not necessarily true that children become bad if they grow up in a bad family environment.
(j). 時間が沢山あればいい論文が書けるとは限らない。
It is not necessarily true that you can write a good paper if you have a lot of time.
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Adverb
| An adverb that is used to summarise or rephrase what has been mentioned/stated in the preceding context. | That is (to say); namely; in short; to sum up; in other words; after all; that means |
| 【Related Expression: 結局; すなわち; ようするに】 | |
(ksa). ベルリンの壁が崩れた。これはつまり、民主化の嵐が始まったということだ。
The Berlin Wall fell apart. This means that the storm of democratization has started.
(ksb). 私の母の弟、つまり、叔父が最近離婚した。
My mother's younger brother, that is to say, my uncle, has recently divorced.
| (i)Sentence 1 (Sentence2…) | つまり Sentence Noun |
| 金がない。つまり、貧乏なんです。 | I don’t have money. In other words, I’m poor |
| (ii)Noun Phrase | つまり Noun/Noun Phrase |
| 母の姉の子供、つまり、私のいとこ | The child of my mother’s older sister, my cousin, that is |
(a). アメリカに一年間一人で出張するんです。つまり、単身赴任ということですよ。
I'm going without my family to work for the company in America for one year. In other words, I'm becoming a tanshin-funin worker.
(b). 運動をした後は気分がよくなりませんね。つまり、運動でストレスがなくなるということなんですよ。
You feel good after exercise, right? That means, stress is eliminated by exercise.
(c). A：部長、このプロジェクトは出来ますか。B: そうだね。いいプロジェクトだと思うけど、予算がどうもねえ。A：つまり、出来ないということですね。
A: Chief, can we do this project? B: Well, I think it's a fine project, but you know how the budget is. A: In short, we cannot do it, right?
(d). 日本の父親は子供がまだ寝ている時に家を出て、子供達が寝てから家に帰って来る。つまり、父親不在ということだ。
Japanese fathers leave home while their children are still asleep and come home after they have gone to sleep. This is, in short, an absence of fathers.
(e). A：彼女、僕が会いに行っても、あまり話してくれないんですよ。B: それは、つまり、君のことが嫌いなんだよ。
A: I go to see her, but she doesn't talk much to me, you know. B: That means, she doesn't like you.
(f). 産業化のために自然が破壊されること、つまり、環境破壊は人類の問題だ。
The destruction of nature by industrialization, that is to say, environmental destruction, is a problem of mankind.
(g). 私の母の妹の、娘、つまり、私のいとこが来週バンコクから来ます。
The daughter of my younger sister, my cousin, that is, is coming from Bangkok next week.
(h). 女性を女性だからといって差別すること、つまり、性差別の問題はどこへ行ってもある。
To discriminate against a woman simply because she is a woman, in short, sexual discrimination, exists no matter where you go.
(i). つまり、誰も悪くないということだ。
Nobody is to blame, after all.
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Auxiliary/Conjunction (used in writing and formal speech only)
| (1) an auxiliary which expresses an action in progress; (2) a conjunction which is used to present two concurrent actions. | -ing; while; although |
| 【Related Expression: いる; ながら】 | |
(ksa). 台風が九州接近しつつある。
A typhoon is approaching Kyushu.
(ksb). 彼女は夫の無罪を信じつつ息を引き取った。
She died believing that her husband was innocent.
(ksc). 煙草は体によくないと分かりつつなかなか辞められない。
Although I know that smoking is harmful to my health, I just cannot quit.
| Vます | つつ |
| 思いつつ | While thinking |
(a). 新しい本社ビルが完成しつつある。
The new headquarters building is drawing to completion.
(b). オリンピックの施設が出来つつある。
The Olympic facilities are being completed.
(c). この大学は現在キャンプスの移転を検討しつつある。
This university is considering moving its campus now.
(d). 甘い物を食べると太ると分かりつつ、つい手が出てします。
Although I know that eating sweets makes me gain more weight, I unintentionally reach out for them.
(e). 悪いことと知りつつ、友達に嘘をついてしまった。
Knowing that it was a bad thing, I told my friend a lie.
(f). 早く論文を書かなければいけないと思いつつ、今日もテレビを見てしまった。
Although I was thinking that I had to write the paper soon, I watched TV today, too.
(g). 私は父の無事を祈りつつ病院に急いだ。
I hurried to the hospital hoping that my father was all right.
(h). 彼は最後まで自分の学説が正しいことを主張しつつこの世を去った。
He died while insisting until the last moment that his theory was correct.
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Compound Particle
| A compound particle that is used to express a preparatory action for a relatively important action. | Upon~; after~ |
| 【Related Expression: てから】 | |
(ksa). よく考えた上で御返事いたします。
I will reply upon careful consideration.
(ksb). 話し合いの上で結論を出したいと思います。
I would like to draw a conclusion after discussion.
| (i)Vinformal past | 上で | |
| 読んだ上で | Upon reading | |
| 研究した上で | Upon conducting research | |
| (ii)Noun | の上で | |
| 調査の上で | After investigating | |
| 討議の上で | After discussion |
(a). よく問題を話し合った上で決めたらどうでしょうか。
Why don't we decide after discussing the matter?
(b). 実験をした上で、理論の正しさを証明しなければならない。
We have to prove the correctness of the theory after conducting an experiment.
(c). 日本文学のスミス先生と相談した上で、修士論文の題目を決めました。
I decided the topic of my M.A. thesis after consulting with Japanese literature Professor Smith.
(d). 彼女とはお見合いをして、一年間交際した上で、結婚に踏み切りました。
I decided to get married after meeting her through an arranged match and dating her for one year.
(e). 日本の生活は高くつくと知った上で、日本へ留学した。
I went to Japan to study, knowing that life is expensive there.
(f). 十冊ぐらい本を読んだ上で、学期末のレポートを書き上げた。
I finished writing my term paper after having read about 10 books.
(g). 面談の上で、採否を決めます。
After an interview we will decide whether or not to approve the adoption.
(h). 二人は協議の上で離婚した。
The two got divorced after reaching an agreement.
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Conjunction
| A conjunction which introduces an additional, emphatic statement. | As well; in addition; besides; furthermore; moreover; not only~ but also |
| 【Related Expression: ばかりで(は)なく~も; ばかりか~(さえ); だけで(は)なく~も; その上】 | |
(ksa). この映画は話の筋が面白い上(に)配役がいい。
Besides the fact that this movie has an interesting storyline, the cast is good.
(ksb). 彼は仕事を見つけてくれた上(に)お金まで貸してくれた。
Not only did he find me a job, he even lent me some money.
(ksc). 彼女はフランス語が専門の上(に)パリにしばらく住んでいたから、フランス語かペラペラだ。
She is fluent in French because she majored in French and, in addition, she lived in Paris for a while.
| Sentence | 上(に) | The same as relative clause connection rules |
(a). 吉岡さんは奥さんに離婚された上(に)仕事まで失った。
Not only was Mr. Yoshioka divorced by his wife, he also (literally: even) lost his job.
(b). 私は年をとっている上(に)特に技能もないので、なかなか仕事が見つからない。
Because I am not only old but also have no special skills, it is hard to find a job.
(c). この車は故障が少ない上(に)燃費がいいので、よく売れている。
This car sells well because (besides the fact that) it seldom needs repairs (literally: seldom has trouble) and furthermore it gets good mileage.
(d). 私のアパートは狭い上(に)家具が沢山あるので、お客さんが来た時、寝てもらう場所がない。
Besides being small, my apartment has a lot of furniture, so there is no space for guests to sleep when they come.
(e). 私のアパートは通勤に便利な上(に)家賃が安い。
My apartment is convenient for commuting to work and, furthermore, the rent is inexpensive.
(f). 田中先生は教え方が上手な上(に)学生の面倒をよく見るから、とても人気がある。
Ms. Tanaka is very popular because she is good not only at teaching but also at taking care of her students.
(g). 彼はスピード違反で捕まった時、無免許の上(に)酒に酔っていた。
When he was caught for speeding, he had no driver's license (i.e., he was not licensed) and, moreover, he was drunk.
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Auxiliary Verb (Group 2) (used in writing and formal speech only)
| An auxiliary verb that expresses possibility. | Can; possible; -able |
| 【Related Expression: ことが出来る; られる】 | |
(ks). 二十一世紀に日本語は国際語になり得ると思う。
I think it's possible for the Japanese language to become an international language in the 21st century.
| Vます | うるえる |
| 起こり{うるえる} | Can happen |
| あり{うるえる} | Can exist |
(a). 株の変動はいつでも起こり得る。
The fluctuation of stocks can happen any time.
(b). ほとんどの癌は予防し得る。
The majority of cancers are preventable.
(c). 一度に記憶し得る単語の数は限られている。
The number of vocabulary items one can memorize at one time is limited.
(d). 運動をすることによって健康を維持し得る。
By doing exercise one can maintain one's health.
(e). 日本語の基礎はだいたい二年間で学び得る。
One can learn the basics of Japanese in roughly two years.
(f). 日本の経済が不況になることだって十分にあり得る。
It is quite possible that the Japanese economy will go into a slump.
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Verb
| A continuative form of a verb which means "V and...". | And; -ing |
| 【Related Expression: Verb て Form】 | |
(ksa). ジョンは日本で生まれ、十歳まで日本の学校で勉強した。
John was born in Japan and studied at a Japanese school until he was ten.
(ksb). 父は銀行に勤め、母はうちの近くでブティックを開いている。
My father works for a bank and my mother has a boutique near my house.
(a). みんながお金を出し合い、京子の出産祝いを買った。
Everybody contributed some money and bought a present for Kyoko's new baby.
(b). 海老は殻をむき、サラダ油で軽く炒めます。
As for shrimp, you take their shells off and fry them lightly in salad oil.
(c). 日本では一週間前から梅雨に入り、毎日鬱陶しい日が続いています。
In Japan we've been in the rainy season for a week (literally: since a week ago) and had gloomy days every day.
(d). 本校の五十周年を記念し、祝賀パーティーを開きます。
Commemorating this school's fiftieth anniversary, we are going to have a celebration party.
(e). 長男は医者になり、次男は弁護士になった。
My first son became a doctor and my second, a lawyer.
(f). 男が荷車の前の綱を引っ張り、女が後ろを押した。
The man pulled the strap in front of the cart and the woman pushed it from behind.
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Noun
| Vます used as a regular noun. |
(ksa). 彼はまだ若いから、考えが浅い。
Because he is still young, his thoughts are shallow.
(ksb). 日本語は、話すのは比較的易しいが、読み書きは難しい。
It is relatively easy to speak Japanese, but reading and writing are hard.
(a). 終わりがよければ、全体よくなる。
If the end is alright, all becomes good.
(b). 遊びのない生活はつまらない。
Life without play is boring.
(c). お金の貸し借りはしない方がいい。
It is better not to borrow or lend money.
(d). 東京ディズニーランドに車で行って来たが、行き帰りに五時間以上もかかった。
We went to Tokyo Disneyland but it took more than five hours to get there and back.
(e). 人生は勝ち負けの連続だ。
Life is a series of wins and losses.
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Particle
| A particle which emphatically affirms or negates the proposition represented by the preceding verbal and other related elements. | [emphatic] {do/does/did} V; will V; {am/are/is/was/were} Adjective/Noun; (not) V/Adjective/Noun |
| 【Related Expression: ことは】 | |
(ksa). 行きはしますが、何も手伝えませんよ。
I am going (there) but I cannot help you, all right?
(ksb). 疲れてはいるが、まだ休みたくない。
I am tired but I don't want to take a break yet.
(ksc). あの男には説明しても分かりはしない。
That guy would not understand even if you explained it to him.
(ksd). あのズボンは安くはあるが、ちょっと時代遅れた。
Those pants are cheap but they are a little too old-fashioned.
(kse). この本は内容を考えれば決して高くはない。
This book is not expensive at all when you consider its content.
| (i)Vます | は{する(が)/しない} | |
| 話しは{する(が)/しない} | Someone will tell (but)/will not tell | |
| (ii)Vて | は{いる(が)/ いない} | {みる(が)/みない}, etc. |
| 食べては{いる(が)/ いない} | Someone is eating (but)/is not eating | |
| (iii)Adjective い stem | くは{ある (が)/ ない} | |
| 面白くは{ある (が)/ ない} | Something is interesting (but)/is not interesting | |
| (iv)Adjective な stem/Noun | では{ある (が)/ ない} | |
| 便利では{ある (が)/ ない} | Something is convenient (but)/is not convenient | |
| 学生では{ある (が)/ ない} | Someone is a student (but)/is not a student |
(a). 酒は飲みはするが、それほど好きではない。
I do drink but don't like it very much.
(b). 彼は日本語を読めはするが、話せはしない。
He can read Japanese but cannot speak it.
(c). 彼女はベッドに横になってはいるが、目は開いている。
She is lying in bed but her eyes are open.
(d). 試験を受けてはみるが、通る自信は全然ない。
I will take the exam (and see what will happen), but I have no confidence that I will pass it.
(e). 彼は何を言っても聞きはしない。
He does not listen, no matter what we tell him.
(f). この花瓶は高くはあるが、それだけの値打ちはある。
This vase is expensive but it is valuable to that extent.
(g). この問題はよく考えれば難しくはないはずだ。
If you think carefully, this problem should not be difficult.
(h). あの男は優秀ではあったが、不正なことをしたので、首になった。
He was smart but he was fired because he did something illegal.
(i). 彼は日本人ではあるが、あまり日本語を話せない。
He is Japanese but cannot speak Japanese well.
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Adverbial Phrase (used in writing and formal speech only)
| An adverbial phrase that conveys the meaning of 'not to speak of something/someone'. | Not to speak of; let alone; not to mention; to say nothing of |
| 【Related Expression: ばかりで(は)なく~(も); は言うに及ばず; はもちろん】 | |
(ks). 大統領の職務は頭脳は言うまでもなく、体力も要求される。
The duty of the presidency requires physical strength, not to mention brains.
| Noun | は言うまでもなく |
| スポーツは言うまでもなく | Not to speak of sports |
(a). 日本は土地は言うまでもなく、家も非常に高い。
In Japan houses are very expensive, not to mention land.
(b). この大学は教育内容は言うまでもなく、設備も抜群に優れている。
This university excels in facilities, to say nothing of educational programs.
(c). 彼は平日は言うまでもなく、週末や祭日も仕事をしている。
He is working even on weekends and holidays, not to speak of weekdays.
(d). ジュリアンは菜食主義者なので、牛肉は言うまでもなく、魚も鶏肉も食べない。
Julian is a vegetarian, so he doesn't eat fish or chicken, let alone beef.
(e). あの学生は漢字は言うまでもなく、平仮名、片仮名さえ知らない。
That student doesn't know even hiragana and katakana, let alone kanji.
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Phrase
| A phrase which presents a fact or truth known to the hearer as an introduction to a following statement, or which gives emphasis to a fact or truth which the hearer might not know. | As you know; the fact is that~; the truth of the matter is that~ |
| 【Related Expression: のだ】 | |
(ksa). 福田先生の死で私達はリーダーを失ってしまったわけですが、今後は私達自身でこの会を発展させていかなければなりません。
As you know, we lost our leader with Professor Fukuda's death. From now on we have to advance this group by ourselves.
(ksb). 戦争は大きな犠牲を伴うわけで、我々は何としてもこれを避けなければならない。
War is accompanied by great sacrifice, as you know, and we have to avoid it at any cost.
(ksc). 今でこそ地球が丸いことは子供でも知っているが、コロンブス以前は誰もが地球は平らだと思っていたわけだ。
Today, even children know that the earth is round, but the truth of the matter is that before Columbus everybody thought that it was flat.
| (i){V/Adjective い} | わけだ |
| {話す/話した}わけだ | Someone will talk/talked, as you know |
| {高い/高かった}わけだ | Something is/was expensive, as you know |
| (ii)Adjective な stem | {なだった}わけだ |
| {静かな/静かだった}わけだ | Something is/was quite, as you know |
| (iii)Noun | {であるだった (or であった)}わけだ |
| 彼の責任{であるだった (or であった)}わけだ | Something is/was his responsibility, as you know |
(a). 残念ながら今回の交渉はこういう結果になってしまったわけですが、これからも交渉は続けていくつもりです。
Unfortunately, the negotiation this time, as you know, ended up with a result like this, but we are planning to keep negotiating from now on, too.
(b). 我々は多くの技術を日常生活に取り入れてきたわけだが、それからがすべて我々に幸福をもたらしたかどうかは疑問である。
We have incorporated a lot of technology into our everyday life, as you know, but whether or not all of it has brought us happiness is questionable.
(c). 私は動物のコミュ二ケージョンを研究しているわけですが、この研究から色々面白いことが分かります。
I've been doing research on animal communication, as you know, and various interesting facts have become known from this research.
(d). 何事をするにも基本がしっかり出来ているかどうかが進歩の鍵となるわけで、外国語学習についても同じことが言えるわけです。
As you know, whatever you do, whether or not you have built a firm foundation for that is a key to your progress, and in fact, you can say the same thing about foreign language study.
(e). 赤ん坊は自分ではものを言わないが、話しかけられている時に言葉を学習しているわけだ。
Babies, themselves, do not talk, but the truth of the matter is that they are learning language when they are spoken to.
(f). 我々は今コンピュータを取り上げられるとたちどころに困ってしまうけれども、今から十年程前はコンピュータなしでやっていたわけです。
We would be in trouble immediately if computers were taken away from us now, but the fact is that we were getting by without them a decade ago.
Intermediate Page 574
Phrase
| A phrase which is used to deny what is implied in the previous or following statement. | It does not mean that~; I don't mean that~; it is not that~; it is not true that~; it is not the case that |
(ksa). この問題を解決するのは非常に難しい。しかし、不可能(だ)というわけではない。
It is very difficult to solve this problem. But that does not mean that it is impossible (to solve).
(ksb). 君の考えに反対するわけではないが、そのやり方でうまくいくだろうか。
I don't mean to oppose your idea, but I wonder if things will go well using that approach.
(ksc). 結果さえよければいいというわけではない。
Obtaining a good result is not enough. (literally: It is not that it is all right if just the result is good.)
| (i){V/Adjective い}informal | (という)わけではない |
| {分かる/分かった}(という)わけではない | It does mean that someone understands/understood something |
| {悪い/悪かった}(という)わけではない | It does not mean that someone is/was bad |
| (ii)Adjective な stem | {なだった}わけではない |
| {駄目な/駄目だった}わけではない | It does not mean that something is/was no good |
| (iii)Adjective な stem | {なだった}というわけではない |
| {駄目な/駄目だった}というわけではない | It does not mean that something is/was no good |
| (iv)Noun | だったわけではない |
| 失敗だったわけではない | It does not mean that something was a failure |
| (v)Noun | {(だ)/だった}というわけではない |
| {失敗(だ)/だった}というわけではない | It does not mean that something is/was a failure |
(a). 私は最近あまり沢山食べないが、食欲がないわけではない。
I do not eat much these days, but it doesn't mean that I have no appetite.
(b). この二、三年本を書いていないが、スランプというわけではない。
I haven't written a book for the last few years, but it doesn't mean that I am in a slump.
(c). このプロジェクトは資金不足のため中止されることになった。しかし、今までしてきたことが全く無駄になるわけではない。
It's been decided that this project is going to be stopped because of a lack of funds. However, it doesn't mean that what we have done up to now is going to be a total waste.
(d). いくら日本語が出来ないと言っても全然話せないわけではない。
Although I say that I cannot speak Japanese, it doesn't mean that I cannot speak it at all.
(e). 君の言うことが分からないわけではないが、やっぱりこの計画は止めた方がいいと思う。
I don't mean that I don't understand what you are saying, but I think you'd better give up this plan after all.
(f). 全然見込みがないわけではないが、あまり期待はしない方がいいでしょう。
I don't mean that there is no hope, but you'd better not expect too much.
(g). あの人が嫌いだというわけではないんですが、結婚したいとは思いません。
I don't mean that I don't like him, but I do not want to marry him.
(h). 言われたことだけしていたらそれでいいというわけではない。
Doing only what you are told to do is just not enough.
(i). A：この病人は全く助からないんですか。B：いや、そういうわけではありません。
A: Can't this patient be saved (literally: at all)? B: No, it is not that he can't be saved.
Intermediate Page 578
Phrase
| A phrase which negates the existence of a reason to believe that someone does something or is in some state, or that something takes place; or which negates a possibility of someone's doing something or being in some state, or something's taking place. | There is no reason why~; it is impossible (for~) to~; cannot |
| 【Related Expression: はずがない】 | |
(ksa). こんな易しい仕事が君に出来ないわけがない。
There is no reason why you cannot do such an easy job.
(ksb). 日本語がそんなに速くマスター出来るわけがない。
It is impossible to be able to master Japanese that quickly.
| (i){V/Adjective い}informal nonpast | わけがない |
| 分かるわけがない | It is impossible to understand |
| 面白いわけがない | It is impossible to be interesting |
| (ii){Adjective な} stem | なわけがない |
| 奇麗なわけがない | It is impossible to something to be clean |
| (iii)Noun | であるわけがない |
| 先生であるわけがない | It is impossible for someone to be a teacher |
(a). そんなことをしていいわけがない。
No one is allowed to do that kind of thing. (literally: There is no reason why it is all right to do such a thing.)
(b). そんなことを言って人が喜ぶわけがない。
There is no reason for people to be pleased if you say such a thing to them.
(c). 彼女がそんなひどいことを言うわけがない。
There is no reason for her to say such a terrible thing./ It is impossible for her to say such a terrible thing.
(d). 彼はあんなに酔っていて大丈夫なわけがない。
Being that drunk, he cannot be all right.
(e). あの店の物がこんなに安いわけがない。
Things at that shop cannot be this cheap.
(f). 彼女がこの時間にこんな所にいるわけがない。
It is impossible for her to be in such a place at this time (of the day).
(g). 彼がこの学校の卒業生であるわけがない。
It is impossible for him to be a graduate of this school.
Intermediate Page 581
Phrase
| A phrase which is used to indicate that one cannot do something due to an external circumstance. | Cannot; cannot but~; cannot help -ing; have no (other) choice but to~ |
| 【Related Expression: ことが出来る; なければならない; られない】 | |
(ksa). 来週は期末試験があるから、今週末は遊んでいるわけにはいかない。
There will be final examinations next week, so I cannot fool around this weekend.
(ksb). 親友の結婚式だから、出席しないわけにはいかない。
Since it is the wedding of my close friend I have no other choice but to attend it.
| (i)Vinformal nonpast | わけにはいかない |
| 行くわけにはいかない | Someone cannot go |
| (ii)Vinformal negative nonpast | ないわけにはいかない |
| 読まないわけにはいかない | Someone has no other choice but to read something |
(a). こんな高価な物を頂くわけにはいきません。
I have no reason to receive such an expensive gift.
(b). 私のような若い者がそんな会議に出席するわけにはいきません。
A young person like me cannot attend such a meeting.
(c). まだ定職もないんだから、結婚するわけにはいかないんですよ。
I don't have a regular job, so I cannot get married.
(d). これから運転しなければなりませんから、酒を飲むわけにはいきません。
I have to drive from now, so I cannot drink.
(e). まだ仕事が残っているので、帰るわけにはいきません。
I still have work to do, so I cannot go home.
(f). これは秘密なので、話すわけにはいきません。
This is a secret, so I cannot talk about it.
(g). この論文は重要だから、読まないわけにはいかない。
This paper is important, so I have no choice but to read it.
(h). 上司の命令なのだから、報告書を書かないわけにはいかない。
It is my boss's order, so I cannot avoid writing this report.
Intermediate Page 584
Verb (Group 1)
| To cause something/someone to move to a place or to do/eat/drink something. | Send; give; do; play; operate; eat; drink |
| 【Related Expression: する】 | |
(ksa). 貧乏な家庭は子供を大学にやれない。
Poor families cannot send their children to college.
(ksb). 僕は弟に自転車をやるつもりだ。
I intend to give a bike to my younger brother.
(ksc). 午後、テニスをやりませんか。
Won't you play tennis this afternoon?
(ksd). 今アメリカで日本語の教師をやっています。
I'm now (literally: doing) a Japanese instructor in the U.S.
(kse). 三船敏郎のやる役は正義感の強い男だ。
The role played by Toshiro Mifune is a male with a strong sense of justice.
(ksf). 先月まで煙草をやっていました。
I was smoking up until last month.
| (i)someone が someone を place | にやる |
| 私が息子を外国にやる。 | I will send my son to a foreign country |
| (ii)someone が someone に something | をやる |
| 僕が妹に人形をやる。 | I will give my younger sister a doll |
| (iii)someone が something | をやる |
| 友達が弁護士をやる。 | My friend is (literally doing) a lawyer |
(a). 息子を郵便局にやって、切手を買って来させた。
I sent my son to the post office and had him buy stamps.
(b). 猫にこのえさをやってね。
Give this food to the cat, OK?
(c). 宿題をやりましたか。
Did you do your homework?
(d). チェスをやろうか。
Shall we play chess?
(e). 来月クラス会をやります。
We will have (literally: do) a class reunion next month.
(f). ちょっと遅れるから、先に(食事を)やっていて下さい。
I'm coming in a bit late, so please start eating without me.
(g). 私は酒も煙草もやりません。
I neither drink nor smoke.
(h). 私は去年から生け花をやっています。
I have been learning flower arrangement since last year.
(i). 僕は小さい時色々な病気をやりました。
When I was a kid I suffered from various diseases
(j). 友達がジャズ喫茶をやっている。
My friend is running a jazz cafe.
Intermediate Page 589
Auxiliary Verb (Group 1)
| An auxiliary verb which expresses the idea that someone does something undesirable to someone else when he/she knows his/her action will cause hardship or trouble. | (knowing that it will cause someone trouble/difficulty) |
| 【Related Expression: くれる; もらう】 | |
(ks). 私は正をからかってやった。
I teased Tadashi.
| Vて | やる |
| いじめてやる | (I) will bully someone |
(a). ルームメートが部屋を全然掃除しないので、文句を言ってやった。
Because my roommate never cleans our room, I complained (to her about it).
(b). 彼にあまり腹が立ったので、怒鳴り付けてやった。
I was so mad at him that I shouted at him.
(c). 会社の付けで飲んでやった。
I had drinks at my company's expense.
(d). 浩はテレビゲームばかりしてちっとも勉強しないんですよ。一度叱ってやって下さい。
[From a wife to her husband] Hiroshi always plays video games (literally: TV games) and doesn't study at all. Will you talk to him (literally: tell him off) about it (literally: once)?
(e). 言うことを聞かなかったら少し脅してやれ。
If he doesn't listen, threaten him a little.
Intermediate Page 591
Adverb
| An adverb to indicate that something desirable has been finally achieved or will be eventually achieved though with great difficulty. | Finally; at last; barely |
| 【Related Expression: かろうじて; なんとか; とうとう; ようやく】 | |
(ksa). 日本史の期末レポートやっと書き終えた。
I finally finished writing my Japanese history term paper.
(ksb). この道は車がやっと一台通れるくらいの狭さです。
This street is so narrow that one car can barely go through.
(ksc). 私の日本語の力では挨拶をするのがやっとです。
My Japanese language ability is barely enough to make greetings.
(ksd). やっとのことで、家が買えた。
At long last, I could buy a house.
| (i)やっと | Vinformal |
| やっと {会える/会えた} | I am/was finally able to meet him |
| (ii)やっと | Vinformal |
| やっと {乗れる/乗れた} | Can/could barely ride |
| (iii)Vinformal nonpast | のがやっと {だ/だった} |
| そう言うのがやっと {だ/だった} | Somone can/could barely say so |
| (iv) | やっとのことでV |
| やっとのことで {着く/着いた} | At long last, someone gets/got there |
(a). 半年の長い冬が終わって、やっと暖かい春になった。
The long winter that lasted for half a year has ended and finally the warm spring is here.
(b). 日本で一年間日本語を勉強したら、やっと、日本語が通じるようになった。
After I studied Japanese for a year in Japan, I finally reached the point where I could make myself understood in Japanese.
(c). あの二人はずいぶん間付き合っていたが、やっと結婚したようだね。
The couple have been together for a very long time, but it seems that they finally got married.
(d). 長い間の夢だった海外旅行にやっと行けそうだ。
It seems that finally I can travel abroad which was a dream I cherished for a long time.
(e). 家から駅まで走って、やっと、七時半の電車に間に合った。
I ran to the station from my house, and I just caught the 7:30 train.
(f). 家族四人がやっと住めるような小さいアパートに入った。
We moved into a small apartment which can barely accommodate a family of four.
(g). 父は腰を痛めているので、家の周りを散歩するのがやっとです。
My father is suffering from pain in the lower back, and he can barely walk around the house.
(h). やっとのことので、富士山の頂上に着いた。
With the greatest effort, we reached the top of Mt. Fuji.
Intermediate Page 595
Suffix
| A noun forming suffix which means a way (of doing something). | A/the way to; a/the way of -ing; the way (someone does something) |
| 【Related Expression: 方】 | |
(ksa). この作文は直しようがない。
There is no way to correct this composition.
(ksb). この成績じゃ・では救いようがない。
There is no way to save (him) with this grade.
(ksc). こんなに壊れてしまっては直しようがない。
We cannot fix it now that it is broken to this extent.
(ksd). みんなで同時に攻めて来たら防ぎようがない。
There is no way to defend ourselves if all of them attack us at the same time.
| Vます | よう |
| 書きよう | A way to write |
(a). それ以外に考えようがない。
There is no other way to think (about it).
(b). 日本語があんなに下手じゃどうしようもない。
There is no hope to do with such poor Japanese. (literally: There is no way even to do if his Japanese is that poor.)
(c). 漢字が読めないんじゃ(＝のでは)仕事のさせようがない。
There is no way to have him work if he cannot read kanji.
(d). こんなに学生が多くては教えようがない。
There is no way to teach if there are this many students.
(e). そんな聞き方をされたら答えようがない。
I cannot answer if you ask (literally: I am asked) that way.
(f). 私に謝ってもらってもしようがない。
There is no point apologizing to me (literally: even if you apologize to me).
(g). ほかにやりようはないのだろうか。
Isn't there any other way to do it, I wonder?
(h). 見つからないのは探しようが悪いんだよ。
It's because your way of searching (for it) is wrong that you cannot find it.
(i). 読みようによってはこの手紙は遺書ともとれる。
Depending on how you read it, this letter can be taken as a suicide note.
Intermediate Page 599
Auxiliary (used in writing and formal speech only)
| An auxiliary verb that expresses the writer's conjecture about some potentiality or his certainty about a given state of affairs. | Probably; likely; must be; should; ought; naturally |
| 【Related Expression: だろう; でしょう】 | |
(ksa). この程度の文章なら日本語の一年生でも読めよう。
Even the first year students of Japanese (probably) can read a passage of this level.
(ksb). こんな寒い日にオーバーも着ないで歩き回れば、風邪も引こう。
If you walk around without wearing an overcoat on such a cold day, it is a matter of course that you will catch a cold.
(ksc). この政治的問題を解決するのは容易であろう。
It is probably/must be easy to solve this political problem
| (i)Vvolitional | V: non-controllable verb |
| 書けよう | Someome (probably) can write something |
| 出来よう | Someone (probably) can do something |
| (ii)Noun+particle | V: non-controllable verb |
| 目も覚めよう | It is natural that one wakes up |
| 日本語が分かろう | Someone probably understands Japanese |
| (iii)Adjective な stem | であろう |
| 便利であろう | Something is probably/must be convenient |
(a). この問題については色々政治的解決が考えられよう。
Regarding this problem, all sorts of political solutions can (probably) be considered.
(b). このピアノソナタだったら子供にも弾けよう。
Even a child should be able to play this piano sonata.
(c). この報告書は来週の金曜日までには書けよう。
We should be able to write this report by next Friday.
(d). あのタワーに上れば、町全体がよく見えよう。
If you go up that tower, you should be able to see the entire city.
(e). 米ソ関係の改善で、世界の平和は維持出来よう。
With the improvement of U.S.-Russia relations, it is likely that world peace can be maintained.
(f). あんなにひどいことをされたら、腹も立とう。
If you are treated as badly as that you naturally get mad.
(g). あれだけむちゃくちゃに働けば、病気にもなろう。
If you work as crazy as that, you will naturally get ill.
(h). この辺りでは夜の一人歩きは危険であろう。
In this neighbourhood it is probably/must be dangerous to walk alone at night.
Intermediate Page 602
Adverb
| An adverb which forms the comparative of an adjective or an adverb to mean 'more~ than now or than otherwise'. | More~ (than now; than something at present; than otherwise) |
| 【Related Expression: もっと】 | |
(ksa). 私達はいつも、よりよいサービスの提供に努めています。
We are always trying to offer better services.
(ksb). 外国語は新しい技術を利用すればより効果的に教えることが出来る。
We can teach foreign languages more effectively if we utilize new technology.
(ksc). 子供達に自分で考えさせる方がより教育的だ。
It is more educational to have children think for themselves.
| (i)より | Adjective |
| より面白い | More interesting |
| (ii)より | Adverb |
| より正確に | More accurately |
(a). 今後もより速い、より大容量の記憶装置の開発が続くだろう。
The development of faster and larger (literally: of a larger capacity) storage devices will continue from now on, too.
(b). 私達はより多くの人々にこの施設を利用してもらいたいと思っています。
We would like more people to use this facility.
(c). この車は車体をより軽くするためにアルミの合金を使っている。
In order to make the body lighter, aluminium alloy is used for this car.
(d). 「より軽く、より薄く、より小さく」が我が社のモットーだ。
Lighter, thinner, and smaller is our company’s motto.
(e). 原色を使うと、より刺激的になる。
Using original colours would make it more stimulating.
(f). 電話回線を利用すれば、より広い地域のユーザーにこのサービスが提供出来る。
If we utilise telephone lines, we can offer this service to users in a larger region.
(g). 集中管理システムの方がより効率的だろう。
A centralized system would probably be more efficient.
(h). バスで通勤する方がより経済的です。
Commuting to work by bus is more economical.
Intermediate Page 606
Auxiliary (used in writing and formal speech only)
| An auxiliary indicating that there is no other choice but to do something. | Cannot help -ing; cannot (help) but; have no choice but to~; have to |
| 【Related Expression: ないわけに(は)いかない; なければならない; しかない】 | |
(ks). それは高かったが、教科書だったから買わざるを得なかった。
It was a textbook so I had no choice but to buy it, although it was expensive.
| Vneg | ざるを得ない | |
| 食べざるを得ない | Someone cannot help eating something | |
| 行かざるを得ない | Someone cannot help going there | |
| Exception | せざるを得ない | Someone cannot help doing something |
(a). 日本へ行けば、日本の習慣に従わざるを得ない。
If you go to Japan you cannot help but adapt yourself to Japanese customs.
(b). 上司に飲みに行こうと言われれば、部下は行かざるを得ない。
If a subordinate is told by his superior to go out drinking he cannot help going with him.
(c). これだけの人が拳銃で殺されているのだから、拳銃所持をより厳しくコントロールせざるを得ないと思う。
Because this many people have been murdered by guns, I feel that we cannot help but control possession of guns more strictly.
(d). ジョンは一年で日本語がすらすら話せて、新聞が楽に読めるようになったのだから、語学の天才と言わざるを得ない。
Since John was able to speak Japanese fluently and read newspapers with ease in one year we cannot help calling him a genius of language learning.
(e). 日本は天然資源の乏しい国だから、経済発展のためには輸出に依存せざるを得ないのである。
Since Japan is a country lacking in natural resources, she cannot help relying on exports.
Intermediate Page 609
Particle (used in conversation only)
| A sentence final particle that emphasises a male speaker's emotion about something in his monologue or his strong desire to draw someone else's attention. | I tell you; I'm telling you; you know |
| 【Related Expression: よ】 | |
(ksa). あれ、財布がどこかへ行ってしまったぞ。
Hey, my purse has gone somewhere!
(ksb). 急がないとバスに乗り遅れるぞ。
If you don't hurry, you'll be late for the bus, you know.
| {V/Adjective い} informal | ぞ |
| 食べるぞ。 | Hey, someone is going to eat it |
| 食べたぞ。 | Hey, someone ate it |
| まずいぞ。 | Yuck! |
| まずかったぞ。 | It was yucky |
| {Adjective な/Noun} | {だ/だった} ぞ |
| 元気だぞ。 | Someone is healthy |
| 元気だったぞ。 | Someone was healthy |
(a). 今日はあの子とデートが出来るぞ。
Wow! I can date that girl today.
(b). 変だぞ。女房の顔が猫の顔に見える。
Strange indeed! My wife's face looks like a cat's face.
(c). 今度こそ文部省の奨学金をもらってやるぞ。
By God, this time I will get the Education Ministry's Scholarship.
(d). 今日の日本語の試験はうまくいったぞ。
Thank God, today's Japanese exam went well!
(e). 今日は寒いから、オーバーを着て行った方がいいぞ。
It's cold today, so you'd better go out with an overcoat on.
(f). このケーキ、食べないなら、俺が食べちゃうぞ。
If you don't eat this cake, I will.
(g). 同じ間違いをもう一度したら、許さないぞ。
If you make the same mistake again, I'm not going to forgive you.
(h). おい、この酒、熱くないぞ。
Hey, this sake isn't hot enough!
(i). 予告もなしに来るなんて失礼だぞ。
It's rude of you to come here without any advance notice. Do you know that?
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Adverb
| An adverb that expresses the speaker's/writer's desire or will to dare to do s.t. in spite of difficulty, danger or opposition. | Daringly; boldly; dare to~; venture to~; force oneself to~ |
| 【Related Expression: 思いきって; しいて】 | |
(ksa). 部長はあえて社長に反対意見を述べた。
The department head boldly expressed his opposing view directly to the company president.
(ksb). 私はあえて大がかりな研究計画を立てたいと思う。
I would like to take on a large-scale research proposal.
(ksc). あえて先生の理論に異議を唱えてみようと思う。
I think I will try to oppose my professor's theory.
(ksd). あえて言えばあなたの考えは机上の空論だ。
If I dare to say so, your idea is an unrealistic, ivory tower theory.
(kse). 君の言うことにあえて反対はしないよ。
I don't dare oppose what you're saying.
| あえて | Verb | |
| あえて反対する | Someone dares to disagree |
(a). アメリカでは黙っていると損をするので、私は日本人としてあえて自己主張をすることにしている。
In the U.S., if I keep silent I lose out, so as a Japanese, I'm making a point of asserting myself.
(b). 委員会の賛同を得るのは難しいとは知りつつも、あえて新機軸の計画を提案した。
Although I knew that it was hard to get approval from the committee, I dared to propose a brand new plan.
(c). 彼の両親があえて住居を変えたのは彼の教育を考えた上であった。
It was after his parents thought about his education that they made the bold move to change their residence.
(d). 悪いとは思いつつも、あえて先輩の非をとがめたら、やっぱりしれ以後、その先輩は私と口をきかなくなった。
While I knew I shouldn't have done so, I ventured to criticize my senior partner's wrongdoings. And, sure enough, he's stopped talking to me since.
(e). 私はあえて人とは違った道を進みたいと思っている。
I'm thinking of daring to follow a path different from others.
(f). 時代の流れにあえて抗おうとしたが、徒労に終わった。
I dared to resist the flow of the times, but it was all in vain.
(g). あの男は能力がないけれど、あえて長所を拾えば、人のよさだろう。
That man has no talent, but if I force myself to single out his strong point, it would be his fine personality.
(h). あえて日本の政治を一言で批判すろと、派閥の行動ということになるだろう。
If I ventured to find fault with current Japanese politics, it would be to criticize the behaviour of factions.
(i). でもいいことばかりでもなかったです。あえて今言いませんが、いやなことも沢山ありました。
Not everything went well. I won't venture to say now what, but there were many unpleasant things.
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Adverb/Conjunction
| An adverb/conjunction indicating that one spends an extended period of time before reaching a result. | in the end; finally; eventually; after |
| 【Related Expression: 上で; すえ(に); 結果】 | |
(ksa). さんざん考えたあげく(に)大学院へ進学するとにした。
After thinking for a long time, I decided to go on to graduate school.
(ksb). 彼女の離婚は数年悩んだあげくの決断だった。
Her divorce was a decision she made after agonizing for several years.
| (i) Vinformal past | あげく(に) | |
| 話したあげく(に) | After someone talked | |
| (ii) Vinformal past | あげくのNoun | |
| 考えたあげくの決断 | A decision made after deliberation |
(a). 私はさんざん悩んだあげくに最初に勤めていた会社を辞めた。
I quit the company where I first worked after thinking very hard (about what to do).
(b). 彼はアジア、ヨーロッパ、北米などいろいろな国の女性とつき合ったあげくに、結局は生涯独身で過ごした。
He dated women from various countries in Asia, Europe and North America, but in the end he spent his entire life single.
(c). 妻はあの靴がいい、この靴がいいと、いろいろと履いてみたあげくに、どれも買わずに店を出た。
Saying "I like this one" or "I like that one," my wife tried on all sorts of shoes, but after all that, she left the store without buying any of them.
(d). 山田は私の車を一か月も使ったあげく、返す時お礼の一言も言わなかった。
After using my car for a whole month, Yamada didn't even say a word of thanks when he returned it.
(e). さんざん迷ったあげく、一年休職してアメリカに留学することにした。
After weighing my options for a long time, I finally decided to take a one-year leave from my company to study abroad in the U.S.
(f). 彼女は既婚の男性との恋に溺れたあげくに、自分の人生を台無しにしてしまった。
After falling in love with a married man, her own life was in ruins.
(g). どのテレビを買おうかと迷ったあげく、何も買わずに帰ってしまった。
I couldn't decide which television I should buy, so (in the end) I went home without buying any.
(h). 彼が自殺したのはよくよく悩みぬいたあげくのことだったのであろう。
It must have been after really agonizing that he committed suicide.
(i). 無料のネットサービスには、登録時に住所、氏名、電話番号、生年月日、あげくの果てには学歴、年収、家族構成など、様々な個人情報を要求してくるものがある。
There are some free Internet services that require at the time of registration your address, name, telephone number, date of birth, and at the end, all sorts of personal information such as educational background, annual income and family size, etc.
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Adverb
| An adverb that represents the idea of "to the utmost degree". | to the end; persistently; insist; strictly; just; under any circumstance; absolutely; never; completely; ultimately |
| 【Related Expression: どこまでも; 最後まで】 | |
(ksa). 江本氏はあくまでも自説を変えなかった。
Mr. Emoto persistently maintained (literally: didn't change) his opinion.
(ksb). これはあくまでも小説であって実話ではない。
literally:, This is strictly fiction and not a true story.
(ksc). 彼女はあくまでも自分に正直だった。
She was true to herself to the end.
(a). 私はあくまでも彼の無実を信じる。
I will believe in his innocence to the end.
(b). 彼はあくまでも日本の参戦に反対を唱え続けた。
He kept opposing Japan's entry into the war up to the end.
(c). あくまで一人でやると言うのならあえて手助けはしない。
If you insist on doing it by yourself, I won't venture to assist you.
(d). 反乱軍はあくまでも抵抗を続けた。
The insurgent troops continued their resistance to the end.
(e). 君がそういう風にあくまでも話し合いを拒否するのならこちらにも考えがある。
If you persistently refuse to have a discussion (with me) like that, I'll make another plan.
(f). ケイトはあくまでも自分の外見にこだわった。
Kate was always particular about the way she looked.
(g). 理論はあくまでも理論であって、現実がその通りになるという保証はどこにもない。
Theories are strictly theories; there is no guarantee that reality turns out the way they predict.
(h). ここに書かれた費用はあくまでも目安であり、サービスによっては異なる場合があります。
The cost written here is strictly an estimate. It may differ depending on the service (you choose).
(i). これはあくまでも私の直感なんですが、山田さんは近々この会社を辞めるんじゃないかと思います。
This is just what my sixth sense tells me, but I think Mr. Yamada will quit this company soon.
(j). 少しお金を貸していただきたいのですが、家族にはあくまで内緒にしていただきたいのです。
I'd like to borrow some money from you, but I'd appreciate it if you would keep it absolutely secret from my family.
(k). 空があくまでも青く澄みきっていた。
The sky was completely blue and clear.
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Structure (usually used in formal writing and formal speech)
| A structure that indicates that s.t. is not necessarily the way the speaker/writer thought. | (not) necessarily; (not) always |
| 【Related Expression: 必ずしも~ない】 | |
(ks). 彼の推理もあながち間違っていないのかもしれない。
His guess may not necessarily be wrong.
| あながち～ない | |
| あながち間違いではない | ~isn't necessarily wrong |
(a). バーチャル指揮者ソフトが売れているところを見ると、一度は指揮者になってみたいというのは、あながち僕だけの願望ではないらしい。
Judging by how well virtual conducting software has been selling, apparently I'm not necessarily the only one who'd like to try orchestra conducting at least once in my life.
(b). 最後の一章はやや蛇足とも思えるが、そのエピソードは読んでいて気分がいい。ということはあながち蛇足とは言えないということか。
I felt like the last chapter wasn't quite necessary, but it feels good to read it. So, I guess it's not so superfluous after all.
(c). 皮膚のpHが体調によっても変わるとすれば、「気分次第で色が変わる口紅」というのもあながち嘘ではない。
If it's true that the pH of your skin changes depending on your health, then “the lipstick that changes its colour depending on your mood” isn't necessarily a lie.
(d). 完全に男女平等な社会が来るのは困るというのも、あながち偽った気持ちではない。
It wouldn't be a total lie for me to say I would have difficulty with a society in which men and women are completely equal.
(e). この俳優の演技はうまいが、時々違和感を覚えるのは、あながち演出のせいとばかりは言えない。
This actor is talented, but sometimes his performances come off a little strange, and I don't think it's necessarily always the fault of the producer.
(f). 生死の境をさまよっていた人が手術中の会話を鮮明に覚えていたりすることから、幽体離脱現象もあながち否定できない。
Since some people who've come close to dying say that they can clearly recall what was being said around them while they were on the operating table, we can't simply deny the occurrence of out-of-body experiences.
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Conjunction
| A conjunction that marks alternatives | or; either~ or; perhaps |
| 【Related Expression: それとも; また; ないし(は)】 | |
(ksa). ボールペン(か)あるいは万年筆でお書き下さい。
Please write either with a ballpoint pen or a fountain pen.
(ksb). 日本のような少子化社会では、大学の数を少なくするか、あるいは外国人の学生を増やすかしなければなるまい。
In a society like Japan where the number of children is decreasing, we may have to either reduce the number of colleges or increase the number of foreign students.
(ksc). 性格が明るいか、あるいは暗いかによって、人生は非常に変わってくる。
Depending on whether someone's personality is cheerful or gloomy, his or her life will change dramatically.
(ksd). すべての宗教は、あるいはアニミズムから来ている(の)かもしれない。
Perhaps all religions originate from animism.
| (i)Noun1 (か)、 | <あるいはspan>Noun2 | |
| 父(か)、あるいはspan>母 | Either my father or my mother | |
| (ii)Vinformalか、 | あるいはV2 informalか | |
| 本を読むか、あるいはテニスをするか | Either reading books or playing tennis | |
| (iii){Adjective い informal/Adjectiveな stem}か、 | あるいは{Adjective い informal/Adjective な stem}か | |
| 面白いか、あるいはつまらないか | Interesting or boring | |
| 民主的か、あるいは独裁的か | Democratic or dictorial | |
| (iv)あるいは | {Verb/Adjective い} informal(の)かもしれない | |
| あるいは{行く/行った}(の)かもしれない | Someone perhaps will go/went there | |
| あるいは{面白い/面白かった}(の)かもしれない | Something is/was perhaps interesting | |
| (v)あるいは{Adjectiveな stem/Noun} | {Ø/だった(の)}かもしれ | |
| あるいは{元気/元気だった(の)}かもしれない | Someone is/was perhaps healthy | |
| あるいは{先生/先生だった(の)}かもしれない | Someone is/was perhaps healthy |
(a). 社長は朝ご飯にはトーストかあるいはオートミールを召し上がる。
For breakfast, the company president has either toast or oatmeal.
(b). 政治学あるいは経済学を専攻した学生を採用します。
We will hire a student who has majored in either political science or economics.
(c). ご注文は電話か、あるいはインターネットでお願いします。
Please place your order either by phone or by Internet.
(d). この会社は大規模なリストラをするか、あるいは、倒産するかしかない。
The only choice left for this company is to execute a large-scale restructuring or else go bankrupt.
(e). 定年になったら毎日川で釣りをするか、あるいはゴルフをしようと思っています。
Once I retire, I'm thinking of fishing at the river or playing golf every day.
(f). 人々の大統領の評価は好きか、あるいは、嫌いかのどちらかだ。
People's assessment of the president is split: They either love him or hate him.
(g). 現在日本の政党は乱立しているが、将来あるいはアメリカのように二大政党になるかもしれない。
Right now there are too many political parties in Japan, but in the future, perhaps there will be two big parties like in the States.
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Adverb (usually used in formal writing and formal speech)
| An adverb used to present a counter as if factual statement emphatically |
| 【Related Expression: まるで; かのように】 |
(ksa). 彼はあたかも責任者のように振る舞っている。
He behaves as if he were the person in charge.
(ksb). リニアモーターカーはあたかも氷の上をすべる(かの)ように走る。
The linear motor car runs as if it were gliding on ice.
(ksc). この装置を使って、あたかも現場にいる(かの)ような感覚で現場にいるロボットを操縦できる。
Using this device you can operate a robot at the site as if you were actually there.
| (i)あたかもNoun | の{ように/ようなNoun} | |
| あたかも上司の{ように/ような言い方} | As if someone were a supervisor; a way of talking as if someone were a supervisor | |
| (ii)あたかも{V/Adjectiveい}informal | (かの){ように/ようなNoun} | |
| あたかもよく知って{いる/ いた}(かの){ように/ような言い方} | As if someone knew/had known something well; a way of talking if someone knew/had known something well | |
| あたかも{安い/安かった}(かの){ように/ような言い方} | As if something were/had been cheap; a way of talking as if someone were/had been cheap | |
| (iii)あたかも{Noun/Adjectiveな stem} | {である/であった}(かの){ように/ようなNoun} | |
| あたかも専門家{である/であった}(かの){ように/ような言い方} | If someone were/had been a specialist; a way of talking as if someone were/had been a specialist | |
| あたかも上手{である/であった}(かの){ように/ような言い方} | If someone were/had been good at something; a way of talking as if someone were/had been good at something |
(a). この磁石はあたかも永久磁石のように動作する。
This magnet acts as if it were a permanent magnet.
(b). リモートコントロールソフトは遠くのPCのデスクトップ画面をそのまま手元のPCに映し出し、あたかも自分のデスクトップのように操作することができる。
A remote control software program displays the desktop of a remote personal computer on the computer in front of you and enables you to operate it as if it were your own computer's desktop.
(c). 彼女はあたかも自分のうちにいるように振る舞っている。
She behaves as if she were in her own house.
(d). 上手な説明文は、あたかも目の前にその光景が広がっているように鮮明にイメージできるものです。
With well-written explanatory sentences, the reader can get vivid images, as if the scenes were spread out in front of his eyes.
(e). 彼はあたかも自分が上司であるかのように私に仕事を言いつける。
He gives me assignments as if he were my boss.
(f). 連結納税制度とは、企業グループがあたかも一つの法人であるかのように捉えて、納税させる仕組みです。
The linked tax payment system is a mechanism by which a group of companies is viewed and made to pay taxes as if they were a single corporation.
(g). この映画はコンピュータ・グラフィクスによって、あたかも人間が実際に人の体の中に入って活動しているような効果を生み出している。
Using computer graphics, this movie creates the effect of people actually working and playing inside someone's body.
(h). 私はあたかも空を飛んでいるかのような錯覚を覚えた。
I felt as if I were flying (literally: I had the illusion of flying) through the air.
(i). この文章はあたかも我々が不正を行っているかのごとき印象を与える。
These sentences give people the impression that we are doing something dishonest.
Conjunction
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| A conjunction indicating that a single factor causes a negative situation. | Simply because; just because; simply on account of ~ |
(ksa). 僕が一言変なことを言ったばかりに彼女との関係は悪くなってしまった。
Just because I said one nasty thing to her, my relationship with her deteriorated.
(ksb). あの子は、体が弱いばかりにクラスメートにいじめられている。
That child is being bullied by his classmates simply because he is (physically) weak.
| (i)Vinformal past | ばかりに | |
| ばかりにばかりに | Simple because someone ate it | |
| (ii)Adjective い informal | ばかりに | |
| 難し{い/かった}ばかりに | Simply because something is/was difficult | |
| (iii)Adjective な stem | {な/である/だった/であった}ばかりに | |
| 不便{な/である/だった/であった}ばかりに | Simply because something is/was inconvenient | |
| (iv)Noun | {である/だった/であった}ばかりに | |
| 学生{である/だった/であった}ばかりに | Simply because someone is/was a student |
(a). あの日たまたま休んでいたばかりに、大事な連絡を聞きそびれた。
I missed a really important announcement just because I happened to be absent that day.
(b). 彼女が会いたいと言ってきた時に会いに行かなかったばかりに、それが最後のチャンスになってしまった。
Simply because I didn't go see her when she wanted to see me, it turned out to be my last chance to see her.
(c). 遺言がないばかりに相続人の間で遺産争いに発展するということがよくある。
Disputes among heirs over an inheritance often develop simply because there is no will.
(d). お金がなかったばかりに、映画もろくに見られなかった。
I couldn't even go to the movies just because I didn't have any money.
(e). 医者の処置が不適切であったばかりに、助かる患者を死なせてしまった。
Simply because the doctor's treatment wasn't appropriate, the patient, who could have been helped, lost his life.
(f). 彼女は黒人女性であったばかりに人種差別と性差別を受けた。
She suffered from racial and sexual discrimination simply because she was a black woman.
(g). 姑との関係が悪いばかりに嫁はストレスが溜まり、よく病気になった。
Just because her relationship with her mother-in-law was so bad, she often fell ill from the stress.
(h). 両親が甘かったばかりに子供たちは自立心がない。
Those children don't have a sense of independence just because they are spoiled so much by their parents.
(i). 高校時代の教育がよくなかったばかりに、大学に入ってから苦労している。
I'm having a difficult time in college all because my high school education wasn't good.
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Conjunction (usually used in formal writing and formal speech)
| A conjunction that emphasizes a reason | it is precisely because ~ that ~; only because ~; to the extent that ~ |
| 【Related Expression: からこそ】 | |
(ks). 環境保護を支持していればこそ植林に力を入れているのだ。
It is only because I support environmental protection so much that I put my efforts into planting trees.
| (i){v/Adjective い} Conditional | ばこそ | |
| 読めばこそ | It is only because someone reads something | |
| 面白ければこそ | It is only because something is interesting | |
| (ii){Adjective な stem/Noun} | であればこそ | |
| 元気であればこそ | It is only because someone is healthy | |
| 先生であればこそ | It is only because someone is a teacher |
(a). 「愛」があればこそ生きる喜びがある。
Only because there is love is there joy for living.
(b). 膨大な電力の需要があればこそ原子力発電を開発せざるを得ないのだ。
It is precisely because of the enormous demand for electricity that we cannot help but develop atomic power plants.
(c). 中近東の和平を熱望すればこそ、国連の役割を強化しなければならないと思う。
It is only because I hope for peace in the Middle East as much as I do that I think we have to strengthen the role of the UN.
(d). 親友であればこそ君にこんなにずけずけとものが言えるんだよ。
It is precisely because I'm your close friend that I can talk straight to you like this.
(e). ビジョンを持った社長であればこそ社員は張り切って仕事をしているのだ。
It is precisely because he is a president with vision that his employees are working with high spirits.
(f). 人は一人でいるのが寂しければこそペットを飼うのだ。
To the extent a person feels lonely when he/she is alone, he/she will keep a pet.
(g). 言論が自由であればこそ民主主義は育っていくのである。
To the extent that there is freedom of speech, democracy will keep growing.
(h). 僕がこんなことを言うのも君を心配すればこそだ。
It is because I am really anxious about you that I am telling you such a thing.
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Auxiliary (usually used in formal writing and formal speech)
| An auxiliary verb that indicates a strong prohibition. | Shouldn't; must not; ought not to~; cannot; don't |
| 【Related Expression: Verb informal nonpast な; を禁ず(る); 禁止; てはいけません; ないで下さい; ないようにして下さい】 | |
(ksa). 芝生に入るべからず。
Keep off the lawn. (literally: Don't enter the lawn.)
(ksb). 原子力はエネルギー源として欠くべからざるものとなっている。
Atomic energy has become indispensable as a source of energy.
| (i)Vinformal nonpast | べからず | Exception: する→{す/する}べからず |
| 読むべからず | You shouldn't read it | |
| 食べるべからず | Don't eat (it) | |
| 盗作をす(る)べからず | You shouldn't plagiarize | |
| (ii)Vinformal nonpast | べからざるNoun | Exception: する→すべからざる |
| あるべからざる状態 | A situation that shouldn't exist | |
| 必要欠くべからざるもの | An indispensable thing (literally: a thing that is necessary and that one cannot lack) | |
| 否定べからざる事実 | An undeniable fact |
(a). 電車の中で携帯電話を使うべからず。
You ought not to use your cell phone in the train.
(b). ここで犬に糞をさせるべからず。
Don't let your dog go (to the bathroom) here.
(c). 授業中に隣の者と私語をするべからず。
You shouldn't talk in class with your neighbours.
(d). 無用の者、入るべからず。
No trespassing. (literally: Don't enter if you aren't on business.)
(e). 虚言を吐くべからず。
Don't tell a lie.
(f). インターネットを使う時の「べからず集」からいくつか引用してみよう。プライバシーを公開するべからず。怪しげなファイルに触れるべからず。インターネットの向こうに人間がいることを忘れるべからず。
Let me quote some of the Internet don'ts from this collection: Don't make private matters public. Don't touch suspicious-looking files. Don't forget that there are people on the other end of the Internet.
(g). 彼は学生として許すべからざる行為を行ったとして大学を退学させられた。
He was expelled from college because he committed an unpardonable act for a student.
(h). この世の中には批判すべからざる学説はほとんどないと言ってよいだろう。
One could say that there are very few theories we cannot criticize.
(i). 奇跡とは一言にしていえば、起こり得べからざる事実が起こる場合のことである。
In a nutshell, a miracle is when an utterly unexpected and unlikely event happens.
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Auxiliary (usually used in formal writing and formal speech)
| The verb modification form of the auxiliary bekida, which is used to indicate a purpose or aim. | In order to; to; for the purpose of; for; so that~ (can) |
| 【Related Expression: 為(に)】 | |
(ks). この大学では、二学期制に変えるべく今準備が進められている。
At this university, preparation is under way for changing (the current system) to a semester system.
| Vinformal nonpast | べく | Exception: する→{す/する}べく |
| 話すべく | In order to talk (to someone) | |
| 勉強す(る)べく | In order to study |
(a). K社は人件費を削減すべく大規模なリストラを行う予定だ。
K Company plans to execute large-scale restructuring in order to reduce personnel expenses.
(b). 当社はいち早くお客さまの多様なニーズに対応すべく、最新の設備を導入してまいりました。
We (literally: our company) have installed the newest facilities so that we can quickly respond to our customers' various needs.
(c). 二児の母親ですが、現在フットセラピストとして独立すべく勉強中です。
I am a mother of two children and am currently studying to start my own practice as a foot therapist (literally: to become independent as a foot therapist).
(d). 本学は、経済的な理由で大学教育を受けられない海外の優秀な学生にその機会を与えるべく、奨学金を供与している。
We (literally: our university) provide scholarships to give educational opportunities to excellent students from overseas who cannot go on to higher education for financial reasons.
(e). 重大な事故が発生した場合、お客様の安全確保を最優先として迅速な対応を行うべく、社内システムの見直しを行いました。
We have re-examined our internal systems so that we can rapidly respond to major accidents in a manner that gives highest priority to customer safety.
(f). より進んだ経営革新を行うためには、マネジメントシステム運用時の無駄を省くべく、システム間の重複をなくすことが重要である。
In order to engage in management innovation that is more advanced, it is important to remove redundancy in management systems so that we can eliminate unnecessary operations.
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Phrase (usually used in formal writing and formal speech)
| A phrase meaning "it is impossible to do something" | Impossible; there is no way for someone to~; cannot be expected to |
| 【Related Expression: Verb potential わけがない; Verb potential はずがない】 | |
(ks). 私が一億円の家を買うなど、望むべくもない。
It is impossible for me to hope to buy a hundred million yen house.
| Vinformal nonpast | べくもない | する→{す/する}べくもない |
| 勝つべくもない | It is impossible to win | |
| 否定す(る)べくもない | It is impossible to deny |
(a). 十年前に別れた女性の居どころなど知るべくもない。
There is no way for me to know the whereabouts of the woman I split up with 10 years ago.
(b). 終戦後は海外旅行など望むべくもなかった。
In the post-war era, one could not even hope to make a trip abroad.
(c). 初日は雨で山頂は望むべくもなかったが、翌日はすっかり晴れ、白銀に輝く山は神々しい美しさだった。
On the first day, it was impossible to view the summit because of rain, but on the following day, the weather was perfect, and the mountain was shining silvery white. It was sublimely beautiful.
(d). 我々のような弱いチームが優勝候補のTチームに勝つべくもない。
A weak team like ours simply cannot be expected to beat Team T, one of the competitors for the championship.
(e). その事件が起きた時私は海外旅行中で知るべくもなかった。
The incident occurred when I was traveling abroad, so there was no way for me to know about it.
(f). 最近は多忙で本を読む時間など期待すべくもない。
Lately I've been so busy that it is impossible to find (literally: to expect to have) time to read books.
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Phrase
| A phrase used when something occurs/occur exactly as expected | Exactly as expected |
| 【Related Expression: やはり/やっぱり】 | |
(ks). 第二次世界大戦は起こるべくして起こった。
World War II occurred, exactly as expected.
| V1informal nonpast | べくしてV2 (where V1=V2) | Exception: する→{す/する}べくして |
| 起こるべくして起こる | Something occurred as expected | |
| 成功す(る)べくして成功する | Something/someone succeeds exactly as expected |
(a). 彼は大統領になるべくしてなった。
He became president, exactly as expected.
(b). 真知子は高校の時から成績が抜群によく、東大に入るべくして入ったという感じである。
Machiko distinguished herself as an excellent academic achiever in her high school days. As expected, she got into the University of Tokyo.
(c). 二人は性格、趣味、学歴がすべて一致している。二人は結婚するべくして結婚したのだ。
Their personalities, hobbies and academic backgrounds match. Just as (we) expected, those two got married.
(d). ゆみの運転はいつも荒っぽいし、エンジンもブレーキも調子が悪かった。事故は起こるべくして起こった。
Yumi's driving was always wild, and her car's engine and brakes weren't in good condition. An accident occurred, exactly as expected.
(e). あの会社は経営がずさんだったから倒産するべくして倒産したのだ。
The management of the company has been so careless that it went bankrupt, exactly as expected.
(f). 私は自宅が海のすぐ近くのため、釣り好きになるべくしてなったと言っていいでしょう。
You could say that I became fond of fishing, exactly as expected, because my home is so close to the ocean.
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Conjunction
| A conjunction to indicate that what follows is additional information related to the previously stated main theme | Incidentally; in this connection |
(ks). 彼の小説はポストモダン的で大変気に入ってる。解釈が読み手にゆだねられているところがよい。ちなみに、去年の作品はベストセラー第一位だった。
I love his postmodern novels. I like the way he leaves the interpretation to the reader. Incidentally, his work published last year topped the bestseller list.
| Sentence1。 (Sentence2。…。) | ちなみにSentence(n)。 |
(a). 先週から上野の美術館で印象派の絵画展が開かれており、ルノアール、モネ、マネなどの代表作が出品されている。ちなみに、入場料は大人三千五百円、子供千円である。
An exhibit of Impressionists' paintings opened last week at an art museum in Ueno and representative works of Renoir, Monet and Manet, among others, are displayed there. Incidentally, the admission fee is 3,500 yen for adults and 1,000 yen for children
(b). 先月の26日と２７日に東京で国際建築学会が開かれた。建築の人間化というのがテーマだった。ちなみに参加者数は約千五百人だった。
On the 26th and 27th of last month, there was an international conference on architecture in Tokyo. The theme of the conference was "The humanization of architecture." Incidentally, about 1,500 people attended.
(c). アメリカの大学教授は7年に一度、研究休暇をとることができる。その期間中に研究を集中的にやるわけである。ちなみにその間の給料は、休暇が一年間なら半額、半年ならば全額が支給される。
A professor in the U.S. can take a sabbatical every seventh year. During that period the professor concentrates on research. Incidentally, professors are paid half their salary for a year's sabbatical or their full salary for half a year.
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Particle
| A particle meaning "to the extent that someone (can/wants to) do something or something can happen. | As much as; as~ as possible; as much as one wants |
(ksa). 若いうちに本を読めるだけ読んでおいた方がよい。
You'd better read as many books as you can while you are young.
(ksb). 食べるだけ食べると、お礼も言わずに帰ってしまった。
After he had eaten as much as he wanted, he went home without even thanking me.
(ksc). 食べたいだけ食べるのが僕のご主義です。
My principle is to eat as much as I want to.
(ksd). うちの子は背が伸びるだけ伸びた感じです。
It looks like my child has grown as much as he is going to.
(kse). 修士論文の内容についてできるだけ詳しく話して下さい。
Tell me about your MA thesis in as much detail as possible.
| (i)V1 potential informal nonpast | だけV2 | Where V1=V2 |
| 食べられるだけ食べる | Someone eats as much/many something as he or she can | |
| (ii)V1 informal nonpast | だけV2 | Where V1=V2 |
| 言うだけ言う | Someone says as much as he or she wants to say | |
| (iii)V1 informal nonpast | だけV2 | Where V=non-volitional intransitive verb; where V1=V2 |
| 膨らむだけ膨らむ | Something swells as much as it can | |
| (iv)できるだけ | Adjective い/な/Adverb | |
| できるだけ大きいケーキ | As big a cake as possible | |
| できるだけ速く歩く | Walk as fast as someone can |
(a). 昨日は寿司屋で寿司を食べられるだけ食べた。
Yesterday I ate as much sushi as I could at a sushi restaurant.
(b). 学生のうちに海外に行けるだけ行ってみたいと思います。
I think I want to go abroad as often as I can while I'm a student.
(c). 運転手さん、飛行機に遅れてしまうので、飛ばせるだけ飛ばして下さい。
Driver, I may miss my plane, so please go as fast as you can.
(d). 前から抱いていた不服を言うだけ言ったらすうっとした。
When I freely gave vent to my longstanding complaints (literally: as much as I wanted to) it felt so good.
(e). お金は使うだけ使っても故障の少ない車が買いたい。
I'd like to buy a trouble-free car no matter how much it costs.
(f). 昨日は寝たいだけ寝たので、心も体もすっきりした。
Yesterday I slept as much as I wanted, so my mind and body are refreshed.
(g). 痛風になった時、私の足の親指は腫れるだけ腫れてしまいました。
When I got gout my big toe really swelled up (literally: as much as it could swell).
(h). 今まで都会の真ん中でとてもうるさかったので、今度はできるだけ静かなところに住みたいです。
Until now, we have lived in the midst of a big, noisy town, so now we would like to live in as quiet a place as possible.
(i). この会社に入りたい理由、また入社したらやりたいことは何ですか。できるだけ具体的にお書き下さい。
Why do you want to join this company and what do you want to do once you join the company? Please write down your answers in as much detail as possible.
(j). その学会にはできるだけ出席するようにします。
I will do my best to attend the academic conference.
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Phrase
| A phrase that means "and as one would expect" or "for good reason". | And as one would expect; so (naturally); for good reason |
| 【Related Expression: だけのことはあって; だけに】 | |
(ksa). 彼女は人気女優だけあってすごいうちに住んでいる。
She is a popular actress and, as one would expect, she lives in a splendid house.
(ksb). 聡子は小さい時からバレエをしているだけあって体が柔らかい。
Satoko has practiced ballet since she was a child, so naturally she is limber.
(ksc). 彼が自慢するだけあって、彼のオフィスからの眺めはちょっとほかでは見られないものだった。
He is proud of his office for good reason: the view is something you could never see from other offices.
| (i)Vinformal | だけあって | |
| {教えている/教えていた}だけあって | Someone is/was teaching something, and as one would expect | |
| (ii)Adjective い informal | だけあって | |
| {若い/若かった}だけあって | Someone is/was young, and as one would expect | |
| (iii)Adjective な stem {な/だった} | だけあって | |
| 上手{な/だった}だけあって | Someone is/was good at something, and as one would expect | |
| (iv)Noun {Ø/だった} | だけあって | |
| 先生{Ø/だった}だけあって | Someone is/was a teacher, and as one would expect |
(a). 日本は火山国だけあって年中地震が絶えない。
Japan is a volcanic country, and, as one would expect, earthquakes occur constantly throughout the year.
(b). この壷はさすが名工の作品だけあって色や形に気品がある。
This pot was made by a master craftsman, so naturally its colours and shape are graceful.
(c). オーストラリア南端の地だけあって八月のメルボルンは実に寒い。
Melbourne, as one would expect from its location in the southern comer of Australia, is really cold in August.
(d). さすが日本一の花火大会と言われるだけあって、規模も芸術性も素晴らしいものだった。
(i) As one would expect from what people call the best fireworks in Japan, the scale and artistry were both amazing. (ii) People call it the best fireworks show in Japan for good reason: Its scale and artistic quality were both excellent.
(e). あのレストランは笠原さんのお薦めだけあって美味しかったです。
(i) Ms. Kasahara recommended that restaurant, and, as one would expect, the food was delicious. (ii) Ms. Kasahara recommended that restaurant for good reason: The food was delicious. [Ms. Kasahara is known as a gourmet.]
(f). この鞄は高いだけあって材料もいいし作りもしっかりしている。
(i) As one would expect from the (high) price of this bag, the material is good and it's also well made. (ii) This bag is expensive for good reason: The material is good and it's well made.
(g). あのうるさい社長が信頼するだけあって、彼の秘書は実に有能だ。
(i) As you can guess from the way that president, who is so critical, relies on his secretary, she is truly capable. (ii) That president, who is so critical, relies on his secretary for good reason: She is truly capable.
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Phrase
| A phrase that carries the idea "as one would expect". | And as one would expect; so (naturally); because |
| 【Related Expression: だけあって】 | |
(ksa). ビルは元フットボール選手だけに足が速い。
Bill used be a football player and, as one would expect, he runs fast.
(ksb). ホワイトさんは長い間日本に住んでいただけに日本のことをよく知っている。
Mr. White lived in Japan for a long time, so naturally he is very familiar with things related to Japan.
| (i)Vinformal | だけに | |
| {教えている/教えていた}だけに | Someone is/was teaching and as one would expect | |
| (ii)Adjective い informal | だけに | |
| {若い/若かった}だけに | Someone is/was young and as one would expect | |
| (iii)Adjective な stem {な/だった} | だけに | |
| 上手{な/だった}だけに | Someone is/was good at something and as one would expect | |
| (iv)Noun {Ø/だった} | だけに | |
| 先生{Ø/だった}だけに | Someone is/was a teacher and as one would expect |
(a). 彼は元アナウンサーだけに声がよく通る。
He used to be an announcer, so naturally his voice carries well.
(b). 山内先生は英語の先生だっただけに英語の文法をよく知っている。
As one would expect from her having been an English teacher, Ms. Yamauchi is very knowledgeable about English grammar.
(c). 雅人は一人っ子だけについ甘やかしてしまう。
Masato is our only child and, as you might expect, we tend to spoil him (without meaning to).
(d). 孝夫は学生時代に相撲をやっていただけに体が大きい。
Takao was a sumo wrestler when he was a student, so naturally he is big.
(e). チェンさんはアメリカの大学を卒業しただけに英語が上手だ。
Ms. Chen graduated from an American university, so naturally her English is good.
(f). ハリスさんは日本の大学で長い間教えていただけに日本の大学の問題をよく知っている。
Mr. Harris taught at a university in Japan for a long time so, as one would expect, he knows a lot about the problems of Japanese universities.
(g). 春樹はジャズが何よりも好きなだけにジャズ・ミュージシャンの名前をよく知っている。
Haruki likes jazz more than anything, so naturally he knows the names of many jazz musicians.
(h). 彼女がとても忙しいことをよく知っているだけに、彼女にはこの仕事を頼みにくい。
Because we know she's very busy, it's hard to ask her to do this job.
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Phrase
| A phrase expressing an evaluative comment regarding how something is contributing to an expected, remarkable result. | Don't do something for nothing; ~explains it; no wonder; it's no surprise |
| 【Related Expression: だけあって】 | |
(ksa). 明子は韓国語がとても上手だ。さすがに二年間ソウル大学に留学していただけのことはある。
Akiko is very good at Korean. She didn't study at Seoul National University for two years for nothing.
(ksb). 毎日一キロ以上水泳をしてきただけのことはあって、彼は九十歳の今もかくしゃくとしている。
He has been swimming more than 1 kilometre every day. No wonder he is still in such good shape at 90 (years old).
| (i){V/Adjective い}informal | だけのことはある | |
| {読む/読んだ}だけのことはある | Someone doesn't/didn't read something for nothing | |
| {高い/高かった}だけのことはある | Something isn't/wasn't expensive for nothing | |
| (ii)Adjective な {な/だった} | だけのことはある | |
| 好き{な/だった}だけのことはある | It's no surprise someone likes/liked it | |
| (iii)Noun {Ø/だった} | だけのことはある | |
| プロゴルファー{Ø/だった}だけのことはある | It's no surprised someone is/was a professional golfer |
(a). 山田先生は日本語の教え方が上手だ。アメリカの大学で二十年近く日本語を教えていらしただけのことはある。
Professor Yamada is good at teaching Japanese. She didn't teach it at a U.S. university for nearly 20 years for nothing.
(b). チャンさんは世界の経済状況をよくつかんでいる。経済コンサルタントとして世界を飛び回っているだけのことはある。
Ms. Chang has a firm grip on the world economic situation. She doesn't fly around the world as a finance consultant for nothing.
(c). 隣の家の子供達は実に行儀がいい。親のしつけが厳しいだけのことはある。
The kids next door have very good manners. Strict parental discipline explains it.
(d). 田中はさして才能もないのに昇進が早い。上司への気配りが巧みなだけのことはある。
Tanaka's rise has been quick, although he isn't that talented. His careful attention to his boss explains it.
(e). アインシュタインの理論は二十一世紀の現在でも死んでいない。さすがに二十世紀最大の物理学者と言われるだけのことはある。
Einstein's theory is still alive, even in the 21st century. No wonder he is called the greatest physicist of the 20th century.
(f). 幸い日本で日本語を勉強して、かなり話せるようになりました。日本に行っただけのことはありました。
Fortunately, I studied Japanese in Japan and now I can speak it fairly well. I didn't go to Japan for nothing.
(g). 彼は若いころから俳句を作ってきただけのことはあって、さすがに自然に対する観察眼が鋭い。
He has been composing haiku since his younger days. No wonder he has such a sharp eye for nature.
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Particle (usually used in formal writing and formal speech)
| A particle indicating that something expressed by the preceding verb alone produces a certain feeling or the meaning "(not) even doing something; doesn't even occur". | Just; (not) even |
| 【Related Expression: だけでも; さえ; すら】 | |
(ksa). あの時の大きな失敗は思い出すだに恥ずかしい。
Just remembering the big mistake I made at that time makes me feel embarrassed.
(ksb). イチローが、８４年間続いたジョージ・シスラーの最多安打記録を破るとは想像だにしなかった。
I couldn't (literally: didn't) even imagine that Ichiro would break George Sisler's 84-year-old record for the most hits in one season.
| (i)Vinformal nonpast | だに | |
| 思うだに | Just to think | |
| (ii)VN | だにしない | |
| 考慮だにしない | Someone doesn't even consider | |
| 注意だにしない | Someone doesn't even warn |
(a). 私の体脂肪率は今どれくらいあるんだろうか。考えるだに、恐ろしい。
I wonder what my percentage of body fat is right now? Just the thought of it scares me.
(b). 私が父の真似をしていたら、どんなことになったか。想像するだに心細いものがあります。
What would have happened if I had followed in my father's footsteps? Just imagining it makes me feel uneasy.
(c). この猛暑の中、友人は避暑地で休日を楽しんでいるとは、思うだにうらやましい。
It makes me envious just to think that my friend is enjoying her holiday at a summer resort while I'm stuck here in this scorching heat.
(d). アメリカの指導者たちの大多数は9/11のようなテロが発生する可能性を考慮だにしなかったらしい。
It appears that the majority of U.S. leaders didn't even consider the possibility that terrorism like 9/11 could occur.
(e). 若者たちは毎晩スケートボードで駅前のロータリーを走り回っているのに、警官は注意だにしない。
Every night the young men skateboard around the rotary in front of the station, but the police don't even warn them not to.
(f). 発表当時、彼の文献学的方法論は否定的評価を受けたが、彼の信念は微動だにしなかった。
His philological method received negative reviews at the time it was published, but his faith has not wavered even an inch.
(g). 小林は何か心配事があるのか、青い顔をして、こちらを一瞥だにしなかった。
Kobayashi looked pale and didn't even cast a glance in my direction, seeming as if something was bothering him.
(h). 人間は他の種を絶滅させるような環境を作り出しても一顧だにしない。
Even though humans have created an environment that drives other species into extinction, they don't give it a second thought.
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Conjunction
| A conjunction that lists nouns/quotes inexhaustively. | And (~and); or (~ or); and things like that |
| 【Related Expression: とか; や】 | |
(ksa). 庭にはすみれだのチューリップだのつつじだの、花がたくさん咲いていた。
In the garden, many flowers such as pansies, tulips, azaleas and others, were in bloom.
(ksb). 学生たちは食堂のご飯がまずいだの、授業がつまらないだのと、いつも不平を言っている。
The students are always complaining that the food at the cafeteria isn't good, or their classes are boring and so on.
| (i)Noun1 | だのNoun2だの(Noun3だの) | |
| そばだの、うどんだの、寿司だの | Soba and undon and sushi, and things like that | |
| (ii){V/Adjectiveい}1 informal | だの{V/Adjectiveい}2 informalだの | |
| 疲れるだのお腹が空くだのと | Saying that someone gets tired or hungry, and things like that | |
| 疲れただのお腹が空いただのと | Saying that someone got tired or hungry, and things like that | |
| 暑いだの、雨が多いだのと | Saying that it is hot or it rains too much, and things like that | |
| 暑かっただの、雨が多かっただのと | Saying that it was hot or it rained too much, and things like that | |
| (iii){Adjective な stem/Noun}{∅/だった} | だの{Adjective な stem/Noun}{∅/だった}だのと | |
| 不健康{∅/だった}だの、非衛生的{∅/だった}だのと | Saying that something is/was unhealthy and unhygienic, and so on | |
| バカ者{∅/だった}だの、腑抜け{∅/だった}だのと | Saying that someone is/was a fool or and idiot, among other things |
(a). 僕はそばだの、うどんだの、ラーメンだのといった麺類が大好きだ。
I like noodles such as soba, udon and ramen.
(b). 今の高校生は携帯電話だのコンピュータゲームだのにはまっている。
High school students now are addicted to things like cell phones and computer games.
(c). 彼は僕が飲みに行こうかと誘っても、いつも頭が痛いだの、約束があるだのと言い訳をする。
Whenever I invite him to go out for a drink, he has an excuse: he's got a headache or another appointment or something.
(d). 彼女は仕事が好きだから結婚しても仕事を続けるだの、家庭生活と職業を両立できるだのと主張していた。
She used to claim that she would keep working after she got married because she liked her work and could manage both family life and her career.
(e). 彼女は自分がテニスが上手だの、ピアノがうまいだのと自慢ばかりしている。
She's always boasting that she's good at tennis and (also good at) piano, and things like that.
(f). 受験生たちは塾だのテストだのと忙しい毎日を送っている。
Students preparing for the examination are spending busy days stuffed with cram school and tests.
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Conjunction (usually used in conversation)
| A conjunction that indicates a reason. | Because |
(ks). A:どうして会ったくれないの？B:だって、僕、今日忙しいんだ。
A: Why won't you see me? B: 'Cause I'm busy today.
| (i)だって{V/Adjective い} | Informal んだ({もの/もん}) | |
| だって{V/Adjective い} | Informal {もの/もん} | |
| だって{食べる/食べた}んだ({もの/もん}) | Because someone eats/ate something | |
| だって{食べる/食べた}{もの/もん} | Because someone eats/ate something | |
| だって{面白い/面白かった}んだ({もの/もん}) | Because something is/was interesting | |
| だって{面白い/面白かった}{もの/もん} | Because something is/was interesting | |
| (ii)だって{Noun/Adjective な stem} | {な/だった}んだ({もの/もん}) | |
| だって{Noun/Adjective な stem} | {な/だった}{もの/もん} | |
| だって学生{な/だった}んだ({もの/もん}) | Because someone is/was a student | |
| だって学生{な/だった}{もの/もん} | Because someone is/was a student | |
| だって変{な/だった}んだ({もの/もん}) | Because something/someone is/was strange | |
| だって変{な/だった}{もの/もん} | Because something/someone is/was strange |
(a). A:母：さや、どうしてもっとご飯食べないの。B:さや：だっておなか、空いていないもん。
Mother: Saya, how come you aren't eating more? Saya: 'Cause I'm not hungry.
(b). A:妻：健太さん、今日はどうしてゴルフに行かないの。B:夫：だって、今日は客と銀座で昼食をとらなきゃならないんだ。
Wife: Kenta, how come you're not going golfing today? Husband: 'Cause I have to have lunch with a client in Ginza.
(c). A:路子、笑い事じゃないよ。B:だって二人の話しているのを聞いていると面白いんだもん。
A: Michiko, it's no laughing matter! B: But it's so funny just listening to you guys talk.
(d). もう３５度じゃ驚かないね。だって連日気温は３５度、３６度、３７度が当たり前の状態なんだもの。
35°(C) isn't anything surprising, because the temperature is normally 35°(C), 36°(C), 37°(C) every day.
(e). A:なんで、僕だけ烏龍茶なんですか？ B:だって、お前はまだ未成年だろう？
A: How come you put oolong tea only in my glass? B: Because you are not an adult yet, are you?
(f). 彼がいるはずの店にやってきたが、入るべきかどうか迷っていた。だって、ここに来るとろくなことがない。
I came to the restaurant where I knew he'd be, but I wondered whether I should go in or not, because something bad always occurs there.
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Particle (usually used in conversation)
| A particle meaning "too" or "even". | Too; also; (not) ~either; even; any; no matter what/who/how/etc. |
| 【Related Expression: も; でも】 | |
(ksa). この翻訳なら私にだってできます。
(i) I could do this translation, too. (literally: If it's this translation, I can do it, too. (ii) Even I could do this translation. (literally: If it's this translation, even I can do it.
(ksb). 数多いお客さんの中には難しい人だっている。
In a large group of customers, there will be difficult people(, too).
(ksc). 今からだって遅くないから、彼に電話してみたら?
It's not too late now (literally: It is not late, even from now), so why don't you call him?
(ksd). そんないい仕事だったら誰だってやりたい。
Anyone would want a good job like that.
| (i)Noun (Particle) | だって | |
| 彼だって | He, too; even he | |
| これからだって | From now on, too; even from now on | |
| (ii)Wh-word | だって | |
| 誰だって買う | Anyone would buy |
(a). 君だって子供のことは考えているだろう。
(i) You're thinking about your children, too, aren't you? (ii) Even you are thinking about your children, aren't you?
(b). それは部長だって知らないことだ。
(i) This is something the division head doesn't know, either. (ii) This is something even the division head doesn't know.
(c). 最近は忙しいので日曜だって休めないことが多い。
(i) Because I have been very busy recently, often I haven't been able to take a day off on Sunday, either. (ii) Because I've been very busy recently, often I haven't even taken Sunday off.
(d). もういい加減に許してやれよ。彼だって悪気があってやったわけじゃないんだから。
Why don't you forgive him now? He didn't mean anything bad when he did it.
(e). これからだって彼には色々頼まないといけないんだから、そんなに彼のことを悪く言うもんじゃないよ。
We're going to have to ask a lot of favours from him from now on, too, so don't talk so ill of him.
(f). この間だってそうだ。僕のノートを借りたまま言われるまで返さないんだ。
It happened the other day, too. He borrowed my notebook and didn't return it until I asked him to.
(g). 一度だって僕が君に嘘をついたことがあるかい。
Have I ever lied to you, even once?
(h). それだけ日本語を知っていたら一人だってできるからやってごらん。
If you know that much Japanese, you can do it even on your own, so give it a try.
(i). 私は子供が欲しがるものは何だって買い与えた。今から思えばそれは間違いだったかもしれない。
I bought my child anything he wanted. When I think about it now, I feel that might have been the wrong thing to do.
(j). どっちだって同じだろう。早く決めちゃえよ。
lt's the same either way, isn't it (literally: Any one of which is the same, isn't it)? Make up your mind, quick.
(k). いつだってあなたのやりたいことを優先してきたじゃないの。
Haven't I always given priority to what you want to do?
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Phrase (usually used in formal writing and formal speech)
| A conjunctive phrase that expresses the idea of concession. | Even; even if; even though; no matter what/who/how/etc.~ may be; whatever/whoever/etc.~ may be |
| 【Related Expression: でも; であっても; であろうが/と】 | |
(ksa). たとえ社長であれ、そのような行為は許されない。
Even the (company) president shouldn't be allowed to do things like that. (literally: Even if it is the president, such conduct should not be allowed.
(ksb). どんな問題であれ、必ず私に報告して下さい。
Whatever kind of problem it may be, please report it to me without fail.
(ksc). 通勤がいかに不便であれ、今の家を変わるつもりはない。
No matter how inconvenient my commute is, I do not intend to move (literally: from our current house).
(ksd). いかに難しい問題であれ、彼ならきっと解決できるはずだ。
No matter how difficult the problem may be, he certainly should be able to solve it.
| (i)Noun | であれ | |
| たとえ病気であれ | Even if someone is ill | |
| 誰であれ | No matter who it may be | |
| いかに弱いチームであれ | No matter how weak a team it may be | |
| いかに静かなアパートであれ | No matter how quiet an apartment it may be | |
| (ii)Adjective な stem | であれ | |
| たとえ可能であれ | Even if something is possible | |
| いかに不便であれ | No matter how inconvenient something may be |
(a). この練習は、たとえ数分間であれ、毎日することが大切です。
It is important to practice this every day, even if it is only for a few minutes.
(b). 彼の提言は、たとえそれが実行不可能であれ、聞くに値する。
His suggestions are worth listening to even if they cannot be carried out.
(c). 暗号技術については、たとえ短期間の使用であれ、その輸出入を規制している国があります。
Some countries regulate the export and import of cryptographic technology, even when it is intended for short-term use.
(d). 何事であれ、その仕事で生活するとなれば楽なものはない。
Whatever kind it may be, if you make a living from it, there is no such thing as easy work.
(e). どのような理由であれ、著作物を複製する時は、著作権の侵害に注意しなければならない。
Whatever the reason (for making copies) may be, when you duplicate copyrighted materials, you have to be careful not to infringe on the copyright.
(f). 当時の軍隊では上官の命令がいかに理不尽であれ、下級兵はそれに従うしかなかったのだ。
In the army in those days, no matter how unreasonable the senior officers' commands, the soldiers under them had no choice but to obey them.
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Structure (usually used in formal writing and formal speech)
| A structure that means "no matter which one is the case" | Whether X or Y; be it X or Y; or |
| 【Related Expression: であろうと~であろうと; でも~でも; と言わず~と言わず】 | |
(ksa). 男性であれ、女性であれ、人間としての権利は同じはずだ。
Whether one is a man or a woman, one's rights as a human being should be the same.
(ksb). 有名であれ、無名であれ、人生は短い。
No matter if one is famous or nameless, life is short.
| (i)Noun1 | であれ、Noun2であれ | |
| 夏であれ、冬であれ | Whether it is summer or winter | |
| (ii)Adjective な1 stem | であれ、Adjective な2 stemであれ | |
| 便利であれ、不便であれ | Whether something is convenient or inconvenient |
(a). ここは春であれ秋であれ美しいから観光に向いている。
Whether spring or fall, this place is beautiful, so it is a good sightseeing spot.
(b). イスラエル人であれ、パレスチナ人であれ、平和を望んでいることでは同じはずだ。
Whether an Israeli or a Palestinian, their hope for peace should be the same.
(c). 彼は和食であれ、洋食であれ、何でも食べてしまう。
He eats anything, Japanese- or Western-style food.
(d). あの学者は哲学であれ、言語学であれ、人類学であれ、同じように精通している。
That scholar is well-versed in a number of subjects, whether it be philosophy, linguistics or anthropology.
(e). 平日であれ、週末であれ、健太は仕事に追われている。
Whether weekday or weekend, Kenta is always pressed by work.
(f). 写真であれ、コンピュータグラフィックスであれ、求められたイメージを表現するのは大変難しい。
Whether in photography or in computer graphics, it is hard to produce an image as requested.
(g). 場所が便利であれ、不便であれ、マイホームが持ちたい。
Whether the location is convenient or inconvenient, I'd like to have my own house.
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Phrase (usually used in conversation)
| A phrase expressing the speaker's belief that someone's action is based on mistaken identity of himself/herself and also expressing the speaker's critical comments about someone's behaviour. | You are not~, so; it isn't~, so |
(ksa). 幼稚園児｛でも/じゃ｝あるまいし一人で学校に行きなさい。
You are not a kindergarten pupil. Go to school by yourself.
(ksb). フランスに行けるわけ｛でも/じゃ｝あるまいし、どうしてそんなにフランス語を勉強しているの。
There's no way you can get to France. How come you're studying French so hard?
| (i)Noun | {でも/じゃ}あるまいし | |
| 子供{でも/じゃ}あるまいし | You aren't a child, so~ (literally: you couldn't possibly be a child, so~) | |
| (ii)Vinformal わけ | {でも/じゃ}あるまいし | |
| プロ野球の選手に{なる/なった}わけ{でも/じゃ}あるまいし | It isn't the case that someone will/has become a professional baseball player, so~ | |
| (iii)Adjective い informal わけ | {でも/じゃ}あるまいし | |
| {面白い/面白かった}わけ{でも/じゃ}あるまいし | It isn't the case that something is/was interesting, so~ | |
| (iv)Adjective な stem {な/だった}わけ | {でも/じゃ}あるまいし | |
| 有名{な/だった}わけ{でも/じゃ}あるまいし | It isn't the case that someone is/was famous, so~ | |
| (v)Noun {である/だった}わけ | {でも/じゃ}あるまいし | |
| 社長{である/だった}わけ{でも/じゃ}あるまいし | It isn't the case that someone is/was a company president, so~ |
(a). 学生じゃあるまいし、仕事でも探したらどうだ。
You are not a student; why don't you look for a job or something?
(b). 政治家でもあるまいし、嘘をつかないで下さい。
You aren't a politician. Don't tell a lie.
(c). 犬じゃあるまいし、そんなに人にじゃれるようなことはやめなさい。
You aren't a dog, you know. Stop being so playful with me.
(d). お葬式でもあるまいし、そんなにしゅんとしないで下さい。
It's not a funeral service. Don't be depressingly quiet!
(e). 現地の英語学校に入ったら、日本人の女の子が英語で「分からないことがあったら聞いて」と言ってきた。授業中じゃあるまいし、日本語で言えばいいのに。
When I went inside an English language school there, a Japanese girl said to me in English, "If you have anything you don't understand, ask me." It wasn't even a class. She could have talked to me in Japanese!
(f). このうどん屋では注文してから、うどんがくるまで長く待たされ、いらいらする。フランス料理でもあるまいし…。
At this noodle shop it takes so long from the time you order noodles to the time they bring them to the table that I get annoyed. It's not French cuisine, you know.
(g). 息子は音楽を専攻しているんじゃあるまいし、ギターばかり弾いていて卒業できるんだろうか。
My son isn't majoring in music, but he's always playing the guitar. I wonder if he can finish school.
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Structure
| Structure indicating what expressed in main/subordinate clause is applicable to anyone, anything, anyplace or any time. | ~whatever; ~whoever; ~whenever; ~whichever |
(ks). そんなことは子供でも誰でも知っているよ。
That sort of thing is known even to a child or to anybody.
| Noun (particle) | Noun (particle)でも、Wh-word (particle)でも | |
| 小学生(に)でも、誰(に)でも | (to) an elementary pupil or (to) anybody | |
| アフリカ(から)でも、どこ(から)でも | (from) Africa or (from) anywhere | |
| 寿司でも、何でも | Sushi or whatever | |
| 明日でも、いつでも | Tomorrow or whenever |
(a). 私って漫画でも何でも読み出すと止まらないタイプなの。
I'm the type of person who cannot stop reading manga or whatever once I start.
(b). Tシャツの大きさはMでもLでも、どちらでもかまいません。
It doesn't matter to me whether (the size of) the T-shirt is M or L (literally: or whichever).
(c). 欧米では、バスでも地下鉄でも、車椅子でどこへでも行ける。どうしても助けが必要な時は、誰かに頼めばたとえ日本人にでも誰にでも手を貸してくれる。
In Europe and America you can go anywhere in a wheelchair by bus or by subway. When you find you need help, just ask anyone. People there will lend a hand to anyone who asks, Japanese or otherwise.
(d). 最近のパーティーは留学生でも日本人でも誰でも参加自由で、来る人は飲み物、音楽、自分の作った料理を持ってくるというようにしています。
At our recent parties we've made it so all students, whether Japanese or from abroad, can freely participate and ask everyone to bring drinks, music or food they've made.
(e). A:すみませんが、来週、検査の結果が出たら、もう一度来ていただけますか。B:分かりました。来週でもいつでも伺います。
A: Can you come back next week when we get the result of the examination? B: Yes, I can come next week or whenever.
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Phrase
| A phrase indicating that the speaker/writer chooses one alternative over another in a tentative way. | Rather; more like~; more of~; rather on the~ side; rather than otherwise; more~ than~ |
| 【Related Expression: どちらかと言えば; むしろ】 | |
(ksa). 彼はどちらかと言うと教育者というより(は)研究者だ。
He is more like a researcher than an educator.
(ksb). 私はどちらかと言うと外向的というより(は)内向的だ。
I'm more of an introvert than an extrovert.
(ksc). 母はどちらかと言うと、大人しい方です。
My mother is rather on the quiet side.
(ksd). 洋食も悪くはないが、どちらかと言うと、和食の方がいい。
It's not that Western-style food is bad, but I prefer Japanese-style food.
| (i)どちらかと言うと | (Xというよりは)Y。 | Where X=Noun{∅/だ/だった}/Adjectiveいinformal/Adjectiveなstem{∅/だ/だった}; Y=Noun{だ/だった}/Adjectiveいinformal/Adjectiveな{だ/だった} |
| どちらかと言うと(詩人(だ)というよりは)学者だった。 | Someone was more of a scholar than a poet | |
| どちらかと言うと(悲しいというよりは)寂しい。 | I'm lonely rather than sad | |
| どちらかと言うと(悲しかったというよりは)寂しかった。 | I was lonely rather than sad | |
| どちらかと言うと(不便(だ)というよりは)便利だ。 | Something is convenient rather than inconvenient | |
| どちらかと言うと(不便だったというよりは)便利だった。 | Something was convenient rather than inconvenient | |
| (ii)どちらかと言うと、 | X方{だ/だった}。 | Where X=Vinformal nonpast/Adjective い informal nonpast/Adjective な stem な |
| どちらかと言うと、本をよく読む方{だ/だった}。 | Someone is/was an avid reader | |
| どちらかと言うと、大きい方{だ/だった}。 | Someone is/was rather on the big side | |
| どちらかと言うと、親切な方{だ/だった}。 | Someone is/was more of the kind type | |
| (iii)どちらかと言うと、 | (Xよりは)Y方が～。 | Where X, Y=Vinformal nonpast/Adjective い informal nonpast/Adjective な stem な |
| どちらかと言うと、(するよりは)見る方が好きだ。 | I like watching something rather than playing it | |
| どちらかと言うと、先生は(厳しいよりは)優しい方がいい。 | I like a teacher to be kind rather than strict | |
| どちらかと言うと、ゲーム(単純なよりは)複雑な方が面白い。 | I like complex games rather than simple ones | |
| (iv)どちらかと言うと、 | (Noun1よりは)Noun2(の方)が～。 | |
| どちらかと言うと、(犬よりは)猫(の方)が好きだ。 | I like cats rather than dogs |
(a). 山本は決して呑気な男ではない。どちらかと言うと神経質な男だ。
Yamamoto is far from easy-going. He's more of a nervous type of guy.
(b). あの政治家のやり方はどちらかと言うと賢いというよりはずる賢い。
The way that politician behaves is more cunning than wise.
(c). 君はどちらかと言うと楽観的というよりは悲観的だね。
You're more pessimistic than optimistic, aren't you?
(d). 彼女はどちらかと言うと、仕事に生きるタイプで、精神的にも強い人間だと思う。
More than anything, I think she's the type who lives to work, and is quite mentally strong.
(e). あの大学はどちらかと言うと入学がやさしい方だ。
Entering that college is rather easy.
(f). 私はパーティーなどの集まりでは、どちらかと言うと、話し役ではなく、聞き役の方だ。
At parties or other gatherings I am more of a listener than a speaker.
(g). どちらかと言うと、夏目漱石よりは芥川龍之介の方が私の趣味に合っている。
If I had to choose I'd say Ryunosuke Akutagawa matches my tastes better than Soseki Natsume.
(h). この大学の日本語の学生は、どちらかと言うと目的を持って勉強しているというよりは趣味として日本語を勉強している。
At this university the students of Japanese are studying it more as a hobby than for a certain objective.
(i). 彼はどちらかと言うと話すより書く方が得意だ。
He is better at writing than speaking.
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Adverb
| An adverb indicating a polite yet very strong request. | Please |
| 【Related Expression: どうぞ】 | |
(ksa). どうか私の言い分を聞いて下さい。
Please listen to what I have to say.
(ksb). どうか私を見捨てないで下さい。
Please don't abandon me.
(ksc). どうかお許し下さい。
Please forgive me.
| どうか～ | Vて/Vnegativeないで/おVます下さい。 | |
| どうか返して下さい。 | Please return it to me | |
| どうか行かないで下さい。 | Please don't go | |
| どうかお持ち帰り下さい。 | Please take it home |
(a). どうかこれに懲りずにまたいらして下さい。
We'd love to have you over again. (literally:, I hope you'll see fit to overlook our meagre hospitality and come again.)
(b). どうか本当のことを話して下さい。
Please tell me the truth.
(c). どうかお体を大切に(して下さい)。
Please take good care of yourself.
(d). どうかお気を使わないで下さい。
Please don't bother.
(e). 向寒の折から、どうかお体にお気をつけ下さい。
It's getting cold, so please take good care of yourself.
(f). どうか命をお助け下さい。
Please spare my life!
(g). どうか今後ともよろしくお願いいたします。
literally: Please let me ask for your kind help and considerateness from now on, too.
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Phrase
| A phrase indicating that an action/state is simply impossible due to an adverse situation. | Cannot; be simply impossible; simply don't/doesn't have time; be far from~; anything but~; no way; far from; be out of question |
| 【Related Expression: どころか; こどろのはなしではない】 | |
(ksa). 自分のことで精一杯で、人のことなど考えるどころではない。
I'm so busy with my own things that I simply can't think of other people's matters (right now).
(ksb). 年末なのに多忙で、海外旅行(をする)どころではなかった。
I was so busy toward the end of the year that there was no way I could travel abroad.
(ksc). 津波で愛する娘を亡くしたので、悲しいどころではない。死にたい気持ちだ。
I lost my beloved daughter in the tsunami. I'm not just sad. I feel like killing myself.
(ksd). 定年になっても暇どころではない。毎日野菜作りに精を出している。
I have retired, but I can't say I have any free time. Every day I put all my energy into vegetable gardening.
| (i){V/Adjectiveい}informal nonpast | どころではない | |
| 映画を見るどころではない | Someone simply doesn't have time to see a movie | |
| 面白いどころではない | Someone is far from being interesting | |
| (ii)Noun (をする) | どころではない | Where Noun is typically an action noun |
| ゴルフ(をする)どころではない | I simply don't have time to play golf | |
| 散歩(をする)どころではない | I simply don't have time to take a walk | |
| (iii)Adjective な stem | どころではない | |
| 自由どころではない | Something/someone is hardly free |
(a). 毎日の生活に汲々としていて、株を買うどころではありません。
My everyday life is so tight financially that I simply can't consider buying stocks.
(b). 私はテニスが大好きだが、最近大怪我をしてテニスどころではない。
I love tennis, but I sustained a severe injury recently, and playing tennis is now out of the question.
(c). A:おい、今晩、飲みに行こうか。B:それどころじゃないんだ。妻が入院したんだ。
A: Hey, why don't we go drinking tonight? B: No way. My wife has been hospitalized.
(d). 目下寝たきりの母の介護で、外出どころではないんです。
Right now I'm taking care of my bed-ridden mother, so I simply don't have time to leave the house.
(e). このところ学生の修論指導で研究どころじゃないんだよ。
I've been advising MA students on their theses lately and I simply don't have time to do research.
(f). A:妻：あなた、この週末に熱海の温泉にでも行かない？ B:夫：それどころじゃないんだよ。原稿の締め切りが来週の月曜日なんだ。
Wife: Honey, why don't we go to the hot springs in Atami this weekend? Husband: No way! The deadline for the manuscript is next Monday.
(g). スイカマラソンは、レース中やレース後にスイカが食べられる。でも、走り終わったら、へとへとで、とてもスイカを食べるどころではないそうだ。
In the watermelon marathon, runners can eat watermelon during or after the race, but I hear that when they're done running they're so tired that there's no way they can eat the watermelon.
(h). 今日は非常に暑かった。もう暖かいどころではない。
It was extremely hot today. You can't just call it warm anymore.
(i). ものすごい排気ガスを吸っているから、健康どころではない。
I am breathing in all these awful exhaust fumes, so I am far from being healthy.
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Conjunction (usually used in formal writing and formal speech)
| A conjunction that indicates concession based on an actual state or action. | Even though; although; though; no matter how much/often/hard/etc. |
| 【Related Expression: とも; ても】 | |
(ksa). この二つの文章は言い方は違えども、言おうとしていることは同じだ。
Although the way in which these two compositions are written is different, their claims are the same.
(ksb). 行けども行けども人家が見えてこない。
No matter how far we go, we still can't see houses.
| Vconditional | ども | |
| 行けども | Even though someone goes | |
| 見れども | Even though someone sees something | |
| すれども | Even though someone does something | |
| 来れども | Even though someone comes |
(a). 私は知識はあれども学才がなく、今後学問の世界でやっていけるとは思えない。
Although I have (a good amount of) knowledge, I have no scholastic talent, so I don't think I can survive in academia (in the future).
(b). 汲めども尽きぬ泉のように、彼は次々と美しい曲を書き続けた。
Just like a spring which never dries up no matter how much water is taken out, he kept writing beautiful songs, one after another.
(c). 見慣れているものというのは、視れども見えずで、毎日見ていてもその問題に気がつかないものである。
Regarding things you are used to seeing, even though you look at them, you don't really see them. So, you don't notice their problems even if you see them every day.
(d). 親といえども子供に対してそんな横暴は許されない。
Even parents shouldn't be allowed to exercise such tyranny over their children.
(e). 老いたりといえども、伊藤先生はまだ動きも速く、この剣道場の人は誰も先生に勝つことができない。
Although Master Ito is old, he still moves swiftly, and no one at this Japanese fencing school can beat him.
(f). 走れども走れども雪原が続いているだけだった。
No matter how far I drove, the snow (literally: snowfields) never ended.
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Structure
| A structure indicating that no matter how hard someone may try, something is impossible. | Not~ by any means; no matter how hard~ try, ~ cannot~; there is no way to~; cannot do~ at all |
| 【Related Expression: どうにもこうにも~ない】 | |
(ksa). 私には小説などはどうにも書けない。
I'd never be able to write something like a novel, no matter how hard I try.
(ksb). この作文は間違いがひどくてどうにも直しようがない。
This composition has such awful mistakes that there is no way to fix it.
(ksc). 最近は携帯がないとどうにも仕事にならない。
Lately we can't work without a cell phone.
| (i)どうにもVpotential negative | ない | |
| どうにも話せない | Can't speak no matter how hard someone tries | |
| (ii)どうにもVます | ようがない | |
| どうにも食べようがない | There is no way to eat it | |
| (iii)どうにもNoun | にならない | |
| どうにも勉強にならない | Can't study at all |
(a). この書類は印刷が悪くてどうにも読めない。
This document is printed so poorly, there's no way we can read it.
(b). あの人はあまりにも内気でどうにも好きになれない。
He is so introverted, I don't think I'll ever grow to like him.
(c). 人の悪口をかげで言うなどということはどうにも許せない。
I can't possibly tolerate someone speaking ill of me behind my back.
(d). 会社経営で破綻寸前まで来るとどうにも救いようがない。
When a company's management is on the verge of bankruptcy, there is no way to salvage it.
(e). これだけストレスが溜まると、どうにも解消しようがない。
When stress piles up this much, there's no way to relieve it.
(f). バブル経済崩壊後の日本の経済の低迷ぶりはひどいものだけれど、どうにもならない。
The Japanese economic slump since the bubble economy burst is terrible, but there is no help for it.
(g). 色々お礼の言葉を書こうと思っていたのですが、どうにも言葉になりません。今まで本当にありがとうございました。
I was going to send you a thank-you note but I just couldn't find the words to say what I meant. Thank you very much!
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Suffix
| A suffix that adds the meaning of "the same things/people". | Each other; between/among (things/people of the same kind, group, etc.); together; with |
| 【Related Expression: と; 一緒に】 | |
(ksa). 磁石のN極(またはS極)同士は反発する。
North poles (or south poles) of magnets repel each other.
(ksb). 高校時代の友達同士で海外旅行に行くことになった。
We've decided that we high school friends will travel abroad together.
(ksc). 決勝戦はアルゼンチン選手同士の対決になった。
The final turned out to be a battle between (two) Argentine players.
(ksd). このケーブルを使うと、パソコン同士を直接つないで高速ファイル転送をすることができる。
With this cable, you can connect personal computers directly and transfer files (from one computer to another) at high speed.
| Noun | 同士 | |
| 友達同士 | The friends do something to/for each other/together |
(a). タバコを吸う者同士は、何となく相手に親しみを感じやすい。
Smokers somehow find it easier to feel close to each other.
(b). 面白いことに、隣り合った国同士は仲が悪いことが多い。
Interestingly, adjacent countries often have poor relations with each other.
(c). 茨城沖で貨物船同士が衝突、二人死亡四人行方不明。
[Newspaper headline] Two cargo ships collide off (the coast of) Ibaraki; two killed, four missing.
(d). これは分子同士が衝突して起こる現象だ。
This is a phenomenon caused by molecules colliding (literally: against each other).
(e). 男同士で旅行に行ってもつまらない。
It's boring if we travel together as a group of all men.
(f). 韓国では１９９７年に法律が変わり同姓同士でも自由に結婚できるようになった。
In South Korea the laws changed in 1997, and people with the same family name can freely marry each other now.
(g). この国ではいとこ同士の結婚は法的に認められている。
In this country, marriage between cousins is legally recognized.
(h). 何も知らない者同士が話し合ってもいい答えは出てこない。
Discussions among those who don't know anything will never lead to a good solution.
(i). 日本ではバレンタインデーに女の子が男の子にチョコレートを渡して愛を告白するのが一般的になっていますが、アメリカでは夫婦や恋人同士はもちろんのこと、友達や家族同士でもこの日、愛を言葉にします。
It is common in Japan for girls to confess their love to boys on St. Valentine's Day by giving them chocolates. However, in America, not only married couples and lovers but also friends and family members verbally express their love to each other.
(j). このタンパク質は細胞同士を結びつけるセメントのような役割をする。
This protein acts like cement in joining cells.
(k). モンスター同士を戦わせるコンピュータゲームが間もなく発売される。
A computer game in which monsters fight against each other (literally: which makes monsters fight against each other) will be on sale soon.
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Conjunction (usually used in formal writing and formal speech)
| A conjunction indicating that as soon as something happens, something else happens. | As soon as; the moment; no sooner~ than |
| 【Related Expression: や否や】 |
(ks). 彼は朝起きるが早いか、シャワーを浴びた。
As soon as he woke up he took a shower.
| Vinformal nonpast | が早いか | |
| 食べるが早いか | As soon as someone ate |
(a). 彼女は日本に着くが早いか友人に電話をかけた。
The moment she arrived in Japan she called her friend.
(b). 彼は私がいるのを見るが早いか、部屋を出て行ってしまった。
As soon as he saw me, he left the room.
(c). 猫は鼠を捕まえるが早いか、食べ始めた。
The moment the cat caught the mouse, it started to eat it.
(d). 電車はジョンが乗るが早いか、動き始めた。
As soon as John got on the train, it started to move.
(e). ディーンは奇麗な女の子を見かけるが早いか、近寄って行って話しかけた。
No sooner did Dean see the pretty girl than he approached her and started talking to her.
(f). 子供たちはパンが焼けるが早いか、全部食べてしまった。
As soon as the bread was baked, the children ate it all.
(g). ひったくりは金を奪うが早いか、自転車で逃げた。
As soon as the thief (literally: snatcher) snatched my money, he fled by bike.
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Structure
| A structure presenting a counterfactual situation which indicates that things would be better if something were really good or appropriate. | If someone/something were a really good/appropriate one; if something is right |
(ks). 会社が会社ならもう少しましな給料を出してくれるのだろうが。
If my company were a really good one, it would probably pay a bit better salary, but…
| Noun1がNoun2なら～ | (だろう/かもしれない) | WhereNoun1=Noun2 |
| 病院が病院なら治っていた(だろう/かもしれない) | If that hospital were a really good one, someone might have been cured |
(a). 大学が大学ならもっといい教育が受けられて、いい就職もできたのだろう。
If the university had been a really good one, it would have given me a much better education, and I could have gotten a good job.
(b). 友人が友人なら、役に立つ助言をしてくれたかもしれません。
If your friend were a true friend, he might have given you useful advice.
(c). 季節が季節なら、ここは素晴らしい観光地なんですが、今は寒すぎて観光には向いていないんですよ。
If we were here in the right season, this place would be a wonderful sightseeing spot, but now it's not a good place to take tourists because it is too cold. [It's winter now.]
(d). 時代が時代なら、そんな服装も悪くはないのかもしれないが、今ではおよそ古臭い。
At the appropriate time, that sort of clothing would not have looked so bad, but now it is too old-fashioned looking.
(e). 世が世なら、こんな情けない生活はしなくても済んだのに。
If I were living in a really good time, I wouldn't need to live such a miserable life.
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Auxiliary Adjective (usually used in formal writing and formal speech)
| Auxiliary adjective indicates resemblance of something/someone to something/someone or indicates how something/someone appears to speaker/writer. | Like; look like |
| 【Related Expression: ようだ; みたいだ; かのように】 | |
(ksa). 人生は旅のごとし。
Life is like a journey.
(ksb). その無謀な行為は火中に飛び込む｛が/かの｝ごとし。
Acting recklessly like that is like jumping into the fire.
(ksc). 彼女はモナリザのごとくいつも微笑んでいる。
She is like Mona Lisa, always smiling.
(ksd). x氏は超人のごとき人だ。
Mr. X is like a superman.
(kse). 彼女は僕のことを全然覚えていないかのごとき様子だった。
She looked as if she didn't remember me at all.
| (i)Nounの | ごとし | |
| 魚のごとし | Someone/something is like (a) fish | |
| (iii)Vinformal nonpast{が/かの} | ごとし | |
| 夢見る{が/かの} | It is like dreaming/as if someone were dreaming | |
| (iii)Noun(か)の | ごとく | |
| 魚のごとく泳ぐ | Someone swims like a fish | |
| 魚かのごとく泳ぐ | Someone swims as if he/she were a fish | |
| (iv)Noun(か)の | ごとき | |
| 夢のごとき人生 | Life like a dream | |
| 夢かのごとき人生 | Life like a dream | |
| (v){Vinformal nonpast/Nounである}{が/かの} | ごときNoun | |
| 山に登る{が/かの}ごとき人生 | Life like climbing a mountain | |
| 夢である{が/かの}ごとき人生 | Life like a dream |
(a). 光陰矢のごとし。
Time flies like an arrow. (literally: Time is like an arrow.)
(b). 人生は航海のごとし。
Life is like a voyage.
(c). 東京人は万人走っているかのごとし。
Tokyoites all look as if they were always running.
(d). 日本の経済は、上述のごとく、今後しばらくは回復しない見込みである。
As stated above, the Japanese economy is not expected to recover for some time.
(e). 彼女は女王のごとく芸能界に君臨している。
She dominates the show business world as if she were a queen.
(f). 課長は当然のごとく女性の職員にお茶くみをさせている。
The section chief has female staff members serve tea as if it were in their job description (literally: as if it were a matter of course).
(g). 夢のごとき新婚生活の後に悲劇が訪れた。
Their dream-like, newly-wedded bliss was followed by tragedy.
(h). 彼は平社員なのに社長であるかのごとき言動をするのでみんなに嫌われている。
He is just a regular employee, but he talks and acts as if he were the president, so nobody likes him.
(i). 皮膚の色だけで差別するがごとき行為は絶対にあってはならぬ。
Behaviour such as discriminating against people merely on the basis of skin colour simply shouldn't exist.
(j). 子供が大人のような犯罪を犯すがごとき風潮は何が原因なのだろうか。
I wonder what causes trends such as children committing adult crimes.
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Conjunction (usually used in formal writing and formal speech)
| A conjunction used to contrast the positive and negative sides of something/someone. | While; on the other hand |
| 【Related Expression: に対して; に反して; 一方(で)】 | |
(ksa). 携帯電話は便利な反面、わずらわしいこともある。
While cell phones are convenient, they are also sometimes annoying.
(ksb). この国は個人の意思が尊重される反面、グループとしてのまとまりが弱い。
In this society, while the individual's will is respected, group unity is weak.
(ksc). この仕事は面白くて収入もいいが、(その)反面、忙しくて自分の時間がなかなか持てないという問題もある。
This job is interesting and pays well; on the other hand, being so busy, I hardly ever (literally: cannot) have time for myself and that is a problem.
(ksd). ここは海産物が安く、また種類も多くて本土では食べられない魚もあります。(しかし、)(その)反面、野菜や果物は高いです。
Seafood is cheap and plentiful in variety here, and there are also fish that you cannot eat on the mainland. On the other hand, fruits and vegetables are expensive.
| (i){V/Adjectiveい}Informal nonpast | 反面 | |
| ～ができる反面 | While someone can do~ | |
| 厳しい反面 | While someone is strict | |
| (ii)Adjective な stem {な/である} | 反面 | |
| 便利{な/である}反面 | While something is convenient | |
| (ii)Nounである | 反面 | |
| 有利なである投資反面 | While something is a good investment~ |
(a). この仕事は厳しい反面、勉強になることも多い。
While this job is tough, it teaches me a lot.
(b). 外食は手軽な反面、栄養が偏る恐れがある。
While eating out is easy, it can lead to an unbalanced diet.
(c). この地域は商業や医療、文化施設などの利用が便利な反面、自然環境はあまり望めない。
In this region, while the commercial, medical and cultural facilities are convenient to use, you cannot expect much in terms of the natural environment.
(d). アメリカンタイプのホテル建物も比較的新しく部屋が機能的な反面、雰囲気に欠けるところがあります。
While American-style hotels provide functional rooms in relatively new buildings, they are somehow lacking in (good) atmosphere.
(e). ポリエステルのカーテンは縮みにくく、熱にも強いが、反面、静電気が発生して汚れがつきやすい。
While polyester curtains do not shrink easily and are heat-resistant, they attract dirt easily because of static electricity.
(f). この磁石は優れた磁気特性を持ち、機械強度が大きい。反面、錆びやすく、高温での便用には適さない。
This magnet has superb magnetic properties and excellent mechanical strength. On the other hand, it rusts easily and should not be used at high temperatures.
(g). 理想主義はある面ではすばらしいが、その反面、それが行きすぎていろいろな問題が起こることもある。
Idealism is wonderful in some ways; on the other hand, when it goes too far, it can cause problems.
(h). インターネットの恋人探しサービスを使う場合、出会いという観点から見ると、こちらから積極的にアプローチをする方法はかなり効果的です。その反面、個人情報の流出という危険性もあります。
When you use online services to search for a boyfriend or girlfriend, taking the active approach is quite effective in terms of meeting people. On the other hand, there is the danger that your personal information will be leaked.
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Adverb (usually used in formal writing and formal speech)
| An adverb indicating that something occurred as the writer expected, or expressing in a concession clause the writer's strong doubt. | Just as~ though; as expected; really; in fact; sure enough; indeed; at all; lo and behold |
| 【Related Expression: やはり/やっぱり; 案の定】 | |
(ksa). 今年の冬も暖冬だと言われていたが、はたして暖冬だった。
They said this would be a warm winter, and indeed it has been.
(ksb). はたして日本の教育は改革される(の)だろうか。
I wonder if Japanese education will really be reformed at all.
(ksc). はたして女性の地位が改憲されるとしても時間がかかるだろう。
Even if women's status improves, as expected, it may take time.
| (i)はたして | {V/Adjectiveい}informal past | |
| はたして失敗した | Someone failed as expected | |
| はたして安かった | Something was indeed inexpensive | |
| (ii)はたして | {Adjectiveな stem/Noun}だった | |
| はたして立派だった | Someone/something really was magnificent | |
| はたして雨だった | It rained (literally: it was rain), as expected | |
| (iii)はたして | {V/Adjective い}informal(の)だろうか | |
| はたして彼は{来る/来た}(の)だろうか | I wonder if he really is coming/came | |
| はたして彼は頭が{いい/よかった}(の)だろうか | I wonder if he really is/was smart | |
| (iv)はたして | {Adjective な stem/Noun}{∅/なの/だった(の)}だろうか | |
| はたして彼は元気{∅/なの/だった(の)}だろうか | I wonder if he really is/was healthy | |
| はたして彼は学生{∅/なの/だった(の)}だろうか | I wonder if he really is/was a student | |
| (v)はたして | {V/Adjective(い/な)/Noun+Copula}informal としても | |
| はたして彼が大統領に{なる/なった}としても | Even if he really becomes/became president | |
| はたして彼が{若い/若かった}としても | Even if he were/had been really young | |
| はたして彼が{元気だ/元気だった}としても | Even if he were/had been really healthy | |
| はたして彼が{独身だ/独身だった}としても | Even if he really were/had been a single |
(a). 東西ドイツ統一はいずれは起こると思っていたが、はたして予想通り起きた。
I thought that sooner or later East and West Germany would be united, and, just as I expected, it happened.
(b). 二人の仲は周知の事実で、いつかはゴールインすると思っていたら、はたしてその通りになった。
Everyone knew about their relationship, and, just as we expected, they got married.
(c). そこのレストランは魚料理で有名だったが、はたして思った通りの美味しい料理が出てきた。
That restaurant was famous for its fish dishes, and the food really was as good as we had expected.
(d). イスラエルをパレスチナ両国の間にはたして真の平和が訪れるのだろうか。
I wonder if real peace will indeed come to Israel and the Palestinian territories.
(e). はたして日本経済は近い将来に復興するだろうか。
I wonder if the Japanese economy really will revive in the near future.
(f). ２１世紀ははたしてどの国の世紀になるのだろうか。
To which country will the 21st century really belong?
(g). はたして政治家たちの言うことがうわべだけのことであるとしても、多少の真実はあると考えたい。
Even if what politicians say really is just lip service, I would like to think that there is some truth in it.
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Adverb
| An adverb indicating that something is perceived to eventually lead to a significant result. | Eventually (lead to)~; even |
| 【Related Expression: 更に(は)】 | |
(ksa). イラクへの攻撃はアメリカの孤立を招き、ひいてはイスラム社会全体との戦争に発展していく恐れがある。
There is fear that an attack against Iraq will bring about American isolation, and eventually will lead to a war with Muslim society as a whole.
(ksb). 彼は同僚にライバル意識、ひいては殺意すら抱いていた。
He regarded his colleague as a rival, even to the point of considering murder.
| (i)~Vます | ひいてはSentence。 | |
| (see key sentence A) | ||
| (ii)Noun1、 | ひいてはNoun2 | |
| (see key sentence B) |
(a). 東京の産業構造を適切に転換していくことが、東京の産業を活性化させ、ひいては日本の経済力の強化につながっていく。
Addressing the appropriate restructuring of Tokyo's industrial structure will revitalize Tokyo's industry and eventually lead to the strengthening of the Japanese economy.
(b). 「誰もが自分自身の能力を最大限に活かして、自ら積極的に新しいことにチャレンジして、よりよく生きていく」という考えを、日本国内、ひいては世界に波及させたいと思っています。
Life will improve when everyone uses their abilities to the greatest extent and actively takes on new challenges. I would like this idea to spread within Japan, and, eventually, in the world.
(c). 世間では、企業経営から、教育、ひいては犯罪まで、話題はインターネットが独占しているという感じです。
Throughout society, in business management and education, and even crime, it seems like the Internet is the dominant topic of discussion.
(d). 道を歩いていて、奇妙な姿の人が向こうから歩いてくると、不安な気持ちになる。これは人間、ひいては動物の防衛機能の一つだろう。
If a person with a strange figure walks towards you on the street, you might start to feel uneasy. This is a human defence mechanism, and is used even by animals.
(e). 栄養価が高い旬のものをおいしく食べることは、ひいては病気を予防する。
Food eaten in season is richer in nutrition, and thus can help prevent disease.
(f). マスメディアが個人の名誉やプライバシーを不当に侵害する状況が続けば、ひいては報道に対して権力が介入する口実を与えることになる。
If the media continues to violate people's reputations and privacy unjustly, some day it could provide an excuse for the government to intervene.
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Structure (usually used in formal writing and formal speech)
| A structure that means "not a single one". | Not a single~; not even one; not any~ |
| 【Related Expression: {Interrogative word] ひと/いち [counter]~ない; ひと/いち [counter] たりとも~ない】 | |
(ks). うちの課には一人として英語を話せる者がいない。
Not a single person in my section can speak English.
| 一[Counter] | として～ない | |
| 一つとして使えない | Not a single one can be used |
(a). この資料室には一冊として役に立つ本がない。
There's not a single useful book in this library.
(b). 私が困っていた時、一人として私を助けてくれる者がいなかった。
Not a single person helped me when I was having trouble.
(c). この宗教は、この世の中には一つとして自分のものはないと教えている。
This religion teaches that nothing in this world belongs to you.
(d). 剣道の審判は一秒として気を抜くことは許されない。
A kendo (Japanese fencing) judge will not be forgiven for losing his concentration for even a second.
(e). 単身赴任中、一日として家族のことを思わない日はなかった。
While I was assigned to another city (literally: When I lived on my own away from my family for business), there was not a single day I didn't think of my family.
(f). 彼女の演奏は一音としておろそかに弾かれることはなく、どの曲も聴く者に深い感銘を与えないではおかない。
In her performances, she never plays a single note carelessly, and no matter what the piece, her audience can't help being deeply impressed.
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Adverb (usually used in conversation)
| Adverb used when speaker intends to do something, or asks someone a favour, or makes suggestion or gives advice to someone. | Give something a try |
(ksa). ひとつ日本の小説の英訳をやってみょう。
I will try to translate a Japanese novel into English.
(ksb). ひとつゴルフでもやったらどうですか。
How about giving golf a try?
(ksc). ひとつ相談にのって下さい。
Please give me your advice.
| (i)ひとつ | Vてみよう。 | |
| ひとつジョギングをしてみよう。 | I will give jogging a try | |
| (ii)ひとつNounでも | {Vては/Vinformal pastら}どうですか。 | |
| ひとつ散歩でも{しては/したら}どうですか。 | How about taking a walk or something? | |
| (iii)ひとつVます | ませんか。 | |
| ひとつ話し合いませんか。 | How about discussing it? | |
| (iv)ひとつ | Vて下さい | |
| ひとつ会いに来て下さい | Please come see me |
(a). ひとつインターネットでもやってみよう。
I will try the Internet or something.
(b). ひとつ東大を受けてみたいと思います。
I'd like to give the entrance exam for the University of Tokyo a try.
(c). 「Shall we ダンス？」という面白い映画を見たので、ひとつ社交ダンスでもやってみようかという気になった。
Now that I've seen the (interesting) movie Shall We Dance?, I want to give social dancing a try.
(d). ひとつ映画でも見に行きませんか。
Why don't we go see a movie?
(e). ひとつ株でもやってみませんか。
Don't you want to try stocks?
(f). A：君の言うことなど聞きたくないよ。 B：まあ、そう言わないで、ひとつ聞いて下さいよ。
A: I don't want to listen to what you have to say. B: Don't say that. Just give me a chance (lit, please try to listen).
(g). そこのところを、ひとつよろしくお願いいたします。
I'm well aware of the difficulty, but I would appreciate anything you can do to help me.
(h). じゃあ、この仕事をひとつやってもらいましょうか。
So, can I ask for your help with this work?
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Adverb
| Adverb meaning "partly" in context where someone gives one or two objectives, benefits, examples or reasons for something. | Partly; for one thing |
(ksa). 大学教育の目的は、一つには幅広い教養と専門的な知識・能力を授けること、一つには社会に貢献する指導者を育成することだ。
The objective of college education is partly to provide broad schooling and professional knowledge and ability, and partly to train and produce leaders who will contribute to society.
(ksb). 彼が外国語を好んで勉強しているのは、一つには、異文化学習が好きだからだ。
One reason he likes studying foreign languages is because he likes to learn about different cultures.
| (i)一つには | (もう)一つには～ | |
| 一つには自分のため、もう一つには家族のため | Partly for oneself and partly for one's family | |
| (ii){V/Adjectiveい}informal | {の/理由}は一つには～{から/ため}だ | |
| 食べない{の/理由}は一つにはまずい{から/ため}だ | One reason why someone doesn't eat something is because it doesn't taste good | |
| 食べなかった{の/理由}は一つにはまずかった{から/ため}だ | One reason why someone didn't eat something was because it didn't taste good | |
| 美味しい{の/理由}は一つには素材がいい{から/ため}だ | One reason why something is delicious is because the ingredients are good | |
| 美味しかった{の/理由}は一つには素材がよかった{から/ため}だ | One reason why something was delicious was because the ingredients were good | |
| (iii)Adjective な stem {な/だった} | {の/理由}は一つには～{から/ため}だ | |
| 数学が得意な{の/理由}は一つには好き{だから/なため}だ | One reason why he excels in math is because he likes it | |
| 数学が得意だった{の/理由}は一つには好きだった{から/ため}だ | One reason why he excelled in math was because he liked it | |
| (iv)Noun{なの/である理由} | は一つには～{から/ため}だ | |
| 失敗{なの/である理由}は一つには計画不足{だから/のため}だ | One reason for the failure is lack of planning | |
| (v)Nounだった{の/理由} | は一つには～{から/ため}だ | |
| 失敗だった{の/理由}は一つには計画不足だった{から/ため}だ | One reason for the failure was lack of planning |
(a). 彼がよく家族と旅行に出かけるのは、一つには自分のため、一つには家族のためだ。
He travels so frequently with his family, partly for himself and partly for his family.
(b). 日本人が大人まで漫画を読んでいるのは、一つには、大人が十分味わえるような漫画があるからだ。
The reason even Japanese adults read comics is because there are comics that adults can fully enjoy.
(c). 彼がその子を好きな理由はいろいろとあるが、一つには彼女の話し方がいつも生き生きとしているためだ。
He likes that girl for many reasons, but partly because her talk is always lively.
(d). 私がアメリカに来た理由は、一つには、そこに学問の自由があると思ったからだ。
One reason I came to the U.S. was because I thought there was academic freedom here.
(e). 政治家が嫌われる理由は、一つには、選挙の時には魅力的な公約を言うのに、当選するとそれを実行しないからだ。
Part of the reason politicians are disliked is because they make attractive promises when campaigning but don't put them into practice once they are elected.
(f). 日本に来た外国人が体験するカルチャーショックには色々あると思うが、一つには、日本人が彼らをガイジン、つまりソトの人と呼ぶということがある。
Foreigners experience a variety of culture shocks when they come to Japan, one of which is being called gaijin, or "outside people," by the Japanese.
(g). 「十年日記」をやってみたいとよく思うが、まだ始めていない。それは一つには、前の年の方がいい年だったらいやだからだ。
I've often thought of keeping a “10-year diary," but I've never gotten around to doing it. That's partly because I wouldn't like it if the previous year was better.
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Adverb (usually used in conversation)
| An adverb indicating that an action or state is only temporary or tentative or is superficially conceived. | For the time being; for the present; for now; tentatively; for formality's sake; nominally; kind of; sort of |
| 【Related Expression: とりあえず】 | |
(ks). 会議の日取りを一応来週の水曜日と決めておきましょう。
Let's tentatively set our meeting date for next Wednesday.
(a). 私は一応トムにその仕事を担当させることにした。
I've put Tom in charge of the project for the time being.
(b). この問題についてはまだ議論の余地はあるとは思うが、一応ここでけりをつけたいと思う。
I believe that on this issue there is still a lot to be discussed, but I'd like to bring it to a close for the time being.
(c). 一応大学を出ておいた方が都合がいいと思い、大学に進学したんです。
I thought it would be better for me to graduate from college, to keep up appearances. That's why I went on to college.
(d). A:コンピュータを使っていらっしゃいますか。 B:はあ、まあ、一応は使っていますが。
A: Are you using a computer? B: Well, I'm kind of using one, but . . .
(e). A:あなたは情報技術の研究者ですか。 B:まあ、一応そういうことです。
A: Are you an IT researcher? B: Yes, sort of.
(f). A:このお金どうするの? B:俺が一応銀行に入れておくよ。
A: What are you going to do with this money? B: I will put it in the bank for now.
(g). 二人は兄弟と言うだけに頭は、まあ、一応似ている。しかし気性はかなり違う。
The two are brothers, so their faces do sort of resemble each other. But, their temperaments are quite different.
(h). すみません。これでも一応大学教師なんです。
Sorry, (I know I don't look like one,) but I am in fact a college professor.
(i). 滅多に買わない店だけど、名前くらいは一応覚えてもらっているから安くしてくれるかもしれない。
It's a store where I seldom buy things, but they sort of know my name, so they might discount the price for me.
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Adverb (usually used in formal writing and formal speech)
| A classic form of the adverb どのように "in what way". | How; what; (depending on) how/what; (according to) how/what; depend on |
| 【Related Expression: 次第; による/よって】 | |
(ksa). 私がこの会社に採用されるかどうかは、面接の結果如何だ。
Whether or not I'll be hired by this company depends on the results of my interview.
(ksb). 今年の新車の売れ行き如何｛で/によって｝この会社の将来が決まりそうだ。
It looks like this company's future will be determined by this year's new car sales (literally: how new car sales are this year).
(ksc). このテストの結果如何によっては今年卒業できないかもしれない。
Depending on the results of this test, I may not be able to graduate this year (literally: depending on what the result of the test is.
(ksd). 納入した学費は、理由の如何｛を問わず/に関わらず｝返却しません。
The tuition and fees you have paid will not be returned, no matter what the reason.
| (i)Noun | 如何 | |
| 結果如何だ | Something depends on the result of something | |
| (ii)Noun(の) | 如何{で/によて(は)/etc.} | |
| 理由(の)如何で | Depending on (what) the reason (is) | |
| 方法(の)如何によって(は) | Depending on (what) the means (is) |
(a). 燃料電池自転車が普及するかどうかは価格とパワー如何である。
Whether fuel-cell cars spread or not depends on their price and power.
(b). 子供の失敗をやる気に結びつけ成長への糧にできるかどうかは、その時の親の態度如何だ。
Whether or not children's failures can be connected to their motivation and cast as food for growth depends on their parents' attitude at the time.
(c). 国や組織の将来はリーダーの知的能力如何で決まると言える。
We can say that the future of a country or organization is determined by the intellectual ability of its leader (literally: how strong the intellectual ability of its leader is).
(d). 実験の結果如何によっては、大発見になる可能性もある。
Depending on the result of the experiment, this could be a great discovery.
(e). 生活排水などの汚水は、その処理方法如何によっては、周辺環境の悪化を招くこととなります。
Depending on the treatment method, residential sewage and other wastewater can lead to the worsening of the surrounding environment.
(f). 賞味期限のある食品類は開封・未開封の如何に関わらず返品対象外となります。
Food products with an expiration date are not returnable (literally: outside those which may be returned), (regardless of) whether the package has been opened or not.
(g). このコンテンツの複製は、方法、媒体の如何を問わず禁止されている。
Copying this content is prohibited, regardless of the method or the medium.
(h). 事態がここまで悪化しては、如何ともしがたい。
Now that the situation has worsened to this extent, we cannot do anything (literally: in whatever way we do it, it's difficult).
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Noun Modifier (usually used in formal writing and formal speech)
| A noun modifier that means either "what kind of" or "no matter what". | What kind of~; no matter what~; whatever; any kind of |
| 【Related Expression: どんな; どのような】 | |
(ksa). 生物社会学とはいかなる学問分野(なの)か。
What kind of academic field is bio-sociology?
(ksb). 彼はいかなる忠告(に)も耳を貸さなかった。
He didn't lend an ear to any kind of advice.
(ksc). いかなる理論｛でも/であれ/であろうと(も)｝穴はあるものだ。
No matter what the theory is, it will have holes in it.
(ksd). 父はいかなる事態になっても常に沈着だった。
My father was always calm no matter what situation he found himself in.
(kse). 重要なことは、いかなる結果が出ようと(も)自分で決めたい。
I would like to make my own decisions about important matters, no matter what happens as a result.
| (i)いかなる | Noun (particle)～か | |
| いかなる制作を選ぶべきか | What kind of policy should we choose? | |
| いかなる制作(なの)か | What kind of policy is that? | |
| (ii)いかなる | Noun (particle)も | |
| いかなる図書館にも | At any kind of library | |
| いかなる図書館も | Any library | |
| (iii)いかなる | Noun{でも/であれ/であろうと(も)} | |
| いかなる人人{でも/であれ/であろうと(も)} | No matter what kind of person (someone may be) | |
| (iv)いかなる | Noun+Particle {Vても/Vvolitionalと(も)} | |
| いかなる大学で{教えても/教えようと(も)} | At whatever college someone may teach |
(a). 日本語運用能力はいかなる基準で測るべきか。
By what kind of standards should we assess proficiency in Japanese?
(b). 厳しい父はいかなる口実も許してくれなかった。
My strict father never allowed me to make any kind of excuse.
(c). いかなる文化にも宗教は存在する。
There is religion in any culture.
(d). あの男はいかなる失敗にも負けず、不死鳥のように蘇る。
No matter what the failure, he is undefeated, rising like a phoenix.
(e). いかなる外国語学習でもその国の文化が好きになってくるものだ。
When learning any foreign language, one will begin to like the country's culture.
(f). スポーツはいかなるスポーツであれ、肉体だけではなく精神をも鍛えてくれる。
Sports, no matter what kind, train not only your body but also your spirit.
(g). いかなるアイディアでも、みんなで討議する価値がある。
No matter what the idea is, it is worth discussing together.
(h). いかなる社会を見ても女性の地位は徐々に向上している。
No matter what society one observes, the status of women is gradually improving.
(i). 私の研究がいかなる賞を得ようとも、その賞は私個人のものではなく、プロジェクトチームのものだ。
No matter what prize my research may win, it is not mine alone; it belongs to my project team.
(j). オリンピック・エリアにおいては、いかなる種類のデモも、いかなる種類の政治的、宗教的もしくは人種的な宣伝活動も認められない。
In Olympic areas, no kind of demonstration nor any political, religious or racially-biased propaganda activities are allowed.
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Adverb (usually used in formal writing and formal speech)
| An adverb meaning "how". | How; how much; how hard |
| 【Related Expression: どんなに; なんと】 | |
(ksa). いかに日本語が難しいかは学習者の母語による。
How difficult Japanese is (for someone) depends on the learner's mother tongue.
(ksb). いかに運動しても長生きできるとは限らない。
No matter how hard one exercises, it doesn't guarantee a long life.
(ksc). いかに一生懸命働こうとも一戸建ての家は買えない。
No matter how hard I work I cannot buy a single house.
(ksd). 人生はいかに短いことか。
How short life is!
| (i)いかに | {V/Adjective い}informalか | |
| いかに{生きる/生きた}か | How someone lives/lived | |
| いかに{美しい/美しかった}か | How beautiful someone/something is/was | |
| (ii)いかに | {Adjectiveなstem/Noun}{∅/だった}か | |
| いかに有名{∅/だった}か | How famous someone/something is/was | |
| いかに天才{∅/だった}か | How much a genius someone is/was | |
| (iii)いかに | {Vても/Vvolitionalと(も}} | |
| いかに勉強{しても/ しようと(も}} | No matter how hard someone studies something | |
| (iv)いかに | Adjectiveいstemく{ても/とも} | |
| いかに美味しく{ても/とも} | No matter how delicious something is | |
| (v)いかに | {Adjectiveなstem/Noun}でも | |
| いかに元気でも | No matter how healthy someone is | |
| いかに天才でも | No matter how much of a genius someone is | |
| (vi)いかに | Adjectiveいinformalことか。 | |
| いかに{面白い/面白かった}ことか。 | How interesting something is/was~ | |
| (vii)いかに | {Adjectiveなstem/Noun}{である/であった/だった}ことか。 | |
| いかにきれい{である/であった/だった}ことか。 | How pretty someone is/was! | |
| いかに天才{である/であった/だった}ことか。 | What a genius someone is/was! |
(a). いかに死ぬかはいかに生きるかと同じように大事だ。
How one dies is as important as how one lives.
(b). ヒトゲノムの解読が病気の根本的な治療にいかに必要かが分かってきた。
We began to understand how important decoding the human genome is for the basic treatment of illness.
(c). クローン人間がいかに創られるのかは私には理解できないが、その論理性についての論争には強い興味を覚える。
I cannot comprehend how human clones are created, but I have a strong interest in the debate over the ethics of cloning.
(d). 食べた物がいかにおいしかったかを言葉で適確に説明することは至難のわざだ。
It is extremely difficult for one to describe in words how delicious the food he/she ate was.
(e). いかに努力しても自分の才能のない領域だったら限界があるだろう。
No matter how much effort you make, you will face limits when you deal with areas beyond your own talent.
(f). いかに環境問題の重要性を強調しようとも強調しすぎることはない。
No matter how much you emphasize the importance of environmental issues you can never emphasize it too much.
(g). いかに天才でも、運が悪ければいい仕事はできない。
No matter how much of a genius you may be, if you have bad luck, you won't be able to accomplish much.
(h). 日本の経済はいかに脆いことか！
How fragile the Japanese economy is!
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Interrogative Word
| A Wh-word that asks about the amount of something. | How much; how |
| 【Related Expression: どんなに】 | |
(ksa). 東京の3DKのマンションはいくらぐらいですか。
Approximately how much is a 3DK (3 rooms with a dining room/ kitchen) apartment in Tokyo?
(ksb). いくら働いてもお金が貯まらない。
No matter how much I work I can't save money.
(ksc). 夏休みだから時間はいくらでもある。
It's summer vacation, so I have tons of time.
(ksd). ミルクはもういくらも残っていない。
There is barely any milk left.
(kse). 今日はいくらか気分がいい。
I feel somewhat better today.
| (i)いくら | {Vて/Adjectiveいstemくて/Adjectiveなstemで}も | |
| いくら飲んでも | No matter how much someone drinks | |
| いくら難しくても | No matter how hard something is | |
| いくら奇麗でも | No matter how beautiful something/someone is | |
| (ii)いくらでも | {Adjective(い/な)/V} | |
| いくらでもいい | Any amount of something is fine | |
| いくらでも結構だ | Any amount of fine | |
| お金はいくらでもある | There is an enormous amount of money | |
| (iii)いくらも | Vnegativeない | |
| いくらも買わない | Someone doesn't buy much | |
| いくらも食べない | Someone doesn't eat much |
(a). その車はいくらでしたか。
How much was the car?
(b). A:寄付はいくらぐらいすればいいでしょうか。 B:いくらでも結構です。
A: About how much money should I donate? B: Any amount would be fine.
(c). いくら時間とお金をかけてもそのプロジェクトは終わるまい。
No matter how much time and money we spend on this project, it probably won't end.
(d). 会議はいくら長くても一時間ぐらいだろう。
The meeting should last for an hour at the most (literally: no matter how long it may last).
(e). いくら頭脳明晰でもよき指導者になれるとは限らない。
No matter how bright someone is they won't necessarily become a good leader.
(f). お酒はいくらでもありますから、どうぞたくさん飲んで下さい。
There is really plenty of sake, so please drink as much as you like.
(g). 私はまだ経験が浅いので報酬はいくらでもいいです。
I don't have much experience, so any amount of compensation is fine.
(h). 寄付はいくらでも大丈夫です。
As for donations, any amount will be fine.
(i). 僕みたいに毎日泳いでいる人間はいくらもいない。
Very few people swim every day like I do.
(j). 我々のように、いくらも休みがない人間だと、どんなに山登りをしたくても時間がないのである。
People like us who don't have many days off can't afford the time to climb mountains, no matter how much we'd like to.
(k). いくらか日本語の面白さが分かってきた。
I have (now) come to appreciate some of the fascinating aspects of the Japanese language.
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Adverb
| An adverb indicating that someone feels that it is too late to do something. | Too late (for/to~); now |
| 【Related Expression: 今になって】 | |
(ksa). この話は二年も前に話し合ったじゃないか。なんで、今更同じ話を持ち出すんだ。
Didn't we discuss this issue two years back? How come you are bringing it up after such a long time?
(ksb). 今更契約を解消するわけにはいかない。
It is too late to cancel the contract.
(ksc). 今更後悔しても仕方がない。
It is useless now to regret what you have done.
(ksd). この問題を今更議論したところで無意味でしょう。
It would be meaningless to discuss this issue now.
(kse). 卒業してから二十年だが今更ながら母校の教育の質のよさが分かってきた。
It's been 20 years since I graduated, (literally: it is too late) but now l've finally come to appreciate the educational quality of my alma mater.
| (i){今更+Wh-word/Wh-word+今更} | +Predicate (Affirmative)(か)。 | |
| {今更何が/何が今更}言いたいのか。 | What do you want to say now (at this late date)? | |
| (ii)今更 | +Predicate(Negative)。 | |
| 今更行けない。 | It's too late to go (there) | |
| (iii)今更 | {Vても/Vinformal pastところで} +Predicate(Negative)。 | |
| 今更{見ても/見たところで}仕方がない。 | It is no use looking at it now |
(a). あなたはあの男とはきっぱり別れたはずなのに、今更なんで会おうとしているの。
I thought you had broken up with that guy. Why in the world are you still trying to see him?
(b). 今更ですが、「明けましておめでとうございます」。
I'm afraid it is too late, but let me wish you a Happy New Year.
(c). 今日の講師は皆さんよくご存じの方ですから、今更ご紹介する必要はないとは思いますが…。
All of you know today's lecturer very well, so I believe it is not necessary to introduce him now, but . . .
(d). 会議の日程はすでに全員に電子メールで通知を出したのだから、今更変更することはできない。
Because we have already e-mailed information on the conference schedule to everybody, it is impossible to change it now.
(e). 喜んでプロジェクトに加わりたいと言った手前、今更断れないよ。
Because I told them that I would participate in the project with great pleasure, I can't decline now.
(f). がんがここまで進むと、今更手術をしても治らないと思います。
With the cancer this far advanced, even if I operate now I don't think it will help.
(g). 子供時代に過ごした村を訪ねたいと思っていますが、今更行ったところで、古いものは何も残っていないでしょうね。
I'd like to visit the village where I spent my childhood, but even if I go, I guess nothing of the old times will still be there.
(h). 母親を失って十年、自分も親になってみて、今更ながら、親不孝だったことを反省しています。
It has been 10 years since I lost my mother, and I am now a parent myself. It is too late, but I regret that I was not a devoted son.
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Phrase (usually used in formal writing and formal speech)
| A phrase indicating that "something happens continuously" or "so does something repeatedly". | Only; always; continue up; keep ~ing; be steadily~ ing; become ~er and ~er |
| 【Related Expression: ばかりだ; ますます; だけ】 | |
(ksa). 物価は上げる一方だ。
(Commodity) prices are rising steadily.
(ksb). 久子は私にものを頼む一方で、何もしてくれたことがない。
Hisako is always requesting favours but has never done anything for me.
| (i)Vinformal nonpast | 一方だ | |
| 悪くなる一方だ | Something only worsens | |
| (ii)Vinformal nonpast | 一方のNoun | |
| 増えるの財政赤字 | The fiscal deficit, which continues to increase |
(a). 電話や電子メールを利用した詐欺は巧妙化する一方だ。
Telephone and email fraud is becoming cleverer and cleverer.
(b). この市は急増した人口にインフラ整備が追いつかず、犯罪も増える一方だ。
Improvements to the infrastructure in this city have not kept pace with the sudden population increase, and crime keeps increasing as well.
(c). ビジネスのグローバル化が進む今日、英語によるコミュニケーション能力の重要性は増す一方だ。
English communication skills are becoming more and more important today as businesses continue to globalize.
(d). サッカー熱は高まる一方だが、少年サッカーでひざの故障を起こすケースも増えている。
People's enthusiasm for soccer is growing steadily, but the number of (cases of) knee injuries in youth soccer is also growing.
(e). 深刻化する一方の医師不足に早急に何らかの対策が必要だ。
We need some immediate countermeasures for the shortage of doctors, which is just getting worse.
(f). 昨日のホッケーでは我々のチームは攻められる一方だった。
In yesterday's hockey match, our team was always on the defensive.
(g). 私たちはいつも子供や犬のことでお隣に迷惑をかける一方なので、申し訳なく思う。
We feel sorry for our next door neighbours because our children and our dog are always giving them trouble.
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Conjunction (usually used in formal writing and formal speech)
| A conjunction used to present two concurrent actions/events/states or contrastive situations. | While; when; (but) at the same time; on the other hand; even though; although |
| 【Related Expression: かたわら; 反面】 | |
(ksa). 我々は化石燃料による環境汚染の問題に対応する一方(で)、新しいエネルギーの開発に力を入れなければならない。
We have to make more effort in developing new energy (sources) while countering the problem of environmental pollution caused by fossil fuels.
(ksb). 企業はIT投資には熱心な一方(で)、セキュリティ意識はまだ低いところが多い。
Many companies are still not very conscious about (information) security, even though they are eager to invest in information technology.
(ksc). 軍事予算拡大の一方(で)、教育や社会福祉関連は大きく切り捨てられた。
While the military budget has increased, budgets related to education and social welfare have been cut drastically.
(ksd). 日本は工作機械の分野では依然優位に立っている。しかしその一方(で)、最終製品の生産でシェアを上げつつある。
Japan maintains its superiority in the field of machine tools. However (literally: However, on the other hand), its (market) share in the production of finished goods is falling.
(kse). テレビはソファに深々ともたれ「後傾姿勢で受動的」に見る。一方、インターネットは椅子に浅く腰を掛け「前傾姿勢で能動的」にやる。
Sinking into your sofa, you watch TV passively, while leaning back. On the other hand, the Internet is something you do actively in a forward leaning position, while sitting on the edge of your chair.
| (i){V/Adjectiveい}informal | 一方(で) | |
| 開発{する/した}一方(で) | While developing something | |
| {難しい/難しかった}一方(で) | While something is/was difficult | |
| (ii)Adjective な stem | {な/だった/である/であった}一方(で) | |
| 顕著{な/だった/である/であった}一方(で) | While something is/was noticeable | |
| (iii)Noun | {である/だった/であった}一方(で) | |
| 研究社{である/だった/であった}一方(で) | Someone is/was a researcher, and at the same time | |
| (iv)VNの | 一方(で) | |
| 強化の一方(で) | While strengthening something | |
| (v)Sentence1。 | 一方、Sentence2。 | |
| イタリアは人口のほとんどがカトリックだ。一方、ドイツのカトリック人口は全体の約３分の１だ。 | In Italy most of its population is Catholic. On the other hand, in Germany the Catholic population is about one-third of the entire population |
(a). 我が社は新製品を開発する一方で、多岐にわたる現在のモデルを少数に統合する計画だ。
At our company we plan to consolidate our present broad range of models into only a few, while at the same time developing new products.
(b). 政府は各種の予算を削減している一方、無駄遣いも目につく。
While on the one hand the government is reducing its various budgets, on the other, it's wasteful spending becomes more noticeable.
(c). 就職できない若者がたくさんいる一方で、国民の生活に欠かせない仕事の分野で人手が不足しているそうだ。
While a lot of young people cannot find a job, it is said that there is a shortage of manpower in fields essential for maintaining people's lifestyles.
(d). 花粉症は完治が難しい一方、予防はしやすい。
Although (literally: While) pollen allergies are hard to cure completely, they are easy to prevent.
(e). 外国の食品がどこでも手に入るということは、便利な一方で、世界で食材不足を起こす危険性もある。
It is convenient to be able to buy foreign foods anywhere but, at the same time, there is the danger of causing a shortage of foodstuff world-wide.
(f). 日本では高齢人口が増加する一方、少年人口の減少が進んでいる。
In Japan, the elderly population is increasing, while the population of young people is decreasing.
(g). 今日では海外に出かける日本人の数は、日本に来る外国人観光客の数の三倍もあります。しかしその一方で、海外から日本への観光客も、１９７０年以降、確実に増加しています。
Today, the number of Japanese who go abroad is three times the number of foreign tourists who come to Japan. At the same time, the number of tourists who come to Japan from abroad has been increasing steadily since 1970.
(h). 情報というものは簡単に複製し共有することができる。一方、物理的なモノの場合は、完全に複製するのは容易ではない。
Information is something that can be easily reproduced and shared. Physical objects, on the other hand, are not so easily reproduced.
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Adverb
| An adverb meaning "since" | Since |
| 【Related Expression: から; いこう; いご】 | |
(ksa). 大統領の支持率が就任以来最低となった。
The president's approval ratings have hit their lowest level since his presidency began.
(ksb). G社が、創業以来初めてホームページのデザインを変更した。
Company G changed the design of its homepage for the first time since it opened for business.
(ksc). 肝臓を患って以来、酒はやめている。
I've stopped drinking since I had my liver problem (literally: suffered from liver (disease)).
(ksd). 植村に会うのは十年前の高校のクラス会以来だ。
This will be the first time since our high school class reunion 10 years ago that I've seen Uemura.
(kse). 二年ほど前に重いスーツケースを持ち上げようとして腰を痛めてしまった。それ以来、重いものは持てなくなった。
About two years ago I damaged my back when I tried to lift a heavy suitcase. Since then I haven't been able to lift heavy things.
| (i)Noun | 以来 | Where Noun indicates an event or a specific time |
| 卒業以来 | Since someone's graduation | |
| 五月三日以来 | Since May 3 | |
| (ii)Vて | 以来 | |
| 帰って以来 | Since someone returned | |
| (iii)Demonstrative Adjective | 以来 | |
| あれ以来 | Since that time |
(a). 国の教育ローンの利用者が制度発足以来初めて三百万人をお超えた。
The number of users of the state's education loan (program) has exceeded 3 million for the first time since the inauguration of the system.
(b). 当ホテルは、明治42年創業以来９０年の歴史を持っています。
Our hotel boasts a 90-year history, having been established in the 42nd year of Meiji.
(c). 琵琶湖の水位が今月6日、プラス31センチとなり、昨年7月21日以来、８か月ぶりに基準値に戻った。
On the 6th of this month, the water level in Lake Biwa reached 31 centimetres above zero, returning to the standard level for the first time in eight months, or since July 21 last year.
(d). 半導体市場は９５年以来の二桁成長が予測されている。
Two-digit growth is predicted in the semiconductor market for the first time since 1995.
(e). ジョンソン氏が社長に就任して以来、この会社は次々に大きな改革を行った。
Since Mr. Johnson became president, this company has carried out one major reform after another.
(f). 生の舞台を見て以来、すっかり歌舞伎のファンになってしまった。
Ever since seeing my first live performance, I've become a big fan of kabuki.
(g). この空港始まって以来の大事故となった。
This is the worst accident since this airport opened.
(h). 先週清美と大げんかをした。それ以来、彼女とは口をきいていない。
I had a ferocious quarrel with Kiyomi last week. Since then, I haven't talked to her.
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Structure (usually used in formal writing and formal speech)
| A structure that means "not at all". | Not~ at all; absolutely not; not~ whatsoever |
| 【Related Expression: 全然~ない; 全く~ない】 | |
(ks). 飛行機事故の原因は一切分からない。
We have no idea what caused the airplane accident.
| 一切 | Vnegativeない | |
| 一切食べない | Someone doesn't eat a thing | |
| 一切読まない | Someone doesn't read at all |
(a). この製品には遺伝子組み換え大豆は一切便用していません。
For this product we haven't used any genetically modified soybeans at all.
(b). 盗難に関しては当社は一切責任を負いません。
Our company will not take any responsibility whatsoever for thefts.
(c). 私はその汚職事件とは一切関係ない。
I have nothing whatsoever to do with the bribery scandal.
(d). 謝金は一切いただくわけにはまいりません。
I couldn't possibly accept any honorarium at all.
(e). 私は有害物質を一切含んでいない洗剤を使うことにしている。
I make it a rule to use detergents that contain no harmful ingredients.
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Adverb
| An adverb meaning "once" or "for a short time". | Once; for a time; temporarily; for the moment; for the present; now |
| 【Related Expression: 一度】 | |
(ksa). この小説一旦読み始めたらやめられない。
Once you begin reading this novel, you won't be able to put it down (literally: stop reading it).
(ksb). 邦彦は一旦やめたタバコをまた吸い出した。
Kunihiko resumed smoking, which he had quit for a time.
(ksc). 開演までまだだいぶ時間があるので、一旦ホテルに帰ってから出直そう。
There's still a lot of time before the performance begins, so let's go back to the hotel (now) and come again later.
| 一旦 | Verb | |
| 一旦やめる | Stop something temporarily |
(a). この大学は、一旦入学してしまえば、そんなに勉強しなくても必ず卒業できる。
Once you've entered this university, you will definitely be able to graduate, even if you don't study very hard.
(b). この電子掲示板は一旦書き込むと消せないので、自分のメッセージを書く時に注意しないといけない。
Once you write a message on this electronic bulletin board, you cannot delete it, so you have to be careful (when you write a message).
(c). 石田は、一旦約束した以上は必ず守る男だ。
Ishida is someone who keeps his promise (once he has made one), no matter what.
(d). 一旦こじれた我々の関係は、容易には元に戻らなかった。
Our relationship, once it had become complicated, did not recover easily.
(e). 予算が厳しくなったので、無料健康相談サービスを一旦中止します。
Because the budget has become tight, we are going to discontinue our free health consultation service temporarily.
(f). 新型ウイルスの被害は一旦終息したように見えた。
It appeared that damage from the new virus had subsided temporarily.
(g). ひょっとすると違う原因かもしれないので、今飲んでいる薬を一旦やめてしばらく様子を見てみましょう。
There might be a different cause, so stop taking the current drug for the moment and see what happens.
(h). 今使っているプログラムを一旦終了して、再起動してみて下さい。
Please quite the current program (literally: the program you are using now) temporarily and reboot.
(i). 一旦日本へ帰って、親と相談してからアメリカで就職するかどうかを決めたい。
I'd like to go back to Japan for a time and, (when I'm there) after talking to my parents, decide whether or not I'll look for a job in the U.S.
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Phrase
| Phrase signalling comparison (including use of simile and metaphor), a definition, or an explanation. | Figuratively speaking; so to speak; metaphorically speaking; in a manner of saying |
| 【Related Expression: 言わば; 例えて言えば; (例えて)言うならば】 | |
(ksa). 言ってみれば、人生は航海(のようなもの)だ。
Figuratively speaking, life is (like) a voyage.
(ksb). 彼女の家は、言ってみれば、お城のように作られている。
You could say her house is built like a castle.
| (i)言ってみれば | Sentence。 | Where Sentence is a simile or a metaphor |
| 言ってみれば、彼は熊(のような男)だ。 | Figurately speaking, he is (like) a bear | |
| (ii)言ってみれば | Nounのように～。 | |
| 言ってみれば、彼は小説の神様のように見られていた。 | One could say that he was regarded as a god of novels |
(a). 日本の文化には厳しいしきたりがあって、言ってみれば、それは宗教のようなものだ。
Japanese culture has a set of strict conventions; you could almost call it a religion.
(b). 結婚は言ってみれば人生の墓場だ。
Marriage is, in a manner of speaking, the graveyard of life.
(c). 医者と弁護士は、言ってみれば、神様のように振る舞う。
One could say medical doctors and lawyers act like God.
(d). 学生たちが学んだ多くの知識は、頭の中に放置されたままで、言ってみれば、死んだ状態になっているのである。
A lot of the knowledge that students have learned remains piled up in their brains, and figuratively speaking, it is dead to them.
(e). シリコンバレーも、結局は日本の、言ってみれば商店街なり地域作りの話と本質的には同じなんだと思いました。
I would say Silicon Valley is, after all, essentially the same story as commercial district or community development in Japan.
(f). 著作権とは、言ってみれば、創造者の権利を守る法律だ。
Copyright can be thought of as a law to protect the rights of creators.
(g). このブログは言ってみれば僕の絵日記のようなものだ。
I like thinking of this blog as my picture journal.
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Phrase
| Phrase indicating what speaker/writer expresses is generally known but that he/she presents it as a reminder. | It is needless to say that~; needless to say; it goes without saying |
(ksa). 寿司が日本の代表的な料理であることは言うまでもない。
It goes without saying that sushi is representative of Japanese cuisine.
(ksb). 言うまでもなく、日本の社会は世界一の高齢化社会になっている。
That Japan has become the most rapidly aging society in the world goes without saying.
| (i){V/Adjectiveい} informal+Nominalは | 言うまでもない。 | |
| {買う/買った}{の/こと}は言うまでもない。 | Needless to say, someone will buy/bought something | |
| つまらない{の/こと}は言うまでもない。 | It goes without saying that something is boring | |
| つまらなかった{の/こと}は言うまでもない。 | It goes without saying that something was boring | |
| (ii)Adjective な stem{な/である/だった/であった} | +Nominalは言うまでもない。 | |
| 立派{な/である/だった/であった}{の/こと}は言うまでもない。 | It goes without saying that something is/was magnificent | |
| (iii)Noun{な/である/だった/であった} | のは言うまでもない。 | |
| 教授{な/である/だった/であった}のは言うまでもない。 | It goes without saying that someone is/was a professor | |
| (iv)Noun{である/だった} | ことは言うまでもない。 | |
| 天才{である/だった}ことは言うまでもない。 | Needless ot say, he is/was a genius | |
| (v)言うまで | {なく/ない(ことだ)が}、Sentence。 | |
| 言うまで{なく/ない(ことだ)が}、日本は島国だ。 | Needless to say, Japan is an island country |
(a). 少子化が日本の社会を変えていくことは言うまでもない。
It goes without saying that the shrinking population of children will change Japanese society.
(b). 「アジアの人々は貧しい」「貧しいのは可哀想」「開発援助しなくては」という固定観念が有害なのは言うまでありません。
The set of fixed ideas that "Asians are poor," "Being poor is pitiable," and "We should provide development assistance," is, needless to say, harmful.
(c). 二人はパーティーで会って、すぐ意気投合しました。そのあと毎日のようにデートをしたのは言うまでもありません。
The two met at a party, and right away they hit it off. I hardly need to mention that after that they went out on a date almost every day.
(d). オープンネットワークコンピューティング環境では、日々増大するネットワークデータをいかに敏速にかつ効率よくバックアップするかが重要であることは言うまでもありません。
Needless to say, in an open network computing environment, it is important how quickly and effectively you back up the continually expanding network data.
(e). 言うまでもありませんが、大学の成績の優秀な学生が社会で成功するとは限りません。
Needless to say, students whose grades in college were superb do not always succeed in society.
(f). いまさら言うまでもなく、地球の温暖化は生態系に悪影響をもたらしている。
It's obvious now, but global warming is having an adverse effect on the ecosystem.
(g). 菜穂子はとびきりの美人でもなかったが、誰とでもにこやかに話し、いつも溌溂としていた。言うまでもないことだが、彼女の周りには人が自然に集まり、職場のみんなにも好かれていた。
Nahoko was not especially beautiful, but she had a smile for everybody and was always cheerful. Needless to say, people spontaneously gathered around her, and everybody at her office loved her.
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Adverb
| An adverb that means "if I were to say it some way (or a different way)". | So to speak; as it were; like; sort of |
| 【Related Expression: 言ってみれば】 | |
(ksa). この本は、言わば私のバイブルだ。
This is, as it were, my Bible.
(ksb). この試験は言わばアメリカの大学に留学する際のTOEFLに当たる。
This test is, so to speak, the equivalent of the TOEFL, which people take when they (want to) study at a university in the U.S.
| 言わば | Sentence。 | |
| 言わば国に誕生日だ。 | Something is, as it were, the nation's birthday | |
| 言わば彼は二度死んだようなものだ。 | He died twice, so to speak |
(a). ここまでは、言わばウォーミングアップのようなもので、ここからが本番だ。
This has been sort of a warm-up, and starting now, the real business begins.
(b). その判決は言わばこの国の良心を代弁したものだった。
The court's ruling represented (literally: was something that represented) this country's conscience, so to speak.
(c). 言わば趣味で始めたことがいつの間にか大きなビジネスになってしまった。
What I started as sort of a hobby became a large-scale business before I knew it.
(d). 当地区には、言わば幽霊人口である非合法居住者が7~10万人いますが、この人たちは補助金対象外となります。
In this district there are 70,000 to 100,000 illegal residents, who form, as it were, a ghost population. These people are not eligible to receive assistance subsidies.
(e). こうして見てみると、かつてはサダム・フセインも、ソ連やイランと戦ってきた、言わばアメリカの盟友だったわけである。
When we view it this way, (we realise that) Saddam Hussein, who fought against Soviet Russia and Iran, used to be America's bosom buddy, so to speak.
(f). ファッション写真は、１９３０年代までは、言わば「新参者」の分野と見られていたらしい。
Up to the 1930s, fashion photography was apparently considered a "newcomer" field, so to speak.
(g). この酵素は、正常状態では必要な時だけ活性化して細胞を増殖させるのだが、がん細胞の場合は常に活性化し、言わばアクセルを踏みっぱなしの状態で、無秩序に細胞を増殖させてしまうのだ。
In normal cells this enzyme is activated only when needed to promote cell multiplication. However, in cancer cells it is always activated, like a state, so to speak, in which a driver keeps his foot on the accelerator, so cells increase with no control
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Noun Modifer
| A noun modifier that means "known generally by this term". | So-called; what we call; known as |
(ks). 伊藤さんはいわゆる「エリート」の大学を卒業した。
Ms. Ito graduated from one of the so-called "elite" universities.
| いわゆる | Noun | |
| いわゆる天才 | What people call a genius |
(a). いわゆるリストラのために失業した人は非常に多い。
Many people lost their jobs because of what is called restructuring.
(b). 1986年から９０年代初めにかけてのいわゆる「バブル経済」の時代には土地や株が高騰した。
During the so-called "bubble economy," from 1986 through the early 90's, land and stocks prices soared.
(c). 21世紀には多くの国でいわゆる安楽死が合法化されていくだろう。
In the 21st century what is called euthanasia will be legalized in many countries.
(d). いわゆる「いじめ」の問題は、自分と異なる人間を認めるメンタリティーが日本に根づかないと容易にはなくならないであろう。
The problem we know as bullying will not easily be solved unless the mentality of accepting someone different from oneself takes root in Japan.
(e). いわゆるIT、すなわち情報技術の開発に、日本政府は本腰を入れ始めた。
The Japanese government has started to put its weight behind developing "IT," or information technology.
(f). 内分泌撹乱化学物質、いわゆる環境ホルモンは、人間と野生生物へ悪影響を与えると言われている。
Endocrine disrupting chemicals, also known as environmental hormones, are said to adversely affect humans and wildlife.
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Noun
| A dependent noun that is used to emphasize the referent of the preceding noun. | Oneself; in and of itself; the very |
| 【Related Expression: 自身; そのもの】 | |
(ksa). インターネット自体は情報の通路であって、内容は持たない。
The Internet is a path for information and does not contain any content itself.
(ksb). 私にとってはこの試合に出られること自体が光栄なことです。
For me, being able to participate in this match in and of itself is an honour.
| (i)NounPhrase | 自体 | |
| 技術自体 | Technology itself | |
| 日本に行くこと自体 | The act of going to Japan (in and of) itself | |
| (ii)NounPhraseそれ | 自体 | |
| 素材それ自体 | The materials themselves |
(a). ケータイ自体には問題はない。問題は使う人のマナーや気配りだ。
There is no problem with cell phones in and of themselves. The problems exist in the manners and considerateness of the users.
(b). いまの仕事自体には満足していますが、職場の人間関係がうまくいかず悩んでいます。
I'm satisfied with the job itself, but what troubles me is that I cannot maintain good relationships with the people at my workplace.
(c). 音声データ自体に異常かあるので、どのプレーヤーで再生してもノイズが入ったしまう。
The sound data itself contains some defects, so no matter what player you use to play it back, you'll get noise.
(d). 世の中が大きく変わった今、この組織の存在自体が疑われている。
The world has changed greatly, and the very existence of this organization is now in doubt.
(e). この広告は、販売より広告それ自体が目的だ。
The goal of this advertisement is the advertisement (of the product) itself rather than sales.
(f). 裁判所はこれらのファイル交換ソフト自体の違法性は認められないという判決を下した。
The court ruled that these file-exchange software programs in and of themselves are not illegal.
(g). そういうところから金を借りること自体が間違っている。
The very act of borrowing money from that kind of place is wrong.
(h). 問題は個々の差別表現自体ではなく、そういう表現が出てくる背景なのだ。
The problem is not the individual discriminatory expressions themselves, but the context from which they arise.
(i). 音楽のデジタル化やインターネット配信が音楽業界の主流になってきたが、私はそのこと自体は悪いことではないと思う。問題は、それによって不正コピーや大量配布がしやすくなったことだ。
Music digitization and distribution via the Internet has become mainstream in the music industry, but I don't think that (literally: that fact itself) is a bad thing. The problem is that it has become easier to make illegal copies and mass-distribute t
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Phrase (usually used in formal writing and formal speech)
| A phrase that indicates the extreme degree of the speaker's/writer's emotion- happiness, sorrow, envy, shame or loneliness, among others | extremely |
| 【Related Expression: この上ない】 | |
(ks). いろいろなところに行っておられるんですね。うらやましい限りです。
You are traveling to all sorts of places. I'm extremely envious of you.
| Adjective い informal nonpast | 限りだ | Where adjectiveい＝emotive adjective |
| 嬉しい限りだ | I am extremely happy |
(a). 電子メールでご連絡いただければ、嬉しい限りです。
I would be extremely happy if you would kindly contact me by e-mail.
(b). 私の講演が皆様の知性を刺激できれば喜ばしい限りです。
If my lecture stimulates you intellectually, I will be extremely happy.
(c). あなたの明るい顔が見られなくなって、寂しい限りです。
I cannot see your cheerful face any longer, and I couldn't feel lonelier.
(d). 私がかいた絵をお見せするのはお恥ずかしい限りです。
[a humble expression] It really makes me feel embarrassed to show you my painting.
(e). その頃は大阪に単身赴任で行っていたが、家族から離れて夜一人でアパートで食事をするのはわびしい限りだった。
During that time I was working in Osaka, but leaving my family behind and eating dinner alone in my apartment made me feel so miserable.
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Noun
| A dependent noun that means something is worth someone's effort. | Worth; meaning; effect; result |
(ksa). 日本語をよく勉強したかいがあって、日本語関係の会社に就職することができた。
It was worth studying Japanese hard because (literally: and) I was able to get a Japan-related job.
(ksb). 社員一同の努力のかいがあって一時低調だった会社も上向きになった。
The combined efforts of the company employees paid off, and the company, which had been in a slump for a while, started improving.
(ksc). あなたにとって生きがいとは何ですか。
What makes life worth living for you?
(ksd). 彼は東南アジア諸国の旅行中、毎日詳しく日記をつけておいた。そのかいがあって、日本に戻って旅行記を書く時にとても書きやすかった。
He kept a detailed diary during his trip to South East Asia. It paid off, as (literally: and) it made it easy for him to write his travelogue when he returned to Japan.
| (i)Vinformal | 甲斐が{ある/ない} | |
| 来た甲斐がある | It is worth coming here; coming here pays off | |
| 薬を飲んでいる甲斐がない | It isn't worth taking medicine | |
| (ii)Nounの | 甲斐が{ある/ない} | |
| 徹夜の甲斐がある | Something is worth staying up all night for/staying up all night pays off | |
| 勉強の甲斐がない | Something isn't worth studying | |
| (iii)Vます | 甲斐 | |
| やり甲斐 | Meaning/worth in doing something | |
| (iv)Sentence1 | その甲斐があって、Sentence2 | |
| 毎日運動をした。その甲斐があって、体重がだいぶ減った。 | I exercised every day. And I was worth it; I lost quite a bit of weight |
(a). 一生懸命やったかいがあって、マラソン大会ごとに順位が上がってきました。
My efforts paid off, and I finished higher in the ranking with each race.
(b). 寒い中待っていたかいがあって、見事な日の出を見ることができた。
Waiting in the cold paid off, as I was able to see a wonderful sunrise.
(c). せっかく富士山に登ったのに頂上からは下が全然見えず、登ったかいがなかった。
I climbed Mt. Fuji with great effort, but I couldn't see anything from the summit, so it wasn't worth the climb.
(d). 弟は看病のかい(も)なく五歳の短い生涯を閉じた。
In spite of all the medical care (he received), my little brother's life ended when he was only five.
(e). 辛抱のかいがあって、運が開けた。
My perseverance paid off, and my fortunes have changed for the better.
(f). この大学の学生はよく勉強するから、本当に教えがいがある。
The students of this college study so hard that they are really worth teaching.
(g). 私の料理をおいしく食べてくれる人がいるから、作りがいがあるのです。
Because there are people who enjoy eating my cooking, it is worth doing it.
(h). 交通事故で脚に大怪我をして、毎日リハビリに通うことになった。そのかいがあって、今では元どおり歩けるようになった。
My legs were injured in a traffic accident, and I went to the hospital for rehabilitation every day. It paid off, and now I can walk as before.
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Phrase (usually used in formal writing and formal speech)
| Conjunctive phrase indicating speaker/writer wondering whether something is the case or not. | Whether X or not |
| 【Related Expression: か~ないか; かどうか】 | |
(ksa). このソフトが役に立つか否かは保証の限りではありません。
I cannot say (literally: guarantee) whether this software is useful or not.
(ksb). 選挙の時に、有権者は候補者が倫理観のある政治家(である)か否かを見抜かなければならない。
In an election, the voter has to judge (literally: see through) whether or not a candidate is a politician of integrity.
(ksc). 子供に携帯電話を持たせるべきか否かは議論が分かれる。
Opinions differ as to whether we should allow a child to have a cell phone.
| (i){V/Adjectiveい} informal | か否か | |
| {来る/来た}か否か | Whether or not someone will come/came | |
| {面白い/面白かった}か否か | Whether or not something is/was interesting | |
| (ii){Noun/Adjectiveな} stem | {∅/である/だった/であった}か否か | |
| 学生{∅/である/だった/であった}か否か | Whether or not someone is/was a student | |
| 元気{∅/である/だった/であった}か否か | Whether or not someone is/was healthy | |
| (iii)Vinformal nonpast | べき(である)か否か | |
| {Noun/Adjectiveなstem} | であるべきか否か | |
| 行くべき(である)か否か | Whether or not someone should go there | |
| 学生であるべきか否か | Whether or not someone should be a student | |
| 質素であるべきか否か | Whether or not someone should be frugal |
(a). アメリカの大学では教授が外国人であるか否かは問題にならないが、日本ではそれがよく問題になるようだ。
In the U.S., whether or not a professor is a foreigner is not a problem, but in Japan, it appears that it is frequently an issue.
(b). 家を探す場合、その地域が安全であるか否かが一番大事なポイントになる。
When you search for a house, whether or not the area is safe is the most important point.
(c). クラシック音楽を聞く時、私は旋律が美しいか否かよりその音楽が生命を感じさせるか否かに注意を払う。
When I listen to classical music, I pay attention to whether or not it causes me to feel life rather than whether or not the melody is beautiful.
(d). 大学の入試要項をよく読んでから受験するか否かを決めるべきだ。
You should decide whether or not to take the entrance examination after reading the university's guidelines carefully.
(e). 愛されたら愛しかえすべきか否かという疑問は愚問です。
The question of whether or not one should return love when one is loved is a silly one.
(f). 容疑者に遺体を見せると、真犯人か否かが分かることがある。
There are cases in which you can tell whether or not a suspect is the real culprit when you show him or her the dead body.
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Interjection (usually used in formal writing and formal speech)
| An interjection that expresses deep felt emotion. | How~ !; what a(n)~ !; to my/our~; it is~ that |
| 【Related Expression: ことに】 | |
(ks). 悲しいかな、年を取って往年の記憶力がなくなってしまった。
How sad (it is) that I no longer have as strong a memory as I had in my younger days.
| (i)Adjective い informal nonpast | かな | Where Adjective い=emotive adjective |
| 惜しいかな | How regrettable! | |
| (ii)Adjective な stem | なるかな | |
| 壮大なるかな | How spectacular! |
(a). 悲しいかな、自分の能力を過大評価する人間がいる。
It's so sad that there are people who overestimate their ability.
(b). インターネットを使うといろいろ面白いことが分かるそうですが、惜しいかな、私はコンピュータを買うお金がないんです。
They say that you can find out many interesting things if you use the Internet, but, to my great regret, I don't have the money to buy a computer.
(c). 画面では絵も動きます。チャットもできます。惜しいかな、全部英語ですが。
On the screen, pictures move, and you can chat, too. Regrettably, everything is in English.
(d). 秋の訪れを知ると共に、大空は広大なるかなと驚く。
With the coming of autumn, I am astonished by how broad the sky is.
(e). みんな退職後の生活の甘いイメージを抱いている。しかし、残念なるかな、現実には、熟年離婚や体の不調にさいなまれている。
Everybody has a rosy image of post-retirement life. But, to our great regret, the reality is not as it seems; people are vexed by "vintage year divorce" and poor physical condition.
(f). 途中に教会があったので期待して入ってみると、果たせるかな、クリスマス礼拝で荘厳な雰囲気であった。
There was a church on my way, so I entered it, hoping (for a feeling of Christmas). Just as I expected, there was a solemn atmosphere for the Christmas service.
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Phrase (usually used in formal writing and formal speech)
| Conjunctive phrase forms adverbial clause which describes way someone/something appears to writer, contrary to reality. | As if |
| 【Related Expression: かの如く; あたかも】 | |
(ksa). 彼女は(まるで)整形手術したかのようにきれいになった。
Her looks improved (literally: She became beautiful), as though she had undergone cosmetic surgery.
(ksb). 彼女の病気は年内に治るかのように見えた。
It looked as though her illness would be cured before the end of the year.
(ksc). あたかも日本の製造業全体の競争力は強いかのように思われてきた。
The competitiveness of the Japanese manufacturing industry has been perceived as (though it were) strong.
(ksd). 彼は有能な政治学者であるかのように言われているが、実は無能極まりない。
People say he is a capable political scientist, but actually he is extremely incapable.
(kse). あの男は不確かなことをあたかも正確であるかのように断言する。
That man speaks definitively about something uncertain as if it were a sure thing.
| (i){まるで/あたかも} | {V/Adjective い}informalかのように | |
| {まるで/あたかも}{怒っている/怒っていた}かのように | As if someone were/had been mad | |
| {まるで/あたかも}{正しい/正しかった}かのように | As if someone/something were/had been correct | |
| (ii){まるで/あたかも} | {Noun/Adjective なstem}{である/であった}かのように | |
| {まるで/あたかも}神様{である/であった}かのように | As if someone were/had been God | |
| {まるで/あたかも}贅沢{である/であった}かのように | As if something were/had been luxurious |
(a). その教師は私がまるでカンニングをしたかのように私を問いただした。
The teacher pressed me hard as if I had cheated on the exam.
(b). 彼は心理学のことは何も知らないのにあたかもよく知っているかのように心理学のことを話したがる。
He doesn't know anything about psychology, but he likes to talk about it as if he knows it very well.
(c). あたかも僕の心を解かすかのように、白くて透明な雪が降っている。
White, transparent snow is falling as though it would melt my heart.
(d). まるで私の結婚を祝ってくれているかのように空は完璧に晴れていた。
The sky was perfectly clear, as if it were celebrating my wedding.
(e). あの教師は学生が何を考えているかまるで意に介していないかのように見える。
The instructor looks as if he didn't care at all about what his students are thinking.
(f). 平凡でつまらないかのようにみえる彼らの人生とて起伏がないわけではない。
Their life, which looks as if it were ordinary and boring, is not without its ups and downs.
(g). 空港での持ち物検査の時、うっかりはさみをポケットに入れていたので、犯罪者であるかのように扱われた。
When I went through the security check at the airport, I was treated as if I were a criminal because I inadvertently had put a pair of scissors in my pocket.
(h). イスラム系組織のテロがあるからと言って、イスラム系の人があたかもすべて危険であるかのように考えるのは単純すぎる。
It is simplistic to think that all Muslims are dangerous just because some terrorist acts are perpetrated by Islamic groups.
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Phrase
| A phrase that means either "in terms of" or "judging from". | In terms of; from the viewpoint of; judging from |
| 【Related Expression: の点で; からして】 | |
(ksa). 燃費から言ってこの車は非常に経済的だ。
In terms of gas mileage, this car is extremely economical.
(ksb). 学生の評価から言って鈴木先生はいい先生に違いない。
Judging from his student evaluations, Professor Suzuki must be a fine teacher.
| Noun | から言って | |
| 効率から言って | In terms of efficiency |
(a). 性能から言って、このエンジンを凌ぐものは少ない。
In terms of performance, few engines can surpass this one.
(b). この小説は内容から言って子供向きではない。
The content of this novel is not suitable for children.
(c). 仕事の効率から言って週休二日の方がいい。
In terms of efficiency a five-day work week (literally: two days off a week) is better.
(d). DNA鑑定から言って、彼が犯人であることは確実だ。
Judging from the DNA evidence, there is no doubt that he is the culprit.
(e). 顔の色つやから言って、父は間違いなく健康だ。
Judging from his facial complexion, my father is definitely healthy.
(f). 日本語能力試験の結果から言って、ジョンの日本語はすばらしいに違いない。
Judging from the results of his Japanese Proficiency Test, John's Japanese must be superb.
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Phrase
| A phrase indicating that something consists of more than one member/constituent. | Consist of; be composed of |
(ksa). 英語の"relax"はラテン語の"re-"(再び)と"laxare"(緩む)とからなっている。
The English word relax" consists of the Latin re-" (again) and laxare" (to loosen).
(ksb). タンパク質はアミノ酸からなっている。
Proteins are composed of amino acids.
(ksc). 夫婦と子供からなる世帯は今後減るだろうか。
I wonder if households that consist of married couple and their children will decrease in the future.
| (i)(Xは) Noun1とNoun2(と…) | から{なる/なっている} | |
| 委員会は男性５人女性７人(と)から{なる/なっている} | The committee consists of five men and seven women | |
| (ii)(Xは) Noun | から{なる/なっている} | |
| 委員会は１２名の教授から{なる/なっている} | The committee consists of 12 professors | |
| (iii)Noun1(と(Noun2)と…) | からなるNoun3 | |
| からなるからなる委員会 | A committee that consists of officers and board members |
(a). 日本の神社は拝殿と本殿とからなっている。
A Japanese Shinto shrine consists of a front shrine and an inner shrine.
(b). この大学の東洋学科は言語、文学と歴史からなっている。
This university's East Asian Studies Department consists of language, literature and history (programs).
(c). 日本は島国で、本州と北海道と四国と九州と沖縄とからなっている。
Japan is an island country consisting of Honshu, Hokkaido, Shikoku, Kyushu and Okinawa.
(d). 地球の内部構造は、何重もの階層構造からなっている。
The structure of the inner part of the earth consists of multi-layered strata.
(e). ブラームスのレクイエムは演奏に約一時間半を要する大作で、全7楽章からなっている。
Brahms's Requiem is a magnum opus that takes about an hour and a half to perform and consists of a total of seven movements.
(f). フィリピンは多くの島々からなっている。
The Philippines is made up of many islands.
(g). このボランティア団体は約１５０名の会員からなる団体です。
This volunteer organization is a group made up of about 150 members.
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Conjunction
| A subordinate conjunction meaning "now that," "once someone does / has done something" or "so long as". | Once; now that~; as long as~; so long as~; if |
| 【Related Expression: 以上(は)】 | |
(ksa). いったん引き受けたからには最後まで責任をもってやります。
Once I take on (the job), I will fulfill my responsibility and complete it.
(ksb). 裁判と言うからには弁護人が不可欠だ。
Since it is a trial, a defence attorney will be indispensable.
| (i)Vinformal | からには | |
| 行くからには | So long as someone goes there | |
| 行ったからには | Once someone has gone there | |
| (ii)Quoteと言う | からには | |
| 戦争と言うからには | As long as one calls it a war | |
| 見たと言うからには | As long as someone said he saw it |
(a). 生まれてきたからには長生きしたい。
So long as I'm here (literally: Since I was born), I'd like to live a long time.
(b). 行くって言ったからにはちゃんと行かなきゃ駄目だよ。
Now that you've said you're going there, you have to go, OK?
(c). ネット上で文章を書いたからには、必ずそれを読む人が存在するのです。
Once you write a passage on the Internet, there are definitely people who will read it.
(d). 写真をカラーで撮るからには、色にこだわりたい。
As long as I am taking pictures with colour film, I want to be very particular about the colour.
(e). マラソンに出るからには、絶対に勝ちたい。
Now that I am taking part in the marathon, I absolutely want to win.
(f). アメリカに住んでいるからには郷に入っては郷に従えで、批判ばっかりしていたって仕方がない。
As long as you are living in the U.S., do as the Americans do; it won't help if you just complain.
(g). 「ブレーンストーミング」と言うからには、発言に制限を設けてはならない。
Since you are calling it brainstorming, you shouldn't restrict statements people make.
(h). 世界一周と言うからには、軽度の基準点であるグリニッジ天文台から出発しおうと決め込んだ。
Because I was going to travel around the world, I decided to start my trip from London's Greenwich Observatory, which is the base point of longitude.
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Phrase
| A phrase that singles out something for emphasis or presents something as a basis for judgment. | Even; judging from |
| 【Related Expression: (で)すら; (で)さえ; からいって; からみて; にしてからが】 | |
(ksa). 社長からして会社再建の意欲がないんだから、社員の志気が上がらないのは当たり前だ。
Even the president has no desire to reconstruct the company; so, of course, his employees' morale is low.
(ksb). あの日本語の話し方からして彼は日本に行ったことがあるに違いない。
Judging from the way he speaks Japanese, he must have been to Japan.
| Noun | からして | |
| 大統領からして | Even the president | |
| 外見からして | Judging from the outward appearance |
(a). あの男は歩き方からして他の人と違う。
Even in the way he walks, he is different from other people.
(b). プロの銀行員からして、初歩的な経済の分析に必要な数学に弱い。
Even professional bankers are weak in the math necessary for elementary economic analysis.
(c). 週末の彼女とのデートでは、待ち合わせの場所からして間違えてしまった。
When I went out on a date with her last weekend, I even got the meeting place wrong.
(d). 沈没した原子力潜水艦を引き揚げるのは、その大きさからして技術的な限界に近い。
Judging from its size, pulling up the sunken atomic submarine will be next to impossible technologically.
(e). 「車は走る凶器」「飲んだら乗るな」の掛け声も、事故の実態>からして死語同然となっている。
Judging from the reality of car accidents, slogans like "A car is a running weapon," and "Don't drink and drive" are just empty (literally: dead) words.
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Adverb
| An adverb that indicates the speaker's/writer's tentative supposition. | Supposing that; suppose; providing that; (even) if |
| 【Related Expression: もし(も)】 | |
(ksa). 仮に一億円｛もらう/もらった｝と｛したら/すれば｝何に使いますか。
Supposing you received 100 million yen, what would you use it for?
(ksb). 仮に月収が30万円｛ある/あった｝として、どのようなアパートを借りることができるだろうか。
Supposing that I had an income of 300,000 yen, I wonder what kind of an apartment I could rent.
(ksc). 仮にこれが日本の教育の現状だったら、構造改革の余地は大いにある。
If this were the current state of Japanese educational affairs, a lot would have to be restructured.
(ksd). 仮に手術が成功｛する/した｝としても、高齢だから父の体が元に戻ることはないだろう。
Even if the operation is successful, my father, who is quite old, will probably not regain his original health.
| (i)仮に | Sinformalと{したら/すれば} | |
| 仮に{話す/話した}と{したら/すれば} | Supposing (that)/if someone talks/talked | |
| 仮に{高い/高かった}と{したら/すれば} | Supposingg (that)/if something is/were expensive | |
| 仮にきれい{だ/だった}と{したら/すれば} | Supposing (that)/if something/someone is/were beautiful | |
| 仮に先生{だ/だった}と{したら/すれば} | Supposing (that)/if someone is/were a teacher | |
| (ii)仮に | Sinformal場合 | |
| 仮に{話す/話した}場合 | Supposing (that)/if someone talks/talked | |
| 仮に{高い/高かった}場合 | Supposing (that)/if something is/were expensive | |
| 仮にきれい{だ/だった}場合 | Supposing (that) if something/someone is/were beautiful | |
| 仮に先生{だ/だった}場合 |
|
|
| (iii)仮に | Sinformalとして | |
| 仮に{話す/話した}として | Supposing (that) someone talked | |
| 仮に{高い/高かった}として | Supposing (that) something were expensive | |
| 仮にきれい{だ/だった}として | Supposing (that) something/someone were beautiful | |
| 仮に先生{だ/だった}として | Supposing (that) someone were a teacher | |
| (iv)仮に | Sinformal past ら | |
| 仮に話したら | Supposing (that)/if someone talks/talked | |
| 仮に高かったら | Supposing (that)/if something is/were expensive | |
| 仮にきれいだったら | Supposing (that)/if something/someone is/were beautiful | |
| 仮に先生だったら | Supposing (that)/if someone is/were a teacher | |
| (v)仮に～ | {Vて/Adjective いstemくて}も | |
| {Adjective な stem/ Noun}でも | ||
| 仮に話しても | Even is someone talks/talked | |
| 仮に高くても | Even if something is/were expensive | |
| 仮にきれいでも | Even if someone/something is/were beautiful | |
| 仮に先生でも | Even if someone is/were a teacher | |
| (vi)仮に | Sinformalとしても | |
| 仮に{話す/話した}としても | Even if someone talks/talked | |
| 仮に{高い/高かった}としても | Even if something were expensvie | |
| 仮にきれい{だ/だった}としても | Even if someone/something were beautiful | |
| 仮に先生{だ/だった}としても | Even if someone were a teacher |
(a). 仮にあなたがベンチャー企業の経営権を持っていたら、どのようなアプローチを取りますか。
Supposing that you managed a business venture, what sort of approach would you take?
(b). よくある質問ですが、仮にあなたが今小さい島で一人で暮らすとして、一冊だけ本を持って行けるとしたら、どの本を持って行きますか。
This is a common question, but supposing that you were going to live alone on a small island and were allowed to bring only one book, what would it be (literally: which book would you take there)?
(c). 仮に今の調子で老齢化が進むとすれば、21世紀後半には日本の人口の5割以上が６５歳以上になる可能性がある。
If Japan ages at the current rate, in the latter half of the 21st century more than half of the Japanese population will be 65 or older.
(d). 仮に日本に一年ぐらい行って日本語を勉強すれば、君たちの日本語はすごく上達するよ。
If you go to Japan to study Japanese for about a year, your Japanese will make an impressive progress.
(e). 信号を待っている時、仮に前の車が青になったのに進まなかったとしても、クラクションは鳴らさない方がよいでしょう。
When you are waiting for the light, even if the car in front of you doesn't move ahead when it turns green, it's better not to honk.
(f). 仮に話を経済学の「理論」に限定するとしても、今日までのあらゆる経済学理論が結局においてはすべてゲーム理論だと言っていいだろう。
Even if we limit the discussion to economic theory, I can safely say that all economic theories are, in the end, game theory.
(g). 仮に仲介者を通して売る場合、利益が少なくなるのは当然だ。
If you sell it through a go-between, your profit, of course, will become smaller.
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Phrase
| Phrase indicating action or state in the dependent clause occurs very closely with another action or state in the clause, or causes another. | As soon as (one notices that)~; soon after; when one things/feels that~ |
| 【Related Expression: かと思えば; かと思ったら】 | |
(ksa). 最近は、肌寒くなったかと思うと、翌日には暖かくなったりする。
These days, just when you think it's gotten chilly, the next day it turns warm again.
(ksb). 私の書いた小説が出版されるかと思うと、とても嬉しい。
When I think that the novel I wrote will be published, I feel very happy.
| (i)Sentence1 informal past | かと思うと、Sentence2 | Where the predicate in Sentence2 is non-emotive; the subjects in Sentence1 and Sentence2 are the same |
| 食べたかと思うと、家を出た | As soon as someone has eaten, he left home | |
| (ii)Sentence1 informal | かと思うと、Sentence2。 | Where the predicate is Sentence2 is emotive |
| 日本へ行けるかと思うと嬉しい。 | When I think that I can go to Japan, I am happy | |
| 馬鹿にされたかと思うと悔しいい。 | When I think that I was despised, I feel distressed |
(a). ハワイでは、雨が降ってきたかと思うと、すぐやんでしまう。
In Hawaii, as soon as it begins to rain, it stops right away.
(b). 花火は、あがったかと思うとすぐ消えてしまうからいいのだ。
I like fireworks because they disappear as soon as they go up.
(c). うちの小学生の子供は、テレビを見終わったかと思うと、コンピュータゲームをやり始める。
Our elementary school child starts to play computer games soon after he finishes watching TV.
(d). 妻がおいしい夕食を作ってくれているかと思うと、家に帰る足も速まる。
When I think about my wife preparing a delicious dinner for me, I naturally start walking home faster.
(e). 会社のリストラで職を失うのではないかと思うと、気が重いです。
When I think about how I might be laid off because of restructuring at my company, I feel depressed.
(f). 子供たちも大学を出て一人立ちしたので、もう学費もかからないかと思うと、ほっとします。
When I think about how we no longer need to pay educational expenses because our children have graduated from college and are now on their own, I feel so relieved.
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Conjunction (usually used in formal writing and formal speech)
| A conjunction meaning "and" that connects words, phrases and sentences. | And; and also; yet; but; and~ as well; as well as; moreover |
| 【Related Expression: と; や; また; その上; 更に; 加えて; そして】 | |
(ksa). スミス氏は流暢な日本語を話し、且つ日本の歴史や文化にも明るい。
Mr. Smith is fluent in Japanese and is also knowledgeable about Japanese history and culture.
(ksb). コの本は、分かりやすく、且つ味わい深い言葉で書かれている。
This book is written in language that is easy to understand but also profound.
(ksc). 彼女は一流のピアニストで、且つ優れた随筆家だ。
She is a first-class pianist, as well as a fine essayist.
(ksd). 外国語は、楽しく、且つ効果的に勉強した。
We'd like to study foreign languages in an enjoyable yet effective way.
(kse). 英語ができること、且つウェブサイトの作成経験があることがこの仕事の要件だ。
Being able to speak English and having experience in constructing websites are the conditions required for this job.
| (i){Vます/Vて}、 | 且つ | |
| 飲み、且つ | Someone drinks and | |
| 飲んで、且つ | Someone drinks and | |
| (ii)Vnegative ず、 | 且つ | |
| 行かず、且つ | Someone will not go and | |
| (iii)Adjectiveいstemく(て)、 | 且つ | |
| 面白く(て)、且つ | Something is interesting and | |
| (iv)Adjectiveなstem | ({で/であり/であって})、且つ | |
| 経済的({で/であり/であって})、且つ | Something is economical and | |
| (v)Nounで({あり/あって})、 | 且つ | |
| 天才で({あり/あって})、且つ | Someone is a genius and | |
| (vi){Adjectiveいstemく/Adjectiveなstemで(は)/Nounで(は)} | なく、且つ | |
| 面白くなく、且つ | Something is not interesting and | |
| 便利(で)はなく、且つ | Something is not convenient and | |
| 英語(で)はなく、且つ | Something is not English and | |
| (vii){Adjectiveいstemく/Adjectiveなstemに} | 且つ | |
| 早く、且つ正確に | Quickly and accurately | |
| 慎重(に)、且つ迅速に | Prudently and rapidly | |
| (viii){Sentence/Phrase}1 こと、 | 且つ{Sentence/Phrase}2 こと | |
| 日本人であること、且つ区内に居住すること | Being a Japanese and living in the world |
(a). パソコンさえあれば自宅ででき、且つ高収入の仕事をご紹介します。
We will introduce you to jobs that not only pay well, but can be done at home, as long as you have a computer.
(b). この図は、自転車を個人で利用できず、且つ家族とも共有できない６５歳以上の高齢者の外出頻度を示している。
This figure shows how often senior citizens over 65 who cannot drive a car and do not share one with their family get out.
(c). 和太鼓による若々しく、且つたくましい演奏をご堪能下さい。
Please enjoy the youthful, powerful performance on the Japanese drums.
(d). 当店では、スタイリッシュで、且つシンプルなトレーニングウエアを各種取り揃えております。
Our store has various kinds of training gear that are stylish yet simple in design.
(e). ご注文のキャンセルについては、注文から24時間以内で、且つ注文されたご本人によりメールあるいはファックスでご連絡いただいた場合のみ認められます。
We accept cancellations only within 24 hours of an order being placed and only when we receive notification via e-mail or fax by the person who has placed the order.
(f). この仕事では大量の文献を速く且つ正確に読むことが要求される。
This job demands that you read a large volume of material both quickly and accurately.
(g). 当社は、個人情報を取り扱うにあたり、個人情報保護法はじめ適用される者法令、規範遵守を徹底し、適切且つ慎重に管理いたします。
At our company, when we handle personal information, we thoroughly observe the applicable laws and regulations, including the Personal Information Protection Law, and we manage the information properly and prudently.
(h). 売主は、製品には欠陥またはきずのある材料の使用がないこと、且つ当該製品が売主の発行した仕様に合致するものであることを保証する。
The seller guarantees that the product does not use materials with defects or blemishes and that the product meets the specifications issued by the seller.
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Phrase (usually used in formal writing and formal speech)
| A phrase indicating that someone or something has an undesirable tendency. | Have a tendency to; tend to; have a touch of~; have a dash of~; smack of~; be slightly~ |
| 【Related Expression: がち; 傾向がある】 | |
(ksa). 彼は物事を単純に考えるきらいがある。
He has a tendency to think (about things) in simplistic terms.
(ksb). 彼は独断のきらいがある。
He is slightly dogmatic (literally: has a touch of dogmatism).
| (i)Vinformal | きらいがある | |
| 結論を{急ぐ/急いだ}きらいがある | Someone has/had a tendency to reach a conclusion hastily (literally: to hurry to reach a conclusion) | |
| 飲み{すぎる/すぎた}きらいがある | Someone has/had a tendency to drink too much | |
| (ii)Nounの | きらいがある | |
| 過食のきらいがある | Someone has a tendency toward overeating | |
| 誇張のきらいがある | Something smacks of exaggeration |
(a). 我々はとかく自分に都合がいい意見だけに耳を傾けるきらいがある。
We tend to listen only to views that are convenient for us.
(b). 今の子供たちは、夜遅くまでコンピュータゲームなどをして寝ないきらいがある。
Children these days have a tendency to stay up late at night playing computer games and doing other things.
(c). 主婦は毎日の雑事に追われて、自分の体調管理がおろそかになるきらいがある。
Housewives have a tendency to neglect taking care of their own health because they are busy doing everyday chores.
(d). 彼女は親切な人ですが、知らずに人を傷つけることを言うきらいがあります。
She is a kind person, but she has a tendency to say things unwittingly that hurt people.
(e). 私たちは、あまりに自分のからだを医者任せにしてきたきらいがあるのではないでしょうか。
Don't you think that we have tended to entrust (the care of) our bodies too much to doctors?
(f). これまでの日本の高等教育は、アジアとの共生を重視しなかったきらいがある。
Japanese higher education so far has tended to attach little importance to Japan's coexistence with Asia.
(g). 現在の日本の教育は、子供を社会から保護しすぎるきらいがある。
Education in Japan today tends to overprotect children from society.
(h). 彼は家庭環境が複雑なせいか、人間不信のきらいがある。
Because he was brought up in a complicated family setting, he tends not to trust people (literally: tends towards mistrust of humans).
(i). 彼は頭もよくて、仕事もばりばりやるけど、八方美人のきらいがある。
He is sharp and works furiously, but he has a tendency to try to be everything to everybody.
(j). 健康診断で白内障のきらいがあると医者に言われました。
When I had a physical check-up, the doctor told me that I have cataracts developing.
(k). 糖尿病のきらいがあるので、甘いものは控えています。
I have a borderline case of diabetes (literally: have a tendency towards diabetes), so I am refraining from eating sweets.
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Conjunction/Particle (usually used in conversation)
| Conjunction indicating since something occurred, nothing has happened and resultant situation remains unchanged; particle indicating strict limitation in terms of number/quantity. | Since; only |
| 【Related Expression: だけ; まま】 | |
(ksa). 山下氏は1964年に日本を出た(っ)きり日本には一度も帰っていない。
Mr. Yamashita hasn't returned to Japan even once since he left in 1964.
(ksb). ソウルにいるのも今夜きりです。
This is my last night (literally: the only night left) in Seoul.
| (i)Vinformal past | (っ)きり | |
| 出た(っ)きり(帰らない) | (someone has never returned) since he left home | |
| 買った(っ)きり(使わない) | (someone has never used something) since he bought it | |
| (ii)Noun | きり | Where Noun=noun of time |
| 今日きり | Only today | |
| 今週きり | Only this week | |
| 今年きり | Only this year | |
| (iii)Demonstrative Pronoun | (っ)きり | |
| これ(っ)きり | Only this much/only this time | |
| それ(っ)きり | (only that much/only that time); since then | |
| (っ)きり | あれ(only that much/only that time); since then | |
| (iv)Number+Counter | (っ)きり | |
| 二人(っ)きり | Only two (students, etc.) | |
| 三枚(っ)きり | Only three (CDs, etc.) | |
| 四本(っ)きり | Only four (pencils, etc.) |
(a). 彼女とは十年以上も前にパリで会ったきりで、その後どうしているのか、全然知らない。
I haven't seen her since we met in Paris more than 10 years ago and I have no idea how she's been doing since then.
(b). 小学校六年の時に別れたっきりの同級生に気づかれるなんて、ひょっとして私って小学校の時から顔が変わってないんだろうか。
My classmate, whom I hadn't seen since we left 6th grade, recognized me. I wonder if I look the same as I did in elementary school (literally: my face has not changed since my grade school days).
(c). フロイトの本はずいぶん前に読んだっきりなので、内容のほとんどは忘れてしまいました。
It's been a long time since I read Freud's books, so I've forgotten almost all of the content.
(d). 父は雪の日に倒れて、腰の骨を折ってから、寝たきりになってしまった。
My father fell on a snowy day and broke his hip, and since then he's been lying in bed.
(e). それっきりなの？もっとたくさんちょうだい。
Is this all (literally: only this much)? Give me more, please.
(f). もう会うのはこれっきりにしましょう。
Let's make this the last (literally: only) time we see each other.
(g). 十年前に別れて二人はそれきりだった。
The two parted 10 years ago and have never seen each other since.
(h). 彼からはあれっきり何も連絡がないの？
You haven't heard anything from him since then?
(i). 夏休みも今日一日きりで終わっちゃうね。
Today is the last day (literally: the only day left) of summer vacation, isn't it?
(j). 私は母と二人っきりで暮らしています。
I live alone with my mother.
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Particle (usually used in conversation)
| A colloquial sentence final particle marking a question. |
| 【Related Expression: か】 |
(ksa). 鈴木さんは英語が話せるんだっけ。
Can you speak English, Mr. Suzuki?/ Can Mr. Suzuki speak English?
(ksb). 鈴木さんは英語が話せた(んだ)っけ。
Can you speak English, Mr. Suzuki?/ Can Mr. Suzuki speak English?
| (i){V/Adjective い}informal nonpast | んだっけ | |
| {話す/美味しい}んだっけ | Does someone talk?/Is something delicious? | |
| (ii){V/Adjective い}informal past | (んだ)っけ | |
| {話した/美味しかった}(んだ)っけ | Did someone talk?/Was something delicious? | |
| (iii){Adjective なstem/Noun/Wh-word} | (なん)だっけ | |
| {元気/学生}(なん)だっけ | Is someone healthy/a student? | |
| {なん/誰/どこ/いつ}(なん)だっけ | What/who/where/when is it? | |
| (iv){Adjectiveなstem/Noun/Wh-word} | だった(んだ)っけ | |
| {元気/学生}だった(んだ)っけ | Was/is someone healthy/a student? | |
| {なん/誰/どこ/いつ}だった(んだ)っけ | What/who/where/when was/is it? |
(a). 今日は木曜日だ(った)っけ。
Is today Thursday?
(b). ジェーンさんはピアノが弾けた(んだ)っけ。
Can you play the piano, Jane?/ Can Jane play the piano?
(c). パーティーは何時に始まるんだっけ。
When does the party start?
(d). スミスさんはワシントン大学の学生だったっけ。
Are (Were) you a University of Washington student, Ms. Smith?/ Is (Was) Ms. Smith a University of Washington student?
(e). 僕が子供の頃はこの辺は林だったっけ。
When I was a kid this area used to be a forest.
(f). この映画、面白いんだっけ。
Is this movie interesting?
(g). あの人って、正直なんだっけ。
Is he an honest person?
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Phrase (usually used in formal writing and formal speech)
| A phrase that indicates that something or someone is in an extreme state. | Extremely; utterly; very; so; cannot be more; extreme; utmost |
| 【Related Expression: 極めて; 非常に; 実に; 極まりない; 限りだ】 | |
(ksa). 生まれたばかりの赤ん坊を車に残して買い物に行くとは非常識この上ない。
It is utterly senseless to leave a newborn baby in the car and go shopping.
(ksb). この部屋はクーラーも扇風機もなく、風も全然通らないので、暑いことこの上ない。
There is neither an air-conditioner nor a fan in this room, and no breeze, either, so it's extremely hot in here.
(ksc). 大任を無事に果たしてこの上ない充実感に浸っている。
I'm enjoying the feeling of utmost fulfilment, having completed an important mission successfully.
| (i)Adjective な stem | この上ない | |
| 不便この上ない | Extremely inconvenient | |
| (ii){Adjectiveいinformal nonpast/Adjectiveなstemな} | ことこの上ない | |
| 嬉しいことこの上ない | Someone cannot be happier | |
| 危険なことこの上ない | Extremely dangerous | |
| (iii)この上ない | Noun | |
| この上ない幸せ | Extreme happiness |
(a). 最近よく食事時にセールスの電話がかかってくるが、迷惑この上ない。
We often get sales calls at dinnertime these days, which is extremely annoying.
(b). 一人住まいの高齢者を狙って金を騙し取るなど卑劣この上ない。
It is utterly contemptible to target old people living alone and cheat them of their money.
(c). こんな大事な仕事をアルバイトにさせるなんて無責任この上ない。
It is extremely irresponsible to have a part-timer do such an important job.
(d). また選挙シーズンが来た。いつものことだが、選挙の車が連日うちの前を通り、マイクで候補者の名前を連呼する。うるさいことこの上ない。
Here we are again in election season. As always, the campaign cars pass by my house every day, shouting out their candidate's name repeatedly on the microphone. It's extremely noisy and annoying.
(e). このコンピュータは日本語入力の時、いちいち入力方式を指定しないといけないので、面倒なことこの上ない。
Because we have to specify the input method on this computer every time we want to type in Japanese, it's extremely cumbersome.
(f). 新しく入ったアパートはキッチンの流しが高くて、私のように背の低いものは使いづらいことこの上ない。
The sink in my new apartment is tall, which makes it extremely hard to use for someone short like me.
(g). 一人でハワイに来て、この上ない解放感に満たされている。
Having come to Hawaii by myself, I'm filled with a feeling of utmost freedom.
(h). ご出席いただいた皆様からこの上ないお褒めの言葉をいただきました。
I received the utmost praise from those who attended.
(i). 彼とやっと一緒の生活を始めることができ、この上ない幸福感に浸っている。
Finally, I can start living with my boyfriend; I couldn't be happier.
(j). この国は、他の国の批判に耳を貸すこともなく、この上ないごう慢さをもって自国のイデオロギーを主張し続けている。
This country keeps insisting with utmost arrogance on its ideology without paying attention to other countries' criticisms.
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Phrase (usually used in formal writing and formal speech)
| A sentence final, exclamatory phrase used in written language. | How~!; what a(n)~! |
| 【Related Expression: ねえ; なあ; なんて/と~の/んだ(ろう)】 | |
(ksa). カルフォルニアは何と太陽が明るいことか。
How bright the sun is in California!
(ksb). 私は今までに何度オーストラリアを訪ねたことか。
How many times have I visited Australia before now!
| (i)Wh-word+particle～ | Adjectiveいinformalことか。 | |
| 何と{面白い/面白かった}ことか。 | How interesting it is/was! | |
| どんなに{嬉しい/嬉しかった}ことか。 | How happy I am/was! | |
| (ii)何{Counter/と}～ | Vinformalことか。 | |
| 何回{聞く/聞いた}ことか。 | How many times we {are listening/have listened} to it! | |
| 何と美味しく{食べる/食べた}ことか。 | How we do/did enjoy eating! | |
| (iii)Wh-word～Adjectiveなstem | {な/である/だった/であった}ことか。 | |
| いかに困難{な/である/だった/であった}ことか。 | How difficult something is/was! | |
| (iv)Wh-word+Particle～Noun | {である/だった/であった}ことか。 | |
| {いかに/何と/何たる}天才{である/だった/であった}ことか。 | What a genius someone is/was! | |
| (v)どれ{ほど/だけ}～ | ことか。 | |
| どれほど望んだことか。 | How much someone has hoped for it! |
(a). アメリカの大学に比べると日本の大学は何と貧弱に見えることか。
When compared with American universities, how unimpressive Japanese universities look!
(b). ペダルを踏み替える時に膝がハンドルにぶつかる車がどんなに多いことか。
How many cars are there in which the driver's knee hits the steering wheel whenever he switches pedals!
(c). 日本語がよく読めるようになるためにどれぐらい勉強したことか。
How much I studied in order to read Japanese well!
(d). 新鮮な魚を探して何軒の魚屋を見て歩いたことか。
How many fish shops I have gone to in search of fresh fish!
(e). この数学の問題を解くのに何時問使ったことか。
How many hours I have spent to solve this mathematical problem!
(f). 日本人はいかにしばしば内と外の行動を区別することか。
How often Japanese differentiate their behaviour in inside and outside spaces!
(g). 二人はどれだけ強く愛し合っていたことか。
How strongly the two loved each other!
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Phrase (usually used in formal writing and formal speech)
| A phrase that expresses a reason or a cause. | Because; due to; from the fact that~; cause; trigger |
| 【Related Expression: から; ので; ところから】 | |
(ksa). 彼はアリバイが成立しなかったことから犯行の嫌疑がかかった。
Because (literally: from the fact that) he couldn't establish an alibi, he was suspected of a criminal act.
(ksb). 妙なことから二人の関係は悪化した。
The relationship between the two people deteriorated due to strange circumstances.
| (i){V/Adjectiveい}informal | ことから | |
| {話す/話した}ことから | Because someone talks/talked about something; because of (literally: from) something which someone talks/talked about | |
| {つまらない/つまらなかった}ことから | Because of something trivial; because something is/was boring | |
| (ii)Adjective な stem | {な/である/だった}ことから | |
| 不便{な/である/だった}ことから | Because something is/was inconvenient | |
| (iii)Noun | {である/だった/であった}ことから | |
| 学生{である/だった/であった}ことから | Because someone is/was a student |
(a). その教授は学生に高圧的だったことから、学生にひどく嫌われていた。
The professor was so overbearing towards his students that he was thoroughly hated by them.
(b). 今年は大学創立から250年に当たることから、盛大な記念祝典が開かれた。
Because it is the 250th year since the founding of the college, there was a magnificent anniversary ceremony this year.
(c). 私が余計なことを言ったことから議論が紛糾した。
The discussion became complicated because I said something uncalled for.
(d). 魚を水槽内で飼って行う研究は、長期的な観察が可能であることから、汎用性のあるデータが取得しやすい。
Keeping fish in a tank for research allows us to obtain data for general use because long-term observation is possible.
(e). 首相は不用意な言動が多かったことから、不信任案が議会で可決された。
Because the prime minister was often careless in his statements and behaviour, a no-confidence motion was passed in Parliament.
(f). 本当にささいなことから会談は中止になってしまった。
Because of a really trivial matter the conference broke up.
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Phrase
| A phrase that expresses the speaker's/ writer's emotion or subjective judgment. | It is~ that; I am~ that; we are~ that; to my/our~; ~ly |
| 【Related Expression: とは; にも; かな】 | |
(ksa). 嬉しいことに、今学期は祭日が3日もある。
I'm glad that there are (as many as) three holidays this term.
(ksb). 残念なことに、この本は絶版で、普通の本屋では手に入らない。
To my regret, this book is out of print and cannot be purchased at ordinary bookstores.
(ksc). 驚いたことに、村田さんはあんなに気に入っていた会社を半年で辞めてしまった。
I was surprised that Mr. Murata quit his job after six months- he seemed so excited about his work.
| (i)Adjectiveいinformal | ことに | |
| {悲しい/悲しかった}ことに | It is/was sad that; sadly | |
| (ii)Adjective な stem | {な/だった}ことに | |
| 幸い{な/だった}ことに | It is/was fortunate that; fortunately | |
| (iii)Vinformal | ことに | |
| 腹の{立つ/立った}ことに | I am/was mad that |
(a). 恥ずかしいことに、私は英文学専攻でありながら英語が話せない。
It's embarrassing, but I can't speak English despite the fact that I'm an English literature major.
(b). 面白いことに、ハワイの日系人の方が日本人より日本の古い伝統をよく守っているという。
Interestingly, they say that Japanese-Americans in Hawaii maintain old Japanese traditions better than (Japanese) people in Japan.
(c). 悪いことに、オーディションの前の日に風邪を引いてしまった。
Unfortunately, I caught a cold the day before my audition.
(d). 悔しいことに、私はロジャーに負けた。
I was frustrated by my loss to Roger.
(e). 吉岡さんのところの悦子ちゃんは、感心なことに、お母さんが仕事で遅くなる時は自分で晩ご飯を作るんだそうです。
I'm so impressed with Etsuko, Yoshioka's daughter; they say she fixes dinner herself when her mother is late because of work.
(f). 浄水器は濾過の過程で塩素をすべて取り去ってしまうため、濾過した瞬間から水は腐敗の危険にさらされる。さらに心配なことに、濾過材に残った水から大量に細菌が繁殖するといった問題が報道された。
Because water purifiers remove all the chlorine in the purification process, from the moment it's been purified, there's a risk the water will get contaminated (literally: rot). What's even more worrisome, bacteria can multiply in the water left in the
(g). 厄介なことに、この種の詐欺は被害者が世間体のために警察に届けを出さないことが多く、これが犯人検挙を難しくしている。
The trouble is, this kind of fraud is seldom reported to the police because the victims want to save face, which makes it hard to arrest the culprits.
(h). 困ったことに、日本のDVDはアメリカのプレーヤーで見られないのです。
The problem is that Japanese DVDs cannot be viewed on American (DVD) players.
(i). 腹の立つことに、私のフライトは5時間も待たされたあげく、キャンセルされた。
It was maddening: After I was kept waiting for my flight for five full hours, in the end it was cancelled.
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Conjunction (usually used in formal writing and formal speech)
| A conjunction that means "in addition to what has just been mentioned". | In addition; and additionally; what's more |
| 【Related Expression: だけでなく~(も); ばかりでなく~(も); その上(に); 且つ】 | |
(ksa). この冬のアメリカ東部は雪、雨、加えて強風の被害が大きかった。
This winter the East Coast of the U.S. suffered terribly from snow, rain and, in addition, strong winds.
(ksb). この辺は物価が安い。(それに)加えて自然環境もすばらしい。
Things are inexpensive in this neighbourhood. What's more, the natural environment is amazing.
| (i)Noun1、Noun2、(…、) | 加えてNoun | |
| 酒、ビール、加えてウイスキー | Sake, beer, and on top of that, whisky | |
| (ii)Sentence1 (それに) | 加えてSentence2。 | |
| 彼は頭が切れる。(それに)加えて人柄もいい。 | He is sharp. In addition, he has a good personality. |
(a). この作家の小説は想像力の豊かさ、鮮明な文体、加えて、極めて音楽的なリズム感がある。
The novels of this author are richly imaginative, have a clear-cut style, and, in addition, have a highly musical rhythm.
(b). 金融業の倒産、失業率の上昇、加えて、不安定な政治状況によって、この国の経済は沈滞している。
The bankruptcy of financial institutions, the rise in the unemployment rate, and, additionally, political instability are causing the stagnation of this country's economy.
(c). 健康維持には正しい食事、適度な運動、加えて人との温かいコミュニケーションが必要であろう。
In order to maintain your health, a proper diet, moderate exercise and, what's more, amiable communication with other people are necessary.
(d). 彼女はおしゃべりが好きで、とても明るい。それに加えて、なかなかユニークなキャラクターだ。
She likes to chat and is very cheerful. In addition, she has a unique character.
(e). 北海道の秋は紅葉がきれいだ。加えて、空気がからっと乾燥していて気持ちがいい。
The fall foliage in Hokkaido is beautiful. In addition, the crisp, dry air feels good.
(f). 京都は神社仏閣がたくさんある。加えて、魅力的な日本庭園も多い。
Kyoto has many shrines and temples. In addition, it has many charming traditional gardens.
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Phrase
| Phrase indicating someone's decision cope with a negative situation, or simple, straight forward reason for his/ her action. | Just; merely; only |
| 【Related Expression: だから(のこと)だ】 | |
(ksa). もしTOEFLの点が悪かったらもう一度受けるまで(のこと)だ。
If my TOEFL score isn't good, then I'll just take the test again.
(ksb). 日本語は面白そうだったので、取ったまで(このと)だ。
I took Japanese language only because it looked interesting (not for any other reason).
| Vinformal | まで(のこと)だ | |
| 帰るまで(のこと)だ | Someone will just go home, and that's all | |
| 言ったまで(のこと)だ | Someone just said something, and that's all |
(a). 結婚できなかったら、一生独身で仕事をするまでのことだ。
If I cannot marry I will just stay single for the rest of my life and do my work.
(b). 就職できなかったら、フリーターになるまでのことだ。
If I cannot get a regular job, I will just become a permanent part-time worker.
(c). バスが来ないんなら歩いて帰るまでだ。
If a bus doesn't come, I will just walk home.
(d). 夕食にどうぞと言われたから彼女のアパートに行ったまでだ。とやかく言われる筋合いはない。
I went to her apartment just because she invited me over to dinner. You have no right to say such a critical thing to me.
(e). 小説みたいなものを書いたが、別に小説家になりたいと思ったのではない。小説を書くということがどんなことか知りたかったまでのことだ。
I've written something like a novel, but I never particularly thought I wanted to be a novelist. I just wanted to know what it was like to write a novel. That's all.
(f). あなたに私の個人的なことを話したのは、あなたの将来に多少役立つかと思ったまでのことです。
The reason I told you about my personal matters is just because I thought it would be useful for you in the future. Nothing more and nothing less.
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Adverb
| Adverb expressing idea because one statement is true, the subsequent statement is naturally true. | To say nothing of; not to speak of; let alone; still more; much less; all the more reason why |
| 【Related Expression: どころか; いわんや】 | |
(ksa). アパートの家賃を払うのが精一杯なのに、まして(や)家を買うなんて夢物語だ。
I am just managing to pay the rent for my apartment; how much more of a dream it is to imagine buying my own house!
(ksb). 彼女は日本語で講演もできる。まして(や)日常会話など問題ではない。
She can give a speech in Japanese, to say nothing of (her ability to handle) everyday conversation.
| (i)Subordinate Clause、 | まして(や) Main Clause。 |
| (ii)Sentence1。 | まして(や)Sentence2。 |
(a). この小説は大人にも読みにくいのに、まして小学生に読めるはずがない。
This novel is hard even for adults to read much less elementary school students.
(b). 彼は簡単な日本語すら話せない。ましてや、書くことなど思いもよらない。
He cannot even speak Japanese, let alone write it.
(c). 僕は自転車さえ買えない。まして、車を買うなんて不可能。
I can't even buy a bike, let alone a car.
(d). 国内での単身赴任でもつらい。ましてや、外国での単身赴任となるともっとつらい。
To be sent alone to a new post within Japan is hard. It is still harder to go overseas to work without one's family.
(e). この数学の問題は教授でも解けないのだから、まして、学生の僕に解けるはずがない。
Even a professor cannot solve this math problem much less a student like me.
(f). 65歳の人が毎日一キロ泳いでいるんです。まして、32歳のあなたが同じことができないわけがないですよ。
There's a 65-year-old man who swims one kilometre every day. All the more reason why a 32-year-old like you should be able to do the same.
(g). ニューヨークのような大都市でも犯罪率を下げることに成功している。ましてや、中小都市なら十分可能だろう。
Even a big city like New York has been successful in lowering the crime rate, which is all the more reason why mid- and small-sized cities should be able to lower theirs.
(h). このちっぽけな蟻だって協力し合っているんです。まして、頭脳の発達した人間にそれができないわけはないでしょう。
These tiny ants are cooperating with each other -all the more reason why humans with our developed brains should be able to do the same.
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Adverb/Conjunction
| An adverb/conjunction that indicates repetition or addition. | Again; also; too; (not)~ either; and; additionally; or |
| 【Related Expression: あるいは; 且つ】 | |
(ksa). 来年の春、またお会いします。
I will see you again next spring.
(ksb). 山田も東京出身だが、林もまた東京出身だ。
Yamada is from Tokyo, and Hayashi, too, is from Tokyo.
(ksc). 机に座ってものを考えるのもいいが、歩きながら考えるのもまたいい。
Thinking while sitting at a desk is fine, but thinking while walking is also good.
(ksd). この日本語の教科書は内容も面白く、また文法の記述が正確だ。
This Japanese textbook is interesting, and the grammar explanations are also accurate.
(kse). 発表は英語でしてもよい。また、日本語でしてもよい。
You may present your paper in English. Or, you may do so in Japanese.
(ksf). 発表は英語でしてよいし、また、日本語でしてもよい。
You may present your paper in English or you may do so in Japanese.
| (i)また | Verb | [repetition] |
| また来る | Someone will come again | |
| (ii)Noun | また | [additon] |
| 猫もまた(哺乳動物だ) | A cat is also a mammal | |
| (iii)Nominalも | また | [additon] |
| 酒をオンザロックで飲むもまた(いい) | Drinking sake on the rocks is not bad either | |
| 文化を学ぶこともまた大切だ | Studying culture is also important | |
| (iv)～{Vます/Adjectiveいstemく}、 | また、Sentence。 | [additional information] |
| 彼女はピアノを巧みに弾き、また、歌もうまい。 | She plays the piano well, and also sings well | |
| ここは景色も素晴らしく、また、空気もきれいだ。 | The scenery is marvellous here, and the air is clean, too | |
| (v)～{Adjectiveなstem/Noun} | で(あり)、また、Sentence。 | [additional information] |
| 彼女は聡明で(あり)、また、正確もよい。 | She is bright, and her character is also fine | |
| 彼はピアニストで(あり)、また、指揮者でもある。 | He is a pianist and also a conductor | |
| (vi)Sentence1。 | また、Sentence2 | [additional information] |
| 登録はあらかじめして下さい。また、当日も受け付けいたします。 | Please register beforehand. You can register (literally: we will accept your registration) on the day of the conference, too | |
| (vii)Sentence1し、 | また、Sentence2。 | [additional information] |
| 登録は学会の１か月前から受け付けますし、また、当日も受け付けいたします。 | We will accept your registration starting one month before the conference, but you can register on the day of the conference, too |
(a). 今日もまた雪が降った。
It snowed again today.
(b). また風邪をひいちゃった。
I caught a cold again!
(c). 大統領もまた人間だ。過ちを犯すこともあるだろう。
The president is also human. He may sometimes make mistakes.
(d). 大学で勉強をするのはもちろん大切だが、生涯の友達を作るのもまた大切だ。
Needless to say, it is very important to study at college, but it is also important to make lifetime friends there.
(e). 彼は優れた研究者であり、また、優れた教育者でもある。
He is a fine researcher, and he is also a fine educator.
(f). 日本は失業率が高くなってきている。また、株価も急落している。
In Japan, the unemployment rate is on the rise. And additionally, stock prices are rapidly dropping.
(g). この会議には出席してもよい。また、出席しなくてもよい。
You may attend this meeting. But, you don't have to attend.
(h). 日中間の相互理解を図る上で、文化交流は大変重要だし、また大変有益だ。
In achieving mutual understanding between Japan and China cultural exchange is very important, and beneficial as well.
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Structure
| A structure that indicates extremely low frequency. | Rarely; seldom; hardly; almost never |
| 【Related Expression: たまには; あまり~ない; ほとんど~ない; たましか~ない; 時たましか~ない; 全然~ない; 全く~ない】 | |
(ks). この辺りでは地震は滅多に起きない。
Earthquakes seldom occur in this area.
| 滅多に～ | Vnegative ない | |
| 滅多に外国に行かない | Someone seldom goes abroad | |
| 滅多に肉を食べない | Someone seldom eats meat |
(a). 日本の父親は忙しいので、週末でも滅多にうちにいない。
Japanese fathers are so busy that even on weekends they are seldom at home.
(b). 大学時代の同級生とは滅多に合えない。
I can hardly ever see my college classmates.
(c). 日本の車は滅多に故障しないので、外海で人気がある。
Because Japanese cars rarely break down, they are popular abroad.
(d). 汚染のためにこの川では滅多に魚が泳いでいるのを見られなくなった。
Due to pollution, we almost never see fish swimming in this river now.
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Phrase
| A phrase indicating that something can be (obviously) recognized through visual cues. | Visibly; obviously; really look; can be easily recognised as; can tell just by looking at~ |
| 【Related Expression: 明らかに; いかにも】 | |
(ksa). 太陽の光をたっぷり浴びたみかんは、見るからにおいしそうだ。
The sun-bathed mandarin oranges look really delicious.
(ksb). 彼女が身につけているものは見るからに高級品だった。
What she wears if obviously of high quality.
| (i)見るからに | Adjective(い/な) stemそうだ | |
| 見るからに面白そうだ | Something is obviously interesting | |
| 見るからに元気そうだ | Someone is obviously healthy | |
| (ii)見るからに | ～ | |
| 見るからに日本人だ | Someone is obviously Japanese | |
| 見るからに失望している | Someone is obviously disappointed |
(a). このパンは見るからに手作りという感じですね。
This bread is obviously homemade.
(b). その青年は見るからに聡明そうだった。
You could tell just by looking that the young man was intelligent.
(c). 老人が見るからに重そうな買い物袋を抱えて歩いている。
The old man is walking with a shopping bag that is obviously heavy.
(d). その写真には見るからに寂しそうな孤児たちが写っていた。
In that picture the orphans were obviously lonely.
(e). 半身・淡路大震災の時は見るからに新聞記者らしい人たちが大勢写真を撮っていた。
At the time of the Great Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake, a lot of people who could easily be recognized as news reporters were taking pictures.
(f). 彼の顔は青黒くむくみ、見るからに健康を害していた。
His face was pale, dark and swollen. You could tell just by looking at him that he was in poor health.
(g). 見るからにジューシーなお肉にかぶりつくと、うまみが口の中に広がっていった。
I took a big bite into a visibly juicy piece of meat. Delicious flavour started to fill my mouth.
(h). このスープは野菜たっぷりで、見るからに体によさそう！
This soup has plenty of vegetables and looks really healthy!
(i). この男の人、見るからに誠実で優しそうね。
This man looks really honest and kind, doesn't he?
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Structure (usually used in formal writing and formal speech)
| A structure used to present typical examples of actions, events, situations, people, or things among a number of possibilities. | There are times when~ and/or~; sometimes~ and sometimes~; sometimes do things like~ and~; some (people/etc.)~ and some (people/etc.)~ |
| 【Related Expression: も[Verb]し~も[Verb]; たり~たりする】 | |
(ksa). 父は感情的な人ではないが、時に怒りもすれば泣きもする。
My father is not an emotional person, but there are times when he gets angry and times when he cries.
(ksb). 私だってロックも聞けばダンスもする。
Even I sometimes (do things like) listen to rock music and dance.
(ksc). 日本全国が担当地域なので、北海道(へ)も行けば沖縄(へ)も行く。
Because my area of responsibility covers all of Japan, I may go to Hokkaido or Okinawa (or wherever else in Japan).
(ksd). 交通事情によって三十分で行けるとこもあれば一時間以上かかることもある。
Depending on the traffic situation, sometimes it takes only 30 minutes to get there and sometimes it takes more than an hour.
| (i)V1ます | もすればV2ますもする | |
| 笑いもすれば泣きもする | Sometimes laugh and sometimes cry | |
| (ii)NP1(Particle) | もV1conditionalばNP2(Particle)もV2 | |
| 古いのもあれば最新のもある | Some are old ones and some are the most recent ones | |
| 映画も見ればコンサートへも行く | Sometimes do things like watching movies and going to concerts | |
| (iii){Adjectiveい1stemく/Adjectiveな1stemに} | もV1conditionalば{Adjectiveい2stemく/Adjectiveな2stemに}もV2 | |
| 優しくもなれば難しくもなる | Sometimes become easy and sometimes difficult | |
| 有利にもなれば不利にもなる | Sometimes become advantageous and sometimes disadvantageous |
(a). 円満な夫婦は口論もすれば不満も言い合う。
A happy husband and wife may sometimes argue and sometimes complain to each other.
(b). 私は子供をよく可愛いがるが、悪いことをしたら怒りもすれば叱りもする。
I adore my children, but when they do something bad, sometimes I get mad and sometimes I scold them.
(c). この学会では英語で発表する人もいれば日本語で発表する人もいる。
At this conference some people give presentations in English and some give them in Japanese.
(d). 人生は晴れの日もあれば雨の日もある。
In life, there are sunny days as well as rainy days.
(e). うちの会社は服装の規則がないので、スーツを着て行く時もあればセーターで行く時もある。
Because my company has no dress code, sometimes I go in a suit and sometimes in a sweater.
(f). 担当の先生が来られない時は、代わりの先生を頼むこともあれば、やむを得ず休講にすることもある。
When the teacher in charge of the class cannot come, we sometimes ask a substitute to teach, and sometimes have no choice but to cancel class.
(g). アイディアが突然湧き上がってくる時もあれば、全く出てこない時もある。
Sometimes ideas well up all of the sudden, and sometimes nothing comes to mind (literally: comes out).
(h). 外国語は勉強の仕方次第で、面白くもなればつまらなくもなる。
Depending on the way you study it, a foreign language can be interesting or boring.
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Phrase
| A sentence-final phrase indicating that one shouldn't do something, one could not possibly do something, or one naturally cannot do something. | Shouldn't; not possibly; naturally cannot; cannot bear |
| 【Related Expression: べきではない; てはいけない; 当然だ; 当たり前だ】 | |
(ksa). 夜遅く人に電話をかけるものではない。
You shouldn't call people late at night.
(ksb). 彼の演奏は聴けたものではない。
We cannot bear listening to his performance (literally: His performance isn't something we could possibly listen to).
(ksc). そんな時間のかかる仕事は引き受けられるものではない。
That kind of time-consuming work isn't something I can accept.
| (i)Vinformal nonpast | ものではない | |
| 食べるものではない | One shouldn't eat something | |
| (ii)Vpotential informal past | ものではない | |
| 食べられたものではない | One could not possibly eat something | |
| (iii)Vpotential informal nonpast | ものではない | |
| 食べられるものではない | One naturally cannot eat something |
(a). 日本では先生と話す時に帽子をかぶったまま話すものではない。
In Japan, one shouldn't wear a hat while speaking to one's teacher.
(b). 日本では人のうちに訪ねて行く時には手ぶらで行くものではありません。
In Japan, you shouldn't visit someone's house without bringing something with you.
(c). 未成年者は酒を飲むもんじゃない。
Minors shouldn't drink.
(d). 女性に年齢を聞くものではない。
You shouldn't ask a woman her age.
(e). こんなつまらない小説、読めたもんじゃない。
I could not possibly read such a boring novel!
(f). 私のかいた絵なんか、あなたに見せられたものではありません。
There's no way I could possibly show you the paintings I've done.
(g). 辞書などはそう簡単に書けるものではない。
It is natural that dictionaries can't be written so easily.
(h). 現在の補助金の額で十分な研究ができるものではない。
We cannot possibly do thorough research with the current amount of research funds.
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Phrase (usually used in conversation)
| A rhetorical question marker that expresses a strong negative intention or disagreement. | Definitely not; absolutely not; impossible |
(ksa). あんなやつとは二度と会うものか。
I will never see that sort of guy again.
(ksb). A:彼は5年後には自分でコンピュータの会社をつくるって言っているよ。 B:そんなこと彼にできるもんか。
A: He says he will establish a computer company by himself in five years. B: I bet he can't. (literally: Can he do it?)
| (i){V/Adjectiveい}informal nonpast | ものか | |
| 行くものか | Someone definitely won't go there | |
| 珍しいものか | Something definitely isn't rare | |
| (ii){Adjectiveな stem/Noun} | なものか | |
| 便利なものか | Something is definitely not convenient | |
| 病気なものか | Someone is absolutely not ill |
(a). あんなケチな男とはもうつき合うものか。
Who really wants to spend more time with such a stingy fellow?
(b). A:鈴木、TOEFLが650点だったってよ。B:まさか！そんなことがあるもんか。
A: I heard that Suzuki got 650 points on the TOEFL. B: Unbelievable! That can't be true.
(c). 世話をしてもお礼の一言も言わないの。あんな人、もう世話をするもんですか。
She didn't even thank me when I helped her out. Who really wants to help someone like that again?
(d). A:池田先生、親切な先生？B:親切なもんか。
A: Is Professor Ikeda a kind teacher? B: Definitely not kind.
(e). A:そのパズル、やさしいんだろう。B:やさしいもんか。
A: Isn't that puzzle easy? B: absolutely not.
(f). A:あいつは自分のことをいっぱしの政治家だと思っているようだな。B:あいつは政治家なもんか。政治屋しゃないか。
A: He seems to think that he is a full-fledged politician. B: He is absolutely not a politician. He's just being political.
(g). A:黙って帰ったら彼に悪いだろう。B:かまうもんか。
A: It's not right if we go home without saying a word to him, right? B: Who cares?
(h). A:みんな、あの政治家は信頼できるって言っているよ。B:分かるもんか。
A: Everybody is saying that politician is reliable. B: How do they know?
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Phrase
| A phrase indicating that the speaker wants to do something or is wondering what one he/she should choose. | Wish; wonder if; should |
| 【Related Expression: たらいいのに; たらいいのだが; たらいいか; べきか】 | |
(ksa). もう少し広い家に住めないもの(だろう)か。
(i) I wish to live in a house that is a bit more spacious. (ii) I wonder if I can live in a slightly more spacious house.
(ksb). 修士論文の題目をどのように決めたものか(と)迷っています。
I am at a loss as to how I should choose my MA thesis topic.
(ksc). もう少し真面目にこの問題に取り組んでくれないもの(だろう)か。
I'm wondering if they can handle this problem a little more seriously.
| (i)Vpotential negativeない | もの(だろう)か | |
| 食べられないもの(だろう)か | Someone wishes to eat something/someone wonders if he could (literally: couldn't) eat something | |
| (ii)Wh-word+Vinformal past | ものかとV | Where V=verb of thinking |
| どこへ行ったものかと{思う/考える} | Someone things about where he should go | |
| どうしたものか(と){迷う/思案する} | Someone wonders what to do |
(a). 何とかしてこの原稿を月曜日までに書き終われないものか。
I would like somehow to finish writing this manuscript by Monday.
(b). もう少し自由に休暇が取れないものだろうか。
I'm wondering if I can take time off a bit more freely.
(c). 東京の夏はやたらと暑い。もう少し涼しくならないものだろうか。
Tokyo's summer is terribly hot. I wish it were a bit cooler.
(d). 日本語を勉強したいんですが、どの大学を選んだものかと考えているところです。
I want to study Japanese, and I'm wondering which university I should choose.
(e). 今年の夏は海外旅行をしおうと思っていますが、どの国に行ったものかと思案中です。
We're thinking of making a trip abroad this coming summer, and we are trying to figure out which country to visit.
(f). 子供が反抗期に入っている。その期間を問題なく乗り越えるにはどうしたものかと思っている。
Our child has entered the rebellious stage of life. I'm wondering what we should do to get through this period without problems.
(g). このところ体の調子が悪いので、医者に診てもらったものかと考えているところです。
I'm now wondering if I should go see a doctor because I don't feel well these days.
(h). 日本の狭い社会から飛び出して海外移住でもしたものかと思っています。
I'm wondering if I should escape from Japan's confining society and live abroad.
(i). 人の性格は変わらないものだろうか。
I wonder if a person's character ever changes? (Does a person's character never change?)
(j). 私も食事に注意しているのだから、少しはやせないものだろうか。
I'm paying attention to my diet, so I wonder if I will lose some weight.
(k). もうちょっと雨が降らないものだろうか。
I wonder if there will be more rain.
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Conjunction
| A conjunction indicating that the preceding clause presents a hypothetical situation that is unlikely to become a reality. | If; if~ at all |
(ksa). (もし)一戸建ての家が買えるものなら買いたい。
If I could buy a single family house, I would like to.
(ksb). 一人でやれるものならやってみろ！
If (you think) you can do it by yourself, go ahead and do it!
| Vpotential informal nonpast | ものなら | |
| 行けるものなら | If I can/could go there | |
| 読めるものなら | If I can/could read it |
(a). 近い将来における日本語の存在意義など、書けるものなら書いてみたい。
If I could, I would like to write about the raison d'etre of Japanese language in the near future.
(b). 喫煙所の中でタバコを吸っている人たちを外から見ればまるで動物園…。もしやめられるものならやめてみようかなあと思い始めたこの頃です。
When I look at people smoking in smoking areas, I feel like I am at the zoo. Lately, I have begun to think that, if I could, I would try quitting.
(c). この新刊、もし町の図書館で借りられるものなら買わずに済むのに、まだ入っていないようだ。
I wouldn't need to buy this new book if I could borrow it at the public library in my town, but it looks like it isn't available there yet.
(d). 南極旅行は、気持ち的には、借金してでも行けるものなら行きたいんだが。
I feel like I'd like to travel to the South Pole, even if I had to borrow money to do it.
(e). もしできるものなら、もう一度生まれ変わりたい。
If I could, I would like to be born again.
(f). 西行じゃないけれど、願いがかなうものなら、満開の桜の下で春に死にたい。
I am no Saigyo, but if wishes came true, I would wish to die in spring, under cherry trees in full bloom.) [Saigyo (1118-1190) is a famous waka poet and Buddhist priest who expressed in his poetry his desire to die under blooming cherry trees.]
(g). この曲がやさしいって言うんですか？何も分かっていないからそんなことを言うんですよ。弾けるものなら弾いてみなさい。
Are you saying this piece is easy? You're saying that because you don't know anything about it. Go ahead and play it if you think you can!
(h). 訴えるなんて言ってもちっとも怖くなんかありませんよ。訴えられるものなら訴えてごらんなさい。
Even if you tell me that you're going to sue me, I'm not afraid at all. Sue me if you can!
(i). カリスマのある哲学者が大学に来て講演をしようものなら、1万人を越える聴衆が集まる。
If a charismatic philosopher did come to the university to give a lecture, more than 10,000 people would gather to listen to him.
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Conjunction (usually used in formal writing and formal speech)
| A conjunction that means "although". | Although; though; even though; but |
| 【Related Expression: が; けれども】 | |
(ksa). 通訳の仕事を引き受けたものの、うまくやれる自信がない。
Although I accepted the interpreting job, I'm not confident that I can do it well.
(ksb). 一人でいる方が気楽だとは言うものの、やはり話し相手が欲しいと思うこともある。
Although I say being alone is easier, sometimes I want someone to talk with.
| (i){V/Adjectiveい}informal | ものの | Although someone will go/went |
| {行く/行った}ものの | ||
| {安い/安かった}ものの | Although something is/was cheap | |
| (ii)Adjectiveな stem | {な/で(は)ある/だった/であった}ものの | |
| 便利{な/で(は)ある/だった/であった}ものの | Although something is/was convenient | |
| (iii)Noun | {で(は)ある/だった/であった}ものの | |
| 大学生{で(は)ある/だった/であった}ものの | Although someone is/was a college student |
(a). 大学を卒業はしたものの、不況でなかなかいい仕事が見つからない。
Even though I graduated from college, because of the recession I cannot find a good job (despite my efforts).
(b). マネージャーになって給料は上がったものの、急にいろんな仕事が増えてとても忙しくなった。
Although I became a manager and got a raise, my work (of various kinds) quickly increased and I became very busy.
(c). 市内を抜け出すまでは時間がかかったものの、高速に入ってからは渋滞もなく、4時前にホテルにチュックインすることができた。
Although it took time to get out of the city, there were no traffic tie-ups after we got on the highway, and we were able to check in at the hotel before four o'clock.
(d). 韓国産のハマグリは形はふくらみが少なく身がややかたいものの、うま味が強く、寿司ネタにも使われている。
Clams from Korea are a little lean and tough, but they taste very good and are sometimes used for sushi.
(e). 現地の子供たちは最初こそよそよそしかったものの、時間がたつにつれて慣れてきてとても親切にしてくれました。
Although the local children were cold and unfriendly at the start, as time passed they got used to me and were very kind to me.
(f). 小林氏は身のこなしが軽快で、髪こそ真っ白なものの、「若い」という印象を与える。
Mr. Kobayashi's carriage is light and jaunty, and even though his hair is totally white, he gives the impression of being young.
(g). 我がチームは出だしは好調だったものの、夏場で失速し、シーズンが終わってみれば、勝率5割を切るという不本意な成績に終わった。
Even though our team started off well, we lost momentum over the summer, and when the season was over, to our regret we had won less than 50 percent of our games.
(h). 彼は敬虔なイスラム教徒だったものの、ドイツ国内のイスラム主義団体との交流はなかった。
Although he was a devout Muslim, he had no connection with Islamic groups in Germany.
(i). 暦の上では秋とは言うものの、まだ真夏のような暑さが続いている。
Although the calendar says that it is autumn, it's still hot like midsummer.
(j). 同居していた息子の家族が県外に引っ越したので、やっと静かな生活に戻った。とは言うものの、孫の顔がいつも見られないのはちょっと寂しい。
Our son and his family, who had been living with us, moved out of the prefecture, and we have finally returned to a quiet life. However, we feel a little lonely, not being able to see our grandchild all the time.
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Conjunction
| A disjunctive coordinate conjunction expressing the meaning of "although" with the speaker's strong feeling of discontent | Although; but |
| 【Related Expression: のに】 | |
(ksa). 彼は日本語を続けて勉強すればいいものを、1年間やっただけでやめてしまった。
Although he should have continued studying Japanese, he quit after only one year.
(ksb). すぐ医者に診てもらったら簡単に治っていたものを、手遅れになってしまった。
Had I gone to the doctor right away, I would have gotten better easily, but I acted too late.
| (i)Vconditionalば{Adjectiveい/Vpotential}informal | ものを | |
| VconditionalばAdjectiveな stem | {な/だった}ものを | |
| 行けば{いい/よかった}ものを | Someone should go/should have gone there but | |
| 注意すれば{安全な/安全だった}ものを | Someone would be/would have been sage if he were/had been attentive | |
| 勉強すれば{行ける/行けた}ものを | Someone could go/could have gone there, if he/she studied/had studied | |
| (ii)Vinformal pastら～ | Vinformalものを | |
| あったら{食べる/食べた}ものを | Someone would/could have eaten something if it were/had been there | |
| (iii)Vinformal pastら | {いい/よかった}ものを | |
| 行ったら{いい/よかった}ものを | It would be/would have been good if someone went/had gone there |
(a). ゴルフかなんかして少しリラックスすればいいものを、父は週末でも会社の仕事を家でやっている。
My father should play golf or something and relax a little bit, but he brings work home from the office even on weekends.
(b). あのくだらない小説はちょっと読んだだけでやめればよかったものを、なんと最後まで読んでしまった。全くの時間の浪費だった。
I should have stopped reading that cheap novel after a few pages, but believe it or not, I read it to the very end. It was an utter waste of time.
(c). 居留守を使えばいいものを、彼女は気が弱いのでそうもできず、いやいや人に会うことになってしまうのだ。
She doesn't have to answer the door, but she doesn't have the nerve to resist and ends up talking to people even though she doesn't want to.
(d). 私のことが嫌いなら嫌いだともっと早くはっきり言ってくれたらよかったものを。
He should have told me much earlier that he didn't like me (literally: if in fact he didn't like me).
(e). 時間があったらいろいろな外国旅行ができたものを、いつも忙しく働いてきたので、外国はどこにも行っていない。
Had I the time, I could have made trips to various foreign countries, but because I've been so busy working I have never been overseas.
(f). 父があと1年生きていてくれたら私の結婚式に出てもらえたものを、私がぐずぐずしていたばかりに、父に私の晴れ姿を見てもらえず、とても残念です。
Had my father lived one year longer, he could have attended my wedding ceremony, but just because I was indecisive for so long, I couldn't give him the chance to see me in my wedding dress. I feel so sorry!
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Phrase (usually used in formal writing and formal speech)
| A phrase used to mention something important and then introduce something more significant. | ~is one thing, but; it is true that~, but; it is the case that~, but; but more importantly |
(ks). この図書館は蔵書の多さもさることながらサービスが実にすばらしい。
This library's large collection of books is one thing (literally: is so, too), but the services they provide are really something else (literally: really wonderful).
| NP | もさることながら | |
| 教育もさることながら | Education is one thing, but |
(a). 指圧やマッサージといった「タッチセラピー」が注目されている。身体への直接的な効果もさることながら、安らぎ感や癒しといった心理的な効果も大きいようだ。
"Touch therapies," such as shiatsu and massage, are drawing people's attention. While they have a direct effect on the body (literally: Their direct effect is so, too), apparently their psychological effect, including feelings of relaxation and healing
(b). 高齢化が進むにつれ、認知症老人の介護が問題になっているが、これからは、介護のこともさることながらぼけをいかに予防するかがさらに重要だ。
As the population has aged, the care of senile seniors has become a problem. It is true that from now on care will be an important issue (literally: care is so, too), but the question of how to prevent people from becoming senile is more important.
(c). 障害者向け製品の価格が高いのは、技術的な困難もさることながら市場の小ささが大きな原因になっている。
It is true that the high price of products for the handicapped is (partially) due to technical issues (literally: technical difficulties are so, too), but the major cause is a lack of demand (literally: the small market).
(d). 下から眺めるテレビ塔やイルミネーションの美しさもさることながら、展望台に登って眺める市の夜景もまた格別です。
The TV antenna tower and the lights on it viewed from below are a beautiful sight, but seeing the city at night from the observatory tower is really something special.
(e). この合作映画は、作品の完成度の高さもさることながら、文化の異なる二国が協力して一つの映画を完成させたという事実が非常に意義深い。
This jointly-produced movie is highly polished, but more importantly, the fact that two countries with different cultures worked together and completed a film (in and of itself) is quite significant.
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Conjunction (usually used in formal writing and formal speech)
| A conjunction to disjunctively connect two items or ideas. | or |
| 【Related Expression: それとも; あるいは; まただ; か; ないし(は)】 | |
(ksa). この申込書は本人(か)、もしくは保証人が記入しなければならない。
This application has to be filled in by the applicant or by his/her guarantor.
(ksb). ワークショップに出席なさりたい方はオンラインで登録するか、もしくは、メールでお申し込みください。
If you want to participate in the workshop, please register online or apply by e-mail.
| (i)Noun1(か)、 | もしくはNoun2 | |
| 電子メール(か)、もしくはファックス | Email or fax | |
| 研究(か)、もしくは教育 | Research or education | |
| (ii)V1 informal nonpastか、 | もしくはV2 | |
| 権利を売るか、もしくは譲渡する | Sell one's right or transfer it to someone |
(a). 基調講演者は日本研究もしくは関連領域の研究について話すことになっている。
The keynote speaker is expected to talk about Japan studies or related areas.
(b). この予算は研究費、もしくは研究補助費にのみ使用できる。
This budget is to be used exclusively for research or research-related expenses.
(c). 大学のプールは学生か、もしくは使用料を支払った大学関係者のみ利用できる。
The college pool is open only to students or those affiliated with the college who have paid the fee.
(d). 夏季のドライブシーズンを迎える頃には、ガソリンの在庫が昨年とほぼ同水準まで下がるか、もしくはそれ以下に減少する見通しである。
It is predicted that by the time of the summer driving season, the reserves of gasoline will fall approximately to the same level as last year or will go below it.
(e). 日本の経済力が弱まってきている現在、日本が世界で生き残る道はテクノロジーで時代の先取りをするか、もしくは、モノとしての日本の文化をより積極的に海外に輸出することであろう。
These days Japan's economic strength has decreased. For Japan to survive in the world, it must either take leadership in the field of technology in the future, or export Japanese culture as a product more aggressively.
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Conjunction
| A conjunction used to add a comment indicating that what the speaker/writer has just expressed is not sufficient. | Although; though; but; yet; however |
| 【Related Expression: しかし; とは言うものの; ただ】 | |
(ks). 運動は体にいいと言われている。もっとも、やりすぎると逆効果だ(が)。
They say that exercise is good for you (literally: your body), but doing too much will bring about the opposite effect.
| Sentence1。 | もっともSentence2({が/けれども})。 | |
| 息子はよく病気をする。もっとも大病をしたことはない({が/けれども})。 | Our son often gets sick, although he has never fallen seriously ill. |
(a). あの政治家は保守的だと言われている。もっとも、時々革新的なことを言うこともあるが。
That politician is said to be conservative, although he sometimes makes innovative statements.
(b). 彼は女性にとても親切だ。もっとも、それには下心がある場合が多いようだ。
He is very kind to ladies. But, apparently, he often has an ulterior motive.
(c). 今日は魚がよく釣れた。もっとも、いつもこのように幸運だとは限らない。
I caught (literally: was able to catch) a lot of fish today, although I'm not always this lucky.
(d). このドイツの車の方があの日本の車よりいいんじゃない。もっとも、僕はドイツの車を運転したことはないけどさ。
Don't you think that this German car is better than that Japanese one? I've never driven a German car, though.
(e). 顔写真の入った名刺というのも、強い印象を与えるからいいかもしれない。もっとも私はそこまでやりたいとは思わないけれども。
It may be a good idea to make business cards with your picture on them because they would create a stronger impression. But I am kind of reluctant to go that far.
(f). 若い頃は漠然としていたものが歳を重ねるごとにハッキリと見えるようになり、目標を見据えてよりポジティブに生きるようにしています。もっとも私はまだ、その途上にありますが。
As I grow older, I begin to see more clearly things that were not clear when I was younger. I'm trying to keep the goal in focus and live more positively. But I haven't gotten there yet.
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Suffix
| A suffix that adds the meaning of "aimed at" | For; made for; for the use of; aimed at; directed towards; (directed/shipped/etc.) to |
| 【Related Expression: よう; 向き】 | |
(ksa). このギター曲集は初心者向けだ。
This collection of guitar pieces is for beginners.
(ksb). この秋はアジア向け(の)産業用ロボットの販売が好調だ。
This autumn, sales of industrial robots for Asia have been good.
(ksc). D社は携帯機器向けに小型燃料電池を開発している。
D Company is developing small fuel-cell batteries for portable devices.
| (i)Noun | 向けだ | |
| デパート向けだ | Something is for department stores | |
| (ii)Noun1 | 向け(の)Noun2 | |
| ヨーロッパ向け(の)輸出 | Exports to Europe | |
| (iii)Noun | 向けに | |
| 日本人向けに | For Japanese people |
(a). このセミナーはこれから株を始める人向けだ。
This seminar is for those who are going to begin (investing in) stocks.
(b). 輸出はここ数年、中国向けが急速に伸びている。
Regarding exports, for the last few years those to China have been increasing rapidly.
(c). このセービスは、基本的にはコンシューマー向けだが、法人向けも用意する。
This service is basically for consumers, but we will offer a version for companies, too.
(d). 助成金をもらって先生向けの情報教育サイトを作ることにした。
We've decided to get a grant and develop a website to educate teachers about information technology.
(e). このショールームでは住宅向けのタイル・健在を展示しております。
In this showroom, we are displaying tile and construction materials for residential use.
(f). アメリカ進出を考える場合は、アメリカ向けの読みやすい商品説明書と価格表を用意することが必須です。
When you consider expanding to America, it is essential to prepare an easy-to-read product manual geared toward the U.S. and a price list.
(g). K社は近々地図サービスと地域情報検索を国内向けに開始すると発表した。
K Company announced that it would begin a map service and (release) a search (engine) for local information for domestic users soon.
(h). 代表的な曲を小さなお子様向けにアレンジしました。
We arranged well-known (music) pieces for young children.
(i). このオペレーティングシステムは、巨大なアプリケーション向けに設計されている。
This operating system is designed for mega-scale applications.
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Adverb
| An adverb indicates that one of two things/people/characteristics has been chosen rather than the other to express speaker's/writer's desire, preference or judgment. | Rather; instead |
| 【Related Expression: かえって; どちらかと言うと】 | |
(ksa). 夏休みはアルバイトをするよりもむしろ海外旅行がしたい。
During summer vacation I would rather travel abroad than work part-time.
(ksb). 僕は寿司よりむしろ刺身(の方)が好きだ。
I prefer sashimi rather than sushi.
(ksc). 彼は秀才というよりはむしろ努力家だ。
He is a man of effort rather than a man of great talent.
(ksd). 無為の生活をするぐらいなら、むしろ死んだ方がいい。
I would rather die than lead a good-for-nothing life.
| (i)V1informal nonpastより({は/も}) | むしろV2informal nonpast (方が～) | |
| 外に行くより(は)むしろ家でテレビを見る方がいい。 | I would rather watch TV at home than go outside | |
| (ii)Noun1より({は/も}) | むしろNoun2(の方)が～ | |
| コーヒーより(は)むしろ紅茶(の方)が好きだ。 | I like black tea rather than coffee | |
| (iii){V/Adjectiveい}informal | というより({は/も})むしろ～ | |
| {食べる/食べた}というより(は)むしろ{飲み込む/飲み込んだ}。 | He swallows/swallowed rather than eats/ate | |
| {涼しい/涼しかった}というより(は)むしろ{寒い/寒かった}。 | It is/was cold rather than cool | |
| (iv){Adjectiveなstem/Noun} | {∅/だ/である/だった/であった}というより({は/も})むしろ～ | |
| 丁寧{∅/だ/である/だった/であった}というより(は)むしろばか丁寧{だ/だった}。 | Something is/was overly polite rather than polite | |
| 先生{∅/だ/である/だった/であった}というより(は)むしろビジネスマン{だ/だった}。 | Someone is/was a businessman rather than a teacher | |
| (v)V1informal nonpast{ぐらい/くらい/の/ん} | {なら/だったら}むしろ～ | |
| 仕事を辞める{ぐらい/くらい/の/ん}{なら/だったら}むしろ死んでしまいたい | I would rather die than quit my job |
(a). 英語は話すよりむしろ読むのが好きだ。
I like reading English rather than speaking it.
(b). 時間がある時は、観光バスに来るよりはむしろ歩いた方がずっとよく観光できる。
When you have the time, you can sightsee much better if you walk rather than ride a sightseeing bus.
(c). 休みの日は、人の多い行楽地に行くよりは、むしろ、家でテレビでも見ている方がましだ。
On a holiday it is better to watch TV or something at home rather than go to a crowded tourist spot.
(d). 静脈を見つけ、正確に注射するという作業は、人間の手よりもむしろコンピュータを使ってロボットが行った方が、ミスが少ないと思う。
I think that the action of finding a vein and injecting it accurately can be done with less failures if we use a computer and a robot rather than human hands.
(e). 私は、健康上、肉よりむしろ魚の方を選ぶ。
I choose fish instead of meat for health reasons.
(f). 今年は2月よりもむしろ3月の方が寒かった。
This year it was colder in March instead of February.
(g). 彼らが突如大金持ちの仲間入りを果たすことができたのは、彼らの才能というよりもむしろ幸運が味方したからではないだろうか。
The reason why they were suddenly able to join the group of very rich people may be that good fortune was on their side rather than talent (literally: their talents).
(h). シアトルはアメリカなのですが、他の大都市とは違って、アメリカというよりはむしろカナダのような雰囲気の小ぢんまりとした街でした。
Seattle is in the U.S. but, unlike other big cities, it is a small city with an atmosphere more like Canada than the U.S.
(i). 今年の北海道の夏は涼しかったというよりはむしろ寒かった。
This summer Hokkaido was cold instead of just comfortably cool.
(j). 前の週の豪雨のため、ドナウ川の水は青いというよりはむしろ茶色に近い色だった。
Due to the heavy rain the previous week, the (literally: water of the) Danube was brownish rather than blue.
(k). こんなつまらない講義に出るぐらいならむしろ寮で本でも読んでいた方がましだ。
Instead of attending such a boring lecture, I would rather be reading books in my dorm.
(l). 優しくしてから突き放すくらいなら、むしろはじめから優しくするなと思う。
If someone is going to be nice and then dump me, I would rather he just not be nice from the very start.
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Phrase
| A phrase that indicates the speaker/writer hesitantly feels or expresses that something is the case. | Seem to~; somewhat; rather; may |
| 【Related Expression: ないこともない; なくもない】 | |
(ks). 今が私の人生で一番幸せな時期だという気がしないでもない。
I seem to feel that right now is the happiest time of my life.
| Vnegative | ないでもない | |
| 思わないでもない | Someone kind of things that~ | |
| 食べないでもない | Someone may eat something | |
| しないでもない | Someone may do something |
(a). あの時大学を辞めたことを、今では少し早まったなと思わないでもない。
Now I rather feel that leaving the university at that time was a bit too hasty.
(b). そういえば、そういう話、どこかで聞いたことがあるような気がしないでもないです。
Come to think of it, I seem to feel that I've heard something like that somewhere.
(c). 私は「結婚しない主義」でもないし、一度結婚してみたいという気もないでもないんですが、なかなかいい相手が見つかりません。
I am unmarried not because of principle, and I wouldn't mind getting married, but it is really hard to find a good partner.
(d). 日本人として、アメリカ企業におけるリストラを見ると非情さを感じないでもない。
For me, as a Japanese, the way American companies lay off workers strikes me as rather inhumane.
(e). あなたの苦しい気持ちが分からないでもない。
I do somewhat understand the pain you are feeling.
(f). 白衣に眼鏡なら、一見普通の医者に見えないでもない。
Wearing a white gown and eyeglasses, he could be taken for a doctor at first sight.
(g). 心底謝れば許してやらないでもないけど。
If he really apologizes to me from the bottom of his heart, then I may find it in me to forgive him (, but . . .).
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Phrase
| A phrase that means "if something has not taken place, something else won't/can't take place". | If~ not~ then; unless |
| 【Related Expression: なくては; なければ; なかったら】 | |
(ksa). この仕事が終わらないことには、家族と旅行に行くこともできない。
If I don't finish this work, I can't go on a trip with my family.
(ksb). 追加予算が下りないことには、このプロジェクトの遂行は無理だ。
Without (money from) an additional budget, it will be impossible to accomplish this project.
| Vnegative | ないことには～ | |
| 調べないことには分からない。 | Unless we investigate it, we can't understand | |
| 話してみないことには了解は不可能だ。 | Unless we talk, understanding is impossible | |
| 読んでみないことにはコメントできない。 | Unless we read it, comments on it are impossible |
(a). 書き始めないことには論文ができるはずはない。
Unless you begin writing your thesis, there's no way you'll be able to finish it.
(b). コンピュータが作動しないことには仕事は始まらない。
Unless the computer works, we can't get started on the job.
(c). 面接を受けないことには就職はできない。
You can't get a job unless you (first) have an interview.
(d). 為替相場が安定しないことには、経済の回復もおぼつかない。
Unless the exchange rate stabilizes, economic recovery will be almost impossible.
(e). 日本語学習者は、日本に行かないことには日本語を自然に話せるようになるのは難しいだろう。
If a Japanese language learner doesn't go to Japan, it will be difficult for him or her to learn to speak Japanese naturally.
(f). 際立った才能がないことには、一流の音楽大学を出てもソリストになることは夢物語だ。
Without outstanding talent, becoming a soloist, even as a graduate of a top-rated music college, is just a dream.
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Phrase (usually used in formal writing and formal speech)
| An adverbial phrase expressing the speaker's feeling that although an ideal action or state isn't possible, at least next best action or state is or should be available. | May not~ but; even though~ not; although~ not |
(ksa). この公演は大成功とは言えないまでも、それなりの成果をもたらした。
Although you may not be able to call this public performance a great success, it produced results of a sort.
(ksb). 彼の論文は決して多くないまでも、その質は非常に高い。
Although he hasn't published many papers at all, the quality (of those he has published) is extremely high.
| (i)Vnegative | ないまでも | |
| 行かないまでも | Someone may not go there, but | |
| しないまでも | Someone may not do something, but | |
| (ii)Adjectiveいstemく | ないまでも | |
| よくないまでも | Something may not be good, but | |
| (iii){Adjectiveなstem/ Noun} | {では/じゃ}ないまでも | |
| 元気{では/じゃ}ないまでも | Someone may not be peppy/healthy, but | |
| 病気{では/じゃ}ないまでも | Someone may not be ill, but |
(a). 「生命とはこういうものです」とは言えないまでも、「少なくともこうではありません」とは言えるようになってくるはずだ。
We may not be able to say, "This is what life is," but we should come to a point where we can say, "At least this is what it isn't."
(b). その彫刻は完璧とは言えないまでも、非常に可能性を感じさせる作品だった。
The sculpture may not be called a perfect work, but it is (literally: was) a work that makes you feel unusual potential.
(c). 虚偽だとは言わないまでも、かなり紛らわしい表現だ。
I can't go so far as to call this wording deceptive, but it sure is misleading.
(d). 中国語は漢字だから、読めないまでも意味はなんとなく分かるのだが、韓国語はまったく見当がつかない。
If it were written in Chinese I could get a sense of what it's saying because of the characters, even though I cannot read it, but I cannot make heads or tails of Korean.
(e). インターネットは完璧ではないまでも、生涯学習もしくは生涯教育のメディアとして、いろいろな可能性をもっています。
The Internet is not perfect, but it does have various possibilities as a medium for lifelong learning and/or teaching.
(f). 運命には逆らえないまでも、それを味方にすることはできる。
We may not be able to turn back Fate, but we can make it our friend.
(g). 大方の日本人なら、「源氏物語」の原文に目を通したとまではいかないまでも、どんな話なのかは知っているだろう。
I believe most Japanese, even though they may not have read the original Tale of Genji, know the basic plot of the story.
(h). 明日は天気がよくないまでも、気温はあまり低くなりません。
Although the weather may not be good, the temperature will not drop much.
(i). 彼は正直者じゃないまでも、嘘つきじゃない。
He may not be an honest person, but he isn't a liar.
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Particle/Conjunction
| A particle that presents two possible choices or minimum/maximum possible numbers/lengths/weights/etc. of something; or conjunction that links two possible actions or events. | From~ to~; between~ and~; or |
| 【Related Expression: から; か; または; もしくは; さもなくば; あるいは】 | |
(ksa). このクラスの学生のほとんどは3年ないし(は)4年の日本語学習歴を持っている。
Most students in this class have three to four years of experience studying Japanese.
(ksb). この論文集の論文はすべて日本語(か)ないしは英語で書かれている。
The papers in this collection are written in Japanese or English.
(ksc). 生産量を20%減らす(か)、ないしは新しい市場を急遽開拓するしかない。
We have no choice but to either reduce production by 20 percent or quickly develop a new market.
| (i)Noun1(+Counter) | ないし(は)Noun2(+Counter) | |
| ３０マイルないし(は)４０マイル | From 20 to 40 miles | |
| (ii)Noun1(か) | ないしはNoun2 | |
| 映画(か)ないしはドイツ語で | In English or German | |
| (iii)S1informal(か)、 | ないしはSentence2。 | |
| 日本語集中講座を受ける(か)、ないしは日本へ短期留学をする。 | Someone will take an intensive Japanese course or go to Japan for short-term study |
(a). 細菌の大きさは1ミクロンないし数ミクロンだ。
Bacteria are between one and several microns large.
(b). 電子メールは、忙しい人でも、1日に1回ないしは数回チェックしているはずだ。
I expect that even busy people check their e-mail once or even several times a day.
(c). サン・モリッツでは５つ星ないしは３つ星クラスのホテルに滞在し、4日間、スイスの冬を満喫していただきます。
In St. Moritz, you will stay at a three to five star hotel (literally: a five to three star hotel), and fully enjoy a Swiss winter for four days.
(d). 本冊子の購入希望者は、氏名、住所、購入希望冊数を明記の上、ファックス、ないしは電子メールで協会事務局までお申し込み下さい。
If you would like a copy of this booklet, please send a request to the association's office via fax or e-mail with your name, address and the number of copies you want.
(e). 本アンケートでは、2004年鉛全廃について、「必要」ないしは「やむを得ない」とするものが74%を占めた。
In this survey, regarding the total ban on (the use of) lead in 2004, 74 percent (of respondents) indicated it would be either "necessary" or "inevitable."
(f). 本品は1回50mg(2錠)を1日1回就寝前、ないしは1日2回、朝及び就寝前に経口服用して下さい。
Take 50 mg (two tablets) (of this product) orally (either) once a day before going to bed, or twice daily, once in the morning and once before going to bed.
(g). 当社は、本ウェブサイトの利用者からの問い合わせにお答えするため、ないしは、あらかじめ利用者に明示させていただいた目的の範囲で、利用者の個人情報を収集します。
We (literally: Our company) gather our personal information from people who use our website in order to respond to their inquiries or for (literally: within the scope of) purposes made clear to the users in advance.
(h). 当社は、犯罪活動の証拠となる、ないしはその一部となる顧客情報を公開することを、法律によって義務づけられることがあります。
We (literally: Our company) may be required by law to make public such information on our clients that constitutes evidence, or partial evidence, of criminal activity.
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Phrase
| A phrase that specifies space or time in/through which someone/something does something. | In the midst of; when; while; through; among |
| 【Related Expression: ところを; 時に】 | |
(ksa). 冷たい風が｛吹く/吹いている｝中を１０キロも歩いた。
When a cold wind was blowing I walked as much as 10 kilometres.
(ksb). お忙しい中をいらしていただき、申し訳ございません。
Thank you very much (literally: I'm sorry) for coming when you are (so) busy.
(ksc). 赤十字の人たちがハリケーン被災者たちの中を歩き回って食料を配った。
People from the Red Cross walked among the victims of the hurricane and distributed food.
| (i)Vinformal nonpast | 中を | |
| 雨が{降る/降っている}中を | When it is raining | |
| (ii)Adjectiveいinformal nonpast | 中を | |
| 忙しい中を | When someone is busy | |
| (iii)Adjectiveなstemな | ||
| 危険な中を | In the midst of danger | |
| (iv)Nounの | 中を | |
| 嵐の中を | In the midst of a storm |
(a). 子供たちが遊んでいる中を子犬がちょろちょろ走り回っていた。
A puppy was darting around among the kids who were playing.
(b). 公園では、人が集まっている中を、アイスクリーム屋が歩いていた。
In the park, an ice cream seller was walking through the crowd of people.
(c). 雪の降る中を頑張って走っている人を見ていたら、自分が軟弱に思えてきました。
When I watched people out running in the snow, I began to think of myself as fragile and weak.
(d). 私たちが呆然として見ている中を、二人は一つの傘の下に入って行ってしまいました。
As we were watching with astonishment, the two walked away under the same umbrella.
(e). 本日は、雨で足元が大変悪い中を、このようにたくさんの方にご参加いただきまして、誠にありがとうございました。
Thank you very much for coming to this meeting today; it's nice to see so many of you when it is so treacherous to walk due to the rain.
(f). 私だけ門限があるのでパーティーから先に帰ってきたが、楽しい中を抜けて帰るのはとてもつらかった。
I'm the only one with a curfew, so I came home from the party earlier than everyone else. It was hard for me to leave and come home when I was having a good time.
(g). 大人たちは戦後のあの苦しい中を、気力をとり戻して復興に精を出したのだ。
Amidst the post war hardship, the adults retained their spirit and worked diligently to reconstruct the country.
(h). 我々は地震で道路が崩壊する危険な中を車で１０時間ぐらい走った。
We drove our car for about 10 hours through hazardous roads which were collapsing around us during the earthquake and aftershocks.
(i). 飛行機は嵐の中を随分と長い間飛んでいるらしく、雲に突っ込むたびに大きく揺れている。
We seem to have been flying through this storm for a very long time, and each time the plane goes into the clouds it shakes quite a bit.
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Compound Particle (usually used in formal writing and formal speech)
| A compound particle meaning "without something". | Without; if it were not for~ |
| 【Related Expression: なしに(は); なしで(は)】 | |
(ksa). 努力なくして(は)この事業はできない。
Without effort we won't be able to finish this undertaking.
(ksb). 山川教授なくしては今の私は存在しなかったであろう。
Without Professor Yamakawa, I wouldn't be what I am now.
| Noun | なくして(は) | |
| 協力なくして(は) | Without cooperation |
(a). コンピュータなくして現在の生活は不可能だ。
Without computers, our current lifestyle would be impossible.
(b). ITの活用なくして企業の成長は望めません。
If we don't make good use of IT, we can't expect our business to grow.
(c). 日本の平和と繁栄は、政界の平和と安定なくしてはあり得ない。
Peace and prosperity in Japan is not possible without peace and stability throughout the world.
(d). あらゆる生物は水なくして生きていけない。
No creature can live without water.
(e). コミュニケーションなくしては、人間が関与する一切の活動は成立し得ない。
Without communication, no human activity could occur.
(f). 関係者の密接な共同作業なくしてはこの計画の実現は不可能であったろう。
If it had not been for the close cooperation of the people involved in this project, it would have been impossible to make it a reality.
(g). 沿道の人たちの声援なくしては、このマラソンは完走できなかったでしょう。
Without encouragement from the roadside people, I couldn't have finished running this marathon.
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Adverb
| An adverb indicating that something (including action/state) has a positive value which hasn't been reached, causing something negative. | Halfheartedly; slightly; thoughtlessly; unwisely; inadequately; imperfectly; sort of; a little; somewhat; a bit of |
| 【Related Expression: 中途-半端に/な; へたに】 | |
(ksa). 僕はなまじ(っか)英語ができるばかりに、会社で重宝がられて困っています。
Because I know a little English, the office treasures me, which is causing me problems.
(ksb). なまじ(っか)｛の/な｝学問は、ひけらかすと人に軽蔑される。
People disdain those who show off (their scant knowledge) but are uneducated (literally: have inadequate scholarship).
(ksc). なまじ(っか)政治に手を出すのはやめた方がよい。
You'd better not get involved in politics half-heartedly.
| (i)なまじ(っか) | ～Conjunction | |
| なまじ(っか)できるから | Because someone can do something (a little) | |
| なまじ(っか)安いために | Because something is (somewhat) cheap | |
| なまじ(っか)美人なだけに | Because she is (sort of) a beauty | |
| なまじ(っか)元気なので | Because someone is (sort of) healthy | |
| なまじ(っか)でき{たら /ると} | If someone can do something (a little) | |
| なまじ(っか){安かったら/安いと} | If something is (somewhat) cheap | |
| なまじ(っか)美人だ{ったら /と} | If she is (sort of) a beauty | |
| なまじ(っか)元気だ{ったら /と} | If someone is (basically) healthy | |
| (ii)なまじ(っか) | {の/な}Noun | |
| なまじ(っか){の/な}努力 | Halfthearted efforts | |
| なまじ(っか){の/な}勉強 | Halfhearted study | |
| (iii)なまじ(っか) | ～Vinformal nonpastのは～ | |
| なまじ(っか)投資をするのは危ない。 | It's dangerous to invest halfheartedly |
(a). なまじっか手伝ってもらうより、一人でやった方が早くできそうです。
I think it'll be quicker to do it by myself than for someone to help me in a half-hearted way.
(b). 彼はなまじっか自信があるために、失敗した時にひどい挫折感を味わう。
Because he has only a little self-confidence, he experiences a horrible sense of failure when something doesn't work out.
(c). なまじっか財産など持っていたら、最低の人間になってしまうのではないかと思う。
I think that we turn into the worst people with just a bit of wealth.
(d). なまじ見る目が肥えてくると、アニメだったら何でもいいってわけにはいかなくなる。
When you acquire a bit of an eye for anime, you discover that not every work lives up to what it's supposed to be.
(e). なまじっか物を知ってる人よりは全然知らない人の方が、「知らないことを知る楽しみ」を感じられると思う。
I think that a person who knows nothing can feel "the joy of discovery (literally: of knowing what he doesn't know)" more than someone who knows a little bit.
(f). なまじ頭がいいと組織の中で協力して働くということが難しくなる。
If a person is somewhat bright, it is more difficult for him to work cooperatively in an organization.
(g). なまじっか元気だと、無理をしやすい。
If you are on the healthy side, you are apt to overexert yourself.
(h). 身体が健全に発達していなければ、なまじの美貌はかえって空しい。
If the body hasn't developed healthily, then superficial beauty is but a hollow thing.
(i). 電池式ブザーはなまじの武器よりも襲われた時に効果が高い上に、コストパフォーマンスに優れています。
A battery-operated buzzer is more effective when you are attacked than an ordinary weapon and, in addition, it is more cost effective.
(j). 体験者が語る真実は、なまじな小説よりも深く人の心を打つ。
The truth as told by someone who experienced it moves us more deeply than a mediocre novel.
(k). なまじ運動しているのがよくなかったんです。それを言い訳にして、以前よりもたくさん食べるようになってしまいました。
Doing a little exercise wasn't good, because I used it as my excuse for eating more than I used to.
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Suffix
| A noun suffix that adds the meaning "to match". | About the same level as; like; as (much~) as; to match; to rival; on a par with; equivalent to |
| 【Related Expression: と同じくらい】 | |
(ksa). マイクさんのゴルフはプロ並みだ。
Mike's golf skills are about the same level as a pro's.
(ksb). 吉田さんは植物については専門家並みの知識を持っている。
Regarding plants, Ms. Yoshida has as much knowledge as a specialist.
(ksc). 日本人も欧米人並みに肉や乳製品を食べるようになった。
Japanese people now eat (literally: have come to eat) as much meat and dairy products as Westerners (literally: Europeans and Americans) do.
| (i)Noun | 並みだ | |
| 真冬並みだ | Something is about the same as that in mid-winter | |
| (ii)Noun1 | 並みのNoun2 | |
| 大人並みの力 | Power as strong as an adult's | |
| (iii)Noun | 並みに | |
| 人並みに | Like ordinary people |
(a). 今月の降水量は平年並みだそうだ。
It is said that this month's precipitation is about the same as (that of the same month) in an average year.
(b). 当社に登録されている通訳の英語力はネイティブ並みです。
The interpreters registered with our company have a native level of English proficiency.
(c). 今日はまだ5月だというのに8月並みの暑さだ。
Although it is still May today, it is as hot as August.
(d). ダイエット用品、スポーツ器具、美容雑貨など、アメリカのヒット商品を現地並みの価格でお届けします。
We deliver top-selling (literally: hit) products from America, including diet products, athletic equipment and beauty goods, at U.S. prices.
(e). 今日はリハーサルだったが本番並みの緊張感を味わった。
Although today's (performance) was a rehearsal, I felt the same level of tension as if it were the real performance.
(f). やっと仕事も見つかって何とか人並みに暮らしています。
I finally found a job, and somehow am making a go of it, living like other people do.
(g). 私はパートなのに、正社員並みに仕事をさせられている。
Despite the fact that I'm only a part-timer, they make me work as much as the regular employees.
(h). 電気自動車の価格をガソリン自動車並みに下げるのは極めて難しい。
It is extremely difficult to reduce the price of an electric car so it is on a par with a gasoline car.
(i). ここの寿司屋は回転寿司並みに安い。
This sushi bar is cheap like a conveyer belt sushi bar.
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Phrase
| A phrase that indicates there is a large number of things, people, etc. | Many; tens/thousands/etc. of~ |
(ksa). 私は日本へは何回も行ったことがあるが、韓国と中国はまだだ。
I have been to Japan many times, but I've never been to Korea or China.
(ksb). 私は日本語の辞書何十冊も持っている。
I have dozens of Japanese dictionaries.
(ksc). 私は今までに何百人もの認知症患者を診察した。
To date I have (medically) examined hundreds of Alzheimer's patients.
| (i)何 | (Number)+Counterも | |
| 何(千)人も | Many people/thousands of people | |
| 何(百)冊も | Many volumes/hundreds of volumes | |
| (ii)何 | (Number)+CounterものNoun | |
| 何(百)人もの学生 | Many students/hundreds of students | |
| 何(十)もの猫 | Many cats (literally: tens of cats) |
(a). マンガ図書館に何万冊も在庫があっても、人気が高いマンガだと、誰かに借り出されている可能性が高い。
Even though manga libraries have tens of thousands of books in their collections, it is highly probable that the popular titles have been checked out.
(b). 毎日のように我が家の上空をコウモリが何十匹も乱舞する。
Dozens of bats swarm over (the roof of) our house almost every day.
(c). ヨーロッパには「農家民宿」が何万軒もあり、都会人や観光客を受け入れている。
In Europe, there are tens of thousands of farm houses that offer lodging to city people and tourists.
(d). 人類は、何億年も積み重ねてきた生物としての経験を完全に捨てることなく、動物から人間へと進化した。
Humans evolved from animals without completely discarding all the experience accumulated during hundreds of millions of years as various living organisms.
(e). 我が社のパイロット陣はFAAの承認を得ており、何千時間もの飛行経験を持っています。
The (group of) pilots in our company are FAA accredited and have thousands of hours of flying experience.
(f). 阪神・淡路大震災では、住宅倒壊により何千人もの命が一瞬のうちに奪われた。
In the Hanshin-Awaji Great Earthquake, the lives of thousands of people were taken in an instant when their houses collapsed.
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Structure (usually used in formal writing and formal speech)
| A structure indicating that something exist at all. | Doesn't exist at all; without |
| 【Related Expression: 全く~ない; 全然~ない】 | |
(ksa). 彼女は何不自由ない裕福な家庭で育った。
She grew up in a comfortable and rich family without inconveniences.
(ksb). マイケルは何問題なく日本での留学生活を続けている。
Michael is continuing his study abroad in Japan without any problems.
(ksc). あの人は欠点が何一つない。
She doesn't have any weakness.
| (i)何 | Noun1ないNoun2 | |
| 何不自由ない生活 | Life without any inconvenience | |
| 何不足ない毎日 | Everyday without any shortages | |
| (ii)何 | NounなくVerb | |
| 何不自由なく暮らす | Live without any inconvenience | |
| 何不足なく暮らす | Live without lacking anything | |
| (iii)何 | 一つない | |
| 長所が何一つない | There isn't a single advantage | |
| 失敗が何一つない | There aren't any mistakes |
(a). 二人は結婚して、二人だけの蜜月を楽しみ、何不足ない甘い生活を送った。
The couple got married, enjoyed their honeymoon by themselves, and led a charmed life without want.
(b). この会社は、課長をはじめ若い社員が多く、何気兼ねなく話ができる雰囲気だ。
In this company, there are many young employees, including the section chiefs, so it is easy to talk to one another without reserve.
(c). あれだけの財産を手に入れたからには、一生何不都合なく暮らせると彼は思ったのであろうが、それは間違っていたのだ。
He must have thought that once he obtained that much wealth he wouldn't want for anything the rest of his life, but he was wrong.
(d). 日本人のホストファミリーと私は日本語で何不便なく意思疎通ができた。
My Japanese host family and I were able to communicate in Japanese without any inconvenience.
(e). 自然界はすばらしいエコシステムになっていて、そこには無駄な物が何一つないようだ。
The natural world is a wonderful ecological system, and nothing in it seems to be without purpose.
(f). 今は銀行でさえ破綻する時代だ。１００%安全なものは実は何一つない。
We are now in an age when even banks fail. In reality, nothing is 100% secure.
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Structure (usually used in conversation)
| A structure indicating that an action is taken for no good reason. | Why~ have to~?; it is unnecessary to~; have no good reason to~; not need to~ |
(ksa). 何もそんなに怒ることはないよ。
You have no good reason to get so angry.
(ksb). 良性の腫瘍だから、何もそんなに心配する必要はない。
It's a benign tumour, so you don't need to worry about it too much.
| 何も | ～ない | |
| 何も行くことはない。 | Why do you have to go there? | |
| 何も行く必要はない。 | It is unnecessary for someone to go there | |
| 何も行かなくても(よい)。 | You don't have to go there |
(a). 何もいまさらみんながやっている研究をやる必要なんかないと思うだろう？それが間違いなんだ。
You must be thinking there's no need to start on the research everybody is already doing. But you are wrong.
(b). 突然携帯電話が鳴ったのでびっくりした。友人にはすでに番号を知らせてあったから、何もそんなに驚くこともないのだが、悪いことに会議中だったのだ。
I was surprised when my cell phone rang suddenly. I had given the phone number to my friends, so it shouldn't have been a surprise, but unfortunately it happened right in the middle of a meeting.
(c). まあ落ち着いて下さい。私たちは何もあなたが犯人だと決めてかかっているわけじゃありませんから。
Please calm down. We certainly aren't accusing you of being the culprit.
(d). 甘えるのは何も日本人に限ったことではない。
It isn't just the Japanese who are psychologically dependent on others.
(e). 彼女の性格を変えようとしているようだけど、何もそこまでしなくたっていいんじゃないか。
You seem to be trying to change her personality, but why do you need to go that far?
(f). 元々十分に安いのだから、何もそんなに値切らなくてもと思うんですが、それがゲームになってしまうんです。
The prices are cheap enough to begin with, so there really isn't any need to haggle with the store clerk, but it gets to be sort of a game to do so.
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Phrase (usually used in formal writing and formal speech)
| A phrase used to indicate that the exact nature of something represented by the noun cannot be specified. | Some; some kind of |
| 【Related Expression: なん(い)かの】 | |
(ks). 何らかの原因で走行中で電車が急停車した。
Due to some (unknown) cause the train stopped suddenly.
| 何らかの | Noun | |
| 何らかの事情 | Some circumstance | |
| 何らかの形 | Some form |
(a). 私たちが患う病気は、たいてい、何らかの意味でゲノム関係があります。
Most of the illnesses that we get are linked in some way with genomes.
(b). 世界の総人口のおよそ半数の人々が、何らかの形で米を食べている。
Approximately half the total population of the world eats rice in some form.
(c). 何らかの理由で会議に参加できなくなった場合は、学会事務局へご連絡下さるようお願い申し上げます。
If it turns out that you are unable to attend the conference for some reason, we would appreciate it if you would kindly contact the conference office.
(d). 食品添加物が我々の身体に何らかの悪影響を与えると考える人は多い。
Many people think that food additives have some bad effect on our bodies.
(e). 火星表面の「運河」と呼ばれる溝は、何らかの液体によって作られたと考えられていた。
The grooves on Mars' surface that are referred to as "canals" were (originally) presumed to have been caused by some liquid.
(f). 我々はそれぞれ何らかの人生観、社会観を持って生きています。各人の生涯の生活設計に関しても、漠然とした形ではあっても、何らかのデザインをしていると思います。
Each of us is living with a certain outlook on life and society. And no matter how vague it may be, I believe each person is designing a life plan in his/her own way.
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Structure (usually used in formal writing and formal speech)
| A structure that is used to express a strong negative statement. | Not~ at all; not any~; nothing; no~ whatsoever |
| 【Related Expression: 何も~ない; 少しも~ない; ちっとも~ない; 全然~ない; 全く~ない】 | |
(ksa). 日本の大学教育の現状は何ら改善されていない。
The state of Japanese college education has not improved at all.
(ksb). 会社側は労働組合に対して何らの誠意ある回答もしなかった。
The company (literally: company side) has failed to give any sincere reply to the labour union (whatsoever).
| (i)何らNoun | {が/も}ない | |
| 何ら進歩がない | There is no progress whatsoever | |
| 何ら応答もない | There is no response whatsoever | |
| (ii)何ら | (Noun+Particle) Vnegativeない | |
| 何ら返事が来ない | No reply came | |
| 何ら約束をしない | Someone doesn't promise at all | |
| 何ら読んでいない | Someone hasn't read it at all | |
| (iii)何らのNounも | {ない/Vnegativeない} | |
| 何らの愛情もない | Someone doesn't love someone at all | |
| 何らの妥協も許さない | Someone doesn't accept any compromise | |
| 何らの返事ももらっていない | Someone hasn't received any reply whatsoever |
(a). 私は彼女とは何ら面識もないので、彼女の能力を知る由もありません。
I am not acquainted with her at all, so I don't have any reason to know her ability.
(b). ソウルの町は、人の話さえ聞かなければ東京にいるのと何ら変わりがありません。
The city of Seoul seems no different than Tokyo, as long as you don't hear someone talk.
(c). このドラマに登場する人物は実在する個人とは何ら関わりがありません。
The characters appearing in this drama have no connection to any real individuals.
(d). １９９０年の入管法の改正で日系人はその在留が合法化され、日本での就労についても何ら制限を受けないことになった。
The 1990 amendment of the immigration law legalized the residence of Japanese descendants from abroad in Japan, and they are now no longer restricted in any way from working in Japan.
(e). 当ホテルはホテル内での紛失に関しては何らの責任も負いません。
This hotel takes no responsibility for items lost within the hotel.
(f). 彼女は生まれつき楽観的で、自分の将来についても何らの不安も感じていなかった。
She was a born optimist and felt no anxiety whatsoever about her future.
(g). この町は災害に対して何らの備えもない。
This town has made no provision against disaster.
(h). うちの社長は厳しくて、何らの失敗も許してくれない。
Our company president is strict and won't accept any errors.
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Phrase (usually used in conversation)
| A phrase used as the colloquial version of なんて. | What; how~!; what a(n)~!; so |
(ksa). レポートのこと、社長はなんて言っていましたか。
What did the president say about the report?
(ksb). きのう見た映画、なんていう映画だったっけ？
What was the title of the movie we saw yesterday?
(ksc). これぐらいの宿題、なんて(いう)ことはないよ。
This much homework is nothing/ not a big deal!
(ksd). 日本のアニメはなんて面白いんだろう。
How interesting Japanese anime is!
| (i)なんて | V | Where V=verb of communiation |
| なんて言う | What does someone say? | |
| なんて書く | What does someone write? | |
| (ii)なんていう | Noun | |
| なんていう人ですか。 | What is his/her name? | |
| なんていう建物ですか。 | What is the name of the building? | |
| (iii)なんて | {Adjectiveいinformal/ Adjectiveなstemな/Nounな}んだろう | |
| なんて難しいんだろう。 | How difficult something is! | |
| (彼女)なんてきれいなんだろう。 | How pretty (she) is! | |
| なんていい天気なんだろう。 | What a beautiful day! |
(a). うちにホームステイしている留学生がテレビを観ていると「今なんて言った？」「英語だとなんて言うの？」と質問の連続だ。
When the foreign student staying with us watches TV, he keeps asking questions like "What did he say?" or "What is that in English?"
(b). 推薦状を書くのを頼まれると、時々なんて書いたらいいのか分からないことがある。
Sometimes I don't know what to say (literally: write) when I get asked to write a letter of recommendation.
(c). なんていう人か名前を忘れたけれど、なかなか魅力的な女性に出会った。
I met a very charming lady, although I've forgotten her name.
(d). 彼はつらい目にたくさん遭っているのに、「なんていうことはない」という感じでひょうひょうと生きている。
He's had a rough time, but he lets it all roll off his back as if it were nothing to him.
(e). うさぎをじーと見てると、なんてかわいいんだろう、なんてかわいい仕草をするんだろうって思った。
While staring at a rabbit I admired what a cute creature he was, and how he could make such cute gestures.
(f). 自分のことを書くのって、なんて難しいんだろう。
It is so hard to write about myself!
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Particle (usually used in conversation)
| A colloquial particle ued to express a strong feeling such as astonishment, incredulousness, envy, disdain, dislike, happiness, etc. | That; things like |
| 【Related Expression: (など)とは; なんか; など】 | |
(ksa). 小学校からのいじめが中学まで続くなんてひどい。
It's terrible that bullying continues after grade school into junior high.
(ksb). 最近は電子メールばかり使っていて、手紙なんて滅多に書かない。
Lately I've been using only e-mail, and seldom write (a thing like) a letter.
| (i){V/Adjectiveい}informal | なんて | |
| 私と別れるなんて、ひどい！ | It's terrible that you'd break up with me! | |
| この問題がやさしいなんて信じられない！ | I can't believe (that someone says) this problem is so easy! | |
| (ii){Adjectiveなstem/ Noun} | {だ/だった}なんて | |
| 納豆が好きだなんて、本当？ | Is it true that you like nattou? | |
| 彼女が女優だったなんて、ちっとも知らなかった。 | I didn't know that she was an actress! | |
| (iii)Noun | なんて | |
| コンピュータなんて嫌いだ。 | I hate things like computers |
(a). 生演奏で踊れるなんて、うらやましい。
I'm envious that they can dance to live music (literally: a live performance).
(b). 大勢の皆さんに家まで来ていただけるなんて、とても嬉しいです。
I'm very happy that so many of you have come to my home.
(c). 夏にエアコンをつけすぎて寒いなんて、電力浪費も甚だしい。
It's horrible that they feel cold in summer while overusing their air conditioner and wasting electricity.
(d). あの人がそんなに有名だなんてちっとも知らなかった。
I had no idea he was that famous!
(e). あなたなんて最低よ。
You are contemptible!
(f). 納豆なんて嫌いだ。
I hate nattou (fermented soybeans).
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Adverb
| An adverb expressing that someone somehow does something, or something somehow occurs. | Somehow; in some way; in one way or another; manage to |
| 【Related Expression: どうにか】 | |
(ksa). 我々は今の日本の政治状況を何とか変えようと努力しています。
We are making an effort to change the current Japanese political situation somehow.
(ksb). 一見無理なことも、やってみれば何とか形になる。
Something which appears to be impossible to do can take shape in one way or another, if you try.
(a). この夏は友達と一緒に何とか富士山に登ってきました。
This past summer I managed to climb Mt. Fuji with my friend.
(b). 夜型の生活を何とかしたいと思いながら、今でもそれを続けている。
Although I keep thinking I want to do something about my night owl] lifestyle, (literally: even now) I still stay up late.
(c). ボスにせかされているから、この書類を何とか明日までに仕上げなければならないんだ。
My boss keeps pressing me, so somehow I have to complete this document by tomorrow.
(d). 患者：おでこから血が出ることがあるんです。医者：おでこから血が？うーん。そんな症例は聞いたことがないなあ…。患者：ほんとなんです。お願いします、先生。何とかして下さい。
Patient: Sometimes my forehead bleeds. Doctor: Your forehead bleeds? I haven't heard of a case like that before. Patient: It's true. Doctor, please do something about it.
(e). 母親：あら、由香、もう勉強は終わったの。娘：勉強なんかやってらんないわよ。母親：まったくしょうがない子ねえ。お父さん、何とか言って下さいよ。
Mother: Oh, Yuka, you've already finished studying? Daughter: I hate studying! Mother: You're impossible! Dear, say something to her.
(f). 何とかホームページができたのでみんなに見せたい。
Somehow I managed to make my home page, so now I want to show it to everybody.
(g). アメリカへ行けば何とかなるなんていう考えでアメリカに来たって、自分で何とかしなきゃ何ともならないんだ！
If you come to the U.S. thinking that you'll get by somehow, you will amount to nothing unless you make an effort on your own.
(h). いろんな形で支援して下さった皆様のおかげで、このプロジェクトは何とか無事に終了しました。
Thanks to your assistance, which took all kinds of forms, this project has somehow come successfully to completion.
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Adverb/Conjunction (usually used in formal writing and formal speech)
| An adverb that indicates that an action or state is still going on or degree of something increases; conjunction indicating that an additional comment follows what has just been said in preceding sentence. | Still; even more; all the more for~; additional; and; additionally; furthermore |
| 【Related Expression: 以前(として); まだ; 一層; もっと; 更に; ただ】 | |
(ksa). 宮崎駿のアニメは、20年、30年たっても、なお古典アニメとして残っているだろう。
Anime by Hayao Miyazaki will still remain even in 20 or 30 years as anime classics.
(ksb). この小説はパリを知っている人が読めばなお面白いだろう。
This novel must be all the more interesting if you know Paris.
(ksc). 日本へ行く前から日本が好きだったが、日本へ行ったらなお好きになった。
I liked Japan before I went there, but after going there I became even more fond of it.
(ksd). 先週の金曜日午後6時から拙宅で夕食をしますので、お知らせいたします。なお、ご都合のつかない方はお電話下さい。
Let me inform you that there will be a dinner at my residence starting at 6:00 p.m. next Friday. Please call us if you can't come.
| (i)なお | Vている | |
| 噴火はなお続いている | The eruption is still going on | |
| (ii)なお | Adjective (い/な) | |
| なおいい | Even better | |
| なお立派だ | Even more magnificent | |
| (iii)なお | {Adjectiveいstemく /Adjectiveなstemに}(なる) | |
| なお大きく(なる) | (become) even larger | |
| なおきれいに(なる) | (become) even prettier | |
| (iv)なお | Number+Counter | |
| なお十年 | Another 10 years | |
| (v)Sentence1。 | なおSentence2。 | |
| 会は毎週月曜日です。なお詳しい情報は会のサイトをご覧下さい。 | The meeting is every Monday. And for detailed information, please look at the meeting's site |
(a). 欧米やアジアでは景気は拡大し、総じて良好な状態がなお続いている。
In Europe, the United States and Asia the economy has expanded and, generally speaking, favourable conditions continue to prevail.
(b). テレビで「3億円強奪事件」というドラマを見たが、面白かった。実話をもとにしているから、なお面白い。
I saw a drama called "The ¥300,000,000 Robbery" and found it interesting. It was even more so because it is based on a true story.
(c). 考えていることを書くのは勉強になる。その文章を先生が読んで感想を書いてくれるから、なお勉強になる。
It is instructive to write down what we think, and still more instructive when our teacher reads our essays and give comments on them.
(d). 日本語で話すことは難しいが、書くことはなお難しい。
It is difficult to speak in Japanese, but it is even harder to write it.
(e). この論文を完成するまでには、なお2か月は必要だろう。
It will take an additional two months to finish this paper.
(f). 金沢での夏期日本語講座参加希望者は、今月末までに願書を提出して下さい。なお、奨学金応募希望者は、至急用紙を取りに学部事務所に来て下さい。
Those of you who want to participate in the summer Japanese language program in Kanazawa, please submit your applications by the end of this month. Additionally, those who want to apply for a scholarship, please come to the department office immediately
(g). 私は月曜日と水曜日の午後2時から5時までは研究室にいますから、質問のある学生は自由に来て下さい。なお、それ以外の日に研究室に来たい学生は、あらかじめアポを取って下さい。
I will be in my office from 2:00 to 5:00 p.m. on Mondays and Wednesdays, so if you have a question feel free to visit me (during those times). However, if you want to see me at another time, please make an appointment in advance.
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Adverb
| An adverb indicating that the degree of something increases due to an additional circumstance. | Still more; much more; all the more; even more |
| 【Related Expression: 一層】 | |
(ksa). 前からタイに行きたいと思っていたが、すでに行ったことのある友人が強く勧めたので、なおさら行きたくなった。
I've wanted to go to Thailand for a long time, and then a friend who has been there strongly recommended it, so I feel like going there even more now.
(ksb). 悪人さえも往生するのなら、まして善人はなおさらだ。
If even a bad person can go to heaven, then a good person has an even better chance.
(a). 貧乏を弁解すると、なおさら貧乏くさく聞こえる。
If you make excuses for being poor you will seem (literally: sound) still poorer.
(b). このチーズは搾りたての新鮮な牛乳で作るから、なおさらおいしい。
This cheese is made from milk fresh from the cow so it tastes even more delicious.
(c). 旅で足を踏み入れるだけで、沖縄はいまだに戦争を引きずっていることを感じる。まして、現地の人ではなおさらであろう。
When you just go there as a traveller, you get a sense that Okinawa still hasn't gotten over the war. The local people must feel that way even more so.
(d). 英語を書くのは難しいが、正確さが要求される科学論文を書くのはなおさらだ。
It is hard to write in English, but it is still harder to write a scientific paper that requires accuracy.
(e). アジア諸国の学者や政府が、この教科書を詳細かつ適確に批判し、発行しないよう強く求めたにもに関わらず検定を通ったということは、なおさら重大です。
It is all the more serious that this textbook has passed the inspection even though scholars and governments of Asian countries aptly criticized it in detail and urged the publisher not to print it.
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Phrase (usually used in formal writing and formal speech)
| A phrase indicating something is "impossible if it's not X". | Impossible if it's not~; only possible with/by/at/etc.; not possible with/by/at/etc. other~; very difficult with/by/at/etc. any other~ but; you can expect only/at/from/etc.; unless |
| 【Related Expression: でなければ; でなくては; でないと; でなかったら】 | |
(ksa). 丸山博士の講演は、一流の科学者ならではの示唆に富む内容だった。
Dr. Maruyama's lecture was rich with suggestion, the likes of which could only be heard from a first-class scientist (like himself).
(ksb). 四季を通じて美しい景色が楽しめるのはこの地ならではだ。
Only here can we enjoy beautiful scenery through all four seasons.
(ksc). 女性ならではできない仕事や役割もあるはずだ。
There also must be jobs and roles that only women can perform (literally: that cannot be done unless you are a woman).
| (i)NP1 | ならではのNP2 | |
| この店ならではのサービス | Service you can expect only at this shop | |
| (ii)NP | ならではだ | |
| 学生ならではだ | Impossible unless someone is a student | |
| (iii)NP | ならではVpotential negativeない | |
| 彼ならではできない | Only he can do something (literally: something cannot be done by anyone else but him) |
(a). この大学の法律図書館には、この大学ならではの充実した資料が揃っている。
The law library of this university houses a rich collection of documents, the likes of which do not exist at other institutions.
(b). プロショップならではの品揃え。人気商品を特別価格でお求めいただけます。
We have a range of products that would only be available at a shop for pros. Popular items are available at special prices.
(c). このマンションは都心の住居ならではの便利さと快適さをお約束します。
These condominiums promise the kind of convenience and comfort you can enjoy only in dwellings at the heart of the city.
(d). 興味がわいたち、その分野を徹底して勉強してみる時間があるというのは学生ならではだ。
It is only because they are students (literally: It is not possible unless they are students) that they have the time to thoroughly pursue fields they find they have an interest in.
(e). 近郊にはゴルフコースが数多く、仕事帰りにハールを回れるのは、緯度が高く日没の遅いカナダならではだ。
There are many golf courses near Canadian cities, and, uniquely in Canada, where the sun sets late because of the high latitude, people play a half round on their way home from work.
(f). 産地直送ならでは味わえない本場のおいしさをお届けいたします。
We deliver delicious taste from the source, a taste you could not enjoy if we did not ship directly from the site of production.
(g). 日本最高峰の富士山は、毎年夏の登山シーズンになると約20万人が山頂を目指す。登山者が長蛇の列をつくる光景は富士山ならでは見られないものである。
In the summer climbing season every year, roughly 200,000 people aim for the summit of Mt. Fuji, the highest mountain in Japan. The long line of climbers is a scene that can't be seen anywhere but at Mt. Fuji.
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Conjunction (usually used in formal writing and formal speech)
| A conjunction used to combine two nouns or noun phrases. | And; both~ and~; as well as |
| 【Related Expression: と; 及び】 | |
(ks). 国連総会には首相並びに外務大臣が出席した。
The prime minister and the foreign minister attended the U.N. General Assembly.
| Noun1 | 並びにNoun2 | |
| 学長並びに副学長 | The university president and the vice president |
(a). 県並びに県内各市町村では、地域イントラネット構築して、行政や福祉情報の円滑な提供に努めている。
The prefecture and its municipalities have constructed local intranets, and are working to provide administrative and welfare information smoothly to their residents.
(b). 以下は犬及びねこの引き取り並びに負傷動物の収容に関する措置要領である。
What follows is an outline of procedures for caring for dogs and cats, and admitting injured animals.
(c). その政党は、夫婦間における暴力の防止並びに被害者の保護に関する法律案を発表した。
The political party announced laws for the prevention of spousal violence as well as the protection of the victims.
(d). 今日は、大気や河川の汚染並びに酸性雨が環境に及ぼす影響についてお話しいたします。
Today I am going to talk about the contamination of our air and rivers as well as acid rain's effect on them.
(e). このホームページ並びにメールマガジンのスタッフをご紹介します。
Let me introduce you to the staff of our website and mail magazine.
(f). 本学学長の選挙資格者は、選挙公示の日における学長並びに専任の教授、准教授及び講師とする。
Those who are qualified to be a candidate for president of this college are those who are full-time professors, associate professors and lecturers as well as the president at the time the election is announced.
(g). 本日ここに、大統領、並びに国務長官ほか、御一行の歓迎の宴を開くことができましたことは、私の最も欣快とするところであります。
It is my great pleasure that today we welcome the President, the Secretary of State and other honourable visitors to this reception.
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Conjunction
| A conjunction meaning "soon after". | The moment; when; as soon as; soon after; no sooner~ than |
| 【Related Expression: や否や】 | |
(ks). 妻は私の顔を見るなり泣きだした。
My wife began to cry the moment she saw me (literally: my face).
| Vinformal nonpast | なり | |
| 知らせを聞くなり | As soon as someone heard the news |
(a). 首相は会議場を出るなり記者団の質問攻めにあった。
The prime minister was bombarded with questions by a group of reporters soon after he left the conference hall.
(b). 部屋に入るなりルームサービスの人がお茶とお菓子を持ってきてくれた。
No sooner had we entered our room than room service brought tea and sweets.
(c). 編集長は私と顔を合わせるなり私をにらみつけ、「話がある」と言った。
The chief editor glared at me when she saw me, and told me that we needed to talk.
(d). 家に帰るまで何とかもつかと思ったが、バスを降りるなり激しい雨が降り出した。
I thought the weather would hold somehow until I got home, but as soon as I stepped off the bus, it started pouring.
(e). 会議中タバコが吸えなくて禁断症状だった伊藤さんは、部屋を出るなりタバコに火をつけた。
Mr. Ito, who had shown withdrawal symptoms during the meeting because he was not allowed to smoke, lit a cigarette as soon as he got out of the room.
(f). そのニュースが報道されるなり、放送局に問い合わせの電話が殺到した。
Soon after the news was reported, phone queries flooded the broadcast centre.
(g). 所属レコード会社が宣伝に力を入れたため、そのアルバムは発売されるなりヒットチャート1位になった。
Because the recording company made an effort to promote the album, it became No. 1 in the hit charts soon after it was released.
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Adverb
| An adverb indicating that the speaker/writer affirms the correctness of something he/she has heard/read/observed. | Indeed; it is true~ (but); really; I see |
| 【Related Expression: 確かに】 | |
(ksa). パリはきれいだと聞いていたが、なるほどその芸術性には舌を巻いた。
I had heard that Paris was a beautiful city, and (literally: but) indeed I was astounded by its artistry.
(ksb). なるほど、日本の官僚はいろいろと批判されているが、戦後の日本の復興は彼らに負うところが多い。
It is true that Japanese bureaucrats are criticized in various ways, but we owe them for much of Japan's post-war recovery.
(ksc). A:文化って、宗教のように倫理的な決まりが多いですね。B:なるほどね。
A: Culture, like religion, has a lot of ethical rules./ B: I see.
| (i)Sentence1{が/けれど}、 | なるほどSentence2。 | |
| 若い{が/けれど}、なるほど、才能が豊かだ。 | Someone is young, but is richly talented indeed | |
| (ii)なるほど、 | Sentence1{が/けれど}、Sentence2。 | |
| なるほど、一見くだらない{が/けれど}、研究の価値がある。 | It looks worthless at first sight, but it is worth researching | |
| (iii)なるほど | (ね)。 | It see/Indeed/It makes sense |
(a). この大学のことは大学案内で読んではいたが、実際に来てみると、なるほど、学生たちはずばらしい教育を受けているようだ。
I had read about this college in a college guide, but by actually coming here myself I can see the students really seem to be getting a great education.
(b). この辺りでは菜の花畑が4月中旬ごろ特にきれいだと聞いていたが、なるほど見事である。
I had heard that the fields of rape blossoms around here are particularly beautiful around mid-April, and now that I've seen them myself, I have to say that they are indeed impressive.
(c). 本日、川上弘美『椰子・椰子』を読了。なるほど面白い本だ。
Today I finished reading Hiromi Kawakami's "Yashi, Yashi (Palm, Palm)." It's indeed an interesting book.
(d). なるほど、これだけの規模のテロが起きると人々は恐怖に捕われるけれど、自分でコントロールできないことをくよくよ心配しても仕方がないだろう。
It's true people are caught by fear when terrorism of this magnitude occurs, but it is no use worrying too much about what you cannot control.
(e). なるほど日本の文化とドイツの文化は違っている点があるが、実は共通点の方が多いようだ。
Indeed there are differences between Japanese culture and German culture, but actually it seems they have more similarities than differences.
(f). A:実は僕には好きな人がいるんですが、勇気がなくて告白できないんです。 B: なるほど。でも、それは自分に対する自信が足りないからじゃないの？
A: To tell you the truth, there's someone I love, but I don't have the courage to tell her. B: I see exactly what you mean. It's because you don't have enough self-confidence.
(g). A:この使い捨てカメラって、写真を撮りたい時簡単に買えて、撮ったらそのままカメラ屋に現像に出せるのが魅力なんだ。面倒なフィルムの出し入れもないし。B:なるほど。
A: The attractive feature of this disposable camera is that you can buy one whenever you want to take a picture, and when you are done you can take it as is to a camera shop for developing. You don't need to bother putting film in and taking it out. B:
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Phrase (usually used in formal writing and formal speech)
| An adverbial phrase meaning "without (doing) something". | Without |
| 【Related Expression: ないで; ずに】 | |
(ksa). 料金は予告(すること)なしに変更する場合がございます。
The fee may (literally: will sometimes) change without prior notice.
(ksb). 友達が何の連絡もなしにいきなり訪ねてきた。
My friend suddenly dropped by without contacting me first.
(ksc). 日本語の授業は手続き(すること)なしには聴講できません。
You cannot audit a Japanese class without going through the formal (registration) process.
| (i){N/VN(すること)} | Vます/Vinformal nonpastこと/なしに | |
| 権力なしに | Without (political) power | |
| 挨拶(すること)なしに | Without greeting | |
| 断りなしに | Without letting someone know something in advance | |
| (許可)を得ることなしに | Without obtaining (permission) | |
| (ii)何の{N/VN}も | なしに | |
| 何の財産もなしに | Without any estate/fortune | |
| 何の挨拶もなしに | Without any greeting | |
| 何の断りもなしに | Without someone knowing anything in advance | |
| (iii)何のNounも | Vinformal nonpastことなしに | |
| 何の許可も得ることなしに | Without obtaining permission at all | |
| (iv){N/VN(すること)/Vinformal nonpastこと} | なしにはVpotential negativeない | |
| コーヒーなしには生活できない | Someone can't live without coffee | |
| 準備運動(すること)なしには入れない | Someone cannot enter without a warm-up | |
| 辞書の助けなしには読めない | Someone cannot read something without the help of a dictionary | |
| 深く考えることなしには書けない | Someone can't write without thinking (about it) deeply |
(a). ソフトウエアの不正コピーには、許諾なしに複製されたソフトウエアや、偽造されたソフトウエアが含まれている。
Illegal copies of software include software copied without permission and forged software.
(b). お客様の同意なしに、第三者に個人情報を転送することはありません。
We will never transfer private information to a third party without the customer's consent.
(c). 男たちは何の許可もなしに事務所のコンピュータを勝手に使っていた。
The men were using the office computers without permission.
(d). キリスト教を理解することなしにヨーロッパの文化や社会を理解することは難しいと言われています。
They say it is difficult to understand European culture and society without understanding Christianity.
(e). この実験の最初の10年は何の成果も得ることなしに過ぎてしまった。
The first 10 years of this experiment passed, and we had not obtained a result.
(f). コンピュータと通信技術が飛躍的に発展するにつれ、社会生活が大きく変化し、いまやコンピュータなしには我々の生活が成立しなくなりつつある。
With the rapid development of computers and communications technology, society has seen great changes, to the point that it is becoming harder to conduct our daily lives without computers.
(g). 天気予報もテレビ中継も国際電話も、人工衛星の助けなしにはやっていけない時代になっている。
We are now in an age in which weather forecasting, live TV broadcasting and international telephone calls are impossible without the help of satellites.
(h). この掲示板では、営業目的の書き込みや著しく長い書き込みについては、断りなしに削除させていただくことがあります。
Comments that are for sales purposes or are extremely long may be deleted from this bulletin board without prior notice.
(i). 大事なことを何の話し合いもなしに決められて、私としては納得ができない。
They have made an important decision on an issue without any discussion. I am dissatisfied.
(j). 一切の政治権力なしに人々自由を実現することは、はたして可能なのだろうか。
I wonder if people's freedom can be realised without any political power.
(k). 人一倍照れ屋だった父は、酒なしには人と話もできなかった。
My father, who was twice as shy as other people, couldn't even talk with people without drinking sake first.
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Verb
| A verb that means "to cause something to happen" | Do; perform; make; change; constitute |
| 【Related Expression: する; 行う; に/となる】 | |
(ksa). 災い(を)転じて福となす。
One can turn misfortune into a blessing. [proverb]
(ksb). 比喩に関しては現在多くの研究がなされている。
A large amount of research is being done on metaphors now.
(ksc). 人間というものは、悪をなす存在である。
Human beings exist in order to do evil.
(ksd). 民主主義はアメリカ合衆国の基盤をなす思想である。
Democracy is the founding ideology (literally: the ideology that constitutes the foundation) of the United States of America.
| (i)Noun1をNoun2と | なす | |
| 醜を美となす | Someone changes ugliness to beauty | |
| (ii)Nounが | なされる | |
| 外国語教育がなされる | Foreign language education is provided | |
| (iii)Nounを | なす | |
| 善をなす | Someone does good deeds | |
| 基本をなす | Something constitutes the foundation |
(a). 顧客創造のためには自社製品の潜在利益を利益となす努力を払わなければならない。
We have to make the effort to turn our products' potential profit into (real) profit in order to gain more customers.
(b). 患者が入院時に病名や病状について理解していない場合は、必要に応じて適切な説明がなされるべきである。
If patients do not understand the name of their disease and its symptoms at the time of hospitalization, they should be given an appropriate explanation as needed.
(c). インターネットに関してこのような質問がなされる可能性は高い。
Such questions are likely to be asked regarding the Internet.
(d). 善をなすのを急げ。悪から心を退けよ。
Hurry to do good. Turn your mind away from evil.
(e). 権利の保護には最善の努力をなすことを目標にしている。
For the protection of our rights we aim at doing our very best.
(f). コンピュータサイエンスの基本をなす考え方は、様々な科学の分野で重要になってくると思われる。
It seems that the fundamental concepts (literally: the concepts underlying the foundation) underlying computer science will become important in various fields of science.
(g). 情報リスクマネジメントという視点で、ビジネスの根幹をなす情報システムを評価・管理することが必須だ。
From the viewpoint of risk management, it is essential to assess and manage the informational systems that constitute the core of a business.
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Adverb (usually used in formal writing and formal speech)
| An adverb indicating that the speaker/writer doesn't know the cause of/reason for something | I don't know why; without knowing why; for an unknown reason |
| 【Related Expression: そうして(だ)か; どう言うわけ(だ)か】 | |
(ks). このところなぜか体の調子が悪い。
I don't know why, but I haven't felt well lately.
(a). ヨーロッパやアジアには受け入れられなかったSFが、なぜか日本には根づいた。
Science fiction, which did not catch on in Europe and Asia, took root in Japan for some unknown reason.
(b). なぜか僕は日本語の難しさにはまってしまった。
For some reason, I got hooked by the difficulty of Japanese language.
(c). 最近私が住んでいる町ではなぜか古本屋が増えている。
I don't know why, but lately the number of used bookstores (in the town) where I live has grown.
(d). ログインの手順を教えて下さい。なぜかできなくなってしまったんです。
Please teach me how to log in. I don't know why, but I can't do it anymore.
(e). 自分の文化のリズムには、なぜか体が自然と反応し、踊りたくなる。
For some unknown reason, our bodies respond spontaneously to our own cultural rhythms, and we feel like dancing!
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Structure (usually used in formal writing and formal speech)
| A structure used to introduce a reason for the statement in the preceding. | The reason is that~; because |
| 【Related Expression: から; ので; なぜかと言うと~からだ】 | |
(ks). 彼はみんなに好かれている。なぜなら(ば)、誰にでも親切だからだ。
Everybody likes him. The reason is that he is kind to everybody.
| Sentence。 | なぜなら(ば)～からだ。 | |
| 食べない。なぜなら(ば)食欲がないからだ。 | I won't eat it. The reason is that I don't have an appetite |
(a). 私は自分が好きです。なぜならば、今を自由に生きているからです。
I like myself. The reason is that I am living freely in the moment.
(b). ゲームにおいて最も重要な要素は、目的です。なぜならば、ゲームは本能ではなく理性で行われるものだからです。
The most important element of a game is the objective. This is because games are played not by instinct but by reason.
(c). 外国語学習者は物事を考える時、自分の母語で考える。なぜならば、目標言語では考えがまとめられないからだ。
People who are learning a foreign language think in their mother tongue (literally: when they think). The reason is that they cannot think coherently in the target language.
(d). 変化を遂げない経営は当然効率が悪くなります。なぜならば顧客も競合他社も常に変化しているからです。
Management that doesn't change will become ineffective, as a matter of course. The reason is that both customers and competitors are always changing.
(e). 近現代の日本が本当に正しい道を歩んできたのかどうかは吟味に値する。なぜならば、その過程で日本が失ったものも多いからである。
Whether modern Japan has actually been taking the right path should be examined. The reason is that Japan has lost many things during that process.
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Adverbial Phrase (usually used in formal writing and formal speech)
| An adverbial phrase that is used when a situation looks as if someone were about to do something or as if something were about to occur literally or figuratively. | As if~ were about to~; almost |
(ksa). 犬は噛みつかんばかりに僕に向かってほえた。
The dog barked at me as if it were about to bite.
(ksb). どの演奏も若さと情熱あふれんばかりに満ちていた。
Every performance was filled with an overwhelming amount of youth and passion (literally: as if youth and passion were about to overflow).
(ksc). 時折、木の枝も折れんばかりの強風が吹いていた。
Occasionally the wind was blowing so hard it seemed the tree branches would break.
(ksd). 驚いて腰を抜かさんばかりだった。
I was so frightened that it seemed I was about to lose the use of my legs (literally: to lose my lower back).
| (i)Vnegative | んばかりに | Exception: する→せんばかりに |
| 泣かんばかりに | As if someone were about to cry | |
| 発狂せんばかりに | As if someone were about to go mad | |
| (ii)Vnegative | んばかりのNoun | |
| 心臓が張り裂けんばかりの痛み | Heartbreaking pain (literally: pain that felt as if the heart were about to break) | |
| (iii)Vnegative | んばかり{だ/だった} | |
| 家屋は倒れんばかり{だ/だった} | It is/was as if the houses were about to collapse |
(a). その選手がシュートを決めた時、夜空に鳴り響く雷鳴をかき消さんばかりに、大歓声が競技場にとどろいた。
When the player scored a goal, a big shout of jubilation reverberated throughout the arena, as though it would muffle the rumble of thunder in the night sky.
(b). 樹高10メートルの梢から地面に届かんばかりに垂れ下がっている様子は、まさに流れ落ちる桜花の滝にふさわしい。
The way in which the cherry blossoms are hanging from the top of the branch of the 10-meter tree, as if they were about to touch the ground, is just worthy of being called a cherry blossom waterfall.
(c). 「風の谷のナウシカ」を娘さんに薦められて見たお父さんは、涙を流さんばかりに感激した。
The father was so deeply moved by "Nausicaa of the Valley of the Wind," which his daughter recommended he watch, that he almost cried.
(d). 演奏が終わるか終わらないかのうちに、この曲を知っているのは自分だと言わんばかりに拍手をする人もいます。
Some people begin applauding just as a performance is coming to an end as if they were showing (literally: saying) how well they know the piece.
(e). 彼に別れたいと言われた時には、私は胸が張り裂けんばかりに苦しかった。
When he told me he wanted to break up, it was so painful I thought my chest would burst.
(f). 彼の死を聞いた時、彼女は気も狂わぬばかりに泣き叫んだ。
When she heard the news of his death, she screamed as if she were crazy.
(g). 上司から叱りつけられた山崎は土下座せぬばかりに平身低頭して謝った。
When his boss told him off, Yamazaki apologized, bowing to the ground as if he were about to get down on his hands and knees.
(h). 彼女はいつもこぼれんばかりの笑みをたたえている。
She is always smiling as if her smiles would overflow.
(i). 引っ越しの時あまり重いものを持ったので、腕が肩から抜けんばかりだった。
During the move I carried such heavy stuff that it felt as if my arms were about to fall out of their sockets (literally: come out from the shoulders).
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Verb
| A verb that expresses a polite request. | Please; ask (for) |
| 【Related Expression: Verb て下さい; をVerb ます下さい】 | |
(ksa). 初めに、これだけは必ずお読み願います。
Please be sure to read at least this (part) first.
(ksb). 禁煙にご協力願います。
Thank you for not smoking (literally: Please cooperate with us in non-smoking).
| (i)おVます | 願います | |
| お書き願います | Please write it | |
| お待ち願います | Please carry/take/bring it | |
| (ii)ごVN | 願います | Where VN=Sino-Japanese compound |
| ご報告願います | Please report it | |
| ご教授願います | Please teach me |
(a). ご相談・ご意見・ご質問などがありましたら、下記へお知らせ願います。
If you have opinions, questions, or requests for advice (literally: If there are things on which you want to consult us, your opinions and your questions), please contact us at the following (address).
(b). 当オンラインショップで商品をご注文いただく場合は、まず最初にカタログページからご希望の商品をお選び願います。
When you place an order for merchandise at this online shop, please first select the merchandise you want from the catalogue pages.
(c). この喫煙所は、入院しておられる患者さんの施設です。外来の方々は利用できませんのでご了承願います。
This smoking room is for hospitalized patients' use, so please be advised (literally: understand) that outpatients are not allowed to use it.
(d). 応募に際しては、以下の書類をEメールまたは郵便にてご送付願います。
When you apply, please send the following documents by e-mail or regular mail.
(e). 電車とホームの間が広く空いています。足元にご注意願います。
There is a wide gap between the train and the platform. Please watch your step.
(f). 学術研究を目的とする方以外の当研究所図書館の利用はご遠慮願います。
Please refrain from using this laboratory library for any purpose other than academic research. (literally: Those whose purpose is other than academic research are asked not to use this laboratory's library.)
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Phrase
| A phrase that indicates a sharp contrast. | In contrast to~; while; whereas |
| 【Related Expression: に比べると/比べて; 代わりに; に対して】 | |
(ksa). 几帳面な父にひきかえ、息子はだらしなかった。
The son, in contrast to his meticulous father, was slovenly.
(ksb). 子の大学は教育の質がとてもいいのにひきかえ、学内の設備が劣る。
While the quality of education at this college is excellent, the quality of the campus facilities is inferior.
| (i){Noun/Demonstrative pronoun} | にひきかえ | |
| 健康な母にひきかえ | In contrast to my healthy mother | |
| {これ/それ}にひきかえ | In contrast to this/that | |
| (ii){V/Adjectiveい} informal | のにひきかえ | |
| 勉強がよくできるのにひきかえ | Someone is academically gifted, while~ | |
| 部屋が広いのにひきかえ | The room is spacious, while~ | |
| (iii){Adjectiveなstem/ Noun} | {な/だった}のにひきかえ | |
| 便利なのにひきかえ | Something is convenient, while~ | |
| 父は大学教授だったのにひきかえ | My father was a college professor, while~ |
(a). 昨日にひきかえ今朝は快晴です。
In contrast to yesterday, this morning is perfectly clear.
(b). 姉は何事にも堅実なタイプなのにひきかえ、妹は奔放なタイプだ。
My older sister is the type who's steady in any situation, while my younger sister is the free-wheeling type.
(c). 昨年が楽しい年だったのにひきかえ、今年は色々な意味で試練の年だった。
The last year was an enjoyable year, whereas this year has been a year of trials for all sorts of reasons.
(d). 16世紀のフランスでは、貴族の食事は贅沢だったのにひきかえ、市民の食事はとても貧しいものだった。
In France in the 16th century, the nobility ate extravagantly while the common people ate very poorly.
(e). 我々は「Aという国は、そんなにすばらしいことをしている。それにひきかえ日本は全く駄目だ」という話をずっと聞かされ続けたものだ。
"Country A is doing this really fabulous thing. In contrast, Japan is completely useless." We have been hearing this kind of statement (continuously) for a long time.
(f). ハーバードやMITの名前は日本で広く知られているのにひきかえ、残念ながら私が教えているプリンストンの名前はほとんど知られていない。
Names such as Harvard and MIT are well-known in Japan while, regrettably, the name (of the school) where I am teaching, Princeton, is hardly known.
(g). EUについては、経済問題はよく議論されてきたのにひきかえ、文化面の議論があまりなされてこなかった。
Although the EU's economic problems have been frequently debated, its cultural issues have hardly been discussed.
(h). このアパートは駅にとても近くて便利なのにひきかえ、部屋は狭く、家賃も高い。
While this apartment is very close to the station and convenient, the room is small and the rent is high.
(i). 日本の大学は、入るのが難しいのにひきかえ、出るのは簡単だと言われている。
They say that while it is difficult to enter a Japanese university, it is easy to graduate.
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Compound Particle (usually used in formal writing and formal speech)
| A compound particle that indicates an extreme example. | When it comes to~; as for; for example |
| 【Related Expression: の場合(は); ときたら】 | |
(ks). 人間の体は60%が水、魚は75%、くらげにいたっては96%が水だ。
Human bodies are 60 percent water, while fish are 75 percent water. As for jellyfish, the figure is 96 percent.
| Noun | にいたっては | |
| 学生にいたっては | When it comes to students |
(a). 私自身は社会人になってからコンピュータを使い始めたが、新入社員は中学生の頃から、私の子供たちにいたっては、生まれた時から家にコンピュータがある世代だ。
I myself started to use a computer after I graduated and got a job, but the new hires got started on computers when they were still junior high school students. As for my children, they belong to the generation for whom a computer is available at home
(b). 一年間に日本中の廃棄物は5、１６０万トン、しかまこれは家庭や飲食店などから出る一般廃棄物で、産業廃棄物にいたってはその8倍近くの4億8百万トンも出ているのです。
In a year, 51,600,000 tons of waste is produced across Japan. And, this is just general waste from homes and eating places. When it comes to industrial waste, as much as 408,000,000 tons of waste, or nearly eight times as much as general waste, is prod
(c). 少林寺拳法では女性拳士の数が増加傾向にあり、高校や大学の部活動にいたっては、部員の半数近くが女性だ。
In the case of Shourinji Kenpou, the number of female practitioners is increasing; in clubs at high schools and colleges, for example, almost half of the members are girls.
(d). 今私たちの生活には多くの椅子が使われている。ダイニングにいたっては、ダイニングテーブルと椅子は、もはや一般的である。
Today we use many chairs in our daily life. As for the dining room, a (set of) dining table and chairs is the standard.
(e). 日本には、一般紙やスポーツ紙、専門的な業界紙など様々な新聞があるが、雑誌にいたっては、どんな分野のものでもある。
In Japan there are various newspapers, such as general papers, sports newspapers, or papers that specialize in certain industries, but as for magazines, they cover all fields.
(f). アジア太平洋地域以外にも、旅行者の注目を集めている地域がある。中央アメリカは昨年、旅行者数が23%増、中東も17.5％増となった。スペインも９％増加したし、モロッコにいたっては、２２％も増えた。
Areas outside the Asia Pacific region have been drawing the attention of travellers as well. Last year Central America saw a 23 percent increase in travellers; in the Middle East, it was 17.5 percent. Spain saw 9 percent more travellers, and travel (lit
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Compound Particle (usually used in formal writing and formal speech)
| A compound particle that means "regardless of" | Regardless of; independent of; without reference to; without distinguishing; whether X or Y; whether X or not; whatever/whoever/etc. |
| 【Related Expression: を問わず】 | |
(ksa). 当社は性別に関わらず同様に昇進できます。
At this company, employees are (literally: you can be) promoted equally, regardless of sex.
(ksb). 出席か欠席かに関わらず同封の葉書でお知らせ下さい。
Whether or not you will attend, please inform us (of your intention) using the enclosed postcard.
(ksc). 実際に使う使わないに関わらずレンタル料を払わなければならない。
We have to pay the rental fee whether we use it or not.
(ksd). 商品化が可能か｛どうか/否か｝に関わらず我々はこの製品の研究を進める予定だ。
We plan to advance the research on this product, whether it can be commercialized or not.
(kse). 会員であるなしに関わらず商品カタログをお送りします。
We will send you our product catalogue whether or not you are a member.
(ksf). 自覚症状のあるなしに関わらず医師に相談することを勧めます。
We recommend that you consult your doctor whether or not you have symptoms.
(ksg). A社は市場調査の結果のいかんに関わらず日本でのマーケティングを開始することを決めた。
Company A has decided to begin marketing in Japan regardless of the market research results.
(ksh). これはどの言語を学者するかに関わらず役に立つ情報だと思います。
I think this information is useful whatever language you may study.
| (i)Noun | に関わらず | |
| 学生数に関わらず | Regardless of the number of students | |
| (ii)XかYか | に関わらず | Y contrasts with X or is the negative form of X |
| 英語か日本語かに関わらず | Whether something is English or Japanese | |
| 多いか少ないかに関わらず | Whether there are many or few | |
| 便利か不便かに関わらず | Whether something is convenient or inconvenient | |
| できるかできないかに関わらず | Whether someone can do something or not | |
| (iii)XY | に関わらず | Y contrasts with X or is the negative form of X |
| 遅刻欠席に関わらず | Whether someone was late or absent | |
| 上手下手に関わらず | Whether someone is skilful of unskillful | |
| 上手上手でないに関わらず | Whether someone is good or poor at something | |
| うまい上手に関わらず | Whether someone is good or poor at something | |
| うまいうまくないに関わらず | Whethere someone is good at something or not | |
| 行く行かないに関わらず | Whether or not someone goes | |
| (iv)Sinformalか | {どうか/否か}に関わらず | だ atfer Adjectiveなstem and Noun is omitted |
| できるか{どうか/否か}に関わらず | Whether or not someone can do something | |
| 多いか{どうか/否か}に関わらず | Whether or not there are many of something | |
| 便利か{どうか/否か}に関わらず | Whether or not something is convenient | |
| 現実か{どうか/否か}に関わらず | Whether or not something is a reality | |
| (v){Noun/Adjectiveなstem} | であるなしに関わらず | |
| 国産品であるなしに関わらず | Whether or not something is a domestic product | |
| 経済的であるなしに関わらず | Whether or not something is economical | |
| (vi)Nounのあるなし | に関わらず | |
| 経験のあるなしに関わらず | Whether or not someone has experience | |
| (vii)Nounのいかん | に関わらず | |
| 国籍のいかんに関わらず | Regardless of nationality | |
| (viii)Wh-sentence informalか | に関わらず | |
| どこで使用するかに関わらず | Wherever something may be used |
(a). このオンラインゲームは、性別・年齢に関わらず誰でも楽しむことができます。
Anyone, regardless of sex or age, can enjoy this online game.
(b). 日本で外国人が日本語を話すと、実際に上手か下手かに関わらず、「日本語が上手ですね」とほめられます。
In Japan, when a foreigner speaks Japanese, whether they are actually good or bad, people will praise them, saying, "You speak Japanese well."
(c). 実際にオーストラリアに行く行かないに関わらず休暇は取ろうと思っている。
Whether or not I actually go to Australia, I'm thinking of taking some time off.
(d). 我々は、助成金が下りるかどうかに関わらず、このプロジェクトを続ける。
We are going to continue this project, whether we are given a grant or not.
(e). 大学の図書館は、その大学の学生・教職員であるなしに関わらず閲覧できるのが普通だ。
(The books in) University libraries are usually available (to anyone), whether or not the user is a student, faculty member or staff member of the university.
(f). 条例のあるなしに関わらず、公共のスペースでの喫煙は明らかなマナー違反であることを認識してほしい。
I'd like people to recognize that whether or not there is a regulation, smoking in public spaces is clearly unacceptable behaviour (literally: a violation of manners).
(g). いかなる団体・個人についても、その意図や理由のいかんに関わらず、ここにある画像の転載・再配布等は許可しません。
No group or individual is allowed to reproduce or redistribute the images found here, regardless of the intent or reason.
(h). この製品の著作者及び、製造、配布に関わるいかなる者も、本ソフトウエアの使用、または使用不能によって発生する損害に対する責任は、それが直接的であるか間接的であるか、必然的であるか偶発的であるかに関わらず、負わないものとします。
The author of this (software) product and (literally: any of) those involved in its production and distribution bear no responsibility for damage resulting from its use or the inability to use it, whether the damage is direct or indirect, or inevitable
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Compound Particle
| A compound particle that marks something in which someone excels or has confidence. | When it comes to~; as for; in point of; in terms of; about; regarding |
| 【Related Expression: については; に関しては; では】 | |
(ks). 経済学のノーベル賞を受賞したジョン・ナシュは数学にかけては自分の右に出る者はいないと思っていた。
John Nash, who received a Nobel Prize in economics, thought that when it came to math, nobody was better than he was.
| Noun | にかけては | |
| 音楽にかけては | When it comes to music |
(a). ジャッキー・チェンは、アクションにかけては右に出る者がいない俳優である。
Jackie Chan is an actor with whom none can compete when it comes to action films.
(b). 山崎氏はこの分野の政策立案にかけては政界随一の見識と経験を持っている。
For policy making in this field, Mr. Yamazaki has the best insight and experience in the political world.
(c). 写真というものは絵画に比べて、その客観的再現力にかけては圧倒的にまさっている。
Photography overwhelmingly surpasses paintings in terms of objective reproduction.
(d). このユースホステルは年齢を問わず誰でも利用でき、快適さにかけては世界中でも最高クラスだ。
One of the special features of this youth hostel is that people of any age can stay here (literally: use it), and when it comes to comfort, it is among the top-rated (hostels) in the world.
(e). この工場は特殊鋼の製造にかけては世界屈指の技術を有している。
When it comes to the production of special steels, this factory has the world's best technology.
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Phrase (usually used in formal writing and formal speech)
| A phrase that indicates that it is not hard to imagine or guess a situation. | Not hard; easy~ |
(ksa). 給料低いために教師の質が低下した(であろう)ことは想像にかたくない。
It is not hard to imagine that the quality of teachers fell because of the low salary.
(ksb). 幼い時に両親を失った彼女の生活が｛いかに/どれほど｝悲惨だったかは推測にかたくない。
It is easy to guess how miserable her life was after she lost her parents.
| VN | に難くない | Where VN=Sino-Japanese compound |
| {想像/推測/予測}に難くない | It is not hard to imagine/guess/predict |
(a). この新宅には相当お金をかけたであろうことは想像にかたくない。
It is easy to imagine them spending a lot of money on this new house.
(b). 日本語教育のめざましい進歩の裏には、日本語教育者・研究者の並々ならぬ努力があったことは、想像にかたくありません。
It is not hard to imagine that behind the eye-opening progress Japanese language education has made are the extraordinary efforts of Japanese language educators and researchers.
(c). 留学生にとって日本の伝統文化を見つけることがいかに難しくなっているかは想像にかたくないことでしょう。
It isn't hard to imagine how difficult it has become for foreign students to find (examples of) traditional Japanese culture.
(d). 好きな文芸の道と経営者としての責任の間で、多才な彼が苦悩していたことは想像にかたくない。
It isn't hard to imagine that a man of his versatile talents struggled (to choose) between his beloved world of literature and his managerial responsibilities.
(e). その青年が非常に心優しく生真面目かつ勉学熱心な人間だったことは推測にかたくない。
It is easy to imagine that young man as a gentle, serious and diligent person.
(f). 海外に在住して母国の軍事政権への反対活動を行っている人が帰国すれば、拘禁や拷問にさらされるであろうことは予測にかたくない。
It isn't hard to predict that if people who live overseas and actively criticize the military regime of their country go home, most likely they will be put into prison and tortured.
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Phrase
| A phrase indicating the speaker's/writer's strong conviction or motivation. | Surely; be bound to; be a given; of course; must be; we all know that |
| 【Related Expression: に違いない】 |
(ksa). 性格は、いい方がいいに決まっている。
It is a given that a good personality is preferable.
(ksb). お客さまだって安く買いたいに決まっているじゃないか。
Of course customers want to buy things cheaply.
| (i){V/Adjectiveい}informal | に決まっている | |
| {来る/来た}に決まっている | Someone is bound to show up/someone must have come | |
| {高い/高かった}に決まっている | Something must be/have been expensive | |
| (ii){Adjectiveなstem/ Noun} | {∅/だった}に決まっている | |
| 上手{∅/だった}に決まっている | Someone is/was surely good at it | |
| 日本人{∅/だった}に決まっている | Someone must be/have been Japanese |
(a). ただただ漢字を書くなんて、つまらないに決まっている。
To keep writing nothing but Chinese characters is bound to be boring.
(b). すぐ角のタバコ屋に行く程度の用事なら、車より自転車の方が便利に決まっている。
If you're just going on an errand to the tobacco shop around the comer, it's more convenient to go there by bike than by car -no question about it!
(c). 立派なX染色体と小さなY染色体をつくづく見ていると、女性の方が丈夫に決まっていると思う。
When I closely observe the magnificent X chromosome and the small Y chromosome, it seems like women are bound to be healthier.
(d). 同じ商品なら気持ちのいい店で買うに決まっている。
If the merchandise is the same, people will always buy at a store with a good atmosphere.
(e). 子供は、大人が作っている社会の中で育つのだから、子供が変なのは大人のせいに決まっている。
Children grow up in a society that adults create. So, if the children are not normal, it is a given that the adults are at fault.
(f). 何しに来たって？飲みに来たに決まっているじゃないか。
(Are you asking me) what I came here for? Of course I came here to drink!
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Phrase
| A phrase used to indicate that a state or action is more desirable. | Nothing is better than; if possible; be the best; be ideal; the~ the~ |
| 【Related Expression: ば~ほどよい/いい】 | |
(ksa). 仲間は多いに越したことはない。
The more buddies you have the better.
(ksb). 元気(である)に越したことはない。
The healthier the better.
(ksc). 虫歯は予防する(の)に越したことはない。
For cavities, nothing is better than prevention.
(ksd). 温度は一定(である)に越したことはない。
A constant temperature is ideal.
| (i)Adjectiveいinformal nonpast | に越したことはない | |
| 安いに越したことはない | The cheaper the better | |
| (ii){Adjectiveなstem/Noun} | (である)に越したことはない | |
| 静か(である)に越したことはない | The quieter the better | |
| 英語(である)に越したことはない | English is the best | |
| (iii)Vinformal nonpast | (の)に越したことはない | |
| 我慢する(の)に越したことはない | Patience is the best |
(a). 環境はよいに越したことはない。
A good environment is the best.
(b). 働く時間は短いに越したことはないんじゃないの？
Regarding working hours, the shorter the better, right?
(c). 部屋は清潔に越したことはない。
A clean room is best.
(d). うちの息子はわんぱくで手に余る。まあ、元気に越したことはないけれど。
My son is mischievous beyond our control, but nothing is more important than his being healthy.
(e). 今週の土曜日から来週水曜日までの5日間、僕も夏休みに入ります。特別な予定もないけど仕事より休みに越したことはありません。
I will be on summer vacation for five days from this Saturday through next Wednesday. I don't have any particular plan, but having days off is better than work.
(f). 痛みは避けるべきものであり、ないに越したことはない。
We should avoid pain, and having none is best.
(g). クリスマスに「私にとって最高の贈り物はあなたです」なんて言葉が言えるに越したことはない。
There would be nothing better than being able to say on Christmas Day, "You're the best gift I could have."
(h). ネットワークがどれだけ発達しても、本当のコミュニケーションには、人と人とが向かい合って話すのに越したことはない。
No matter how well-developed networks are, when it comes to real communication, nothing is better than talking face to face.
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Phrase
| A phrase that is used when something or some situation is perceived to be special. | When; if; as |
| 【Related Expression: に/ともなれば】 | |
(ksa). 桜の季節｛に/と｝もなるとこの公園は花見客でにぎわう。
In the cherry blossom season (literally: When it becomes the cherry blossom season), this park is packed with cherry blossom viewers.
(ksb). 外国へ行くともなると、その国の言語や文化を勉強したくなるはずだ。
When you go abroad, most likely you will want to study that country's language and culture.
| (i)Noun | {に/と}もなると | |
| 五月{に/と}もなると | Literally: when it becomes May; in May | |
| (ii)Vinformal nonpast | ともなると | |
| 退職するともなると | When someone retires |
(a). 正月ともなると、友人同士、お互いの家を行き来して、正月酒を楽しむ。
On New Year's Day my friends and I'll go to each other's houses and enjoy New Year's Day sake.
(b). ここは紅葉が始まると訪れる人が増え始め、11月半ばともなると大勢の人でごったがえす。
When the leaves begin turning red, the number of visitors starts to increase, and in mid-November, this place is packed with people.
(c). 社会人にもなると、先輩や友人の結婚式に招かれる機会が出てきます。
Once you (graduate and) get out in the real world, you will start getting invited to the weddings of your elders and friends.
(d). 高校生にもなると、自分のお小遣いくらいは、バイトして稼ぐようになる。
When you become a high school student, you get a part-time job and start earning your own pocket money.
(e). 大きなホテルともなると、一日に数千人もの利用者が集まってくる。
At a big hotel, thousands of people come through daily.
(f). 『美人と野獣』ともなると人気の作品だから、当日券なんてなかなか買えない。
Beauty and the Beast" is a popular show, so it's hard to find same day tickets.
(g). 大学へ進学するともなると、学問、バイト、サークルなど、人それぞれのライフスタイルができてくる。
When you enter college, each of you will develop your own lifestyle, with studies, work and club activities.
(h). 今年から修学旅行先が北海道になり、飛行機で行くともなると、胸を躍らさずにはいられなかった。
Starting this year, we're going to Hokkaido for our school trip, and the thought of flying there has made us so excited we can hardly stand it.
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Compound Particle
| A compound particle that indicates the destination/direction of movement, the target/direction of an action, or goal/purpose of an action. | Toward; to; at; aiming at; for the purpose of; in order to |
| 【Related Expression: に向かって; をめざして; を目標; の為に】 | |
(ksa). 報道班は次の目的地に向けて出発した。
The team of reporters left for the next destination.
(ksb). このテレビコマーシャルは20、30代の独身女性に向けて発信されている。
This TV commercial is being marketed to single women in their twenties and thirties.
(ksc). 今、来年の入学試験に向けて頑張っています。
I'm studying hard now for the next year's entrance exam.
(ksd). 新しいエネルギーの開発に向けて研究が進んでいる。
Research is progressing toward (the goal of) developing new energy.
(kse). 地球温暖化防止に｛向けての/向けた｝動きが活発化している。
Efforts to prevent (literally: Movement for the purpose of preventing) global warming are gaining vigour.
| (i)Noun | に向けて | |
| ロンドンに向けて | Toward/to/for London | |
| (ii)VN | に向けて | |
| 体制の改革に向けて | For the purpose of reforming the system | |
| (iii)Noun1 | に{向けての/向けた}Noun2 | |
| ２１世紀に{向けての/向けた}社会保障 | Social security for the 21st century |
(a). 救援物資を積んだヘリコプターが被災地に向けて飛び立った。
A helicopter loaded with relief supplies left for (literally: took off toward) the site of the damage.
(b). 機動隊はデモ隊に向けて催涙弾を発射した。
The riot police shot tear gas bombs at the ranks of demonstrators.
(c). K社は1月から九州で生産した高級車を中国に向けて輸出する。
Starting in January, K Company is going to export luxury cars to China which were manufactured in Kyushu.
(d). このプロジェクトでは、世界各国のアニメーターが世界中の子供たちに向けて作品を作り、それをそれぞれの国の言葉に翻訳します。
In this project, animators from around the globe create works for the world's children, and then the works are translated into various countries' languages.
(e). バレーボール協会は次のオリンピックに向けて選手の強化を急いでいる。
The volleyball association is hurrying to strengthen its players for the next Olympic Games.
(f). 異なる特許制度の世界的統一に向けて交渉が開始された。
Negotiations toward the global integration of incompatible (literally: different) patent systems began.
(g). H社は新しく開発された電池の事業化に向けて新会社を設立した。
H Company has established a new company for the commercialization of their newly-developed battery.
(h). 我が社は効率的な社内コミュニケーションに向けての新しいコミュニケーションシステムの導入を進めている。
Our company is implementing a new communication system for more efficient internal communication.
(i). M氏の提言は、新たな世紀に向けた日本外交の指針を考えていくにあたり、非常に示唆に富むものであった。
Mr. M's proposal was full of suggestions when we began considering the guiding principles of Japan's diplomacy for the new century.
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Structure
| A sentence structure meaning "someone cannot manage to do something" | Cannot manage to; just cannot; cannot~ even though~ want to; cannot~ despite the fact that~ want to |
| 【Related Expression: たくても~ない; たくとも~ない; ようにも~ない】 | |
(ks). 後任者が決まらないので、辞めるに辞められない。
Because my successor hasn't been chosen yet, I haven't been able to resign (my current position).
| V1informal nonpast | にV2potential negative | Where V1=V2 |
| 出るに出られない | Someone cannot manage to get out |
(a). 大事なお客さんからの電話がいつまで待ってもかかってこないので、帰るに帰れない。
I've been waiting a long time for a call from an important customer, but it hasn't come, so I cannot leave the office.
(b). みんなの前で大見えを切ってできると言ってしまったので引くに引けない。
Because I boasted to everyone that I could do it, I cannot pull out now even though I want to.
(c). 同窓会などで会った旧友が、何かの団体に入っていたり、何かの商品を売っていたりして、勧誘を断るに断れないケースがよくある。
When you go to school reunions or other events, often you cannot say no to an old friend who has joined a group (and asks you to join) or is selling some product (and asks you to buy it).
(d). 録画予約をして帰ってみたら、停電で全然録画されておらず泣くに泣けなかったという経験はありませんか。
Have you ever had the experience of setting a programmed recording, only to come home and find that the power went out and you didn't record a thing? It makes you want to cry.
(e). 急に今日中に終わらせなければならない仕事が入った。今日は子供の誕生日で早く帰ると約束したのに、周りの同僚も自分の仕事に必死で、頼むに頼めない。
Unexpectedly, I got work that I have to finish today. It's my child's birthday, and I promised to come home early, but my colleagues (around me) are desperately trying to finish their own work, so I cannot (manage to) ask them to do mine for me.
(f). 通訳の失敗談は、話として聞いている分にはおかしいものが多いが、中には深刻すぎて笑うに笑えないものもある。
Tales of blunders by interpreters are mostly laughable incidents when heard as anecdotes, but some of them are too serious to be considered laughing matters.
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Phrase
| A phrase that means something unusual happens or someone does something unusual. | Unusually; more~ than usual |
(ks). 彼女は今日はいつに(も)なく陽気だった。
She was unusually cheerful today.
(a). 宏は「ただいまー」といつになく明るい声で帰ってきた。
Hiroshi came home and said "I'm home!" in an unusually cheerful voice.
(b). 普段はたいていビールや日本酒だが、たまに柄にもなくバーにカクテルを飲みに行ったりする。
Usually I drink beer or sake, but occasionally I may go out for cocktails at a bar, which is unlike me.
(c). 今年は例年になく猛暑で、いつもは省エネを心がけている私が、いつの間にかクーラーをかけてしまっている。
This year has been unusually hot, a real scorcher. I usually try hard to save energy, but I find myself turning on the cooler.
(d). 気になっていた彼女が隣に座ったので、僕の心は我にもなく弾んだ。
The woman I've got a crush on sat next to me, so my heart started pounding with excitement, which is unlike me.
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Compound Particle
| A compound particle that means "in response to". | In response to; according to; depending on; appropriate for; suitable for; suited to; meet |
| 【Related Expression: によって; 次第で; いかんで】 | |
(ksa). 組合の要求に応じて標準就業時間が短縮されることになった。
In response to union demands, the standard work day (literally: standard work hours) will be shortened.
(ksb). 業績に応じて従業員全員にボーナスが支給された。
Bonuses were distributed to all employees according to their performance (literally: achievements).
(ksc). 天候や道路状況に応じた適切な運転を心がけましょう。
Please make sure your driving is appropriate for the weather and road conditions.
| (i)Noun | に応じて | |
| 求めに応じて | In response to someone's request | |
| 能力に応じて | According to someone's ability | |
| (ii)Noun1 | に応じたNoun2 | |
| 目的に応じた教え方 | A teaching method suitable for the purpose |
(a). 当社では要請に応じて講師を学校に派遣することもできます。
We can also dispatch a lecturer to the school in response to their request.
(b). 病院でもらう薬は、医師が患者の体質や症状に応じて処方します。
The drugs a patient receives at the hospital are prescribed by the doctor according to the patient's physical condition and symptoms.
(c). 湯沸かし器の設定温度は、目的に応じてその都度調節するのが賢い使い方だ。
A wise way of using a water heater is to adjust the (pre-set) temperature each time, according to the purpose.
(d). 今年行われた「今後の大学教育のあり方に関する世論調査」によると、外国語教育の効果的だと思われる授業のあり方に関して、33.7％が「学生個人の能力に応じてクラスを分けて授業を行う」と答えた。
According to the "Survey of How Future Higher Education Should Be," which was conducted this year, 33.7 percent (of respondents) agreed that for effective foreign language education, "classes should be taught by dividing students according to their abi
(e). 髪のケアには欠かせないシャンプーには症状に応じて様々なタイプがある。
Shampoo, which is indispensable for hair care, comes in various types, depending on the condition of your hair.
(f). 一般に供給は需要に応じて変動する。しかし、場合によって需要が供給に応じて変動するのも事実である。
Generally, supply changes according to the demand. However, it is also true that in some cases demand changes according to the supply.
(g). 家を購入する場合には収入に応じた物件を選ぶべきです。
When buying a house, you should choose one that is within your means (literally: suitable for your income).
(h). 我が社はお客さまのご予算に応じた費用対効果の高いホームページ制作を支援します。
We support the production of highly cost-effective Web pages geared to the customer's budget (literally: suitable for the customer's budget).
(i). 平成15年に公布された「個人情報の保護に関する法律」は、個人情報取扱事業者に対し、本人の求めに応じて保有個人データの開示や訂正を行うこと、また本人の求めに応じてその利用を停止することなだを義務づけている。
The Law Regarding the Protection of Personal Information, which was promulgated in the fifteenth year of Heisei (2003), requires businesses that handle personal information to disclose or correct an individual's personal data in their possession in resp
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Phrase
| A conjunctive phrase that carries the meaning of concession. | Even though (it is/was the case that); even if (it is true that); although (it is/was the case that); whatever/whoever/etc.; no matter what/who/how/etc.; whether X or Y. |
| 【Related Expression: にしても; としても】 | |
(ksa). 時間があまりなかったに｛しろ/よせ｝、この仕事はひどすぎる。
Even though he didn't have much time, this work is too sloppy.
(ksb). 彼が書くに｛しろ/よせ｝、絶対間違いがあってはいけない。
No matter who writes it, there can be absolutely no mistakes.
(ksc). 行くに｛しろ/よせ｝、行かないに｛しろ/よせ｝、後で電話を下さい。
Whether you go or not, please give me a call later.
(ksd). 何に｛しろ/せよ｝、このままでは問題は解決しない。
At any rate (literally: whatever it is), leaving the situation as it is won't solve the problem.
(kse). たとえ練習に｛しろ/よせ｝、真面目にやらなければならない。
Even though it is just practice, you have to take it seriously.
| (i)Vinformal | に{しろ/せよ} | |
| {行く/行った}に{しろ/せよ} | Even though someone goes/went | |
| (ii)Adjectiveいinformal | に{しろ/せよ} | |
| {高い/高かった}に{しろ/せよ} | Even though something is/was expensive | |
| (iii)Adjectiveなstem | {∅/である/だった/であった}に{しろ/せよ} | |
| 不十分{∅/である/だった/であった}に{しろ/せよ} | Even though something is/was insufficient | |
| (iv)Noun | {∅/である/だった/であった}に{しろ/せよ} | |
| 子供{∅/である/だった/であった}に{しろ/せよ} | Even though it/was a child | |
| 誰{∅/である/だった/であった}に{しろ/せよ} | Whoever it may be/have been | |
| いずれに{しろ/せよ} | Whichever it may be; at any rate | |
| (v)Adverb | に{しろ/せよ} | |
| ゆっくりに{しろ/せよ} | Even though something happens slowly |
(a). 程度の差はあるにせよ、性差別のない国はないだろう。
Although the degree may differ from country to country (literally: there may be differences in degree), there is no country without gender discrimination.
(b). 薬を飲むことですべての問題が解決はしないにしろ、あなたの場合は薬で症状を軽減させることが先決です。
Even if (it's true that) taking the drug will not solve all your problems, in your case, you have to alleviate the symptoms first (by taking it).
(c). 誰かに書いてもらうにしろ、内容は我々が考えなければならない。
Even if we ask someone to write it for us, we will have to think of what to say (literally: the content) ourselves.
(d). どのソフトを使うにしろ、早く使い方に慣れてもらわないといけない。
Whichever software application you use, you must quickly get comfortable using it (literally: get used to how to use it).
(e). 誰がそれを説明するにせよ、相手の気持ちを傷つけないように細心の注意が必要だ。
Whoever explains it (to him) must be very careful not to hurt his feelings.
(f). どんな事情があったにせよ、何も言わずに仕事を辞めるのは無責任すぎる。
No matter what the circumstances were, quitting the job without saying anything is just (too) irresponsible.
(g). ホームページの制作に関する書籍は書店の棚にあふれている状態で、自分が読むにせよ、他人に進めるにせよ、大いに迷う。
Books on Web page design are spilling off of bookstore shelves, and whether we want to read them ourselves or recommend them to someone else, it is hard to know what to choose.
(h). 現政権を支持するにせよ批判するにせよ、まずはじめに問題に対する正確な理解と冷静な分析が不可欠である。
First of all, whether you support the current administration or criticize it, an accurate understanding and a cool analysis of the problems are indispensable.
(i). 野球にせよサッカーにせよ、プロでやっていくには並の努力では続かない。
Whether it be baseball or soccer, you cannot stay as a professional player just with an ordinary effort.
(j). 普通の人は、意識的にせよ無意識的にせよ、不快なことを避けようとする。
Whether they do it consciously or unconsciously, ordinary people try to avoid unpleasant things.
(k). 一旦ネットに発信してしまった情報は、それが真実にせよそうでないにせよ、取り消しができない。
Whether it is true or not, once you send out information on the Internet, you can't take it back.
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Compound Particle
| A compound particle that means "even" or "also". | Also; (even) for~ |
| 【Related Expression: でも; も; にしてからが】 | |
(ks). 彼は日本語を20年も勉強しているがその彼にしたところで、まだ分からない文法に時々出くわすそうだ。
He has studied Japanese for 20 years, but he told me that even he still encounters grammar he doesn't understand.
| Noun | にしたところで | |
| その教授にしたところで | The professor is also~/even the professor |
(a). 子供はいつか手の届かないところへ行ってしまうものだ。自分の子だけはそうでないと思うかもしれないが、あなたの子にしたところで同じだ。
Children go (places) beyond their parents' reach sooner or later. You may think that your own children will be different, but they, too, will be the same.
(b). 昔の浮気が発覚した夫は「10年たってるんだからもう時効だ」と開き直りの態度です。私にしたところで二人の子供のことを考えると離婚にはなかなか踏み切れません。
My husband, whose past affair was discovered, turned defiant, saying, "It was 10 years ago, so it's too late (to do anything)" I, too, couldn't bear to go forward with a divorce when I thought about our two children.
(c). 最近は万年筆で字を書く人というのを、ほとんど見なくなって残念だ。もっとも、そういう私にしたところで、普段使っているのはボールペンだ。
Lately, you seldom see people writing with a fountain pen, and that makes me feel terribly disappointed. But even I usually use a ball-point pen.
(d). 三島由紀夫は産湯に浸かった記憶があると書いているが、彼にしたところで、死ぬまでのすべての記憶があるわけではない。
Yukio Mishima wrote that he remembered (literally: had a memory of) taking his first bath as a baby, but there's no way even he remembered everything he did from birth until death (literally: until he died).
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Compound Particle (usually used in formal writing and formal speech)
| Compound particle indicates period of time/stage (in life) which some surprising action or state takes. | In; at; over; while |
| 【Related Expression: で】 | |
(ksa). 過度の恐怖や心労が一夜にして白髪をつくる。
Excessive fear and worry will make your hair turn grey overnight.
(ksb). 彼女は45歳にして初めて子供ができた。
She had her first child at the age of 45.
(ksc). 外国に居ながらにして日本からの生のテレビ放送が見られるようになった。
We can now watch live TV broadcasts from Japan while in a foreign country.
| (i)Number+Counter | にして | |
| 三歳にして | When someone is three years old | |
| 大学四年にして恋を知る | Someone falls in love for the first time when he/she is a senior in college | |
| (ii)Noun | にして | |
| 一昼夜にして | Something changes in 24 hours (literally: one day and one night) | |
| (iii)Vますながら | にして | |
| 生まれながらにして | When someone is born |
(a). 空襲で東京の町は一夜にして焼け野原になってしまった。
An air raid turned the city of Tokyo into a burnt field overnight.
(b). この本は発売1週間にして売れ行きが目に見えて落ち込み始めた。
The sales of this book began to decline visibly a week after it went on sale.
(c). 美男美女のカップルの子にふさわしく、その女の子は生後1か月にして目鼻立ちがはっきりしていた。
As expected of a child born of a handsome couple, the baby girl developed striking features one month after her birth.
(d). ケプラーは若年にして地位と収入の安定を獲得し、生涯天文学の研究に打ち込む機会をも与えられたのだった。
Kepler obtained a secure position and income at a young age, and was given the opportunity to devote his entire life to astronomy research.
(e). 彼はなんと気の早いことに、高校１年にして大学受験日記をつけ始めた。
He's in such a hurry! He started to keep a journal for college entrance examinations while still a freshman in high school.
(f). 今年受験2回目にして日本語能力試験1級に合格した。
This year, on my second try, I passed Level 1 of the Japanese Language proficiency test.
(g). 今にして思えば懐かしいが、若い頃は小さなことでもくよくよ悩んでいたねえ。
When I think about it now it makes me smile, but when I was young I worried about every little thing under the sun.
(h). 人間は生まれながらにして健康に生きていこうとする力を持っているそうだ。
I have heard that people are born with the ability to live in good health.
(i). ローマは一日にして成らず。
Rome was not built in a day.
(j). 四十にして惑わず。五十にして天命を知る。(『論語』)
At the age of 40 one doesn't doubt, and at 50 one knows heaven's will. (The Analects of Confucius)
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Conjunction (usually used in formal writing and formal speech)
| A conjunction meaning "and", that is used to combine two noun phrases or なadjectives. | And; both~ and~ |
| 【Related Expression: で】 | |
(ksa). 彼女は頭脳明晰にして端麗な秘書である。
She is a bright and also beautiful secretary.
(ksb). 彼は偉大な学者にして優れた教育者でもあった。
He was both a distinguished scholar and an excellent educator.
(ksc). あの男の性格は粗野にして猛々しい。
(The character of) That man is boorish and fierce.
(ksd). 首相の容体は不安定にして、予断を許さない。
The Prime Minister's condition is unstable and unpredictable.
| (i)Adjectiveなstem | にして | |
| 高価にして | Something is expensive and | |
| (ii)NP1 | にしてNP2 | |
| 教育者にして実業家 | An educator and a businessman | |
| 素晴らしい教育者にして研究者 | A superb educator and a researcher | |
| 聡明な指導者にして優しい人間 | A brilliant leader and a kind human being |
(a). その政治家は志操堅固にして、高潔清廉な人だった。
The politician was a man of principle, purity and nobility.
(b). これほど巧妙にして完璧な犯罪はないでしょう。
No crime could be as ingenious and perfect as this one.
(c). 彼女の絵は緻密にして軽やかな筆づかいで圧倒的な支持を集めた。
Her paintings have become phenomenally popular (literally: gathered overwhelming support) for their elaborate and light-hearted brush strokes.
(d). あの文法辞典は詳細にして明解な説明が施されている。
That grammar dictionary has clear, detailed explanations.
(e). これは堅牢にして素朴な民芸品であります。
This is a solid and simple (example of) folk art.
(f). この監督の映画はすべて陰鬱にして物悲しい。
All of this director's films are gloomy and sad.
(g). あの政治家の言動は非常識にして、絶えず批判されている。
The way that politician speaks and acts defies common sense, and he is criticized endlessly.
(h). 栄太は内心頑固にして決して人に使われる男ではない。
Eita is (a man who is) stubborn of spirit, and is never taken advantage of by others.
(i). 彼は優秀な研究者にして熱烈な教育者でもある。
He is a superb researcher and a fervent educator.
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Compound Particle
| A compound particle indicating that something unexpected occurs. | even |
| 【Related Expression: でさえ; ですら; からして; にしたところで】 | |
(ks). ワールドカップの時はサッカーファンでもない私にしてからが興奮状態でした。
I am not a soccer fan, but during the World Cup, even I got excited.
| Noun | にしてからが | |
| 首相にしてからが | Even the prime minister |
(a). 警察にしてからが、いざ事件が起きないと市民を暴力から守ってくれない。
Even the police don't protect citizens from violence unless an incident actually occurs.
(b). ギリシャやローマの彫刻や壁画などに、痩せた女性は皆無だ。美の女神、ヴィーナスにしてからが、かなり太めだ。
In Greek or Roman sculptures and mural paintings there are no emaciated-looking women. Even Venus, the Goddess of Beauty, is quite full-figured.
(c). 当代随一の知性人である彼にしてからが、恋愛にたぶらかされている。
Even he, the greatest intellectual of the day, was deceived by love.
(d). 息子は父から受け継いだ作風で作品を描いていたが、すでにその父にしてからが、古くさいと言われていた。
He produced paintings in the mode he inherited from his father, but that style was already considered outdated in his father's time.
(e). 首相の構造改革案にしてからが、官僚の強い抵抗にあっている。
Even the prime minister's plan for structural reform met with strong resistance from bureaucrats.
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Conjunction
| A conjunction that represents the idea of "even if someone decides to do something," or "even if/though someone decides that something is true/the case". | Even if (someone decides to/is it true that); although/even though (it is true that/it is the case that/we admit that/we agree that/etc.; whatever/whoever/etc.; no matter what/who/how/etc.; whether X or Y; as for~, too; even (so) |
| 【Related Expression: としても; にしろ/せよ】 | |
(ksa). ピアノを買うにしても、こんな狭いアパートでは置くところがない。
Even if we decide to buy a piano, we won't have a place to put it in such a small apartment.
(ksb). 美紀の言ったことは大げさだったにしても、すべてがウソというわけではないだろう。
Even though (we agree that) Miki's story was exaggerated, probably not all of it was untrue.
(ksc). 誰がこの仕事をやるにしても失敗は許されない。
No matter who is going to do this job, we have no room for mistakes.
(ksd). 君が行くにしても他の誰かが行くにしても今回の会議はかなりの準備が必要だ。
Whether you go or someone else does, this meeting will take a lot of preparation.
(kse). 敬語の使い方にしても近頃は間違った言い方が目につく。
With honorific language, too, we often notice incorrect usage these days.
| (i)Sinformal | にしても | だ after Adjectiveなstem and Noun is omitted |
| {行く/行った}にしても | Even if someone decides to go/even though (it is the case that) someone went | |
| {高い/高かった}にしても | Even if (it is true that) something is expensive/even though (it is true that) something was expensive | |
| 便利{∅/である/ だった/であった}にしても | Even if (it is true that) something is convenient/even though (it is true that) something was convenient | |
| 学生{∅/である/ だった/であった}にしても | Even if (it is true that) someone is a student/even though (it is true that) someone was a student | |
| (ii)NP | にしても | |
| この国の文化にしても | This country's culture, too |
(a). 今すぐ帰るにしても、飛行機の切符が取れるだろうか。
Even if we (decide to) go home right now, I wonder if we will be able to get plane tickets.
(b). 京都は見るところがたくさんあるので、市内だけ回るにしても3日くらいとっておいた方がいいでしょう。
Kyoto has so many places to see, so even if you (decide to) stay within the city, you should plan on spending about three days.
(c). この作品は中国大陸の影響が濃厚であるにしても、日本の画工の高い水準を示している。
Even taking the strong influence from China into account, this work demonstrates the high quality craftsmanship of Japanese painters.
(d). 今度の台風では最悪の事態は避けられたにしても、被害は甚大だ。
Even though (it is true that) we could avoid a worst-case scenario, the damage from this typhoon is (still) enormous.
(e). ニューヨークほどではないにしても、この市でもかなり質の高い音楽が聴けます。
Even though it's not what you get in New York, you can listen to fairly high-quality music in this city, too.
(f). 何をするにしても英語はしっかり勉強しておいた方がいい。
Whatever you may do (in the future), you'd do well to study English hard.
(g). 行くにしてもやめるにしても早く決めてもらえませんか。
Whether you decide to go or not, could you make up your mind soon?
(h). 達也にしても悪気があってあんなことを言ったわけじゃない。
When he said that, Tatsuya didn't intend to be mean-spirited, either.
(i). 輸入キャンピングカー車内器具はほとんどが１２０Vの規格で作られているので、１００V電源の日本のキャンプ場ではレンジにしてもエアコンにしても、今一つ出力が弱い。
Because most of the appliances in imported campers are designed for the 120-volt standard, stoves and air-conditioners, for example, do not have enough output at campsites in Japan, where 100 volts is the standard.
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Phrase (usually used in formal writing and formal speech)
| A phrase indicating that something goes beyond a spatial/temporal boundary. | Doesn't stop with~; doesn't end with~; not limited to~; going beyond~; not only~ (but also~) |
| 【Related Expression: だけで(は)なく~(も); のにならず】 | |
(ksa). 彼の研究範囲は哲学(だけ)にとどまらず、認知心理学の領域にまで広がっている。
His area of research is not limited merely to philosophy, but extends to cognitive psychology as well.
(ksb). 彼女は小説を広く読む(だけ)にとどまらず、自分でもいくつか書いて、すでに雑誌に発表している。
Not only does she avidly read novels, she also has written a couple of novels herself, which have been published in magazines.
| (i)Noun(だけ) | にとどまらず | |
| 日本(だけ)にとどまらず | Something is not limited to Japan, and~ | |
| その時代(だけ)にとどまらず | Something goes beyond that age~ | |
| (ii)Vinformal(だけ) | にとどまらず | |
| {読む/読んだ}(だけ)にとどまらず | Not only does/did someone read something, but~ | |
| (iii){Noun/Adjectiveなstem} | であるにとどまらず | |
| 証明するものであるにとどまらず | Something not only serves as evidence | |
| 重要であるにとどまらず | Something is not only important | |
| (iv)Adjectiveいinformal | だけにとどまらず | |
| 面白いだけにとどまらず | Something is not only interesting |
(a). 博士は専門の数学にとどまらず、コンピュータサイエンスでも優れた研究をしている。
The doctor is doing excellent research not only in his speciality, mathematics, but also in computer science.
(b). 本研究室での研究は、単なる理論にとどまらず、その応用も重視している。
At our lab, we don't just focus on theory, we also emphasize its application.
(c). 先輩方には単に学生時代にとどまらず、卒業後も人生のよき先輩として貴重なアドバイスをいただいてまいりました。
My senior schoolmates, as people more experienced in life, have given me invaluable advice, not only when I was a student but also after I graduated.
(d). 本医学部は医学の専門知識だけにとどまらず、人間愛、使命感、責任感、といった人間教育にも力を注いでいます。
This medical school not only teaches technical expertise, it also makes an effort to teach ethics (literally: human education), such as respect (literally: love) for human beings, a sense of mission and a sense of responsibility.
(e). 室内楽では一人一人の奏者が自分のパートを理解するだけにとどまらず、他のすべてのパートも理解しなければならない。
In chamber music, each player has to understand not only his or her own part, but everyone else's as well.
(f). この薬は髪が薄くなるのを防ぐだけにとどまらず、白髪を黒い髪に戻します。
Not only does this medicine prevent your hair from thinning, it brings your grey hair back to its original black colour.
(g). 本学の博士号は専門的知識における卓越性を証明するものであるにとどまらず、取得者が人間的力量の持ち主であることを宣言するものです。
A doctorate from this university not only serves as evidence of excellence in professional knowledge, it also declares that the holder possesses great potential as a person.
(h). 力学という学問は、物質世界を統制する科学技術の体系として重要であるにとどまらず、世界を認識するための体系として重要である。
The field of mechanics is important not only as a system of science and technology that controls the material world, but also as a system for understanding the world.
(i). 彼女の講演はただ面白いだけにとどまらず、必ず深い哲学が含まれている。
Not only are her lectures interesting, they always have some deep philosophical meaning, too.
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Conjunction
| A conjunction indicating that each time someone perceives something he/she feels or thinks something associated with it. | As; every time; whenever |
| 【Related Expression: たびに】 | |
(ks). ナポリで撮った両親の写真を見るにつけ、あの時の楽しかった旅行を思い出す。
When I see the photo of my parents I took in Naples, I remember what a great time we had on that trip.
| Vinformal nonpast | につけ | Where V=verb of cognition |
| 景色を見るにつけ | As I look at the scenery | |
| 日記を読むにつけ | As I read the diary | |
| そのことを考えるにつけ | As I think about it | |
| 年を感じるにつけ | As I become conscious of my age | |
| その香りを嗅ぐにつけ | As I smell the scent |
(a). 新緑の香りを嗅ぐにつけ、「ああ、春なんだなあ」と思わずのほほんとしてしまいます。
As I smell the scent of fresh green foliage, I tell myself it's finally spring and feel really relaxed, almost without realizing it.
(b). そのピアニストの深みのある音楽を聴き、温かい人柄に触れるにつけ、「音楽は人なり」の思いを強くしております。
As I listen to the pianist's deeply-felt music and sense his warm personality, I feel strongly that music is man.
(c). 深刻化する年金問題や経済問題に対する政府の無策ぶりを見るにつけ、自分のことは自分で守るしかないと思う。
As I watch the government's inability to deal with the increasingly serious problems related to the pension system and economy, I think that we must (do what we can to) protect ourselves.
(d). 二十歳をはるかに過ぎても自立への見通しのつかない若者を見るにつけ、聞くにつけ、やるせない思いがあります。
As I watch or hear about young people who are well over 20 but have no prospects for becoming independent, I feel heavy-hearted.
(e). いじめや虐待、陰惨な事件など、子供を取り巻く不幸な状況を考えるにつけ、この国の行く末を案じずにはいられない。
Whenever I think about the unhappy circumstances surrounding children, with the recent cases of bullying, abuse, and gruesome incidents, it makes me feel concerned about the future of this country.
(f). 世界各地での戦いの様子を見るにつけ胸が痛む。
As I watch the wars going on in various places around the world, my heart aches.
(g). 最近頻発している医療ミスの記事を読むにつけ、私も被害者になる可能性があったのではと戦慄を覚えてしまう。
Whenever I read articles about all of the medical errors that have been happening (frequently) recently, I shudder at the thought that I could have been a victim.
(h). 年末が一気に駆け足でやってくるのを感じるにつけ、自分の年齢を思い知らされます。
As I feel the end of the year coming at a dash, I become aware of my age.
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Compound Particle (usually used in formal writing and formal speech)
| A compound particle indicating that something takes place over a particular span of time or physical space. | For; over; extending; stretching; ranging; covering |
| 【Related Expression: にかけて】 | |
(ksa). オリンピックが16日間にわたって開かれた。
The Olympic Games were held for sixteen days.
(ksb). 干ばつのため広範囲にわたって作物が被害を受けた。
Due to the drought, crops were damaged over a wide area.
(ksc). 配管工事のため、明日午前１時から午前9時ごろにわたって断水する。
Due to work on the pipes, the water supply will be cut off from 1 a.m. to about 9 a.m. tomorrow.
(ksd). その記事は8回にわたって新聞に連載された。
The articles appeared serially in the newspaper over eight issues (literally: extending to eight times).
(kse). 約40年にわたる冷戦がついに終わった。
The Cold War, which lasted for about 40 years, finally came to an end.
| (i)Noun | にわたって | |
| １か月にわたって | For one month | |
| 全ページにわたって | Over the entire page/all the pages | |
| ５回にわたって | Extending to five times | |
| 十キロにわたって | Extending over 10 kilometers | |
| 東海地方全体にわたって | Over the entire Tokai region | |
| (ii)Noun1からNoun2 | にわたって | |
| 一時から六時にわたって | From 1 o'clock to 6 o'clock | |
| 東部から中部にわたって | Ranging from the eastern part to the central part | |
| (iii)(Noun1から)Noun2 | にわたるNoun3 | |
| 百ページにわたる報告 | A report which extends to one hundred pages | |
| 五月から九にわたる月乾期 | A dry season from May through September |
(a). A社の携帯電話サービスで、関東の一部で昨夜午後9時ごろから約6時間にわたって接続障害があった。
Last night there was an interruption (literally: connection difficulties) in Company A's mobile phone service in a certain area of Kanto for about six hours starting about 9 o'clock.
(b). コミック『ピーナッツ』は、１９５０年に誕生して以来半世紀以上にわたって世界中のファンを魅了してきた。
From the time of its debut in 1950, the cartoon "Peanuts" has fascinated fans all over the world for over half a century.
(c). その川の両側には２０エーカーにわたって森が広がっている。
On both sides of the river, the forest stretches for 20 acres.
(d). 厚い雨雲が関東から九州にわたって広がっている。
Thick clouds extend from Kanto to Kyushu.
(e). 昨年1年間に両者の間で5回にわたって賄賂の授受があったことが明らかになった。
It became evident that one party paid the other bribes five times during the past year.
(f). 殺人現場は再三にわたって捜査が行われた。
The murder site was searched many times.
(g). 当社では、中古車の電気装置を点火装置やバッテリーを含む５項目にわたってチェックいたします。
Our inspection of the electrical system in used cars covers five points, including the ignition system and the battery. (literally: Our Company checks five points of used cars' electric systems, including the ignition system and the battery.)
(h). 実験の前に詳細にわたって器具の使い方の指示があった。
Before the experiment there were detailed instructions regarding how to use the instruments.
(i). 今回の会議では、環境保護の多岐にわたる問題について、議論が交わされた。
At this conference many issues concerning environmental protection were discussed.
(j). 生産段階から消費段階にわたる食品の安全性を確保することが急務だ。
Ensuring safety from the production stage through the consumption stage is an urgent matter.
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Compound Particle
| A compound particle that means "without depending on". | Without; without ~ing; regardless of; independently of; without reference to; whether X or Y; whether X or not; whatever/whoever/etc.; no matter what/who/how/etc. |
| 【Related Expression: なしで; によって/より; を問わず】 | |
(ksa). リストラによらず(に)この会社を救う方法はない。
There is no way to save this company without restructuring it.
(ksb). この会社では学歴によらず、実力があればどんどん大きい仕事をまかされる。
At this company, if you are capable, you will be given big assignments one after another, regardless of your educational qualifications.
(ksc). 何事によらず困ったことがあったらいつでも相談して下さい。
Whatever it may be, if you have trouble, please consult me anytime.
(ksd). 国産(である)か輸入(である)かによらず牛肉は食べないことにしている。
(Regardless of) Whether it is domestically produced or imported, as a rule I do not eat beef.
(kse). この会社は経験のあるなしによらず面接してくれる。
This company will interview you regardless of your experience (literally: whether or not you have experience.
(ksf). 天候のいかんによらず試合は予定通り行われます。
No matter what the weather (literally: whatever the weather is like), the game will be held as scheduled.
(ksg). 誰がそのプロジェクトを担当するかによらず担当者には特別手当が支給される。
Regardless of who it is (literally: who takes the project), the project manager will be given special compensation.
| (i)Noun | によらず | |
| 紹介によらず | Without introduction | |
| 学生数によらず | Regardless of the number of students | |
| (ii)Wh-word (Noun/NP) | によらず | |
| 誰によらず | Whoever it may be (literally: regardless of who it is) | |
| どんな仕事によらず | Whatever work it may be (literally: regardless of what kind of work it is) | |
| (iii)XかYか | によらず | Where X, Y=contrastive words; usually nonpast forms |
| Noun1かNoun2 | 英語か日本語かによらず | Regardless of whether something is English or Japanese |
| V1informalかV2informalか | 勝つか負けるによらず | Regardless of whether someone wins or loses |
| Adjectiveい1informalかAdjectiveい2informal | 高いか安いかによらず | Regardless of whether something is expensive or cheap |
| Adjectiveな1stemかAdjectiveな2stem | 偶然か意図的かによらず | Regardless of whether something is accidental or intentional |
| (iv)Xか{どう/ 否}か | によらず | |
| 存在するか{どう/否}かによらず | Regardless of whether something exists or not | |
| 高いか{どう/否}かによらず | Regardless of whether something is expensive or not | |
| 偶然か{どう/否}かによらず | Regardless of whether something is coincidental or not | |
| 学生か{どう/否}かによらず | Regardless of whether someone is a student or not | |
| (v)X(affirmative)かX(negative)か | によらず | |
| 行くか行かないかによらず | Regardless of whether someone goes or not | |
| 高いか高くないかによらず | Regardless of whether something is expensive or not | |
| 偶然(である)か偶然でないによらず | Regardless of whether something is coincidental or not | |
| 英語(である)か英語でないによらず | Regardless of whether something is English or not | |
| (vi)X(affirmative)+X(negative)か | によらず | Where X={V/Adjectiveい}informal; usually nonpast forms |
| 行く行かないによらず | Regardless of whether someone goes or not | |
| うまいうまくないによらず | Regardless of whether something is good or poor (at going something) | |
| (vii)X+Y | によらず | Where X, Y=Adjectiveいinformal nonpast/Adjectiveなstem; Y=X's antonym |
| 上手下手によらず | Regardless of whether someone is skillful or unskillful | |
| うまい下手によらず | Regardless of whether someone is good or poor (at going something) | |
| (viii){Noun/Adjectiveなstem} | であるなしによらず | |
| 会員であるなしによらず | Regardless of whether someone is a member or not | |
| 経済的であるなしによらず | Regardless of whether something is economical nor not | |
| (ix)Nounのあるなし | によらず | |
| 学位のあるなしによらず | Regardless of whether someone has a degree or not | |
| (x)Nounのいかん | によらず | |
| 方法のいかんによらず | Regardless of the method (literally: regardless of what the method is) |
(a). 理想は武力によらず紛争を解決することだ。
The ideal is to resolve disputes without using armed force.
(b). 吉川さんは勤務先の斡旋によらず別の会社に再就職した。
Mr. Yoshikawa was employed by another company without his former employer's help (literally: good offices).
(c). 本契約が両者の合意によらずに変更されることはない。
This contract may not be altered without the agreement of both parties.
(d). 当ダンス教室は、いつからでも始められ、経験によらずどなたでもご参加いただけます。
In this dance studio, students can begin at any time and anyone, regardless of experience, can join.
(e). 当社のセールスマンの給与は勤務年数や年齢によらず、常に販売実績を基に決定される。
The salaries of this company's sales representatives are not dependent on their length of employment or age; they are always based on sales performance.
(f). QRの長さはPの位置によらず常に一定である。
The distance between Q and R is always the same, regardless of where P is.
(g). この標準テストは在籍する大学や学部によらず、また大学生であるか社会人であるかによらず、誰でも受けられます。
Anyone can take this standardized test, regardless of what university or school you attend or whether you are a university student or a professional.
(h). どんな仕事によらず、いつも誠実に務めなければいけない。
No matter what job you have, you should always do the work sincerely.
(i). 持ち物が多いか少ないかによらず、きちんと整理ができている部屋は気持ちいい。
Whether you own a few things or many, a well-organized space makes you feel good.
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Compound Particle
| A compound particle that is used to identify the source of information provided in the sentence. | According to; based on |
| 【Related Expression: によれば】 | |
(ksa). その温泉は旅行雑誌によると神経痛にいいそうだ。
One of the travel magazines said that hot springs are good for arthritis.
(ksb). 日本の法律によるとおおむね12歳未満の者は逮捕の対象にならない。
According to Japanese law, generally, youths under 12 are not subject to arrest.
(ksc). 聞いたところによると来年は授業料が上がるらしい。
Based on what I heard, (it appears that) tuition will go up next year.
| Noun | によると | |
| {新聞/法律 /規則/辞書}によると | According to the newspaper/law/rule/dictionary |
(a). 新聞の世論調査によると、内閣支持率は22%にまで急落したそうだ。
According to a newspaper poll, the approval rating for the Cabinet dropped sharply to 22 percent.
(b). 友達に聞いたところによると、フィンランドのメーデーは学生も集まって春を祝う祭りの日だそうだ。
According to my friend, May Day in Finland is a day when everyone, including students, joins in a festival to celebrate spring.
(c). H博士によると、犬は人間が歩く際に発する弱い電磁波を感じ取っている可能性があるという。
According to Dr. H, dogs may be able to feel the faint electromagnetic waves that people generate when they walk.
(d). 政府筋によると、政府はバイオテロリズムへの対策を研究する審議会を設置する予定であるという。
According to government sources, the government plans to establish a panel that will study measures to cope with bioterrorism.
(e). 法律によると、介護保険は適切な医療および福祉サービスが受けられるようにすることを目的としています。
According to the law, the purpose of insurance for care of the elderly is to make appropriate medical and welfare services accessible.
(f). 辞書によると、「さびしい」には「寂しい」と「淋しい」の二つの漢字が使われている。
According to the dictionary, two characters are used for sabishii, "寂", "淋".
(g). 調査によると、高齢者に対する暴力と虐待の加害者は、家族、友人あるいは知人であることが最も多い。
According to the survey, those who inflict violence and abuse upon the elderly are most often the victim's family, friends or acquaintances.
(h). 懲戒処分基準によると、教職員が酒酔い運転で死亡・重傷事故を起こした場合は免職になる。
According to the standards for disciplinary action, if a faculty or staff member driving under the influence (of alcohol) causes an accident resulting in serious injury or death, he or she will be dismissed.
(i). 韓国人の友人によると、中国では韓国語学習者が増えているらしい。
According to my Korean friend, the number of the learners of Korean is increasing.
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Phrase (usually used in formal writing and formal speech)
| A phrase that is used in formal writing to mean "not only". | Not only~ (but also~); not only that |
| 【Related Expression: だけで(は)なく; に限らず; にとどまらず; はおろか】 | |
(ksa). 我が社は日本国内のみならず、アメリカやヨーロッパなどでもビジネス活動を行っております。
Our company does business not only in Japan but also in America, Europe, and elsewhere.
(ksb). これからの企業は単に利益を追求するのみならず、環境に配慮した生産活動を行わなければならない。
Today's companies should not just pursue profits; they should also consider environmental protection issues in their production activities. (literally: they must perform production activities that take the environment into consideration as well.)
(ksc). 彼のしたことは人間として恥ずべきことである。のみならず、それは明らかに犯罪行為だ。
As a human being, he should be ashamed of what he did. Not only that, it is clearly a criminal act.
| (i)Noun (Particle) | のみならず | |
| 学生のみならず | Not only students | |
| アジアからのみならず | Not only from Asia | |
| (ii){V/Adjectiveい}informal | のみならず | |
| 理解{する/しない}のみならず | Not only does someone (not) understanding something | |
| {難しい/難しくない}のみならず | Not only is something (not) difficult | |
| (iii){Adjectiveなstem/ Noun} | であるのみならず | |
| 不自然であるのみならず | Something is not only unnatural | |
| 学者であるのみならず | Someone is not only a scholar | |
| (iv)Sentence1。 | のみならず、Sentence2。 | |
| この問題は難しい。のみならず、解決に時間もかかる。 | This problem is difficult. Not only that, it'll take time to solve |
(a). 料金体系のみならず、サービズ体制も改善する必要がある。
It is necessary to change not only the fee structure but the service system as well.
(b). 大統領の決定には国内のみならず、海外からも強い批判の声が上がっている。
The president's decision is being criticized heavily not only within the country but also abroad.
(c). この会社は炭酸飲料メーカーとして世界的に有名であるのみならず、アメリカ合衆国を象徴する存在の一つでさえある。
Not only is this company famous worldwide as a carbonated beverage manufacturer, it is even an American symbol (literally: one of the entities that symbolize the United States).
(d). この種の犯罪は、老後の生活資金を根こそぎ奪うなど、市民への経済的な影響が甚大であるのみならず、精神的打撃も多大である。
Crimes of this kind have an enormous impact on citizens, not only economically but also psychologically, as they can completely deprive citizens of their post-retirement livelihoods (among other things).
(e). 技術者は単に技術の進歩の推進者であるのみならず、人類・社会に及ばす技術の影響についても強い責任感を持つ自律的な行動者であるべきである。
Technology specialists should not simply play a role as promoters of technological advancement; they should also be independent actors who bear a heavy (literally: strong) sense of responsibility for the effect of technology on people and on society.
(f). 不正軽油の製造・販売・使用は、極めて悪質な脱税行為である。のみならず、ディーゼル車の排気ガスは大気中の有害物質を増加させるなど、環境汚染の原因にもなっている。
The production, the sale, and the use of illegal diesel oil are extremely serious acts of tax evasion. Not only that, these acts result in environmental pollution because they bring about an increase in toxic substances in the atmosphere via the exhaus
(g). 私はすっかり疲れていた。肩や頸の凝るのはもちろん、不眠症もかなり甚しかった。のみならず偶々眠ったと思うと、いろいろの夢を見勝ちだった。(芥川龍之介『夢』)
I was totally exhausted. My shoulders and neck were stiff, of course, and I was suffering from severe insomnia. Not only that, when I did finally fall asleep, I had many dreams. (From Dreams by Akutagawa Ryunosuke)
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Phrase (usually used in conversation)
| A phrase to emphasize that something/someone is/was in an extreme state or that someone so does/did something to a great extent | So (~that); so much/well (~that); so~ and |
| 【Related Expression: の~ないのって; なんてもんじゃない; などと言うものではない】 | |
(ksa). 甘いのなんのって私は一口食べて全部残してしまいました。
It was so sweet that I ate one bite and left the rest.
(ksb). 飲んだのなんのって彼らは5本の酒を全部空けてしまった。
They drank so much; they completely emptied five bottles of sake.
| (i){V/Adjectiveい}informal | のなんのって | |
| {効く/効いた}のなんのって | Something is/was so effective that~ | |
| {速い/速かった}のなんのって | Something is/was so fast that~ | |
| (ii)Adjectiveなstem{な/だった} | のなんのって | |
| 下手{な/だった}のなんのって | Someone is/was so bad at something that~ |
(a). かゆいのなんのって一晩中寝られなかった。
It was so itchy that I couldn't sleep all night.
(b). 重いのなんのって二人でも持ち上がりませんでした。
It was so heavy that even two people couldn't lift it.
(c). 海の醍醐味を味わうなら、ホエールウォッチングだ。実際に見るクジラは、大きいのなんのって、すごい迫力だよ。
If you want to experience the true charm of the ocean, try whale watching. When seen in real life, whales are so huge they take your breath away.
(d). もう少しで釣れたのに糸が切れて魚は海の中。結構大きかったので悔しかったのなんのって！
I almost had it, but the line broke and the fish went back into the sea. It was really big, so I was so disappointed!
(e). A:試合はどうだった？ B:いやもう、ひどいのなんのって、話したくもないよ。
A: How was the game? B: Oh, no, it was so terrible! I don't even want to talk about it.
(f). 不便なのなんのって一番近くのスーパーに行くのに1時間もかかるんです。
It's so inconvenient; it takes up to an hour to get to the nearest supermarket.
(g). 朝日岳の山々はちょうど見事に色づいていてきれいなのなんのって。思わず時間を忘れて、しばらく見入ってしまいました。
The Asahidake Mountains had just turned colours and were so beautiful. Without realizing it, I stared at them for a while, completely forgetting the time.
(h). 驚いたのなんのって、しばらくは言葉も出なかった。
I was so surprised that I couldn't even speak for a while.
(i). この望遠鏡、よく見えるのなんのって土星の輪まではっきり見えたよ。
I could see so well with this telescope; I could even see Saturn's rings clearly.
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Phrase
| A phrase that indicates a state where something is lacking. | Lack of; absence of |
(ks). 私は彼の常識の無さにあきれている。
I am appalled by his lack of common sense.
| Noun | の無さ | |
| 能力の無さ | Lack of ability | |
| 元気の無さ | Lack of spirit |
(a). 跳びたいと思っても跳べない。体力、筋力の無さを痛感しました。
I wanted to jump, but I couldn't. I became painfully aware of my lack of physical and muscular strength.
(b). 今回の一連の貴社の対応は、私たちには全く納得できるものではなく、貴社の誠意の無さに大変な憤りを感じます。
We cannot accept your company's response to this situation, and we are filled with anger at your company's lack of sincerity.
(c). 辞書の使用を許可してもらったものの、時間不足で思ったように答えられない問題があり、自分の英語力の無さに落ち込みました。
Although I was allowed to use a dictionary, because of the time constraint there were parts I couldn't answer, and I felt depressed about my lack of English proficiency.
(d). 親しみやすさと、温かさと、飾り気の無さが、さやの絶対的な魅力である。
Friendliness, warmth and a lack of affectation are what makes Saya so absolutely charming.
(e). 最近の映画やドラマは、その内容の無さにがっかりさせられる。
I am disappointed with recent movies and dramas because of their lack of content.
(f). 調査によると日本の子供の自信の無さは世界一だそうである。
According to a survey, Japanese children are the least self-confident in the world.
(g). このマンガは設定は面白かったが、物語が進むにつれて話が大きくなり、リアリティの無さについていけなくなってしまった。
This comic had an interesting plot, but as the story went on, it became so exaggerated that I couldn't take the lack of reality.
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Structure
| A structure that states what is said by someone in order to express speaker's disagreement or dissatisfaction. | Saying ~, ~, and so on; saying ~or~ |
| 【Related Expression: とか~とか; だの~だのと】 | |
(ksa). やったのやらなかったのといつまで言っていても仕方がない。
It is no use talking endlessly about what you did or didn't do.
(ksb). いつまでも好きだの嫌いだのと言っていないで、早く結婚相手を決めなさい。
You should decide who you want to marry soon without saying all the time that you like (this one) or that you don't like (that one).
(ksc). 彼女はアパートの部屋が狭いの場所が不便だのと文句ばかり言っている。
She is always complaining about how small her apartment is, how inconvenient the location is, or whatever.
| (i)X(affirmation)のX(negative) | のと | |
| V1informal(affirmation)のV2informal(negative)のと | Where V1=V2 | |
| できるのできないのと | Saying that something can be done or cannot be done | |
| Adjective(い/な)1informalのAdjective(い/な)2informal(negative)のと | Where Adjective(い/な)1=Adjective(い/な)2 | |
| おかしいのおかしくないのと | Saying that something is strange or not strange | |
| 好きだの好きじゃないのと | Saying that someone likes something/someone or does not like it/him/her | |
| Noun1だのNoun2じゃないのと | Where Noun1=Noun2 | |
| 病気だの病気じゃないのと | Saying that someone is ill or not ill | |
| (ii)Adjective(い/な)1informal | のAdjective(い/な)2informalのと | Where Adjective2=an antonym of adjective1 |
| いいの悪いのと | Saying that something is good or bad | |
| 上手だの下手だのと | Saying that someone is good at something or bad at it | |
| (iii)Sentence1informal | のSentence2informalのと | |
| 部屋が狭いの食事がまずいのと | Saying that the room is small and that meals are bad, etc. |
(a). 彼女は一緒に行くの行かぬのといつまでも煮え切らない。
She can never decide whether she is going with me or not.
(b). 彼らは、誰がそのことをしゃべったのしゃべらなかったのと言い争っている。
They are arguing over who leaked or didn't leak that information.
(c). 条件がいいの悪いのといつまで言っていても仕方がない。
There's no point in discussing endlessly whether conditions are good or bad.
(d). 彼女はやっと就職できたのに、やれ場所が遠いの給料が悪いのと文句ばかり言っている。
She finally found a job, but now she can't stop complaining about how far it is, how low the salary is, and so on and so on.
(e). コーチにフォームが悪いの力が入りすぎているのとさんざん直された。
My coach kept correcting me, saying that my form was bad, I used too much force, and so on.
(f). 真理は婚約者の給料が安いの背が低いのと勝手なことを言っている。
Mari is saying selfish things such as how low her fiancé's salary is, how short he is, etc.
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Phrase (usually used in formal writing and formal speech)
| A phrase meaning for "someone to try to do something" or for "something to be about to occur". | Try to do; be about to |
| 【Related Expression: ようとする】 | |
(ksa). 教授の言わんとすることが学生に伝わらないのは、たいてい教授の方が悪いのだ。
It is usually a professor who is to blame when his students don't comprehend what he tries to convey.
(ksb). 太陽はまさに山の稜線に沈まんとしていた。
The sun was about to sink behind the mountain ridge.
| Vnegative | んとする | Exception:する→せんとする |
| 行かんとする | Someone tries to go there | |
| 起きんとする | Someone is about to get up | |
| 研究せんとする | Someone tries to do research |
(a). あの政治家は言わんとしているところがよく分からない。
I don't comprehend what that politician is trying to say.
(b). 善意で何事かを行わんとすると、必ずそれに水を差す人間がいる。
Whenever someone tries to do something with good intentions, inevitably there is someone who discourages it.
(c). 専門家でない者を排除せんとする科学者の過剰防衛には辟易させられる。
I am fed up with overprotective scientists (literally: the overprotection of scientists) who try to eliminate non specialists.
(d). 死なんとする者は本音を吐くものだ。
A person who is about to die gives vent to his true feelings.
(e). 暴風のために木々が倒れんとしている。
The trees are about to be blown over by the violent wind.
(f). まさに輝かんとする月が雲で隠れた。
The moon, which was just about to shine, was concealed by the clouds.
(g). 今にも崩れんとする天守閣には、城と命運をともにする城主の姿があった。
At the castle tower, which was on the verge of collapse, stood the castle lord, ready to share its fate.
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Phrase (usually used in formal writing and formal speech)
| A phrase that means "with something/someone at the centre". | Centering around; around; focusing on; mainly; primarily; with~ as the center; with~ as the leader; with~ as the primary~; take the lead |
| 【Related Expression: を中心と/にして】 | |
(ksa). 東京を中心に大雨が降った。
There was heavy rain, mostly in and around Tokyo.
(ksb). 東南アジアを中心に鳥インフルエンザが急速に広がっている。
Bird flu is spreading rapidly, primarily in Southeast Asia.
(ksc). この研究は中島教授を中心に進められている。
This research is progressing, with Professor Nakajima taking the lead.
| Noun | を中心に | |
| 日本を中心に | Centering around Japan |
(a). 最近は小説よりもビジネス書を中心に読んでいる。
These days I mainly read business books, rather than novels.
(b). ファーストフードのR社は近々神戸を中心に新たに25店舗を開く予定だ。
Company R, a fast food company, plans to open 25 new stores in Kobe and neighbouring cities before long.
(c). 現在、文部科学省を中心に、義務教育改革に向けた検討が進められている。
The Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology is taking the lead in investigating compulsory education reform.
(d). 最近の調査で、アメリカでのオンラインビデオの視聴が若い層を中心に伸びていることが分かった。
It has become clear from a recent survey that the viewing of online videos is increasing in America- most notably among young people.
(e). コンピュータメーカーのP社はデスクトップモデルを中心に２０％以上の大幅値下げを行うと発表した。
The computer manufacturer P announced that it would give a large price reduction of 20 percent or more for their computers, with desktop models as the primary target.
(f). このサイトは熊本のニュースを中心に、温泉やグルメ、イベント情報などもご紹介します。
This website highlights Kumamoto news as well as information on hot springs, gourmet foods, events, etc.
(g). 本プロジェクトでは、言語による情報伝達と、韻律や動作、表情など、言語以外の要素との関係を中心に研究を行った。
In this project we examined primarily the interrelationship between language-based communication and non-linguistic factors, such as meter, motions, facial expressions, etc.
(h). この展示会はある著名な日本の建築家の作品を中心に、東京に建てられたモダンな建築について紹介している。
This exhibition, focusing mainly on works by an eminent Japanese architect, introduces modern architecture in Tokyo.
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Compound Particle (usually used in formal writing and formal speech)
| A compound particle that introduces a medium through which someone does something or something happens to someone or something. | Through; via; by means of; by ~ing |
| 【Related Expression: をとうして; によって/より】 | |
(ksa). 今、現地の代理人を介して製造元と価格の交渉をしている。
We are negotiating the price with the manufacturer through a local agent now.
(ksb). インターネットを介して音楽や映画を配信できるようになった。
Music and movies can be distributed via the Internet now.
(ksc). 我々はボランティア活動を介して地域の交流を図ろうとしている。
We are trying to promote interaction among the local (units) through volunteer activities.
(ksd). 通訳を｛介しての/介した｝商談は効率が悪い。
Business talks via an interpreter are inefficient.
| (i)Noun | を介して | |
| 知り合いを介して | Through an acquaintance | |
| (ii) | を{介しての/介した}Noun2 | |
| 通信網を{介しての/介した}データ送信 | Data transmission via a network |
(a). 日本にいる友達を介してこの情報を手に入れた。
I got this information with the help of (literally: through) a friend of mine in Japan.
(b). このウイルスはそれに感染した鳥から蚊を介して人に感染する。人から人や人から蚊を介しての感染はない。
This virus is transmitted to people from infected birds via mosquitoes. It is not transmitted between people either directly or via mosquitoes.
(c). 自殺系サイトを介して知り合った男女が、初対面でいきなり一緒に自殺するという事件が続き、社会問題となった。
There have been several incidents in which a man and a woman who had met through a suicide website committed suicide together right after meeting in person for the first time, and such incidents have become a social problem.
(d). このテロ組織は海外の金融機関を介して資金の調達と仕送りをしているらしい。
This terrorist organization seems to be collecting and distributing money via overseas financial institutions.
(e). 記憶は再生時に脳の「海馬」という部分を介して再構成される。
When we recall memories, they are reconstructed through the part of the brain called the hippocampus.
(f). 新しいビジネスを生むためのアイデアは、勤務外のインフォーマルなコミュニケーションを介して、より多く得られると言われる。
It is said that more ideas for creating new business can be obtained via informal communication outside of work.
(g). このグループは、同じような障害で悩んでいる人々が、お互いの交流を介して問題をよりよく理解し、助け合っていけるよう、様々な支援を行っている。
This group provides various kinds of support so that people with the same sort of disorder or disability can better understand others' problems and help each other by interacting.
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Phrase (usually used in formal writing and formal speech)
| A phrase that is used when one cannot control emotions or reactions caused by emotions. | Cannot hold; cannot hold back; cannot keep back; cannot help ~ing; cannot keep ~ from ~ing |
(ksa). このような無責任な行いに対して怒りを禁じ得ない。
I cannot hold back my anger at such an irresponsible deed.
(ksb). その感動的な光景を見て、涙がこみ上げてくるのを禁じ得なかった。
Seeing the moving scene, I could not keep my tears from welling up.
| (i)Noun | を禁じ得ない | |
| 喜びを禁じ得ない | Cannot keep back one's joy | |
| (ii)Vinformal nonpastの | を禁じ得ない | |
| 足が震えるのを禁じ得ない | Cannot keep someone's legs from trembling |
(a). 24年の苦悩と空白の後、ついに実現した家族との再会に、周囲の者も涙を禁じ得なかった。
(Seeing) the family reunited, an occasion that finally became reality after twenty-four years of agony and separation, people around them couldn't help but cry, too.
(b). その美しい早春の風景画に作者の温かい郷土愛を感じ、深い感動を禁じ得なかった。
Looking at the beautiful early spring landscape painting, I felt the painter's love for his homeland, and couldn't help but be moved profoundly.
(c). 出版社による無神経な個人写真の扱い方に、驚きと憤りを禁じ得ない。
I can't hold back my surprise and anger at the publisher's thoughtless way of treating those personal photos.
(d). 大統領の声明は、せっかく第一歩を踏み出した両国の平和統一の働きに水を差すのではないかという疑問を禁じ得ない。
I cannot keep myself from wondering if the president's announcement will pour cold water on the two nations' hard-won first step toward peaceful unification.
(e). 長い間憧れていた人に会う瞬間が近づいて、次第に動悸が速まるのを禁じ得なかった。
As the moment approached when I was to meet with the person I'd admired for a long time, I could not stop my heart from beating faster and faster.
(f). この業界の救いようのない保守性に、深いため息が出るのを禁じ得なかった。
(Looking at) this industry's hopeless conservatism, I couldn't help but let out a deep sigh.
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Compound Particle (usually used in formal writing and formal speech)
| A compound particle meaning "concerning; over", which is used with an issue over which different opinions, ideas, etc., are expressed or exchanged. | Centering around; in connection with; over; concerning; regarding; with regard to |
| 【Related Expression: に関して; について】 | |
(ksa). モノレール建設をめぐって市民の意見が対立している。
Citizens' opinions are divided over the monorail construction.
(ksb). 無駄な公共事業をめぐる批判の声が強まっている。
(Voices of) Criticism concerning wasteful public projects is growing stronger.
(ksc). 大学運営は今後どうあるべきかをめぐって活発に意見が交わされた。
Opinions were exchanged actively regarding how universities should be run from now on.
(ksd). 進攻か撤退かをめぐって激しい議論が戦わされた。
There was a heated discussion over whether we should advance or retreat.
(kse). 新制度に即時切り替えるべきか来年度まで待つべきかをめぐって委員の間で意見が分かれた。
Opinions were divided among the committee members regarding whether we should shift to the new system immediately or wait until next year.
| (i)Noun | をめぐって | |
| この報道をめぐって | Concerning this news report | |
| (ii)Noun1 | をめぐるNoun2 | |
| 基礎研究をめぐって現状 | Current status of (literally: around) basic research | |
| (iii)Embedded Question | をめぐって | |
| 日本がこの問題にどう対応するべきかをめぐって | Regarding how Japan should handle this problem | |
| (iv)Noun1かNoun2か | をめぐって | |
| 実行か中止かをめぐって | Concerning whether we should execute something, or hold off on it | |
| (v)Embedded Question1+Embedded Question2 | をめぐって | |
| 単独で行うかパートナーを探すかをめぐって | Regarding whether we want to do it by ourselves or look for a partner |
(a). 新しい歴史教科書をめぐって激しい議論が続いている。
The fierce debate over the new history textbook continues.
(b). 審判の判定をめぐって選手が乱闘し試合が約１時間中断した。
The players had a fight over the umpire's decision, and the game was interrupted for about an hour.
(c). 自衛隊派遣の是非をめぐって激しい議論が交わされた。
There were fierce arguments over the pros and cons of dispatching the Self-Defence Forces.
(d). 老化のメカニズムをめぐる研究が注目を浴びている。
Research into the mechanism of aging is drawing a lot of attention.
(e). 我が県でもITをめぐる働きが加速しそうです。
It looks like the movement toward IT (information technology) will accelerate in our prefecture, too.
(f). 本章では、原子力発電をめぐる最近の動向を紹介すると共に、将来の有力なエネルギー源について概観する。
This chapter introduces recent trends in nuclear power generation and gives an overview of promising energy sources for the future.
(g). 他の国でもいつ軍隊を引き上げるべきかをめぐって議論が戦わされている。
Just when the army should be withdrawn is hotly debated in other countries, too.
(h). 深刻化する少年犯罪が連日のように報道されている中、厳罰主義か更生重視かをめぐって社会の対応が揺れている。
While there are reports almost every day on juvenile crime, which is becoming more serious, society wavers between applying strict punishment and emphasizing rehabilitation.
(i). 調停案を受け入れるかこのまま交渉を続けるかをめぐって我々の間で意見が分かれている。
Our opinions are divided over whether we should accept the arbitration plan or continue negotiating.
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Adverb (usually used in formal writing and formal speech)
| An adverb that indicates feelings of nostalgia or regret when recollecting one's past experiences. | Come ot think of it; when I think back; on reflection |
(ks). 思えば、大学時代はとても楽しかった。
When I come to think of it, I had a great time when I was in college.
(a). 思えば、あの頃私は彼と政治問題について毎日のように議論したものだ。
When I think back, I discussed political issues with him almost every day.
(b). 思えば、終戦後数年は、ほとんどの日本人が野菜を庭で育てていた。
Come to think of it, for a few years after the war, almost all Japanese people grew vegetables in their backyards.
(c). 今思えばどうしてこんなCDを買ったのだろう。
Now that I think about it, why did I buy such a (terrible) CD?
(d). 思えば心筋梗塞の前兆はあった。
Come to think of it, there were warning signs of a cardiac seizure.
(e). 小学校3年生の時、祖母と銀座で映画を見た。今にして思えば、あれが祖母と見た最初で最後の映画だった。
I saw a movie in Ginza with my grandmother when I was a third grader. When I think back on it now, that was the first and the last movie I ever saw with her.
(f). 今から思えば、私が同僚の男性と結婚すると言った時、父は猛然と反対した。あの時父の忠告を聞いておけばと悔やまれる。
As I think of it now, my father was vehemently opposed when I told him that I was going to marry my colleague. I regret that I didn't listen to his advice.
(g). 自転車で出かけようとした途端、チェーンが外れてしまった。今から思えば、あれがケチのつき始めだった。
The moment I went out on my bicycle, the chain came off. When I come to think of it now, that was the beginning of (a period of) bad luck.
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Phrase (usually used in formal writing and formal speech)
| A phrase indicating that someone does something bravely/fearlessly in spite of unfavourable circumstances. | In spite of~; undaunted by~; in definance of~; in the face of~ |
| 【Related Expression: にもかかわらず】 | |
(ksa). 彼女は重度の身体障害をものともせず、自分の人生をつかみとった。
Despite severe physical handicaps, she took charge of her own life.
(ksb). 彼は日本語がしゃべれないのをものともせず、身振り手振りで日本を旅行して歩いた。
Undaunted by his inability to speak Japanese, he travelled around Japan communicating with gestures and signs.
| (i)Noun | をものともせず | |
| 失敗をものともせず | In spite of the failure | |
| (ii)Sinformalの | をものともせず | だ after Adjectiveなstem and Noun changes to な |
| 非難されたのをものともせず | In spite of the fact that someone was criticised | |
| 頭が痛いのをものともせず | In spite of the fact that someone has a headache | |
| 場所が不便{な/である}のをものともせず | In spite of the fact that the location is inconvenient | |
| 夫が病気{な/である}のをものともせず | In spite of the fact that someone's husband is ill |
(a). 友人は高波をものともせず4キロを泳ぎ切った。
Overcoming high waves, my friend swam (all of) four kilometres.
(b). 子供は時差をものともせず、早速水着に着替えてワイキキビーチへ出かけた。
In spite of the time difference, my child changed to her swimming suit right away and went to Waikiki Beach.
(c). 高層ビル火災の際、消防士たちは危険をものともせずその建物の階段を駆け登っていった。
At the time of the high-rise fire, firemen ran up the stairs of the building in spite of the danger.
(d). 民衆は軍事政権の弾圧をものともせず、デモ行進を続けた。
The people continued their demonstrations in defiance of the military government's oppression.
(e). 彼女は周囲の人の批判をものともせず、自分の信じる道を進んだ。
Ignoring criticism from the people around her, she proceeded on the path she believed in.
(f). 高校生たちは雨が激しく降っているのをものともせず、熱心に野球の練習をしていた。
The high school students were practicing baseball in spite of the heavy rain (literally: in spite of the fact that it was raining hard).
(g). 美佐子は片道所要時間が2時間を越えるのをものともせず、東京の証券会社に通勤した。
Despite the fact that it took Misako two hours each way, she commuted (every day) to a securities company in Tokyo.
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Phrase (usually used in formal writing and formal speech)
| A phrase indicating that the subsequent statement is the speaker's/writer's personal view. | In my view; it seems to me that~; when I think (about~); considering |
| 【Related Expression: 考えるに】 | |
(ksa). (私が)思うに、文化は宗教の一種だ。
In my view, culture is a kind of religion.
(ksb). 医学界の体質を思うに、当然医者と製薬会社の癒着はあると思う。
Considering the nature of the medical world, I believe there is collusion between doctors and pharmaceutical companies.
| (i)思うに、 | Sentence。 | |
| 思うに、コンピュータは良し悪しだ。 | In my view computers are good and bad | |
| (ii)NPを | 思うに | |
| この一年を思うに、つらいことが多かった。 | When I think about this past year, it was full of trying things |
(a). 思うに、情報を発信するマスコミと受信する我々国民は、完全に分化され固定化されてしまっているのが現状だ。
In my view, the present state is that the media, which distribute information, and the citizens, who receive it, are completely separate and static.
(b). 「思うに、快楽に耽る人生ほど快楽から遠いものはない。」ージョン・D・ロックフェラー2世
I can think of nothing less pleasurable than a life devoted to pleasure. ― John D. Rockefeller, Jr.
(c). 私が思うに、大学時代の部活はお薦めだ。きっと一生の宝物になるだろう。
I would recommend joining a club activity at college. I'm sure it would be something you'd treasure for the rest of your life.
(d). 思うに、優れた画家であっても、生命感あふれる作品を生み出せるのはほんの一時期ではないだろうか。
It seems to me that even an outstanding painter can create dynamic artworks only during a certain period of his or her life.
(e). 思うに、「人を使う」ことが上手な人間というのは魅力のない人間である。
In my view, people who excel at getting things from others (literally: using people) are unattractive people.
(f). 自分の来し方を思うに、常に幅広い好奇心を持ち続けてきたことが、研究を続ける原動力ではなかっただろうか。
When I reflect upon my past, it appears to me that my constant sense of curiosity in everything has served as a driving power for me to keep on doing my research.
(g). 大地震の被災者の人たちの状況を思うに、何もできずにいることが本当につらいです。
It's painful not to be able to do anything when I think about the circumstances of people who were hit by the earthquake.
Advanced Page 499
Phrase (usually used in formal writing and formal speech)
| A phrase that means "there is nothing else besides X". | (there is) no~ but X; X is the only one; nothing else is~ but X; no other~ are/do something as~ as X |
| 【Related Expression: 以外に~ない; のほかに~ない; 一番; もっとも】 | |
(ks). 日本語を短期間で習得したいのならこの学校をおいてほかに(は)ない。
If you want to learn Japanese in a short period of time, there is no other school (that you should consider) but this one.
| Noun | をおいてほかに(は)～ない | |
| サッカーをおいてほかに(は)例がない | There is no example but soccer | |
| リサをおいてほかに(は)いない | There is no one else but Lisa |
(a). これほど多くの作品を手がけた監督はY氏をおいてほかにいない。
No other director has been involved with as many works as Mr. Y.
(b). あなたを救うのはあなた自身をおいてほかにない。
There is no one to save you but yourself.
(c). これほどのプロフェッショナリズムと豊かな経験を提供できる会社は、日本中で当社をおいてほかにはありません。
There is no company in Japan but ours that can provide this level of professionalism and rich experience.
(d). 契約に対してこれだけ無神経な国はこの国をおいてほかに思いつかない。
I cannot think of another country that is as indifferent to contracts as this one is.
(e). この役割をこなせるのはジェーンをおいてほかに考えられない。
We cannot think of anyone who can handle this role but Jane.
(f). 味のよさと形の美しさ、この二つの要件を満たす桃は、山梨県産をおいてほかにない。
The only peaches that satisfy the two requirements of good taste and beautiful shape are the ones from Yamanashi Prefecture. (literally: No peaches satisfy the two requirements, i.e., good taste and a beautiful shape, but those from Yamanashi Prefectur
(g). 非母国語話者の間のコミュニケーションにおいてこれほど広範囲に用いられている言語は、英語をおいてほかには存在しない。
There is no language but English that is used as widely for communication among non-native speakers.
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Noun (usually used in formal writing and formal speech)
| A noun indicating special/uncommon and primarily desirable occasions which someone takes advantage of, or where someone is expected to do something or where something desirable takes place. | On the occasion; at the time; when; if; opportunity; chance |
| 【Related Expression: 時; さい; (せつ)に】 | |
(ksa). 上京の折(に)はぜひお立ち寄り下さい。
When you come up to Tokyo, please be sure to stop by.
(ksb). この前日本に帰った折(に)高校時代の友達に会った。
When I returned to Japan last time, I met with my high school friends.
(ksc). 援助が必要な折(に)は早めに連絡して下さい。
If you need any help, please contact me sooner rather than later.
| (i)Nounの | 折(に) | |
| 休暇の折(に) | On vacation | |
| (ii)Vinformal | 折(に) | |
| 京都へ{行く/行った}折(に) | When I go/went to Kyoto | |
| (iii)Adjectiveいinformal nonpast | 折(に) | |
| 寒さの厳しい折(に) | At a time when it is severly cold | |
| (iv)Adjectiveなstemな | 折(に) | |
| 暇な折(に) | When you have leisure time | |
| (v)Demonstrative adjective | 折(に) | |
| その折(に) | On that occasion; at that time |
(a). 近くにお越しの折には、ぜひ当店をご利用下さい。
When you are in the area, please use our shop.
(b). ロスへ出張した折に息子の様子を見るために大学の寮に寄ってみた。
When I was on business in L.A., I stopped by my son's university dormitory to see how he was doing.
(c). 都心に出た折に、古本屋街に足を延ばした。
When I went into downtown Tokyo, I also went (literally: extended my trip) to the used book store district.
(d). こういうスーツを持っていれば冠婚葬祭の折に着るものを心配しなくてもいい。
If you have a suit like this, you don't have to worry what to wear for (literally: on the occasions of) weddings and funeral services.
(e). 卒業の折に親に買ってもらった時計をなくしてしまった。
I lost the watch my parents bought for me for my graduation.
(f). 私は大きな借金をかかえて途方にくれていました。そんな折に彼から電話があったのです。
I was saddled with debt and didn't know what to do. On that occasion, there was a call from him.
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Phrase
| A phrase that means "it is feared (that)" | It is feared (that); we fear (that); we are worried/concerned (that); there is a fear/risk/chance/concern/etc.; can; could; may; it is possible (that); be in danger of |
| 【Related Expression: きけんせいがる; 心配がある; かのうせいがある; かもしれない】 | |
(ksa). 台風の影響で、西日本は大雨の恐れがある。
Due to the typhoon (literally: the typhoon's influence), there is a chance of heavy rain across Western Japan.
(ksb). この戦争は第二のベトナム戦争になる恐れがある。
This war could become a second Vietnam War. (literally: There is a risk that this war will become a second Vietnam War.)
(ksc). テロリストたちが入国した恐れがある。
There is concern that terrorists have entered the country.
(ksd). 測定誤差が大きい恐れがある。
We are worried that the measurement errors may be large.
(kse). 腫瘍が悪性である恐れがある。
The tumour may be malignant.
| (i)Nounの | 恐れがある | |
| 洪水の恐れがある | There is a fear of flood | |
| 爆発の恐れがある | There is a fear of an explosion | |
| (ii){V/Adjectiveい}informal | 恐れがある | |
| {傷つける/傷つけた}恐れがある | There is a fear that someone/something will hurt/has hurt someone/something | |
| (品物が){古い/古かった}恐れがある | There is a fear that something is/was old | |
| (iii)Adjectiveなstem | {な/である/だった/であった}恐れがある | "Adjectiveなstemな" is rarely used |
| 不安定{な/である/だった/であった}恐れがある | There is a fear that something is/was unstable | |
| (iv)Noun{である/だった/であった} | 恐れがある | |
| 不良品{である/だった/であった}恐れがある | There is a fear that something is/was a defective product |
(a). この地域の野性動物は絶滅の恐れがある。
The wild animals in this region are in danger of becoming extinct.
(b). M社は自社の携帯電話のいくつかの機種に発熱の恐れがあると発表した。
Company M announced that there is a risk that some of their cell phone models may generate heat.
(c). この薬品が目に入ると失明の恐れがあるので、保護眼鏡を着用して下さい。
This chemical can cause blindness (literally: when it gets in an eye), so please wear protective goggles.
(d). 県は近く、がけ崩れなどの恐れがある場所で地形や土地利用状況などの調査を始める。
The prefectural government will soon begin an investigation of the ground configuration, land use, etc. in places where there is some fear of landslides.
(e). 添付書類を不用意に開けるとウイルスに感染する恐れがある。
If you open attached files without paying close attention, you risk infecting (your computer) with a virus.
(f). この薬は副作用がないと言われているが、８週間以上続けて服用すると肝臓に害を及ぼす恐れがある。
This drug is said to have no side effects, but if you take it for more than eight weeks straight, there is a risk that it will damage your liver.
(g). 選手たちが試合の中止を知らないまま、まだ練習している恐れがある。
We're concerned that the players are still practicing, not knowing that the game has been cancelled.
(h). 警視庁は、殺人容疑者のAが海外へ逃亡した恐れがあると発表した。
The Metropolitan Police Office announced that there is some concern that murder suspect A has escaped overseas.
(i). ここのカフェテリアは食材が古い恐れがある。
The ingredients used (in the food) at this cafeteria may be old.
(j). この薬は胎児に有害である恐れがある。
This drug may be harmful to embryos.
(k). 取引相手が暴力団である恐れがある。
We're worried that we may be dealing with a (Japanese) mafia group.
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Compound Particle (usually used in formal writing and formal speech)
| A compound particle that means "without questioning". | Regardless of; irrespective of; without reference to; whether X or Y; whether X or not; whatever/whoever/etc.; no matter what/who/how/etc. |
| 【Related Expression: にかかわらず; に関係なく; によらず】 | |
(ksa). この会社は、経験があれば学歴を問わず採用してくれる。
This company will employ you regardless of your educational background if you have (relevant work) experience.
(ksb). 卒業後就職するか進学するかを問わず、担任との個人面談を受けなければならない。
You have to have an individual consultation with your homeroom teacher whether you work or go on to college after graduation.
(ksc). 本ソフトウエアの複製は全部か否かを問わず違法行為になる。
Copying this software is (an) illegal (act) whether or not it is a complete copy.
(ksd). 不要の電化製品、中古新品を問わず買い取ります。
We'll buy the electrical appliances which you are not using whether they are new or used.
(kse). 当教会は、信者であるなしを問わず挙式をお引き受けいたします。
At this church we offer wedding ceremonies for everyone, regardless of whether or not you are Christian (literally: a believer).
(ksf). 経験のあるなしを問わず誰でもこのクラブに参加できます。
Anyone can join this club whether or not they have experience/regardless of their experience (literally: whether he/she has experience or not).
(ksg). A社は、市場調査の結果のいかんを問わず、日本でのマーケティングを開始する。
Company A is beginning their marketing in Japan without considering the results of their market research.
(ksh). どうような利用であるかを問わず学内の施設利用は事前に大学の承認が必要だ。
In order to use university facilities, no matter what the purpose (literally: what kind of use), you need approval from the university beforehand.
| (i)Noun1({、/ と/や}Noun2) | を問わず | |
| 年齢を問わず | Regardless of age | |
| 年齢、性別を問わず | Regardless of age and sex | |
| 年齢と性別を問わず | Regardless of age and sex | |
| 年齢や性別を問わず | Regardless of age, sex, etc. | |
| (ii)XかYか | を問わず | Where X,Y=contrastive words; usually nonpast forms |
| Noun1かNoun2か | 男性か女性かを問わず | Whether someone is a male or a female |
| V1かV2informalか | 去るか留まるかを問わず | Whether someone leaves or stays |
| Adjectiveい1informalかAdjectiveい2informalか | 暑いか寒いかを問わず | Whether it is hot or cold |
| Adjectiveな1stemかAdjectiveな2stemか | 便利か不便かを問わず | Whether something is convenient or inconvenient |
| (iii)Xか{どう/否}か | を問わず | |
| 行くか{どう/否}かを問わず | Whether someone goes or not | |
| 高いか{どう/否}かを問わず | Whether something is expensive or not | |
| 便利(である)か{どう/否}かを問わず | Whether something is convenient or not | |
| 日本人か{どう/否}かを問わず | Whether someone is Japanese or not | |
| (iv)X(affirmative)+X(negative) | を問わず | |
| 行く行かないを問わず | Whether someone goes or not | |
| うまいうまくないを問わず | Whether someone is skillful or not | |
| 上手、上手じゃないを問わず | Whether someone is skillful or not | |
| 日本人、日本人じゃないを問わず | Whether someone is Japanese or not | |
| (v)X+Y | を問わず | Where X, Y=Adjectiveいinformal nonpast/Adjectiveなstem; Y=X's antonym |
| 高い安いを問わず | Whether something is expensive or cheap | |
| 上手下手を問わず | Whether someone is skillful or unskillful | |
| (vi){Noun/Adjectiveなstem} | であるなしを問わず | |
| 会員であるなしを問わず | Whether someone is a member or not | |
| 経済的であるなしを問わず | Whether something is economical or not | |
| (vii)Nounのあるなし | を問わず | |
| 経験のあるなしを問わず | Whether someone has experience or not | |
| (viii)Nounのいかん | を問わず | |
| 方法のいかんを問わず | Regardless of the method | |
| (ix)Wh-sentence informalか | を問わず | |
| いかなる国における使用であるかを問わず | In whatever country something may be used |
(a). このリゾート地は、登山、ハイキング、スキー等、四季を問わず一年中楽しめる。
Mountain climbing, hiking, skiing, etc., can be enjoyed at this resort area, regardless of the season.
(b). 無線ランのおかげで、場所や時間を問わずネットへのアクセスが可能になった。
Thanks to wireless LAN, now we can access the network wherever and whenever we need it.
(c). 古くなったパソコン、メーカーを問わず引き取ります。
We buy old personal computers regardless of the manufacturer.
(d). この本は、イスラム世界に興味があるか否かを問わず、ぜひ読んでおくべき一冊である。
This is one book you should definitely read, whether or not you are interested in the Muslim world.
(e). 選挙期間中であるか否かを問わず、選挙運動またはこれに類する行為にコンピュータ、掲示板等学内施設を利用することを禁ずる。
Using the campus facilities, including computers and bulletin boards, for election campaigning or other similar activities is prohibited whether it is during an election period or not.
(f). インストラクター募集。(男女をを問わず)
Instructors Wanted (Men or Women) [Advertisement]
(g). このDVDは映画を見た見ないを問わず、ぜひ持っておくことを勧めます。
I recommend that you get this DVD whether you have seen the (original) movie or not.
(h). このソフトはパソコンに精通しているいないを問わず、誰でも簡単に使える。
Anyone can use this software easily whether he/she is familiar with personal computers or not.
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Particle (usually used in formal writing and formal speech)
| A particle that connects two nouns or noun phrases. | And |
| 【Related Expression: と; そして; 並びに】 | |
(ksa). 使用した機種及びソフトウエアを表１に示す。
The computer models and software we used are listed in Table 1.
(ksb). 本奨学金への応募資格は、日本国籍を有すること、及び国内の四年制大学に在籍する学生であることである。
The qualifications for applying for this scholarship require (literally: are) that you be a Japanese citizen and a student at a four-year college in this country.
| (i)Noun1 | 及びNoun2 | |
| 名古屋及びその周辺 | Nagoya and the surrounding areas | |
| (ii)Sentence1 informalこと、 | 及びSentence2 informalこと | だ cannot be used before こと. Adjectiveなstem {な/である}こと; Nounであること |
| 情報を収集すること、及びそれを分析すること | Collecting information and analysing it | |
| 好き{な/である}こと、及び上手{な/である}こと | Liking something and excelling at something | |
| 教師であること、及び父親であること | Being a teacher and being a father |
(a). 室内及び廊下での喫煙は禁止されています。
Smoking in the rooms and halls is prohibited.
(b). 今月号では広島及び近郊他県の観光名所を紹介します。
In this month's issue we introduce sightseeing spots in Hiroshima and neighbouring prefectures.
(c). 本店移転及び商号変更についてお知らせいたします。
We hereby notify you of the relocation of the head office and the change of our company name.
(d). A社は２００２年及びそれ以前の製品のサポートの打ち切りを発表した。
Company A announced that it would no longer offer technical support for products made before 2003 (literally: in and before 2002).
(e). これは昨年度における全国の一般廃棄物の排出及び処理状況に関する報告である。
This is a report on the status of the discharge and treatment of general waste nationwide last year.
(f). 記者会見の前に、情報が正確であること、及びそれが公表してもいい情報であることを確認しておく必要がある。
Before holding a press conference it is necessary to make sure that the information is accurate and that it can be (literally: it is information which can be) released to the public.
(g). 装置には著しい破損のないこと、及びメンテナンスが規定どおり行われていることを確認した。
We have confirmed that there is no significant damage to the device, and that it has been maintained according to the regulations.
(h). 外国人研修生を受け入れる事業者の評価機関は、5人以上の委員からなる委員会を持つこと、及びその委員の半数以上が外国人の研修について専門知識を持つことが義務づけられた。
It is now required that the body for evaluating companies that accept foreign interns have a committee of (literally: which consists of) five or more members, and that the majority of the committee members have (literally: be those who have) professiona
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Adverb (usually used in formal writing and formal speech)
| An adverb representing the ideas "all; totally; mostly; approximately". | Generally; commonly; all; quite entirely; totally; utterly; (not) at all; for the most part; mostly; almost; approximately; roughly; about; rough; general |
| 【Related Expression: 一般に; 全く; まるで; 大体; おおむね】 | |
(ksa). 私はおよそ名作と言われている映画はすべて見ているつもりだ。
I'm convinced that I've watched all the movies that are commonly considered masterpieces.
(ksb). 彼女はこういう根気のいる仕事にはおよそ向いていない。
She is not at all suited for work that requires perseverance like this work does.
(ksc). 彼の考えていることはおよそ想像がつく。
I can make a fairly good guess about what he's thinking.
(ksd). その学会にはおよそ１５００人の会員がいる。
That academic association has approximately 1,500 members.
| (i)およそ | Nounは | |
| およそ優れた研究者は | excellent researchers in general; all excellent researchers | |
| (ii)およそ | Adjective(い/な) | |
| およそつまらない | Quite boring | |
| およそ不可能 | Totally impossible | |
| (iii)およそ | {Vnegative/Adjectiveいstemく/Adjectiveなstemで}ない | |
| およそ向いていない | Someone is not at all suited for something | |
| およそ面白くない | Something is not at all interesting | |
| およそ経済的でない | Something is not economical at all | |
| (iv)およそ | {V/Adjective(い/な}/Nounだ} | |
| およそ分かる | Someone understands almost everything | |
| およそ正しい | Something/someone is about right | |
| およそ完成だ | Something is almost complete | |
| (v)およそ | のNoun | |
| およそ考え | A general idea | |
| およそ見積もり | A rough estimate | |
| (vi)およそ | Number(+Counter) | |
| およそ十万人 | Approximately 100,000 people |
(a). およそ楽をして得られる技能で身につくものはない。
Generally, none of the skills you can learn easily will become second nature.
(b). およそ天才と言われる人は誰でも人には知れない重荷を背負っているものだ。
Generally, anyone who is called a genius carries a heavy burden others can't see.
(c). 我々はおよそ不合理なこの制度に長い間縛られている。
We've been bound by this utterly irrational system for a long time.
(d). 田宮先生は大学の政治的なことにはおよそ縁遠い人だった。
Professor Tamiya was totally removed from university politics.
(e). 彼には気の毒だが、彼の努力はおよそ意味のないものだった。
I'm sorry for him, but his effort was totally meaningless.
(f). それは彼の普段の言動からはおよそ想像できない行動であった。
It was behaviour we couldn't even have imagined based on what he usually said and did.
(g). 仕事は午前中でおよそ片づいたので今日は早く帰れそうだ。
I finished most of my work this morning, so it looks like I can go home early today.
(h). その大学のおよその情報はインターネットで得られる。
Most of the information on that university can be obtained via the Internet.
(i). この会社の年間取引額はおよそどのくらいですか。
Approximately what is the volume of this company's annual business?
(j). 現在中国に生息するジャイアントパンダの数はおよそ１千頭ということだ。
They say there are about 1,000 giant pandas living in China now.
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Compound Particle (usually used in formal writing and formal speech)
| A compound particle that expresses someone's indifference to warnings, criticism, advice, accusations, opposition, anxiety, wishes, eagerness, provocative action, etc. | Indifferent to~; contrary to~; ignoring~; despite |
(ksa). 首相は国民の批判をよそにイラク戦争支持を表明した。
Setting aside people's criticism, the prime minister declared his support for the Iraq War.
(ksb). 青春時代、友達がデートに明け暮れるのをよそに、僕は家に一人こもってSFを読んでいた。
During my adolescent years, I secluded myself at home and read science fiction, ignoring my friends, who were spending all their time dating.
| (i)NP | をよそに | |
| 不景気をよそに | Indifferent to economic recession | |
| (ii)Sinformalの | をよそに | だ cannot be used before の. Adjectiveなstem{な/である}の;Nounであるの |
| 困っているのをよそに | Indifferent to the fact that someone is having trouble | |
| 不便{な/である}のをよそに | Ignoring the inconvenience | |
| 不況であるのをよそに | Indifferent to the state of depression |
(a). 今回のイベントは、我々の心配をよそに多くの参加者を集め、大成功だった。
Despite our worries, many people participated in the event, so it turned out to be a big success.
(b). たび重なる妻の忠告をよそに、彼は酒もタバコもやめなかった。
Ignoring his wife's repeated advice, he never quit drinking and smoking.
(c). 彼はその恋を自身の最後の恋と感じて、周囲の警告をよそにのめり込んでいった。
Feeling that it would be his last chance for love, he ignored the warnings of those around him, and allowed himself to get deeply involved.
(d). ２００６年12月、様々な反対の声をよそに、教育基本法改正案が国会の十分な審議を経ることなく可決された。
In December 2006, the revision of the Fundamental Law of Education was passed without sufficient deliberation by the Diet, despite opposition from various sectors.
(e). 平和を希求する市民による核兵器廃絶への切なる願いをよそに、核兵器開発、核軍拡競争は、今なおとどまるところを知りません。
Despite the heartfelt pleas of peace-minded citizens who want to abolish all nuclear weapons, the nuclear arms race and the development of nuclear weapons still know no limits.
(f). 多くの国々が経済発展ばかりに躍起になっているのをよそに、この国は個人の豊かな生活を基盤にした幸福を追求している。
Contrary to the many countries in the world that enthusiastically pursue economic growth, this country is pursuing happiness based on an affluent life for individuals.
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Adverb
| An adverb meaning "truly," used when describing the way someone's action or behaviour appears. | Truly; really; as if; so; that way; like that |
| 【Related Expression: いかにも; まるで】 | |
(ksa). 浩二は冷めたコーヒーをさもまずそうに飲んだ。
Koji drank the cold coffee with a look that showed how bad it tasted.
(ksb). 古田はさも自分一人が苦労したように言っているが、実は彼は文句を言うばかりで何もしなかったのだ。
Furuta talks as if he suffered alone, but the truth of the matter is that he just complained and didn't do any work.
(ksc). 今すぐ病院に連れて行こう。さもないと手遅れになる。
Let's take him to the hospital right now. If we don't, it's going to be too late.
| (i)さも | {Adjective(い/な)stem/Vます}そう{に/な} | |
| さも嬉しそうに | Looking really happy; as if someone were happy | |
| さも嬉しそうな顔 | A face that shows someone is truly happy; the face of someone who is truly happy | |
| さも不自由そうに | As if someone really had trouble moving | |
| さも不自由そう歩き方 | A way of walking that shows someone really has trouble walking; a walk that looks as if someone has trouble moving easily | |
| さも誰にでもできそうに | As if anyone could do (it) | |
| さも誰にでもできそうな説明 | Instructions that sound as if anyone could do (it) | |
| (ii)さも～ | {V/Adjectiveい}informalよう{に/な} | |
| さも自分ができるように | As if someone were capable | |
| さも自分ができるような話し方 | A way of talking that sounds as if someone were capable | |
| さも自分が偉いように | As if someone were great | |
| さも自分が偉いような話し方 | A way of talking that sounds as if someone were great | |
| (iii)さも～ | Adjectiveなstem{な/だった}よう{に/な} | |
| さも自分が上手なように | As if someone were good at something | |
| さも自分が上手なような話し方 | A way of talking that sounds as if someone were good at something | |
| (iv)さも～ | Noun{の/だった}よう{に/な} | |
| さも自分が専門家のように | As if someone were an expert | |
| さも自分が専門家のような話し方 | A way of talking that sounds as if someone were an expert | |
| (v)さも～ | {V/Adjectiveい}informalみたい{に/な} | |
| さも自分ができるみたいに | As if someone were capable | |
| さも自分ができるみたいな話し方 | A way of talking that sounds as if someone were capable | |
| さも自分が偉いみたいに | As if someone were great | |
| さも自分が偉いみたいな話し方 | A way of talking that sounds as if someone were great | |
| (vi)さも～ | {Adjectiveなstem/Noun}{∅/だった}みたい{に/な} | |
| さも自分が上手みたいに | As if someone were good at something | |
| さも自分が上手みたい話し方 | A way of talking that sounds as if someone were good at something | |
| さも自分が専門家みたいに | As if someone were an expert | |
| さも自分が専門家みたいな話し方 | A way of talking that sounds as if someone were an expert |
(a). 係員はさも面倒くさそうに私の苦情を聞いていた。
The person in charge listened to my complaint with an expression that revealed it was truly bothersome.
(b). 彼女はさも忙しそうにしているが、本当は大した仕事なんかないのだ。
She acts as if she were truly busy, but really she doesn't have anything significant to work on.
(c). 子供たちはさも退屈そうな顔をして授業を聞いている。
The children are listening to the lecture looking really bored.
(d). 川村はいつもその話をさも自分自身の体験みたいに話しているが、本当はそれは私が彼に話したことなのだ。
Kawamura always tells that story as if it were his own experience, but actually I told it to him.
(e). 部長はさも当然のごとく私に日曜出勤を命じた。
The division chief ordered me to come to the office on Sunday as if it were a matter of course.
(f). そのプログラムは、操作説明書を見るとさも簡単に使えそうに書いてあるが、本当にそうなのだろうか。
When I read the operation manual, it sounds like the program is really easy to use, but I wonder if that's really true.
(g). 男はさも親しげに私に近寄ってきた。
The man approached me as if he knew me very well.
(h). あの「自分はさもワインの通ですよ」って感じの戸田の話し方はまったく嫌みだ。
Toda's way of talking (literally: That way Toda has of talking), as if he knew everything about wine, is truly offensive.
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Adverb/Conjunction
| An adverb/conjunction that represents the idea of "additionally" or "further". | Even ~er; even more; additional; more; further; furthermore; in addition |
| 【Related Expression: 一緒; なお; もっと; より; あと; もう; その上; ひいては; 且つ; なお】 | |
(ksa). 更に大きいハリケーンがテキサス南部を襲った。
An even larger hurricane struck South Texas.
(ksb). 前の翻訳も難しかったが今度のは更に難しい。
The last translation (job) was difficult, but this one is even harder.
(ksc). グローバル時代に向けて企業の国際化を更に強力に押し進める必要がある。
In our global age, we must promote the internationalization of businesses even more forcefully.
(ksd). 更に５００人の人員が整理される見通しだ。
It is expected that an additional 500 employees will be laid off.
| (i)更に | Adjective(い/な) | |
| 更に小さい | Even smaller | |
| 更に複雑な | Even more complex | |
| (ii)更に | Adverb | |
| 更に慎重に | Even more prudently | |
| (iii)更に | Number(+Counter) | |
| 更に３０時間 | An additional 30 hours | |
| (iv)更に | V/VP | |
| 更に調査する | Someone investigates something further | |
| 更に改良を加える | Someone makes further improvements |
(a). 我が国の経済は更に悪化しそうだ。
It looks like our nation's economy will worsen still further.
(b). 更に大型のジャンボジェットが開発されることになった。
It has been decided that an even larger jumbo jet will be developed.
(c). D社のノート型コンピュータが更に薄くなった。
Company D's laptop computers have become even thinner.
(d). 電化製品をディスカウントショップより更にお安く提供しております。
We provide electrical appliances even more cheaply than discount shops do.
(e). メモリが更に10パーセント値下げされた。
The price of the memory was lowered by an additional 10 percent.
(f). 今年は主要銀行の合併が更に進んだ。
More mergers took place among major banks this year.
(g). 鳥インフルエンザの被害が更に広がる恐れがある。
There is fear that the damage caused by bird flu will spread even further.
(h). センサーでデータを集め、これを更に同一チップ上の増幅器で増幅する。
Data is collected with a sensor and, furthermore, on the same chip the data is augmented with an amplifier.
(i). 開店日の来場者にはもれなく記念品を差し上げます。更に、抽選で50名の方に当店の商品券が当たります。
We'll give a commemorative souvenir to all customers on opening day. In addition, we'll give a gift certificate for our store to 50 people selected in a drawing.
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Interjection
| An interjection indicating that the speaker/writer is going to talk about something different. | Well; now; well now; so |
| 【Related Expression: ところで; さあ】 | |
(ksa). さて、私はそろそろ失礼します。
Well, I should be going now.
(ksb). さて、話は変わりますが、日本では今ちょっとした韓国ブームです。
Now, on another matter, Japan is undergoing quite a Korea boom at this time.
(ksc). さて、それでは本題に入りましょう。
Now I'm going to talk about the main topic.
(ksd). さて、ここで今までお話ししたポイントを復習してみましょう。
Now, let's review the points I have discussed so far.
(kse). ワールドカップ開幕！さて、今回はどこが勝つでしょうか。
The World Cup has begun! So, which country's going to win this time?
(ksf). さて、これからどうしようか。
Well, what shall we do now (literally: from now)?
(a). さて、先日お願いしました契約変更の件ですが、課内部でご検討いただけましたでしょうか。
Now, (I'd like to talk) about the contract change I requested the other day. Did you have a chance to discuss it within your department?
(b). さて、前回の講義の続きですが、覚えていますか。
Now, I'm going to continue where we left off in the previous lecture. Do you remember (what we covered before)?
(c). さて、次はスポーツです。
Now, let's turn to sports. [TV/radio news]
(d). ここに3枚のポートレートがあります。さて、吉永さんはどれでしょう。
Here are three portraits. So, which one is Ms. Yoshinaga?
(e). さて、もう寝ようかな。
Well, I guess I'll go to bed now.
(f). さて、困った。
Well, I'm in trouble.
(g). さて、何から始めようか。
So, what shall we begin with?
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Adverb
| An adverb that is used when the speaker thinks that someone or something is in an extreme state. | I Believe/I'm sure/I'm certain~ very/really/truly~; must be very/really/truly~ |
| 【Related Expression: きっと】 | |
(ksa). 被災地の人々はさぞかし困っているだろうと思う。
I imagine the people in the disaster-stricken areas are having a really hard time.
(ksb). 青森への単身赴任はさぞ(かし)大変でしょう。
Moving to Aomori (for a new assignment) without your family must be very tough.
| (i)さぞ(かし) | {V/Adjectiveい}informal{だろう/に違いない}/etc. | |
| さぞ(かし)喜んで{いる/いた}{だろう/に違いない}/etc. | Someone must be/have been very pleased | |
| さぞ(かし){美味しい/美味しかった}{だろう/に違いない}/etc. | Something must be/have been really delicious | |
| (ii)さぞ(かし) | Adjectiveなstem {∅/だった}{だろう/に違いない}/etc. | |
| さぞ(かし)不便{∅/だった}{だろう/に違いない}/etc. | Something must be/have been quite inconvenient |
(a). シカゴの冬はさぞ(かし)寒いに違いない。
I'm sure winter in Chicago will be very cold.
(b). 誕生日を忘れてしまったんだから、アリスはさぞ怒っているだろう。
I forgot her birthday, so I'm sure Alice is really mad.
(c). 彼女は大学合格の知らせを聞いてさぞ喜んだだろう。
She must have been so happy after hearing the news that she'd been accepted (to college)!
(d). 谷本先生は長旅でさぞかしお疲れだろうと思います。
I imagine Professor Tanimoto is quite tired after her long trip.
(e). もうすぐクリスマス。子供たちはさぞ楽しみなことでしょう。
Christmas is almost here. I'm sure children are really looking forward to it.
(f). 孝史はあの音が聞こえなかったのだから、さぞかしよく寝ていたに違いない。
Takashi didn't hear that sound, so he must have been sleeping very heavily.
(g). 彼はもう勝った後のことを話しているから、さぞかし自信があるんだろうね。
He's already talking about what happens after they win, so he must be really confident.
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Adverb
| A sentence-modifying adverb used when the speaker/writer comments on or questions a fundamental point. | In the first place; to begin with; first of all; the very (beginning/origin/etc.); original; first; fundamental |
| 【Related Expression: 第一; もともとの】 | |
(ksa). 私はそもそも、作品のいいところをコメントしないで欠点ばかり指摘する審査のやり方に賛成できない。
To begin with, I cannot agree with our way of judging where we point out only the flaws of a piece and never mention the good points.
(ksb). そもそもこんなところにスーパーを造ったことが問題だ。
The problem is that they built a supermarket in a place like this to begin with.
(ksc). そもそもどうしてこんなばかばかしい企画が通ったのでしょうか。
How was such a ridiculous plan approved in the first place?
| (i)そもそも | Sentence。 | |
| そもそもこの計画は実行不可能だ。 | In the first place, this plan can't be carried out | |
| (ii)そもそもの | Noun | |
| そもそもの動機 | The original motivation |
(a). 今回の事件のそもそもの起こりは、一人の社員が会社のパソコンをうちに持ち帰ったことにあった。
This whole incident started when an employee took one of the office computers home. (literally: The very origin of this incident was in the fact that an employee took one of the office computers home.)
(b). そもそも人間は一人で生きているのではない。
To begin with, humans are not solitary beings.
(c). そもさも電波って何なんでしょう。
So, what are radio waves in the first place?
(d). そもそも一体何で君がこのパーティーにいるんだ？
To begin with, why on earth are you at this party?
(e). 彼に期待したことがそもそもの間違いだった。
That we were hoping for great things from him was our first mistake.
(f). 契約書に誤訳があったのがそもそもの問題だ。
The fundamental problem was that there was a mistranslation in the contract.
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Phrase
| A phrase used to refer strictly to the preceding noun (phrase) or adjective. | Itself; themselves; very; perfect; the definition of; the picture of; absolutely; totally; utterly; perfectly |
| 【Related Expression: 自体; 自身】 | |
(ksa). マイナス思考ばかりしていると、人生そのものが駄目になる。
If you remain a negative thinker, your life itself will be ruined.
(ksb). 企画そのものは悪くない。
The plan itself is not bad.
(ksc). この国は独裁国家そのものだ。
This country is the perfect definition of an autocracy.
(ksd). わいせつ画像は、それそのものが問題なのではなく、それを誰が見るかが問題だと思う。
I think that obscene images themselves are not the problem; who sees them in the problem.
| (i)Noun | そのもの | |
| 技術そのもの | Technology itself | |
| それそのもの | That itself | |
| (ii)Adjectiveなstem | そのもの | |
| 温厚そのものだ | Someone is very gentle | |
| 温厚そのものの人柄 | A very gentle personality |
(a). 武田さんは今年８０歳だが、健康そのものだ。
Mr. Takeda is 80 this year and the picture of health.
(b). 私はこの団体の存在そのものを疑っている。
I doubt this group's very existence.
(c). 我々は外務省改革にとどまらず、現在の外交そのものの転換を望む。
Not only do we want to reform the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, but we hope the current diplomacy itself will change.
(d). 人間はその人の考えそのものである。
The epitome of a person is his or her thinking. (literally: A human being is his or her thought itself.)
(e). 私にとってバレーバールは人生そのものでした。
For me, volleyball was life itself.
(f). 土地は、それそのものは富を生み出さないが、その上で生産、販売などの経済活動を行うことで富を生み出す。
The land itself does not produce wealth, but wealth is produced when people conduct economic activities, such as production and sales, on it (literally: by (people's) conducting economic activities such as production and sales on it).
(g). お年寄りを狙い、強引な方法で家屋の修理契約を結ぶ手口は卑劣そのものだ。
(literally: Their way of) Aiming at the elderly and forcing them to sign a house repair contract is utterly contemptible.
(h). そのマニュアルは説明も図も明快そのもので、画像処理の知識がない者にもよく分かる。
The manual's explanations and figures are perfectly clear, so even people with no knowledge of image processing will be able to understand them well.
(i). 米倉さんは誠実そのものの人柄で知られている。
Ms. Yonekura is known for his totally sincere personality.
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Phrase
| An adverbial phrase indicating that the degree of something is proportionate to degree of the state, action or event mentioned in preceding sentence. | That much; to the same extent; to the same degree; equally |
(ksa). 株式投資は当たった時の利益は大きいが、それだけリスクも大きい。
You can make a big profit when you invest in the right stocks, but the risk (of loss) is just as big.
(ksb). この仕事は苦労も多いが、それだけやりがいもある。
This job is hard work, but to the same extent I also find it rewarding.
(ksc). 彼らは同じ宗教内の派閥だから、それだけ憎しみも大きいのかもしれない。
It might be that they hate each other that much more because they are in different sects of the same religion.
(ksd). 期待が大きいとそれだけ失望も大きくなってしまう。
If your expectations are high, your disappointment will be equally high.
(a). 大きな仕事をまかされたということは、それだけ期待されているということだろう。
That he was assigned a big job just shows what high hopes people have for him.
(b). たくさんのオプションがあるのはいいのだが、それだけ選択に悩むことにもなる。
It is good to have many options, but it means that it's that much harder to choose.
(c). 花粉症の薬は、眠くなるからそれだけ効くというわけではありません。
It's not true of pollen allergy drugs that the sleepier they make you, the more effective they are.
(d). できるだけ多く条件を指定すると、それだけ理想に近い人が検索されるはずです。
If you specify as many conditions as you can, your search should turn up someone that is much closer to your ideal.
(e). 情報の内容が二つのソースで一致するのなら、それだけ信用できるということではないだろうか。
If information from two sources is consistent, don't you think the information is that much more reliable?
(f). 子供にお金をかければそれだけ愛情を注いだことになる、という間違った思い込みがしばしばあるようだ。
It seems that it's a common, and mistaken, assumption that the amount of money you spend on your children equals the amount of affection you've given them.
(g). これに関する読者からの投書が最近増えているということは、それだけこの問題が注目されてきたということでしょう。
The fact that we have been getting more letters from readers recently about this problem shows how much more it is drawing people's attention.
(h). 販売経験が豊富な営業マンは、それだけ顧客の信頼も多く勝ち取るはずだ。
(Compared with those who are less experienced,) Sales representatives with a lot of experience should be all the more able to win their customers' trust.
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Phrase
| A phrase representing the idea that someone/something does something or is in a state in his/her/its own way, or in way suitable to situation or generally expected from situation. | In one's own way; accompanying; proportionate; suitable; expected; agreeable; reasonable; one's own; proper to |
| 【Related Expression: なりに/の】 | |
(ksa). 天才と言われる人にはそれなりの苦しみがあると思う。
I think people who are called geniuses suffer in their own way.
(ksb). クラシックもジャズもロックも、聞いてみればみなそれなりに面白い。
If you (really) listen to classical music, jazz and rock, each of them is interesting in its own way.
| (i)それなりに | {V/Adjective(い/な)/Noun+Copula} | |
| それなりに楽しめる | Something can be enjoyed in its own way | |
| それなりに美味しい | Something is tasty in its own way | |
| それなりに便利だ | Something is convenient in its own way | |
| それなりに傑作だ | Something is an excellent work in its own way | |
| (ii)それなりの | Noun | |
| それなりの利点 | Merits proper to something |
(a). 外国で仕事をするのは面白いが、それなりの苦労は覚悟しなければならない。
Working abroad is interesting, but you must expect a certain amount of hardship, too.
(b). 買った参考書はどれもみなそれなりに役に立っている。
All the reference books I have bought have been helpful in their own way.
(c). 選手たちはみんなそれなりに精一杯やっている。ただ結果が出ないだけだ。
All the players are giving it their best in their own way. We just haven't had the (expected) result.
(d). お金がなくてもそれなりに余暇を楽しむ方法はある。
Even if you don't have money, there are ways to enjoy your leisure in your own way.
(e). ほとんどの人は、悩みや問題があってもそれなりに暮らしているのだと思います。
I think that even though most people have worries and problems, they are living the best they can (literally: in their own ways).
(f). 上の地位にいればそれなりの責任がかかってくる。
If you are in a high-ranking position, you have to assume the responsibilities that come with it.
(g). きつい仕事にはそれなりの報酬を払うべきだ。
For a tough assignment we should pay appropriate compensation.
(h). 今年それなりの成績を上げることができれば、来年支店長に昇進できそうだ。
If I can achieve the expected performance this year, it looks like I'll be promoted to branch manager next year.
(i). それなりの収入があるのなら、結婚相手はすぐ見つかるはずです。
If you have a reasonable income, you should be able to find someone to marry soon.
(j). 彼が準決勝まで残ったということは、それなりの実力があるということだ。
The fact that he made it to the semifinals means that he had the right skills to take him that far.
(k). 彼女がみんなに好かれていないのはそれなりの理由がある。
There's a reason no one likes her (literally: she is not liked by everyone).
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Noun
| A noun that indicates the end of a period or the time after long, hard mental or physical work. | After; at the end of |
| 【Related Expression: あと(で); のち(に); あげく(に)】 | |
(ksa). さんざん迷った末に、友達の結婚祝いはコーヒーカップのセットを贈ることにした。
After much hesitation, I decided to give my friends a set of coffee cups as a wedding present.
(ksb). 試行錯誤の末(に)、やっと車に使える燃料電池ができた。
After much trial and error, we finally made a fuel cell battery that can be used in cars.
| (i)Nounの | 末(に) | |
| 今月の末(に) | At the end of this month | |
| 交渉の末(に) | After negotiation | |
| (ii)Vinformal past | 末(に) | |
| よく考えた末(に) | After thinking hard |
(a). 一週間悩んだ末(に)、家族をおいて単身赴任することにした。
After considering it for a week, I decided to leave my family behind and transfer to my new job alone.
(b). 両者は8時間にわたる交渉の末に、ついに合意に達した。
After eight hours of negotiation, both parties finally came to an agreement.
(c). 5時間を超える熱戦の末、タイガースが勝った。
After a close game lasting more than five hours, the Tigers won.
(d). M銀行とU銀行の合併交渉は１年以上も難航した末、やっと成立した。
After more than a year of difficult merger negotiations, M Bank and U Bank finally came to an agreement.
(e). 下書きを20枚近く失敗した末に、やっとなんとか気に入った絵ができた。
After almost twenty bad sketches, I finally managed to draw one I liked.
(f). 再就職は、苦労した末、過去のコンピュータ経験を評価してくれたIT関係の会社に決まりました。
After much trouble looking for a new job, I found one with an IT-related company that valued my previous computer experience.
(g). 男は走って逃げ、最後には暴れ回って抵抗した末に逮捕された。
The man tried to run away and, in the end, he was arrested after resisting violently.
(h). この案は、各国の意見が衝突した末の「妥協の産物」だった。
This plan was a product of compromise, reached after working through a clash of opinions between the countries.
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Verb
| A verb that means "to be finished; to do (in the sense of being enough)". | Take/cost/need/etc. only~; do/manage (without/only with); get by/get away (without/only with); be let off (without/only with); be enough (if); be all right (if); not to have to: there is no need for |
| 【Related Expression: 済ませる】 | |
(ksa). ちょっと顔を見せるだけで済むと思う。
I think just showing up for a while will be enough.
(ksb). 面接は20分で済んだ。
The interview took only 20 minutes.
(ksc). あまり難しい日本語ではなかったので、辞書なしで済んだ。
Because the Japanese (in it) was not very difficult, I managed (to read it) without a dictionary.
(ksd). 旅行先ではどこでもクレジットカードが使えたので、現金がなくても済んだ。
Everywhere I travelled I was able to use my credit card, so I could travel without cash.
(kse). これは黙っていて済む問題ではない。
This is not the kind of problem where you can get away with staying silent.
(ksf). 奨学金をもらったので、お金を借り{ずに/なくて(も)/ないで}済むと思う。
I've been given a scholarship, so I think I can get by without borrowing money.
(ksg). 解約したい時は、入会金だけ損をすれば済む。
When you want to cancel the agreement, all you will lose is the enrolment fee.
| (i)Number(+Counter)で | 済む | |
| ２０ドルで済む | Something costs only 20 dollars | |
| (ii)Noun {(だけ)/なし}で | 済む | |
| 電話(だけ)で済む | (just) a telephone call is enough | |
| 検査なしで済む | Not have to have/give an examination; do without an exam | |
| (iii)Nounがなくても | 済む | |
| 携帯電話がなくても済む | Manage without a cell phone | |
| (iv){Vて/Adjectiveいstem} | くて済む | |
| 謝って済む | Get away with just apologising | |
| 安くて済む | Something costs only a little | |
| (v)Vinformalだけで | 済む | |
| 行くだけで済む | Just going is enough; get by with just going | |
| (vi)Vnegative {ずに/なくて(も)/ないで} | 済む | Exception: する→せずに |
| 行か{ずに/なくて(も)/ないで}済む | Do not have to go; be all right if someone doesn't go | |
| (vii){Vconditionalば/Vinformal past}ら | 済む | |
| {借りれば/借りたら}済む | Be all right if someone borrows something |
(a). この程度の翻訳なら3日で済むだろう。
Three days should be enough for a translation like this.
(b). この方法だと今のシステムの大部分がそのまま使えるので、新たな投資が最小で済む。
Because this approach would allow us to use most of the current system, our new investment will be minimal (literally: we could get by with a minimal investment).
(c). 徒歩あるいは自転車で済むところへ車で行く無駄をしていませんか。
Aren't you being wasteful by driving places where you could walk or go by bicycle?
(d). 15キロオーバーだったが、幸い警告だけで済んだ。
It was 15 km/hr above (the speed limit), but fortunately I got off with just a warning.
(e). こんな大きな失敗をして「ごめん」「知らなかった」では済まない。
You can't excuse a major mistake like this just by saying, "Sorry," or "I didn't know."
(f). 電動自転車はモーターの力だけで動くことはないから、法律上「自転車」とされ、運転免許もヘルメットもなしで済む。
Because electric bicycles are not powered solely by motor, the law classifies them as bicycles, so you can ride them without either a driver's license or a helmet.
(g). ここからは地下鉄でどこへでも行けるから車がなくても済む。
From here we can go anywhere by subway, so we don't need a car.
(h). 謝って済むことと済まないことがある。
Sometimes an apology is not enough. (literally: There are things that can be settled by apologizing and things that cannot.)
(i). ヘルメットをかぶっていたので、怪我が軽くて済んだ。
Because I was wearing a helmet, I suffered only minor injuries.
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Conjunction
| A conjunction that introduces a supplementary remark. | But; however; only; the only thing is that~ |
| 【Related Expression: なお; もっとも; ただし】 | |
(ksa). この辺りは駅にもスーパーにも近くて便利だ。ただ環境があまりよくない。
This area is close to both the station and a supermarket, so it's convenient, but the environment is not very good.
(ksb). とてもいいコンピュータだと思います。ただ値段が問題ですね。
I think this is a very good computer. But, the price is a problem.
| (i)Sentence1。 | ただ、Sentence2。 |
| (ii)Sentence1 {が/けど}、 | だたSentence2。 |
(a). 彼はいい人だ{が/けど}、ただちょっと考えが浅いところが気になる。
He is a nice person, only I'm concerned that he is a little shallow.
(b). この故障は直せないことはないと思います。ただ時間がかかると思います。
It's not impossible to repair this problem, only I think it'll take time.
(c). とても静かでいいうちだ。ただ近くに店がないので買い物は不便だ。
It is a very quiet and nice house, only there are no shops nearby, so it's inconvenient for shopping.
(d). このデジカメ優れた機能をたくさん持っている。ただユーザーインターフェースが悪くて使いにくいのが難点だ。
This digital camera has many outstanding functions. However, the problem is that it's hard to use because the user interface is bad.
(e). たいていのことは私がいなくても他の者が代わりにやってくれるが、ただこの仕事は他の者に頼むわけにはいかない。
For most things, if I'm not available others can do it for me; however, as far as this job is concerned, I cannot ask someone else to do it for me.
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Conjunction
| A conjunction indicating that there is a condition, restriction, proviso, etc., to the preceding statement. | However; but; only; here; provided that |
| 【Related Expression: ただ】 | |
(ksa). この部屋にある雑誌や本はどれを見てもいいです。但し、部屋からは持ち出さないで下さい。
You may look at any of the magazines or books in this room. However, please do not take them out of the room.
(ksb). 当館の開館時間は午前9時から午後６時まで。但し、特別行事がある場合はこの限りではない。
This hall is open from 9 a.m. to 6 pm. However, for special events, the hall is not limited to these hours.
| Sentence1。 | 但し、Sentence。 |
(a). 試験の時、辞書を見てもいいです。但し、和英辞典だけです。
You may consult dictionaries' during the exam. However, (you may use) only Japanese-English dictionaries.
(b). この製品は定価の3割引きで販売しています。但し、返品はできません。
We sell this product at 30 percent off the list price. But we cannot accept returns.
(c). 問題があったらいつでも相談して下さい。但し、お金の問題は相談に乗れません。
Please (feel free to) talk to me whenever you have a problem. However, I cannot help you with money matters.
(d). 発表のトピックは何でもかまいません。但し、発表時間は20分以内です。
You can choose any topic for your presentation. However, the presentation should be 20 minutes or fewer.
(e). 実習時間は午前8時30分から午後5時30分まで。但し、12時から1時までは休憩時間とする。
The hours of the internship are from 8:30 a.m. to 5:30 p.m. However, there will be a break from 12:00 to 1:00.
(f). 総会の議決は会員の過半数を以って決定される。但し、規定改定はこの限りではない。
Decisions at the general meeting are passed by a majority of the members. However this does not apply to revisions of the regulations.
(g). 第７条(出張の経路等)出張の経路とその利用交通機関は、経済性を重視して選ぶことを原則とする。但し、特別の理由がある場合はこの限りではない。
Article 7 (Routes of business trips, etc.): As a rule, for business travel, choose routes and means of transportation with economy in mind (literally: placing the most importance on economy). However, there can be exceptions when there is a special rea
(h). V＝IR但し、VはAB間の電位差、Iは電流、Rは抵抗
V=IR where V is the potential difference between Points A and B, I is the electric current, and R is the resistance.
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Noun Modifier
| A noun modifier used when speaker thinks little of referent of modified noun/noun phrase. | Only; just; mere |
| 【Related Expression: ただの; たった】 | |
(ksa). たかが子供の言ったことだ。そんなに深刻に考えることはない。
It's just something a child told you. You don't have to take it so seriously.
(ksb). たかが漫画(くらい)と馬鹿にしてはいけない。
You shouldn't make light of it saying it's just a cartoon.
(ksc). たかが車の故障(くらい)でそんなに大騒ぎする必要はない。
You don't need to make such a big fuss over a little car trouble.
(ksd). たかが無断で自転車を借りたくらい(のこと)でそんなに怒らなくてもいいでしょう。
You don't have to get so mad at me just for borrowing your bicycle without asking.
(kse). 人間一人の知恵などたかが知れている。
One person's wisdom doesn't amount to much.
| (i)たかが | Nounだ | |
| たかが子供だ | Someone is only a child | |
| (ii)たかが | {Noun/Number(+Counter)} (くらい){と/で} | |
| たかがレポート(くらい)と | Thinking/saying that it's only a report | |
| たかがレポート(くらい)で | Over just a report | |
| たかが二人(くらい)と | Thinking/saying that (there are only) two people | |
| たかが二人(くらい)で | With just two people | |
| (iii)たかが～ | {V/Adjectiveい}informal くらい (のこと)で | |
| たかが英語が{できる/できた}くらい (のこと)で | Just because someone can/could speak English; just for (things like) being able to speak English | |
| たかが成績{悪い/悪かった}くらい (のこと)で | Just because someone's performance is/was poor; just for (things like) someone's poor performance | |
| (iv)たかが～ | {な/だった} くらい (のこと)で | |
| たかが料理が下手{な/だった} くらい (のこと)で | Just because someone is/was bad a cooking; just for (something like) being a poor cook |
(a). たかが喫煙じゃないか。どうしてそんなに犯罪者のように言われなきゃならないんだ。
It's only smoking. Why do they have to talk about us as if we were criminals?
(b). たかがノートくらいと言われるかもしれませんが、僕にとってはとても大事なものなんです。
You may say it's just a notebook, but to me it's very important.
(c). たかが１０万円で何ができると言うのですか。
What do you expect us to do with only 100,000 yen?
(d). たかがアパート探しくらいで君に面倒をかけたくない。
I don't want to bother you with just apartment hunting.
(e). たかが転んだくらいで救急車を呼ぶなんて大げさだ。
It is overreacting to call an ambulance just for falling down.
(f). 公共事業によって景気が回復する領域などたかが知れている。
There's hardly any area in which the economy can be improved through public projects.
(g). たかが椅子。しかし、これによって仕事の能率が大きく左右されるし健康にも影響する。
It's just (a matter of) a chair. But it can affect your productivity at work and influence your health.
(h). たかが風邪、されど風邪。
It's just a cold, but it is a cold.
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Conjunction
| A conjunction indicating that a situation or condition remains unaltered. | Without; while~ staying; while~ keep ~ing |
| 【Related Expression: まま(で)】 | |
(ksa). 彼は椅子に腰掛けたなり(で)、ずっと黙っていた。
He sat in the chair and stayed there, silent the whole time.
(ksb). 片足を上げたなりの格好で、数秒間目をつぶるように言われた。
I was told to close my eyes for a few seconds while I kept lifting one foot off the ground.
| (i)Vinformal past | なり(で) | |
| 行ったなり(で) | Someone went there never to return | |
| 横になったなり(で) | Someone lay down (without getting up) | |
| (ii)Vinformal past | なりのNoun | |
| 立ったなりの姿勢 | A standing posture (maintained) |
(a). 純一は17歳の時にフランスに行ったなりで、日本には帰らず画家になって、今ではモンマルトルに住みついている。
Junichi went to France when he was 17 and never came back to Japan; he became a painter and now has settled in Montmartre.
(b). エリサは『源氏物語』を買ったなり、一ページも読まず、本棚に置きっぱなしだった。
Elisa bought The Tale of Genji, but she left it on the bookshelf without reading a single page.
(c). 彼は私の部屋の入り口に突っ立ったなりでニヤニヤ笑っていた。
My sweetheart stood at the entrance to my room, grinning.
(d). 妻がドアを開けてくれたんですけど、私はもう倒れたなりで、体が動きませんでした。
My wife opened the door for me, but I had fallen down and couldn't move an inch.
(e). 腰をよじったなりの姿勢で長時間座っていたので、立てないほど腰が痛くなった。
Because I was sitting for a long time with my lower back twisted, it hurt so much I couldn't stand up.
(f). 人形がほこりをかぶったなりで棚に乗っかっている。
The doll sits on a shelf, covered with dust.
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Phrase
| A phrase that indicates the smallest amount, number or unit of something (or people) involved. | By the; in sets/groups/lots/etc. of; in multiples of; each; every |
| 【Related Expression: ずつ; ごとに】 | |
(ksa). このATMは千円単位でお金を引き出すことができる。
You can withdraw money from this ATM in multiples of 1,000 yen.
(ksb). この社内調査では課単位でリサイクル実施率を調べる。
This in-house investigation will examine the recycling rate for each section.
(ksc). 日本では湯飲みは5個単位で売られることが多い。
In Japan, tea cups are often sold in sets of five.
| (i)(Number+) Counter | 単位で | |
| 十人単位で | In groups of ten | |
| (ii)Unit | 単位で | |
| 市単位で | By city |
(a). 我が社は今回のアジアからの労働者派遣が成功した場合には、次回から規模を大幅に拡大し、千人単位で派遣する予定だ。
If our company's plan to send labourers from Asia is successful this time, next time we will greatly expand the scale and send labourers in groups of 1,000.
(b). B社の新しいデータ通信サービスは、最低契約量である１５０時間分のデータ通信を１分単位で利用できる。
B Company's new data communication service allows the user to transmit and receive data in one-minute units for a minimum contract amount of 150 hours.
(c). オンライン書店のZ社は、本をページまたは章単位で販売するそうだ。
They say the online bookstore Z is going to sell books by the page or the chapter.
(d). このプロジェクト管理ソフトの新バージョンでは、これまで日単位で行われていた計画と管理を時間・分単位で行えるようになった。
This new version of the project management software application allows us to plan and manage (our operations) by the hour and minute, instead of the day.
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Adverb
| An adverb that means "simply" | Just; only; simply; no more than; nothing but; solely; merely; alone |
| 【Related Expression: ただ; に過ぎない】 | |
(ksa). これは単に文化の違いの問題だ。
This is simply a matter/problem of cultural differences.
(ksb). この車は単にボディーのデザインを変えただけだ。
They did nothing more to this car than change the body design.
(ksc). 仕事が難しいのではなく、単に私が不器用なだけです。
It's not that the job is difficult; it's simply that I'm clumsy.
(ksd). 円高の影響は単に輸出だけにとどまらない。
The effects of the high yen are not limited to exports.
(kse). これは単に私個人の意見に過ぎない。
This is nothing more than my personal opinion.
| (i)単に | NPだ | |
| 単に選択の問題だ | Something is simply a matter of choice | |
| (ii)単に | {V/Adjectiveい}informalだけ | |
| 単に(英語を){話す/話した}だけ | Simply that someone speaks/spoke (English) | |
| 単に(手数料が){安い/安かった}だけ | Simply that (the handling charge) is/was low | |
| (iii)単に | Adjectiveなstem {な/である/だった/であった}だけ | |
| 単に(周りが)静か{な/である/だった/であった}だけ | Simply that (the neighbourhood) is/was quiet | |
| (iv)単に | Noun{である/だった/であった}だけ | |
| 単に(先生が)外国人{である/だった/であった}だけ | Simply that (the teacher) is/was a foreigner | |
| (v)単に | NPだけParticle | |
| 単に学会の報告がけ(が/を/に/で/etc.) | Just the conference report (is/was/etc.); (read/copy/etc.) just the conference report; just (in/with/etc.) the conference report | |
| (vi)単に | ||
| 単に根拠のない噂に過ぎない | Something is nothing more than a groundless rumour |
(a). それは単に解釈の問題だ。
It's simply an issue of interpretation.
(b). これは単にあなた一人の問題ではない。
This is not just a problem for you alone.
(c). この文章は単に原文を直訳しただけだ。
This text is simply something that was translated literally from the original.
(d). 当ホテルは単に安いだけでなく、行き届いたサービスで快適にお過ごしいただけます。
Our hotel is not simply inexpensive; with our comprehensive array of services, you can stay (with us) in comfort.
(e). 今は単に多くの利益を上げているだけでは一流企業とは言えない。
Today, a company that simply racks up large profits cannot be called a first-class company.
(f). このカメラは、単に被写体にカメラを向けてシャッターを押すだけで高画質の写真を撮ることができる。
With this camera you can take high quality pictures just by holding it toward an object and clicking the shutter.
(g). 彼は考えが一貫しているのではなく、単に頑固なだけだ。
He is not consistent in his thinking; he's simply stubborn.
(h). 私は単に生まれがドイツだっただけで、ドイツ語はもちろんドイツのことは何も知らない。
Germany is no more than my birthplace (literally: It is simply that my birthplace is Germany), so I know nothing about Germany, let alone German.
(i). 雅夫は単に数学だけができないのではない。
It's not that Masao is poor only at math.
(j). この場合、単にアグネスだけを非難するのは間違っている。
In this case, it's wrong to blame only Agnes.
(k). それは単に君の憶測に過ぎない。
It's nothing more than your speculation.
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Compound Particle
| A compound particle used to present a subtopic about which the writer provides surprising or impressive information. | When it comes to~; speaking of |
| 【Related Expression: ときたら; は】 | |
(ksa). この湖にはここにしかいないという生物がおり、その数たるや50種類を超える。
There are creatures in this lake that exist only here; in fact, there are more than 50 species.
| Noun | たるや | |
| その成績たるや | When it comes to someone's performance |
(a). ノーベル文学賞はどうやって選考するのだろう。1年間に世界で発表される文学作品の数たるや膨大なものだと思うのだが。
How do they ever choose (who wins) the Nobel Prize in Literature? (I think) The number of works of literature published around the world in a year must be enormous.
(b). １９８７年春、彼はついにデビューを果たした。しかし、その初戦の結果たるや散々なものだった。
In the spring of 1987, he finally made his debut. But, the result of that first match was so miserable.
(c). 彼のバンジョーは最高だ。特にその速弾きテクニックたるやたぶん世界でも彼の右に出る者はいないのではないだろうか。
His banjo playing is the best. Particularly when it comes to his fast plucking technique, I can't imagine anyone in the world who could do it better.
(d). このダイエット教室の参加費は決して安くはないが、その効果たるや絶大である。
The fee for joining this diet class is certainly not cheap, but the results are tremendous!
(e). ロボカップは、サッカーをするロボットの世界一を競う大会である。１９９７年に名古屋で第1回大会が開かれて以来、国際大会が毎年開かれてきたが、その間の「選手」の技量の向上たるや著しい。
RoboCup is a competition where soccer-playing robots compete to be first in the world. Since the first championship was held in Nagoya in 1997, an international competition has been held every year, and the "players'" skills have shown remarkable improve
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Conjunction (usually used in conversation)
| The informal form of ても. | Even if; if; whether; no matter what/who/how/etc. |
| 【Related Expression: ても】 | |
(ksa). 一人で旅行に行ったって面白くない。
It's not fun traveling (literally: if I travel) alone.
(ksb). 私は少しくらい高く(っ)たって、質のいいものを買うことにしている。
I make it a rule to buy good quality things even if they are a little more expensive.
(ksc). いくら日本語が上手だって専門知識がなかったらこの翻訳はできないよ。
No matter how good someone's Japanese is, he/she cannot do this translation without technical knowledge (in this field).
(ksd). プロだって失敗することもある。
Even professionals make mistakes. (literally: Even if he is a professional, there are times when he makes a mistake.
| (i)Vinformal past | って | |
| =帰っても | 帰ったって | Even if someone returns |
| =見ても | 見たって | Even if someone looks at something |
| (ii)Adjectiveいstemく | (っ)たって | |
| =高くても | 高く(っ)たって | Even if something is expensive |
| (iii){Adjectiveなstem/Noun} | だって | |
| =不便でも | 不便だって | Even if something is inconvenient |
| =学生でも | 学生だって | Even if someone is a student |
| (iv){Vnegative/Adjectiveいstemく/じゃ/Nounじゃ} | なく(っ)たって | |
| =行かなくても | 行かなく(っ)たって | Even if someone does not go |
| =安くなくても | 安くなく(っ)たって | Even if something is not cheap |
| =便利じゃなくても | 便利じゃなく(っ)たって | Even if something is not convenient |
| =学生じゃなくても | 学生じゃなく(っ)たって | Even if someone is not a student |
(a). 仕事を変えたって問題は解決しない。
Even if you change your job, it won't solve the problem.
(b). 苦しくったって諦めちゃいけない。
Even if it's a struggle, you shouldn't give up.
(c). 古くたって新しくたって、よいものはよいのだ。
Whether it's old or new, a good thing is good.
(d). いくら通勤に便利だってこの家賃は高すぎる。
No matter how convenient (the location) is for commuting, the rent is too high.
(e). 誰だってそんなことを言われたら腹が立つよ。
No matter who it is, anyone would get mad if you said that to him.
(f). コンピュータがなくったってこの仕事はできる。
You can do this job even if you don't have a computer.
(g). 自分で料理しなくたって、お金さえ出せば食べたいものが簡単に手に入るようになった。
Even if you don't cook yourself, you can easily get what you want to eat now if you just pay for it.
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Phrase (usually used in conversation)
| The contracted form of と言っても or としても. | Even if (someone says that); even if someone tries to; although |
| 【Related Expression: ようにも(~ない)】 | |
(ksa). 一人でしよう(っ)たって、それは無理だ。
You'll never be able to do it alone! (literally: Even if you try to do it alone, that's impossible.)
(ksb). 今すぐ買いに行く(っ)たって、もう店はみんな閉まっている。
Even if you wanted to go buy it right now, the stores are all already closed.
(ksc). 高い(っ)たって、１００万円はしないだろう。
Even though it's said to be expensive, my guess is it won't cost more than one million yen.
(ksd). 日本語教育の経験者(だ)ったって、彼女はまだ日本以外で教えたことはない。
Although she has experience teaching Japanese, she hasn't yet taught anywhere outside of Japan.
| (i)Vvolitional | (っ)たって | |
| 飲もう(っ)たって | Even if you try to drink | |
| (ii)Vinformal | (っ)たって | |
| 飲む(っ)たって | Even if you say you will drink | |
| 飲んだったって | Even if you say you drank | |
| (iii)Adjectiveいinformal | (っ)たって | |
| 高い(っ)たって | Even if you say something is expensive | |
| 高かったったって | Even if you say something was expensive | |
| (iv){Adjectiveなstem/Noun} | {∅/だ/だった}ったって | |
| 便利{∅/だ/だった}ったって | Even if you say something is/was convenient | |
| 学生{∅/だ/だった}ったって | Even if you say someone is/was a student |
(a). あの家は君が買おうったって買えるようなものじゃない。
That house is not something you could buy even if you wanted to.
(b). 僕を騙そうったってそうはいかない。
It won't work if you try to cheat me.
(c). 彼が何を言おうったってそれをとめようとは思わない。
Whatever he may want to say, I don't think I'll stop it.
(d). 今から帰るったってもう電車はないよ。
There are no more trains even if (you say) you want to go home now.
(e). 調べるったって、こんなたくさんある資料を一人で調べるのは無理だ。
Even if you say you'll look through the materials, it's impossible for you to do it alone because there are so many.
(f). 近いったってとても歩いて行ける距離じゃない。
Although (I say) it's close, it's not a distance you can walk at all.
(g). いくら簡単ったって、やっぱり最低限のパソコン知識がなくては使えない。
No matter how simple (they say) it is, in fact you won't be able to use it without a minimum knowledge of computers.
(h). 「断食」ったって、全く何も口に入れないんじゃない。1日に2回、野菜ジュースを飲むことはできる。
Although I say "fasting," it's not like you can't put anything in your mouth. You can drink vegetable juice twice a day.
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Phrase
| A phrase representing the idea that someone cannot just keep doing something or waste time being consumed by some emotion. | Cannot just; cannot always; cannot just keep ~ing; cannot spend time just ~ing; cannot waste time just ~ing |
(ksa). 過去の業績に安住してばかりはいられない。
We just cannot be content with our past performance.
(ksb). 確かにこれは深刻な事態だが、議論ばかりしてはいられない。
Indeed, this is a serious situation, but we cannot just keep discussing it.
(ksc). 周りの人が助けてくれるからと言って、いつまでも人にばかり頼ってはいられない。
Just because the people around me have helped me out in the past, I can't depend on others endlessly.
| (i)Vて | ばかりはいられない | |
| 泣いてばかりはいられない | Cannot just keep crying | |
| (ii)VN | {してばかりはいられない/ばかりはしていられない} | |
| 心配{してばかりはいられない/ばかりはしていられない} | Cannot just worry about something | |
| (iii)Noun | {Particle+Vてばかりはいられない/ (Particle)ばかりVてはいられない} | |
| 本を読んでばかりはいられない | Cannot just read books; cannot always read books | |
| 本ばかり読んではいられない | Cannot read just books; cannot always read books | |
| 親から借りでばかりはいられない | Cannot just borrow something from one's parents; cannot always borrow something from one's parents | |
| 親からばかり借りてはいられない | Cannot just borrow something from one's parents; cannot always borrow something from one's parents |
(a). やっと長年の夢であったマイホーム手に入れたが、喜んでばかりはいられない。これから大きなローンを返していかなければならないのだ。
I finally own a house, which I have hoped to do for years, but I can't remain excited for long. Now I have a huge loan to repay.
(b). リストラのショックからまだ完全に立ち直ったわけじゃないけど、いつまでも落ち込んでばかりもいられない。すぐに仕事探しを始めなければ。
I haven't fully recovered from the shock of being laid off (literally: the restructuring shock), but I cannot waste my time just feeling depressed. I have to start looking for a job right away.
(c). 希望の学校に入れなかったからと言って、くじけてばかりはいられない。
I just can't let it get me down because I didn't get into the school I wanted.
(d). 人の成功に感心ばかりしてはいられない。我々ももっと頑張らなければ。
We can't just sit around being impressed by someone else's success. We have to work harder, too.
(e). 障害の原因ばかり考えてもいられない。早急に失われたデータを回復する必要がある。
We can't just keep thinking about what caused the trouble. We have to recover the lost data immediately.
(f). 退職して悠々自適の生活ができるようになったが、家にばかりこもってもいられないのでボランティアの仕事を始めた。
Now that I'm retired I can live as I like, but I just can't stay at home, so I've begun to do volunteer work.
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Structure
| A structure meaning "even if someone does something repeatedly". | No matter how much/often/hard/etc.; no matter how many times |
| 【Related Expression: いくら~ても】 | |
(ks). 考えても考えても思い出せない。
No matter how much/hard I try (literally: think), I cannot remember it.
| V1 | てもV2ても | Where V1=V2 |
| 飲んでも飲んでも | No matter how much I drink |
(a). 働いても働いてもお金が貯まらない。
No matter how much/hard I work, I cannot save money.
(b). 掘っても掘っても水は出てこなかった。
No matter how much/deep I dug, I didn't hit water.
(c). 歩いても歩いても町が見えてこない。
No matter how far I walk, I can't see (the next) town.
(d). 練習しても練習してもゴルフがうまくならない。
No matter how hard I practice, my golf does not improve.
(e). 暑い上に湿度が高いので、拭っても拭っても汗が吹き出してくる。
Because it's hot and humid (literally: it is humid on top of being hot), I sweat no matter how many times/much I wipe (my face).
(f). このクラスの学生は教えても教えても覚えないので、教えがいがない。
Because the students in this class never learn no matter how many times I teach them (the same things), I feel like it's not worth teaching them.
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Phrase
| A phrase that represents emotions the speaker/writer cannot control or sensations/situations he/she cannot bear. | Cannot help ~ing; cannot stop feeling; (so~ and) cannot control~; so~ and~ cannot bare it; so; unbearably |
| 【Related Expression: てならない; て堪らない; (とい)ったらない】 | |
(ksa). 会社の理不尽なリストラに腹が立って仕方がない。
I'm so mad at the company's unreasonable restructuring (i.e., laying off workers) (and cannot control my anger).
(ksb). 久しぶりに妻や子供たちに会えるので嬉しくて仕方がない。
Because I get to see my wife and children for the first time in a long while, I am so happy (and can hardly control my emotion).
(ksc). ここは何もすることがないので退屈で仕方がない。
Because I have nothing to do here, I'm unbearably bored.
| (i)Verb | て仕方がない | |
| 喉が乾いて仕方がない | (I) am so thirsty (and cannot bear it) | |
| (ii)Adjectiveいstemく | て仕方がない | |
| 悲しくて仕方がない | (I) am so sad (and can hardly control (my) emotion) | |
| (iii)Adjectiveな | で仕方がない | |
| いやで仕方がない | (I) dislike it so much (and (I)) can hardly control (my) emotion |
(a). アンディーがアメリカに帰ってまだ二日しか経っていないのに、寂しくて仕方がない。
Although it's been only two days since Andy went back to America, I miss him so much (literally: I'm so lonely and can hardly control my emotion).
(b). こんなすばらしい建物が取り壊されるのかと思うと残念で仕方がない。
I feel so bad when I think that such a wonderful building is going to be demolished.
(c). ボーイフレンドが一年の日本留学を終えて来週帰ってくる。早く会いたくて仕方がない。
My boyfriend is coming back next week after finishing his year of study in Japan. I'm dying to see him (literally: I want to see him soon so much)!
(d). 悪い風邪を引いたらしい。咳が出て仕方がない。
I seem to have a bad cold. I cannot control my coughing.
(e). ここは空港のすぐ近くなので飛行機の音がうるさくて仕方がない。
Because this place is close to an airport, the noise from the airplanes is unbearable.
(f). この参考書は索引が不完全なので使いにくくて仕方がない。
Because this reference book has an incomplete index, it is so hard to use.
(g). 私のうちは近くにスーパーもコンビニもないので不便で仕方がない。
Because there is neither a supermarket nor a convenience store near my house, it is unbearably inconvenient.
(h). 先週、学会で会った女性が気になって仕方がない。
I cannot stop thinking about the woman I met at the academic conference last week.
(i). 母親になった途端に自分の子供がよその子供より可愛く思えて仕方がない。
As soon as I became a mother, I couldn't help thinking that my child was cuter than other children.
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Phrase
| A phrase that is used when someone cannot be doing something or be in some state due to a given situation. | Cannot/shouldn't be ~ing; cannot/shouldn't keep ~ing; cannot/shouldn't (stay/remain/etc.); cannot/shouldn't waste time ~ing; cannot afford to; cannot help ~ing |
| 【Related Expression: ずにはいられない; わけにはいかない】 | |
(ksa). 将来のことを考えると、いつまでもこんな仕事をしてはいられない。
When I think about the future, (I realise) I can't keep doing this kind of work forever.
(ksb). 彼女があまりにも自分勝手だったので、一言言わないではいられなかった。
Because she was acting so selfishly, I couldn't resist saying something to her.
(ksc). 彼が好きだと気づいた時から、もうただの友達ではいられなくなった。
Once I realised that I loved him, I couldn't be just a friend anymore.
| (i)Verb | てはいられない | |
| 寝てはいられない | Cannot stay in bed | |
| (ii)Vnegative | ではいられない | |
| 話さないではいられない | Cannot keep from talking | |
| (iii){Adjectiveなstem/ Noun} | ではいられない | |
| 平静ではいられない | Cannot remain calm | |
| いつまでも子供ではいられない | Cannot be a child forever |
(a). もうすぐ飛行機が出るのでぐずぐずしてはいられない。
My plane is departing soon, so I cannot afford to dawdle.
(b). やることがたくさんあるのでパーティーなんかに行ってはいられない。
I have so many things to do that I can't spend my time going to parties.
(c). 自分にも同じ口癖があるので人のことを笑ってはいられない。
I have the same speech habits, so I can't afford to laugh at other people.
(d). あの教え方を見ていると時代錯誤を感じないではいられない。
When I see that teaching method, I can't help thinking how outdated it is.
(e). 忙しい時代に生まれ、時間に追われがちな今の子供たちを案じないではいられない。
I cannot help being concerned about today's children, who were born in such a busy age and who tend to be pressed for time.
(f). 私は一日も本なしではいられない。
I can't go even a day without books.
(g). よその国の事件とは言え、同じようなことはこの国でも起きる可能性がある。とても無関心ではいられない。
Although that incident was in another country, it could happen in this country, too. I simply can't remain indifferent.
(h). 彼女は日本中のみんなに期待されているので、もう普通の選手ではいられなくなった。
With Japan's hopes riding on her, she can no longer be just an ordinary player.
(i). 地球環境は急速に悪化している。いつまでもこのままではいられない。
The earth's environment is worsening rapidly. We just can't continue to do nothing.
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Phrase (usually used in formal writing and formal speech)
| A phrase that introduces a reason when the speaker/writer considers it natural that someone does something or is in some state, or that something takes place for that reason. | Because~, ~ as expected; because~, naturally~; because |
| 【Related Expression: ので; から】 | |
(ksa). ボーナス後の連休とあって、観光地はどこも人でいっぱいだ。
Because this is the series of holidays after the bonus season, (not surprisingly) all the tourist spots are crowded.
(ksb). 夏休みが始まったとあって、子供たちはみんな嬉しそうだ。
Summer vacation has begun, so the children all look happy.
| (i)NP | とあって | |
| 病気とあって | Because someone is ill | |
| (ii)Sinformal | とあって | だ after Adjectiveなstem and Noun is omitted |
| 韓国語ができるとあって | Because someone can speak Korean | |
| タクシーの方が安いとあって | Because a taxi is cheaper | |
| ノートパソコンの方が便利とあって | Because a laptop computer is more convenient | |
| 父親が医者とあって | Because someone's father is a doctor |
(a). 優勝を争うチーム同士の対決とあって、スタジアムは超満員だ。
Because this is the match between the teams competing for the championship, the stadium is packed beyond capacity.
(b). 人気作家のサイン会とあって、本屋にはサインを求める人たちが長い列を作った。
Because it was the autograph session for a popular writer, people (who wanted his autograph) made a long line at the bookstore.
(c). レポートの締め切りがあさってとあって、学生たちはみんな焦っている。
Because the deadline for the paper is the day after tomorrow, the students are all panicking.
(d). 掃除が終わったらお菓子がもらえるとあって、子供たちは一生懸命手伝っている。
Because they know they'll get sweets after they finish cleaning, the children are doing their very best to help out.
(e). 中途半端な訓練では実社会で通用しないとあって、この語学学校の指導は非常に厳しい。
Because slapdash training does not help students function in the real world, the teaching at this language institution is very strict.
(f). この社会人プログラムは、科目を低額で聴講できるだけでなく、自習室や図書館も自由に利用できるとあって、かなりの応募があります。
Because this program for professionals not only allows students to audit courses cheaply but lets them use study rooms and the library freely, we receive quite a few applications.
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Phrase
| A conditional phrase that indirectly presents a factual situation as a reason. | If it is true that; if it is the case that; if; because; since |
| 【Related Expression: (の)であれば; (の)なら; (の)だから; (な)ので】 | |
(ksa). 社長の頼みとあっては断るわけにはいかない。
If (it's true that) it's a favour for the president, I can't say no.
(ksb). 全商品が3割引きで買えるとあっては、遠方からわざわざ人が買いに来るのもうなずける。
If (it's true that) you can buy everything at 30% off, I understand why people come from far away to shop (here).
| (i)NP | とあっては | |
| 病気とあっては | If it's true that someone is ill | |
| (ii)Sinformal | とあっては | だ after Adjectiveなstem and Noun is omitted |
| 由美も行くとあっては | If it's true that Yumi is going, too | |
| タクシーの方が安いとあっては | If it's true that a taxi is cheaper | |
| バスの方が便利とあっては | If it's true that the bus is more convenient | |
| 締め切りが今週末とあっては | If it's the case that the deadline is the end of this week |
(a). この大学が他の大学に統合されるのは残念だが、国の方針とあっては致し方ない。
It is a pity that this university is going to be integrated into another university, but if that's the national policy, it cannot be helped.
(b). ブラジル・ドイツ戦のすぐ後とあっては国内チーム同士の試合が物足りなく感じられたのも仕方がない。
Because it came right after the game between Brazil and Germany, it was inevitable that people did not feel the game between the domestic teams was very exciting.
(c). 皆が多忙な身とあっては30人以上の家族が集まれるのはクリスマスの休みしかない。
Since everyone is so busy, Christmas vacation is the only time our family of more than 30 can get together.
(d). スカイダイビングがここサイパンで楽しめるとあっては、挑戦してみない手はない。
If it's true that we can enjoy skydiving here in Saipan, there's no reason not to try it.
(e). どんなに短い作文でも、他の人に読まれ、コメントがつくとあっては、書く時の真剣味が増す。
No matter how short your composition is, if it is read by others and they make comments, it makes you think more seriously when you write.
(f). 役人の飲食費に税金が使われたとあっては、誰もが腹立たしく思うのは当たり前だ。しかも、そのことが明るみに出そうになると、今度は圧力をかけて「口封じ」をやったとあっては、もう救いようがない。
If tax money was used to pay for government officials' dining and drinking, of course people would be angry. But there's no hope if the officials pressured those involved to keep their mouths shut when the practice was about to be exposed.
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Phrase (usually used in formal writing and formal speech)
| A phrase that indicates that someone does something in order to convey something or in such a way that someone is convinced that something is the case. | As if; as if to say that; as if~ were convinced that; as if~ believed that; as if~ decided that |
| 【Related Expression: といわんばかりに; と言うよう/風に; と】 | |
(ksa). 悟は「黙ってついてこい」とばかりに先に立って歩き出した。
Satoru started off (literally: began to walk ahead) as if to say: "Don't say anything and follow me."
(ksb). 課長は余計な質問はするなとばかりに私をにらみつけた。
My section chief glared at me as if to tell me not to ask any unnecessary questions.
(ksc). 霧が晴れたので、私は今がチャンスとばかりに写真を撮りまくった。
The fog had cleared, so I took pictures furiously, as if it were my only chance.
(ksd). 竹本はこの時とばかりに日頃の不満を吐き出した。
Takemoto vented his long-held complaints as if he were convinced this was the time (to do so).
| (i)Direct Quotation | とばかりに | |
| 「それ！」とばかりに | As if to say, "there you go!" | |
| (ii)Indirect Quotation | とばかりに | |
| そうはさせないとばかりに | As if so to say that someone wouldn't let someone do that | |
| (iii)Noun | とばかりに | |
| チャンスとばかりに | As if someone had decided that this were someone's great opportunity |
(a). 彼女は「えい！」とばかりに侵入者を投げ飛ばした。
She threw off (literally: flung) the intruder with a yell (literally: as if yelling, "Ei.!").
(b). 庭園の花たちは早く撮ってとばかりに美しく咲いていました。
The flowers in the garden were blooming beautifully, as if they wanted us to take their pictures.
(c). 思い立ったが吉日とばかりにエアロビクスを始めました。
I began aerobics believing that the day you think of something is an auspicious day to start it.
(d). 新鮮な魚を食べられるのは今日が最後とばかりに、刺身を食べられるだけ食べた。
I ate as much sashimi as I could, as if I were convinced it was the last day I could eat fresh fish.
(e). 守は心の洗濯とばかりに一週間の旅行に出かけた。
Mamoru left for a one-week trip, seemingly convinced that it would refresh his mind.
(f). 彼らはここぞとばかりに自分たちの給料の安さを訴えた。
Seeming to have decided that this was a great opportunity, they protested that their wages were low.
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Phrase (usually used in formal writing and formal speech)
| A phrase that introduces a noun (or noun phrase) to describe the nature of someone or something. | Which could/may be called; which can/could be described as |
| 【Related Expression: と言う; である; のような】 | |
(ksa). あれは運命とでも言うべき出来事だった。
That was an incident that could be called fate.
(ksb). これはエッセイ的なサイトとでも言うべきでしょう。
This should probably be described as an essay-like website.
| (i)Noun1 | とでも言うべきNoun2 | |
| 革命とでも言うべき出来事 | An event that could be called a revolution | |
| (ii)Noun | とでも言うべき | |
| 「現代版シンデレラ」とでも言うべき | We could call (her) a modern version of Cinderalla |
(a). 近いうちに試用版とでも言うべきものをお送りします。
I'll send you something before long that could be called a trial version.
(b). ミュンヘンのシンボルとでも言うべきこの市役所は１８６７年から１９０８年にかけて建てられたものです。
This city hall, which could be called Munich's symbol, was built between 1867 and 1908.
(c). 我々は20世紀の技術の賜物とでも言うべき明石海峡大橋を渡った。
We crossed the Akashi Strait Bridge, which could be described as a gift of 20th century technology.
(d). マイホーム計画最大のポイントとでも言うべきローンの組み方には、大きく分けると公的融資と民間融資の2種類があります。
The ways of arranging a mortgage, which could be described as the most important consideration when planning to buy a home, can be classified into two types; government mortgages and private mortgages.
(e). 彼を一言で表現するとしたら「ネットワークの旅人」とでも言うべきだろうか。
If I had to describe him in a word, I would call him a "network traveller"
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Conjunction (usually used in formal writing and formal speech)
| A conjunction that expresses the idea of "even (though)". | Even; any; although; though; even though |
| 【Related Expression: でも】 | |
(ksa). 医者といえども時に病気になることもある。
Even doctors sometimes become ill. (literally: Even though we call them doctors, there are times when they become ill.)
(ksb). いかなる名人といえども時には失敗することもある。
Any master sometimes makes a mistake. (literally: No matter what kind of master he/she may be called, he/she sometimes makes a mistake.)
(ksc). 東京に住んでいるといえども知らない都内の名所は沢山ある。
Even though I live in Tokyo (literally: Even though I say I live in Tokyo), there are many sightseeing spots in Tokyo that I don't know.
| (i)Noun | といえども | |
| 先生といえども | Even teachers | |
| (ii){いかなる/どんな}Noun | といえども | |
| {いかなる/どんな}技術といえども | Any technology; no matter what kind of technology it may be | |
| (iii)Sinformal | といえども | だ after Adjectiveなstem and Noun is often omitted |
| しっかり準備はしているといえども | Even though I'm well prepared | |
| 備えは万全(だ)といえども | Although the preparation is perfect |
(a). 同時通訳は一瞬といえども気が抜けない。
In simultaneous translation, you cannot lose your concentration even for a moment.
(b). 科学技術の分野では、たとえグループ研究といえども個人の新しい発想によるところが非常に大きい。
In the field of science and technology, even group research is greatly dependent on individuals (coming up with) new ways of thinking.
(c). いかなる自動翻訳機といえども、完全に機械だけで自然言語を翻訳するのは難しい。
No matter what kind of automatic translation machine (you use), getting a natural-sounding translation solely from a machine is difficult.
(d). 当たらずといえども遠からず。
Close, but not quite. (literally: Although it is not exactly right, it is not far off.)
(e). 世界広しといえども、東京の神田ほど多くの古本屋が一か所に集中しているところはほかにないだろう。
Even though the world is a big place, nowhere else are there as many used book stores concentrated in one place as there are in Kanda, Tokyo.
(f). 筋力は少し衰えたといえども、彼はまだまだ若い選手に負けない集中力とスタミナを保っている。
Although his strength has faded, he still maintains (levels of) concentration and stamina comparable to younger players.
(g). いかに日本での生活が長いといえども、言葉の問題には常には遭遇する。
Although I've lived in Japan for a long time, I constantly encounter language problems.
(h). 天性の才能を持ち合わせているといえども、絶え間ない努力と訓練なくして今日の彼女はなかった。
Although she has God-given talents, she couldn't be what she is now without her unceasing effort and training.
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Structure
| A structure that introduces multiple perspectives when describing a person or a thing. | In terms of both~ and~; in terms of~ as well as~; from the perspective of both~ and~ |
| 【Related Expression: も~も】 | |
(ks). このコーヒーは味といい香りといい、申し分ありません。
This coffee is perfect in terms of both flavour and aroma.
| Noun1 | といいNoun2といい | |
| 色といい形といい | In terms of both colour and shape |
(a). 内容といい話し方といい、見事なスピーチでした。
It was a splendid speech in terms of content as well as delivery.
(b). 声といい演技力といい、彼女は最高だ。
She is the best from the perspective of both voice and acting ability.
(c). 人柄といい才能といい、米倉さんに勝る人はいない。
No one surpasses Ms. Yonekura in terms of both personality and ability.
(d). 音楽の情感といい音の豊かさといい、こんな感動的な演奏を聴いたことがない。
I've never heard such a moving performance, both in terms of the artist's emotion and the richness of the sound.
(e). 家柄といい学歴といい、彼は非の打ちどころがない。
He is just perfect, both in terms of his family and educational backgrounds.
(f). スピードといいパワーといい、今の彼に勝てる選手はいない。
No player can beat him now in terms of either speed or power.
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Compound Particle
| A compound particle that introduces examples. | Like; such as; among others |
| 【Related Expression: と言う; と言うような; などの】 | |
(ksa). ドイツ、フランス、ロシアといった国々が戦争に反対した。
Countries such as Germany, France and Russia opposed the war.
(ksb). このエンジンで一番困るのはパワーが弱い、製造コストが高いといった問題だ。
The problems that are giving me the most trouble with this engine are things like weak power and high production costs.
| (i)Noun1、Noun2(、…) | といったNoun | |
| 犬、猫といったペット | Pets like dogs and cats | |
| (ii)Sentence1 (、Sentence2、Sentence3、…) | といったNoun | |
| 待ち運びしやすい、容量が大きいといった特徴 | Such characteristics as portability and large capacity |
(a). 終身雇用、年功序列といった日本の伝統的雇用形態が崩れつつある。
Japan's traditional employment practices, such as permanent employment and seniority systems, are (in the process of) falling apart.
(b). ここではBMWやベンツといったドイツの高級車が人気があるようだ。
It looks like expensive German cars such as BMWs and Mercedes Benzes are popular here.
(c). 学校選択制、そして基礎学力の向上といったテーマが今、全国で議論されている。
Themes like school-choice systems and the improvement of basic academic skills are being discussed all over the country now.
(d). こんな機能があるといい、こんな情報が欲しいといったご意見・ご要望がありましたら、下記のアドレスに電子メールでお知らせ下さい。
If you have opinions/requests such as "This kind of function would be helpful" or "I want this kind of information," please let us know via e-mail at the address below.
(e). 一流大学から一流企業に就職すれば一生安泰の人生が送れるといった考え方はもう通用しない。
It's no longer realistic to think that if you graduate from a first-class university and get a job at a first-class company you are set for life.
(f). ゴミを燃やせばダイオキシン二酸化炭素といった有害物質が排出される。またゴミの埋立地もあとわずかで満杯になる、しかも新たな埋立地がない、といった問題がある。
If you burn trash, toxic materials such as dioxin and carbon dioxide are emitted. There is also the problem that landfills will soon be full and, to make the matter worse, no new land for landfills is available.
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Phrase
| A phrase the speaker/writer uses to explain something in a brief/rough manner. | I would say~; ~is how I'd put it |
(ks). 9月になって猛暑も一段落といったところです。
I'd say the searing heat levelled off in September.
| (i){V/Adjectiveい}informal | といったところだ。 | |
| やっと終わったといったところだ。 | I'd say that it's finally over | |
| 良くもなく悪くもないといったところだ。 | I'd say that it is neither good nor bad | |
| (ii){Noun/Adjectiveなstem} | といったところだ。 | |
| 典型的な日本人といったところだ。 | I'd say that he/she is a typical Japanese | |
| 不健康といったところだ。 | I'd say that someone is unhealthy | |
| (iii){Adverb/Interjection} | といったところだ。 | |
| もうちょっとといったところだ。 | I'd say that it will be done very soon | |
| まあまあといったところだ。 | I'd say that something is so-so |
(a). ここは山というよりは、小高い丘といったところだ。
I'd say that this is more of a (small) hill than a mountain.
(b). ホテルの部屋の広さはまあまあといったところでした。
I'd say that the space in the hotel room was so-so.
(c). この大学の学部生と院生は合わせて6、000人といったところだ。
Together, the number of undergraduates and graduates at this college is about 6,000.
(d). ヤンキースとレッドソックスはほぼ互角といったところだ。
I'd say that the Yankees and the Red Sox are even.
(e). たった1年間の経験だけでは、図書館「達人」と呼ばれるには、まだまだといったところです。
With only one year of experience, I'd say I have a long way to go before people call me a library expert.
(f). 英語の"Sorry"は日本語の「すみません」よりも「謝罪」の意味合いが強い。いわゆる「ごめんなさい」「申し訳ありません」といったところだ。
"Sorry" in English is more of an apology than the Japanese "sumimasen." I would say that it corresponds to "gomennasai" or "moushiwake arimasen."
(g). この小説の主人公の男の性格を一言で表すとすれば、「自分には厳しいけれど、人にはとても優しい」といったところです。
If I were to describe the personality of this novel's main character in short (literally: in a word), I would say he is very hard on himself but very kind to others.
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Conjunction
| A conjunction used at the beginning of a sentence to convey the idea of "however". | However; but; having said that |
| 【Related Expression: しかし; しかしながら; けれども; かといって; だからといって; そうかといって】 | |
(ks). あと１０００万円あればなんとか欲しい家が買える。と言って、そんな大金を借りられるあてはない。
If we had another ten million yen, we could manage to buy the house we want. Having said that, we don't know how we could borrow that much money.
| Sentence1。 | と言って、Sentence2。 | |
| 時間がない。と言って、この仕事をそのままにしておくことはできない。 | I don't have time. But, I can't leave this job just as it is |
(a). 外食は飽きたし自分で料理するのも億劫だ。と言って、何も食べずにいるというわけにもいかない。
I've gotten tired of eating out, and cooking for myself is tiresome, too. But, I have to eat something (literally: I can't just not eat).
(b). いくら考えても名案は浮かばない。と言って、何もしなければ事態は悪化する一方だ。
No matter how hard I think, I cannot come up with a good idea. However, the situation will get only worse if I don't do anything about it.
(c). 彼女と別れるのは絶対いやだ。と言って、妻と離婚する勇気もない。
I definitely don't want to leave my girlfriend. Having said that, I don't have the courage to divorce my wife, either.
(d). 最近は少し運動するとすぐ疲れてしまう。と言って、何もしないと体が衰えるばかりなので何かしなければならない。
These days I get tired quickly after doing a little exercise. However, I have to do something because if I don't do anything, l'll only get weaker.
(e). アメリカで自分の能力をためすのも面白いかもしれない。と言って、英語ができなければどうしようもないが。
It might be interesting for you to try out your skills in America. But, it won't do any good if you cannot speak English.
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Phrase
| A phrase used to restate what was just said in order to be more accurate or appropriate. | Or; or rather; or I'd (rather) call it; or I may call it; or I'd (rather) say; or I may say |
| 【Related Expression: と言うより】 | |
(ksa). 自分の勘違いと言うか、不注意でした。
It was my misunderstanding . . . or carelessness, rather.
(ksb). 彼のことは諦めたと言うか、もうどうでもよくなった。
I'm through with him. Or rather, I don't care anymore.
(ksc). 我が社の話は何もできません。と言うか、何も話すことはありません。
I cannot talk about our company. Or, I should say, I have nothing to say about it.
(a). 彼は議論好きと言うか、いつも人の意見に反対したがります。
He is argumentative, or should I say, he always wants to disagree with others.
(b). この事件については、私たちも驚いていると言うか、困惑しています。
We are also surprised by this incident, or perplexed, rather.
(c). 今日来た人は、商魂たくましいと言うか、本当に厚かましい人でした。
The person who visited us today was an aggressive salesman, or maybe I should just say he was a really shameless person.
(d). 何度裏切られても涙を見ると許してしまう自分に腹が立つと言うか、愛想が尽きる。
No matter how many times I get betrayed, I end up forgiving him when I see his tears. I'm angry at myself, or I should say, I'm sick of myself. (literally: I'm angry at myself, who ends up...)
(e). これは何と言うか、まあ、一種の妥協でしょうね。
What should I call it? Hmm, it's a kind of compromise, I guess.
(f). これは日記と言うか覚え書きと言うか…。
Should I call this a diary, or a memo?
(g). A:あの人は奥さんですか。 B:うーん、と言うか、恋人みたいなもんです。
A: Is she your wife? B: Well, actually, (I'd say) she's something like a lover.
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Phrase (usually used in conversation)
| A phrase that introduces the reason for what has just been said. | (I'm saying this) because; the reason (why I'm saying this) is that; by~ I mean that; what I mean is that |
| 【Related Expression: なぜかと言うと】 | |
(ksa). 来月の旅行は取りやめます。と言うのは、同じ頃に大事なお客が来ることになったんです。
We are cancelling next month's trip. I'm saying this because it turns out that we're going to have an important guest around the same time.
(ksb). 今まで読めていた画像ファイルがほとんど読めなくなってしまいました。ほとんどと言うのは、少しですが読めるファイルもあるのです。
Almost all the image files that I have been able to read until now have become unreadable. I say "almost" because, even though there are only a few, there are files that are still readable.
| (i)Sentence1。 | と言うのは、Sentence2。 | |
| 行けないかもしれない。と言うのは同じ日に試験があるんだ。 | I may not be able to go because I have an exam on the same day | |
| (ii)Sentence1。Word/Phrase | と言うのは、Sentence2。 | Where Word/Phrase is taken from S1 |
| 今ならできる。今ならと言うのは来月になると忙しくなるからだ。 | I could do it (if it's) now. I'm saying "(If it's) now" because I'm going to be busy next month |
(a). 社長に直接話してみたらどうですか。と言うのは、実は社長も以前そういうアイディアについて話していたことがあるんです。
Why don't you talk to the (company) president (about it)? I'm saying this because he was talking about a similar idea before.
(b). もう少し詳しく話してもらえませんか。と言うのは、私も少し前、同じような男から同じような被害に遭ったんです。
Could you talk about it a little more in detail? (Because) I also ran into similar trouble with the same kind of man a little while ago.
(c). それは一度専門家に調べてもらった方がいいでしょう。と言うのは、素人が勝手に直すと、知らないうちに部品を傷めてしまう可能性があるからです。
I think it's better to have it checked out by an expert, because if an amateur tries to fix it himself, he could damage a part without knowing it.
(d). 最近のパソコン用OSの普及で視覚障害者が困っている。と言うのは、これらのOSは画像中心で文字情報が少なく、文字を音声で読ませる方法があまり使えないからだ。
People with vision problems are having trouble with the spread of the latest operating systems for personal computers because these operating systems are image-oriented with little word-based information, so there's not much of a chance to use s
(e). これらのゲームは、より正確に言えば、「一人用ゲーム」というより「一人でもできるゲーム」と言うべきでしょう。と言いますのは、これらのゲームはやり方によっては二人以上でもできるからです。
To be more accurate, these games should be called "games that can also be played alone" rather than "games for one person." What I mean is, depending on how you play them, these games can be played by two or more people.
(f). あの提案書はたぶん通ると思う。たぶんと言うのは、審査委員の中に一人だけ反対するかもしれないのがいるんだ。
I think that proposal will probably be approved. I say "probably" because there is one person on the review committee who might oppose it.
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Structure
| A structure indicating that something is the case not only for A and B but also for many other places, things, etc., of X, to which A and B belong | A, B and many other~; A, B and every~ else; including: whether X or Y |
| 【Related Expression: だろうが/と~だろうが/と; であろうが/と~であろうが/と; であれ~であれ】 | |
(ks). 友達の引っ越しを手伝ったら、翌日肩と言わず腰と言わず体のあちこちが痛んだ。
I helped my friend move. Then, the next day my shoulders, my back and every other part of my body ached.
| Noun1 | と言わずNoun2と言わず | |
| 窓と言わずドアと言わず | Including the windows and the doors |
(a). 武史の部屋は、壁と言わず天井と言わず、いたるところにサッカーの写真が貼ってあった。
In Takeshi's room, pictures of soccer were posted on the walls, the ceiling and everywhere else.
(b). しばらくすると、発疹が首と言わず手足と言わず、全身に広がった。
Sometime later, a rash spread over my neck, hands, feet and all over the rest of my body.
(c). イベント会場は廊下と言わず階段と言わず、参加者で溢れていた。
The participants were everywhere at the event site, even in the halls and on the stairs.
(d). 彼女が身につけているものは、靴と言わず、時計と言わず、スカーフと言わず、すべてブランドものだ。
Everything she wears, including her shoes, her watch and her scarf, is a famous brand.
(e). 彼は仕事中と言わず休み時間と言わず、一時もコンピュータから離れることがない。
He doesn't leave his computer even for a moment, whether it's work time or break time.
(f). 姉のうちは昼と言わず夜と言わず、一日中テレビをつけっぱなしにしている。
At my (elder) sister's house, the TV set is on all the time, day or night.
(g). 男と言わず女と言わず、誰もがこの物語のヒロインには共感するはずだ。
Anyone -man or woman- would sympathize with the heroine of this story.
(h). 保守と言わず革新と言わず、どんな政治家もみな選挙資金集めのために奔走する。
Every politician, whether conservative or liberal, works hard (literally: runs around) to raise money for his/her political campaign (literally: election).
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Phrase
| A phrase that introduces origins of names, theories, ideas and events. | Because; be caused by the fact that~; from the fact that~ |
| 【Related Expression: ことから; ので; から】 | |
(ksa). この宝石は猫の目に似ているところから「猫目石」と名づけられている。
This gem is called "cat's-eye" because it resembles a cat's eye.
(ksb). 私が両者にそのことを十分説明しなかったところから誤解が生じた。
The misunderstanding was caused by the fact that I didn't explain it to both of them fully.
| (i){V/Adjectiveい}informal | ところから | |
| {する/した}ところから | Because someone does/did something | |
| {高い/高かった}ところから | Because something is/was expensive | |
| (ii)Adjectiveなstem | {な/である/だった/であった}ところから | |
| 便利{な/である/だった/であった}ところから | Because something is/was convenient | |
| (iii)Noun{である/だった/であった} | ところから | |
| 日本人{である/ だった/であった}ところから | Because someone is/was a Japanese |
(a). 田中先生はいつも蝶ネクタイをしていたところから「蝶ネクタイ先生」と呼ばれていた。
Dr. Tanaka was called "Professor Bow Tie" because he always wore one.
(b). 日本は憲法が戦力の保持を禁止しているところから、「軍隊」ではなく「自衛隊」を持っている。
Because its constitution bans the possession of military power, Japan has "Self-Defence Forces," but not an "army."
(c). この説は、両者が生物的に多くの共通点を持っているところから来ている。
This theory comes from the fact that, biologically, the two species have many things in common.
(d). 論語に「何もしないでいるよりは碁を打つ方がましだ」という教えがあるところから、碁は孔子以前にかなり普及していたとみられる。
Because the Analects teach us that "It is better to play Go than to not do anything," it appears that Go was already fairly popular before Confucius' time.
(e). そのイギリス人とは家が近くだったところから、よく遊びに行って英語や英語の歌を教えてもらったりした。
Because my house was close to the Englishman's, I visited him often and he taught me English and English songs and other things.
(f). この雑誌は最初、ある有名月刊誌の別冊として刊行されたのが好評だったところから、後に単独の雑誌として独立したものだ。
This magazine was first published as a separate volume of a famous monthly magazine and later became an independent publication because it was so well received.
(g). 今音楽で広く使われているCDは、実はベートーベンの第九交響曲の演奏時間が７４分間だったところからその容量が決められたということだ。
I heard that the capacity of the CDs we use so widely now for music was settled on because a (certain) performance of Beethoven's Ninth Symphony was 74 minutes long.
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Phrase (usually used in formal writing and formal speech)
| A phrase indicating that the subject does something without paying much attention, or that when, where, to whom, etc., something took place is unclear. | Without intending to; without paying much attention; unconsciously; mindlessly; don't know (exactly) who/where/etc. (but); cannot tell (exactly) who/where/etc. (but); (to/from) no particular (person, etc.) |
| 【Related Expression: ともなしに; となく】 | |
(ksa). 散歩をしているうちに、来るともなく駅まで来てしまった。
While I was taking a walk, I came as far as the station without intending to.
(ksb). 我が家ではいつからともなく正月にスキーに行く習慣が始まった。
We do not know when, but my family started a tradition of going skiing on New Year's Day.
| (i)V1informal nonpast | ともなくV2 | Where V1=V2 |
| 見るともなく見る | Look at something unconsciously | |
| (ii)Wh-word+Particle | ともなく | |
| どこからともなく | (Cannot tell from where but) from somewhere | |
| 誰にともなく | To no one in particular |
(a). 聴くともなく聴いていたら、だんだんその演奏に引き込まれていった。
As I was listening to the performance without paying much attention, I was gradually pulled into it.
(b). 大学時代のことを考えるともなく考えていると、次々にクラスメートの顔が浮かんできた。
When I was thinking mindlessly about my university days, the faces of my classmates came to my mind one after another.
(c). 目撃者の話を聞くともなく後ろで聞いていたが、突然その話の中に事件解決のための重要な情報が含まれていることに気がついた。
I was listening to the witness's story from behind without paying much attention when, all of sudden, I realised that it contained an important piece of information for solving the case.
(d). どこからともなくいい匂いが漂ってきた。
(I couldn't tell from where, but) a good smell wafted from somewhere.
(e). 「やっと終わった」。彼は誰にともなくつぶやいた。
Finally, it's over, he muttered (literally: muttered to no one in particular).
(f). 二人はどちらからともなく顔を見合わせて微笑んだ。
The two smiled at each other almost at the same time. (literally: I cannot tell which one did it first, but the two looked at each other and smiled.)
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Phrase (usually used in formal writing and formal speech)
| A phrase that expresses the idea that something is likely to take place. | Tend to; apt to; be likely to; easily; be bound to |
| 【Related Expression: ともすれば; ややもすると; ややもすれば; どうかすると】 | |
(ksa). 切れ味のよい議論はともすると言葉の暴力となる。
A sharp debate is apt to lead to a violent argument.
(ksb). 親は自分の子供にはともすると点数が甘くなりがちだ。
Parents tend to be more permissive (literally: lenient in grading) when it comes to their own children.
| ともすると | Verb | |
| ともすると悲観的になる | Be likely to be pessimistic |
(a). 大きな組織はともするとセクショナリズムに陥る危険性がある。
Large organizations are likely to be in danger of falling into sectionalism.
(b). 商品づくりにおける標準化活動はともすると社内設計部門から嫌われる。
Activities to promote standardization in product manufacturing are bound to be disliked by the design division.
(c). 日本ではともすると議論が感情的になってしまい、知的なディベートの場が育ちにくいと言われる。
People say that in Japan arguments tend to be emotional, and, therefore, that it is hard to develop occasions for intellectual debate.
(d). スポーツ選手がいい記録を出すと、世間の期待が高くなり、ともするとその重圧に押しつぶされるようなケースも出てくる。
When athletes make good records, the public raises its expectations, and this leads to cases where athletes are more likely to be crushed by the heavy pressure.
(e). 日本語が論理的な表現に不適だとは思わないが、日常会話的な表現を安易に使うと、ともすると論理が曖昧になりやすい。
I don't believe that Japanese is ill-suited for expressing logic, but if you use expressions from daily conversation carelessly, your logic is apt to become ambiguous.
(f). 国際協力と言うと、ともすると富める国が貧しい国に援助を施すというように受け取られやすい。
When we mention international cooperation, the tendency is to interpret it as rich countries giving aid to poor countries.
(g). 従来の音楽教育はともすると学校の中だけの活動に終始しがちであった。
Conventional music education throughout the school year was apt to provide activities only within the school.
(h). 長期不況のもとでは、ともすると様々な議論が極端な悲観論や危機論に傾きがちである。
The wide-ranging debate over the long recession has tended either to be overly pessimistic or to focus on the recession as a crisis.
(i). 現在の状況では、ともすると経済的な視点からの開発が先行し、貴重な資源を浪費したり、生活環境を損ないかねない。
Under the current circumstances, precedence will likely be given to economically-oriented development, and (consequently) problems such as the wasting of precious resources and the destruction of our living environment may take place.
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Phrase (usually used in formal writing and formal speech)
| A phrase that presents the content of the referent of the following noun (e.g., a report, notice, news, view). | That |
| 【Related Expression: という】 | |
(ksa). 経済情勢は悪化しているとの見方が優勢だ。
The view that the economic situation is worsening is dominant.
(ksb). 邦画の入場者数がハリウッド映画を上回って1位になったのは始めて(だ)とのことだ。
(It is said that) Apparently this is the first time that the size of the audience for a Japanese movie has exceeded that of a Hollywood movie, making it No. 1.
| Sinformal | とのNoun | だ after Adjectiveなstem and Noun is often omitted |
| 提案が通ったとの報告 | A report that the proposal was accepted | |
| 危険(だ)との意見 | An opinion that something/someone is dangerous |
(a). 伊豆半島付近で地震があったとの知らせを受けた。
I received the news that there was an earthquake near the Izu Peninsula.
(b). 探検隊が日本時間の13時30分にベースキャンプに到着したとの報告がもたらされた。
There was a report that the expedition party arrived at the base camp at 1:30 p.m. Japan time.
(c). この研究テーマは社会のニーズに合っていないとの指摘がなされた。
It was pointed out that this research topic does not meet society's needs.
(d). 副大臣の数をあまり多くすると行政を混乱させるとの意見がある。
There is a view that having too many vice-ministers will make governing chaotic.
(e). 無断リンクは著作権侵害との見解が発表された。
The view was announced that making a link (to a website) without permission infringes on the site owner's copyright.
(f). 当地からは遠隔で不便との理由で患者さん自身が受診を希望しない場合が多い。
Patients often don't want to come in for their examination because they are far away and it is inconvenient (to come here).
(g). 新システムの評価はどのように行うのかとの質問に対し、ユーザーへのアンケートを行うとの回答があった。
To the question as to how the new system would be evaluated, the response was that they would circulate a questionnaire among users.
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Structure
| A structure that is used to deny emphatically the ability of someone/something or possibility of an event, state or action | Cannot possibly; totally impossible; there is no possibility; there is no way; not~ at all; not~ by any means; by no means |
| 【Related Expression: とうてい~ない; 全く~ない; 決して~ない】 | |
(ksa). この仕事はとても私にはできない。
I cannot possibly do this job.
(ksb). 吉岡さんはとても私の勝てる相手ではない。
Mr. Yoshioka is someone I couldn't possibly beat. (literally: Mr. Yoshioka is not someone I could possibly beat.)
(ksc). この病気はとても治る見込みはない。
There is no possibility that he will recover from this illness.
| (i)とても | Vnegativeない | |
| とても歩けない | Cannot possibly walk | |
| とても届かない | Do not reach at all | |
| (ii)とても | Nounはない | |
| とても望みはない | There is no (hope) at all | |
| (ii)とても | NPではない | |
| とても人に見せられるものではない | Something is something I cannot possibly show others (literally: something is not something I can possibly show others) |
(a). 私は数学ではとても彼にかなわない。
I cannot possibly beat him in mathematics.
(b). こんな予算ではとてもこの学校を維持していけない。
It is totally impossible to maintain this school with a budget like this.
(c). 今の大統領はとてもこの国を統治する能力はない。
The current president has no ability at all to govern this country.
(d). この病人はとても助からない。
There is no way this patient can possibly be saved.
(e). この地方に雪が降ることはとてもあり得ない。
There's no way it could snow in this region.
(f). とても我々に勝ち目はない。
We have no chance of winning.
(g). 経済はとてもすぐには回復しそうにない。
It does not look like there is any chance the economy will recover soon.
(h). 山岸さんはとても８０歳には見えない。
Mrs. Yamagishi does not look 80 years old at all.
(i). そんな危ないところにはとても子供を行かせられない。
I cannot possibly send my child to such a dangerous place.
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Compound Particle
| A compound particle marking an event, action or state that the speaker/writer does not expect and that causes him/her to feel some emotion | (not thing/expect/etc.) that; (because/be glad/regret/etc.) that |
| 【Related Expression: と言うのは; ことに】 | |
(ksa). 彼が自分のベンチャー会社を立ち上げるとは思いもしなかった。
I never thought that he would launch his own venture business.
(ksb). あんないい店がなくなったとは残念だ。
It is too bad that such a nice shop is gone.
(ksc). 子供が生まれた途端にがんの宣告を受けるとは何という悲劇だ。
What a tragedy it is for her to be told that she had cancer right after she'd had her baby.
(ksd). こんな便利なサイトがあったとは！
(a) I'm surprised that there is such a convenient website. (b) How great to have such a convenient website! (c) Who would have thought there would be such a convenient website!
| (i){V/Adjectiveい}informal | とは | |
| {来る/来た}とは(驚いた) | (I'm surprised that) someone will come/came | |
| {高い/高かった}とは | (I'm surprised that) something is/was expensive | |
| (ii){Adjectiveなstem/ Noun} | {∅/だ/だった}とは | |
| 上手{∅/だ/だった}とは(驚いた) | (I'm surprised that) someone is/was good at something | |
| 医者{∅/だ/だった}とは(驚いた) | (I'm surprised that) someone is/was a doctor |
(a). お父さんがそんなにお悪いとは知りませんでした。
I didn't know that your father was that ill.
(b). こんなに早く自分の家が持てるとは思いもしなかった。
I never thought I could have my own house this soon.
(c). ハリケーンのためにガソリンがこんなに上がるとは想像すらしなかった。
I would never have imagined that gas prices would go up this much because of a hurricane.
(d). 一つのテレビドラマが日韓交流にこれほど影響を与えるとは誰が予測し得たであろう。
Who could have predicted that a TV drama would have this much influence on cultural exchange and travel between Japan and Korea?
(e). 蒸したてのお芋がこんなにおいしいとは驚きました。
I'm surprised that fresh steamed potatoes taste this good.
(f). まだ知り合って一週間にもならない私にお金を借りに来るとは驚きだ。
I was shocked that he came to borrow money from me less than a week after we first got acquainted.
(g). こんなにおいしくて、ボリュームがあって、たったの５００円とはありがたい。
It's great (literally: I'm thankful) that this (dish) tastes so good, there's a lot of it, and it costs only 500 yen.
(h). 大勢の人が家をなくして困っているというのに、それを利用して金をもうけるとはけしからん。
It is inexcusable that while many people have lost their houses and are suffering, some take advantage of this to make money.
(i). バッハの最高傑作の演奏をDVDで見られるとは何という幸せでしょう！
How happy I am to be able to watch a performance of Bach's best work on DVD!
(j). 自分たちで嘘を広めておいて、それを既成事実にしようとは何たることだ！
What a (shameful) thing it is to spread lies and try to convince people that they are true (literally: make them an established fact).
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Phrase (usually used in formal writing and formal speech)
| A conjunctive phrase meaning "although it is said that" | Although (it is said that/someone says that); even though (it is said that/someone says that); admitting that; that being said; however; nevertheless |
| 【Related Expression: と(は)いっても; とは言うものの】 | |
(ksa). 夏とは言え、ここはまだちょっと肌寒いくらいの涼しさだ。
Although it is summer, it is still cool here-almost to the extent that it can be called a little chilly.
(ksb). 時間がなかったとは言え、ジェーンにこれくらいのレポートが書けないはずはない。
(i) Even admitting that Jane didn't have much time, I don't believe that she couldn't write a (simple) report like this. (ii) Although Jane says that she didn't have much time (or you say that Jane didn't have much time), I don't believe that she couldn't
| (i)Sinformal | とは言え | だ after Adjectiveなstem and Noun is omitted |
| {知らない/知らなかった}とは言え | Although someone doesn't/didn't know | |
| {寒い/寒かった}とは言え | Although it is/was cold | |
| 不便{∅/だった}とは言え | Although something is/was inconvenient | |
| 子供{∅/だった}とは言え | Although someone is/was a child | |
| (ii)Sentence1。 | とは言えSentence2。 |
(a). 子供がやったこととは言え、これは立派な犯罪だ。
Although this was done by a child, it practically amounts to a crime.
(b). 予想していた返答だったとは言え、やはりそれを聞いた時はショックだった。
Although it was the response I'd expected, it really did shock me to hear it.
(c). ノートブック型とは言え、ディスプレイは１７インチ、プロセッサーは2.4GHz、内臓ドライブは２５０GBもあり、DVD/CD-RWコンボドライブ付きという優れものだ。
Although it is a laptop, it is an excellent machine, with a 17-inch display, a 2.4GHz processor, a voluminous 250GB internal drive and a DVD/CD-RW combo drive.
(d). 安いとは言え、都会の高級マンションだ。普通の者が簡単に買える代物ではない。
Although I say (it is) reasonable, it is an upscale condominium in the city. It's not something ordinary people can easily afford.
(e). いかに暫定的処置とは言え、これはずさんすぎる。
No matter how temporary these measures are supposed to be, this is just too slipshod.
(f). 怪我をして動けないとは言え、ものを考えることはできる。
Even though I cannot move because of my injury, I can still think.
(g). 毎日走っているとは言え、1キロほどジョギングするだけだから大した運動にはならない。
Although I say I run every day, it's just one kilometre of jogging, so I don't get much exercise.
(h). 退職したとは言え、毎日やることがたくさんあるので忙しい。
Although I've retired, I have lots of things to do every day, which keeps me busy.
(i). 燃料電池は将来化石燃料に代わる主要エネルギーになるだろう。とは言え、これにはまだ解決すべき技術的な問題が多く残っている。
Fuel cells will probably become a major source of energy in the future, replacing fossil fuels. Having said that, many technical problems (with this technology) remain to be solved.
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Adverb
| An adverb used to describe someone doing something without being able to control himself/herself or used to indicate the closeness of a time or a place. | Unintentionally; without being able to control onself; without meaning to; carelessly; involuntarily; in spite of oneself; just; only |
| 【Related Expression: うっかり; 思わず】 | |
(ksa). 楽しかったので、つい飲みすぎてしまった。
Because I had such a good time, I ended up drinking too much (without meaning to).
(ksb). ついさっきまで山口さんが来ていたんです。
Mr. Yamaguchi was here until just a little while ago.
| (i)つい | Verb | |
| つい居眠りをする | Someone dozes carelessly/unintentionally | |
| (ii)つい | Adverb | (time) |
| つい最近 | Just recently |
(a). 人のお金を使うのは悪いとは知りながら、つい使ってしまった。
I know it's a bad thing to use someone else's money but I just couldn't control myself (and used it).
(b). 安かったのでつい買ってしまった。
It was cheap, so I just bought it (even though I didn't mean to).
(c). 恵美につい亜紀の秘密を話してしまった。
I carelessly told Aki's secret to Emi.
(d). 彼の仕事を見ているとじれったいのでつい手を貸してしまう。
I feel impatient when I see him doing his work, so, without intending to, I end up extending a hand.
(e). あの人は面白いのでついからかいたくなる。
He's so funny it's hard to resist teasing him (literally: I come to want to tease him without meaning to).
(f). この店は感じがいいのでつい入ってみたくなる。
This shop has such a good atmosphere that I can't help wanting to go in.
(g). ついこの間、新年を祝ったと思ったら今日はもうバレンタインデーだ。
It feels like we just celebrated New Year's the other day, and here it is Valentine's Day already.
(h). 彼女からは、つい２、3日前にメールをもらった。
I received an email from her only two or three days ago.
(i). ついそこに喫茶店がありますからそこで話しましょう。
There's a tea house just over there, so let's talk there.
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Phrase
| A phrase used to express the idea that someone does a second thing at the same time as the first because it takes less time or effort. | When; while (~ at it); as; on one's way to; since~ (anyway); as well; at one's convenience |
(ksa). 京都へ来たついでに龍安字の石庭を見に行こうと思っている。
Since I'm in Kyoto, I'm thinking of going to see the rock garden at Ryoanji Temple.
(ksb). 頼みついでにもう一つお願いしてもいいですか。
While I'm at it, may I ask another favour of you?
(ksc). この仕事は大変だが、大変ついでに来週の文もいま方づけておけば後が楽だ。
This job is a real chore, but while we're at it if we finish the work for next week, too, we'll have an easier time later.
(ksd). 生活費を抑えるために電気や水を節約し始めたが、節約ついでにエアコンも止めることにした。
I began to conserve electricity and water to lower my living expenses and as I'm cutting back, I decided to stop using the air conditioner as well.
(kse). 話のついでにこのことも言っておきます。
While I'm telling you the story, let me add this, too.
(ksf). コピーしに行くの？じゃ、これもついでにお願いできる？
Are you going to make copies? Then, could I ask you to do this as well?
| (i)Vinformal | ついでに | |
| {行く/行った}ついでに | When someone goes/went | |
| (ii)Vます | ついでに | |
| 送りついでに | When someone sends something/gives a ride to someone | |
| (iii)Adjectiveなstem | ついでに | |
| 面倒ついでに | Since someone is doing a tedius thing anyway | |
| (iv)Adjectiveい{stem/informal nonpast} | ついでに | |
| 恥ずかし(い)ついでに | Since someone is embarrassed anyway | |
| (v)VN | ついでに | |
| 発送ついでに | While someone ships something | |
| (vi)Nの | ついでに | |
| 食事のついでに | When someone has a meal | |
| ニューヨーク出張のついでに | When someone goes to New York on business |
(a). バンクーバーへ行くついでにシアトルの友達のところに寄る予定だ。
I plan to stop by my friend's place in Seattle on my way to Vancouver.
(b). 車を洗ったついでに中も掃除しておいた。
When I washed my car, I cleaned the inside as well.
(c). 叱られついでに、もう一つの失敗のことも話してしまいます。
Since you've already told me off once, let me go ahead and tell you about another mistake I made.
(d). 恥かきついでにもう一つお聞きしますが、アメリカも大学入試はあるんですか。
Now that I've been embarrassed (by my ignorance) once, let me ask you another question. Are there college entrance exams in America, too?
(e). 今回は高級ホテルに泊まっているので、贅沢ついでにホテルのレストランで食事をすることにした。
I'm staying at a first-class hotel this time, and if that isn't luxurious enough, I've decided to have dinner at the hotel restaurant.
(f). ご苦労ついでにこの翻訳も手伝ってもらえませんか。
Since you're working hard anyway, could I ask you to help me with this translation, too?
(g). 厚かましいついでにお願いがもう一つあります。
I've already been shameless (in asking you favours), but I have another favour to ask of you.
(h). 新しい電気自動車の取材ついでに自分も少し運転させてもらった。
When I went to report on the new electric car, I got to drive it a little myself.
(i). 買い物のついでに銀行に寄って少し現金を下ろしていきます。
I'll stop by the bank and withdraw some cash when I go shopping.
(j). 以上が今週の予定ですが、ついでに来週の予定も言っておきます。
That is the schedule for this week, and while I'm at it, let me tell you the schedule for next week as well.
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Conjunction (usually used in formal writing and formal speech)
| A sentence-initial conjunction that means "with regard to this," referring to what is stated in the preceding sentence. | Therefore; thus; so; because of this; for this reason; with regard to this |
| 【Related Expression: について(は); その為; それ故】 | |
(ks). コンピュータウイルスが全国的に広がっています。ついては、不審なメールが届いた場合は、添付ファイルを開くことなく当該メールを削除して下さい。
Computer viruses are spreading across the country. Because of this, if you receive a suspicious e-mail (literally: in the event a suspicious e-mail arrives), delete the email without opening the attached file.
(a). この書類は契約文の日本語抄訳です。ついては、本訳をご参照の上、ウェブの英文契約書にご同意いただく必要があります。
This document is the abridged Japanese translation of the agreement. Therefore, it is necessary for you to refer to this translation and accept the English agreement posted online.)
(b). 11月分授業料は10月15日に指定預金口座から引き落とさせていただきます。ついては、前日までに預金残高の確認をお願いします。
We are going to withdraw the November tuition and fees from your designated bank account on October 15. Therefore, please be sure to check the account balance by the previous day.
(c). 夏の省エネ対策について本社から通知がありました。ついては、別紙を参照の上、夏季のエネルギー節約にご協力をお願いいたします。
Headquarters has sent a notification with regard to summer energy conservation measures. We therefore request your cooperation with the summer energy saving in accordance with the measures listed in the attachment (literally: after referring to the attach
(d). 深刻な雇用問題に対しては、再就職や雇用流動性を促進させる必要がある。ついては、以下の施策を積極的に展開されたい。
To counter the serious unemployment (literally: employment) problem, it is necessary to promote reemployment and employment mobility. With regard to this, we'd like the following measures to be actively implemented.
(e). 新しくインターネット販売の事業を始める計画です。つきましては、その資金を融資していただきたいのです。
We plan to launch a new Internet sales business. Therefore, we would like to request financing for it.
(f). 今月は「リサイクル強化月間」になっています。つきましては、皆様方のご理解とご協力をお願いいたします。
This is a "recycling reinforcement month." We therefore request your understanding and cooperation.
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Phrase
| A phrase used to express a strong sensation or emotion. | So; extremely; indescribably; indescribable; incredibly; awfully; terribly; cannot tell you/describe/etc. how; too much of |
| 【Related Expression: 本当に; て仕方がない; て堪らない】 | |
(ksa). つまらないミスで試合に負けて悔しい(と言)ったらない。
I'm so mortified because I lost the game due to a stupid mistake.
(ksb). 老眼が進んで眼鏡なしでは近くの字が読めないので、不便(と言)ったらない。
My farsightedness has gotten worse so I can't read words up close without my glasses -it's so inconvenient!
(ksc). 大きな書類を保存するのを忘れてコンピュータがフリーズした時の情けなさ(と言)ったらない。
The miserable feeling you get when the computer freezes and you forgot to save a large file is indescribable.
(ksd). この辞書は使いにくいこと(と言)ったらない。
This dictionary is incredibly hard to use.
| (i){V/Adjectiveい}informal nonpast | (と言)ってらない | |
| 腹が立つ(と言)ってらない | (I'm) so mad | |
| つまらない(と言)ってらない | (It's) so boring | |
| (ii)Adjectiveなstem | (と言)ってらない | |
| 退屈(と言)ってらない | (I'm) so bored | |
| (iii)Adjective(い/な)さ | (と言)ってらない | |
| その面白さ(と言)ってらない | (something is) so interesting | |
| その下手さ(と言)ってらない | (someone is) so bad at it | |
| (iv)Vinformal nonpast | こと(と言)ってらない | |
| 疲れること(と言)ってらない | Something is so tiring | |
| (v)Adjectiveいinformal nonpast | こと(と言)ってらない | |
| 美味しいこと(と言)ってらない | Something is so delicious | |
| (vi)Adjectiveなstemなこと | (と言)ってらない | |
| 新鮮なこと(と言)ってらない | Something is so fresh |
(a). 5分どとにジェット機が離陸するのでうるさいと言ったらない。
There's a jet taking off every five minutes-I can't even describe (to you) how noisy it is.
(b). いつもよくしゃべる俊子が慎一の前で赤くなって何も言えないので、おかしいったらなかった。
It was so funny to see Toshiko, who is usually talkative, blush and turn speechless in front of Shin'ichi.
(c). ティムにデートをすっぽかされて頭に来るったらない。
Tim stood me up, and that makes me so mad.
(d). この仕事は一日中細かい字を見ているので目が疲れると言ったらない。
Because I look at small print all day for this job, my eyes get awfully tired.
(e). 出張したところはインターネットも携帯も使えず、不便と言ったらなかった。
In the area where I went on my business trip I couldn't use the Internet or my cell phone; I can't tell you how inconvenient it was.
(f). プロジェクトに変更があるたびに関係者全員に知らせた上で承認を得なければならないので、面倒と言ったらない。
Every time there is a change to the project, we have to notify everybody involved and get their approval, so it is incredibly tiresome.
(g). 夏、暑い外から帰ってきた後の冷えたビールのうまさったらない。
In summer, the taste of a cold beer is indescribably good after coming in from the heat outside.
(h). この国ではインターネットが自由に使えないので、その不便さったらない。
In this country we cannot use the Internet freely, so it's so inconvenient.
(i). ハイヒールで砂利道を歩かされたので歩きにくいことと言ったらなかった。
I had to walk on gravel in high heels, and I can't tell you how hard it was!
(j). 雪に覆われた山々が早朝の朝日を受けて宝石のように輝く姿の美しいことと言ったらない。
When the snow-covered mountains receive the early morning sun and sparkle like gems, they are indescribably beautiful.
(k). 昔、痛風にかかったことがあるが、その痛みと言ったらなかった。
I've suffered from gout before; the pain was indescribable.
(l). 学生がいいのは、学期が終わったら次の学期の始まりまでは自由なことだ。試験やレポートが全部終わった時の解放感と言ったらない。
One good thing about being a student is that after the term is over, you're free until the next term begins. The feeling of release after finishing all the exams and term papers is indescribable.
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Phrase (usually used in formal writing and formal speech)
| A phrase expressing the idea "even though there is something" | Even though there is; although there is; there is~ but |
| 【Related Expression: はあっても】 | |
(ks). インターフェースに若干の違いはあれ、この二つのプログラムは機能的には全く変わらない。
Although their interfaces are slightly different, these two programs are just the same in terms of their functions.
| Noun | はあれ | |
| いろいろ問題はあれ | Even though there are various problems |
(a). 歴史の違いはあれ、米国には１２０万を越す非営利団体(NPO)が存在します。
Although their histories are different (literally: there are differences in their histories), there are more than 1,200,000 non-profit organizations in America.
(b). ほとんどの者が、程度の差はあれ、マスメディアの影響を受けていると言える。
One can say that most people are affected by mass media, although there are differences in degree.
(c). レベルに違いはあれ、この課にいる者は全員英語を話せる。
Although their (skill) levels are different (literally: there are differences in their skill levels), everybody in this section can speak English.
(d). 海外旅行に興味はあれ、先立つ費用がない。
Even though I'm interested in traveling abroad, I don't have the money for it.
(e). 若干の不満はあれ、今の職場を離れるつもりはない。
Even though I have some complaints (literally: dissatisfaction), I don't intend to leave my current job.
(f). 今まで自分を使ってくれた上司に対して感謝する気持ちはあれ、非難する気持ちは全くありません。
I feel thankful for my boss, who has given me work to do all this time, and (literally: but) have no intention of criticizing him.
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Phrase
| A phrase used to present an exception or an issue the speaker/writer does not intend to cover as part of a larger statement. | Except for; putting/setting aside; whether X or Y |
| 【Related Expression: を覗いて; 以外は; はさておき】 | |
(ksa). 特殊な場合は別として、手書きのレポートを書くことは少なくなった。
Except for special cases, there are only a few occasions now in which we write hand-written reports.
(ksb). 実施できるか(どうか)は別として、まず可能な解決策をすべてリストアップしてみよう。
Putting aside the question of whether or not each one is feasible for us to carry out, let's list all possible solutions first.
(ksc). 上手か下手かは別としてその人にまず翻訳してもらおう。
Putting aside the question of whether he is good or bad, let's ask that person to translate it first.
(ksd). 面白い(か)面白くない(か)は別としてこの授業はきっと将来約に立つ。
Putting aside the question of whether it is interesting or not, this class will certainly benefit you in the future.
(kse). 医師により薬として使用される場合は別として、麻薬は本質的に反社会的なものとされている。
Except for cases in which they are prescribed by doctors as medicines, drugs are considered fundamentally anti-social.
| (i)NP | は別として | |
| 経験者は別として | Except for those with some experience | |
| 決断の是非は別として | Putting aside the question of whether the decision was right or wrong | |
| (ii)Sinformal (どうか) | は別として | だ after Adjectiveな stem and Noun is omitted |
| うまくいくか(どうか)は別として | Putting aside the question of whether or not something will go well | |
| 便利か(どうか)は別として | Putting aside the question of whether something is convenient (or not) | |
| (iii)XかYか | は別として | Where X,Y=contrastive words |
| Noun1かNoun2かは別として | 英語か日本語かは別として | Putting aside the question of whether something is n English or Japanese |
| Adjectiveな1stemか Adjectiveな2stemかは別として | 便利か不便かは別として | Putting aside the question of whether something is convenient or inconvenient |
| Adjectiveい1informal nonpast(か) Adjectiveい2informal nonpast(か)は別として | いい(か)悪い(か)は別として | Putting aside the question of whether something is good or bad |
| V1informal nonpastか V2informal nonpastかは別として | 行くか留まるかは別として | Putting aside the question of whether someone will go or stay |
| (iv)X(affirmative)(か) X(Negative)(か) | は別として | X is usually nonpast |
| 行く(か)行かない(か)は別として | Putting aside the question of whether someone will go or not | |
| 高い(か)高くない(か)は別として | Putting aside the question of whether something is expensive or not | |
| 上手(か)上手じゃない(か)は別として | Putting aside the question of whether someone is good at something or not | |
| 日本人(か)日本人じゃない(か)は別として | Putting aside the question of whether someone is Japanese or not | |
| (v)Sinformal場合 | は別として | |
| Vinformal場合は別として | 一人で{行く/行った}場合は別として | Expect for the case in which someone will go/went alone |
| Adjectiveいinformal場合は別として | 授業が{高い/高かった}場合は別として | Except for the case in which the tuition is/was expensive |
| Adjectiveなstem {な/だった}場合は別として | 場所が不便{な/だった}場合は別として | Except for the case in which the location is/was inconvenient |
| Noun {の/だった}場合は別として | 原稿が英語{の/だった}場合は別として | Except for the case in which the manuscript is/was in English |
(a). 一部の過激派は別として、一般大衆は民主化を望んでいる。
Except for a few extremists, the general public wants democratization.
(b). その映画は、ストーリーは別として、音楽やアクションは楽しめた。
Leaving the story aside, I did enjoy the music and action scenes in the movie.
(c). 賛成していただけるかどうかは別として、私の率直な意見を述べさせていただきます。
Setting aside the question of whether or not you will agree with me, let me present my frank opinion.
(d). そういうところが実際にあるかどうかは別として、自分の理想とする会社はどんなところかを書いて下さい。
Putting aside the question of whether or not such a company actually exists, please describe your ideal company.
(e). ケーブル接続かワイヤレスかは別として、今時インターネットに接続されていないコンピュータはほとんどないと思う。
Putting aside the question of whether a wired connection or a wireless connection is used, there are hardly any computers that are not connected to the Internet now.
(f). いい悪いは別として、この国では患者本人に病状の事実を伝えるのが普通だ。
Whether it is good or bad, it is a common practice in this country to tell patients (directly) the facts about their conditions.
(g). この賞は、生活者の目に触れるか触れないかは別として、人々の生活を豊かにする技術や発明に対して与えられる。
This award is given for technologies or inventions that make people's lives richer, whether or not they are readily recognizable (literally: to people in their ordinary daily lives).
(h). 単身赴任など仕事上の理由がある場合は別として、夫婦が5年間も別居しているのは尋常ではない。
Except for cases in which there is a business reason such as being sent on assignment alone, it is not ordinary for a married couple to live separately for as long as five years.
(i). 掲示板やチャットで発言する際は、ごく親しい仲間内の場合は別として、丁寧な言葉遣いを心がけるべきだ。
When you express your opinions on (Internet) bulletin boards or in chat rooms, except for cases in which you are talking only amongst your close friends, you should try to use polite language.
Advanced Page 691
Phrase
| A phrase that conveys the meaning "even if I/we accept something, something else is not acceptable". | Be all right, but; might be all right, but; would be fine, but; would accept~, but; even if~ accept; even though~ accept; although~ accept |
| 【Related Expression: は仕方がないとしても】 | |
(ksa). 友達を助けようという動機はいいとしてもやり方が間違っている。
Your motivation for helping your friend is all right, but your way (of doing it) is wrong.
(ksb). 私はいいとしても他の人がこの部屋では満足しないだろう。
Even if I accept it, other people wouldn't be satisfied with this room.
(ksc). 部屋が狭いのはいいとしてもエアコンがないのは困る。
I'd accept a small room, but not having an air-conditioner there is not acceptable.
| (i)Noun | はいいとしても | |
| 借金はいいとしても | Borrowing money may be all right, but | |
| 彼はいいとしても | Even if he accepts it | |
| (ii){V/Adjectiveい}informal | のはいいとしても | Adjective い is usually nonpast |
| 出席できないのはいいとしても | Not being able to attend may be all right, but | |
| 高いのはいいとしても | Being expensive may be all right, but | |
| (iii){Adjectiveなstem/ Noun} | {な/である}のはいいとしても | |
| 下手{な/である}のはいいとしても | Someone's being bad at something may be all right, but | |
| 学生{な/である}のはいいとしても | Someone's being a student may be all right, but |
(a). 著作権のあるものは、個人用のコピーはいいとしても、それを他人に配付することは違法になります。
Regarding copyrighted materials, making copies for one's own use may be all right, but distributing them to others is illegal.
(b). 街頭はいいとしても、電車やレストランなどの公共の場所で声高に携帯電話で話されるのは周りの者にとって極めて迷惑だ。
Although it might be all right on the street, talking loudly on your cell phone in public places like trains and restaurants is extremely annoying to the people around you.
(c). このような結婚式では、結婚する本人たちはいいとしても両親が承知しないだろう。
Even if it is all right with the couple getting married, their parents probably won't approve of this kind of wedding ceremony.
(d). この店は安いから味が少しくらい悪いのはまあいいとしても、古い材料を使うのはやめてもらいたい。
Because this restaurant is cheap, it's all right for the food to taste a little off, but they should stop using old ingredients (for cooking).
(e). 今の社宅は一般の賃貸に比べて格段に安いのであまり文句は言えないのだが、建物が古いのはいいとしても、傷んだところをなかなか補修してもらえないのは問題だ。
The rent for the company house (we live in) now is much cheaper than that of ordinary houses, so we can't complain much. And even though we accept the old building, the fact that we can't get repairs done quickly when something is damaged is a problem.
(f). ウイルスのために自分自身のコンピュータが使えなくなるのはいいとしても、何も対処しないで他の人にウイルスをまき散らすことは許されない。
It's one thing to lose the use of your own computer (literally: It might be all right to lose the use of your own computer) because of a virus, but it's simply unforgivable to do nothing to get rid of it and thereby spread the virus to others.
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Phrase (usually used in formal writing and formal speech)
| A phrase that is used when something is not only true with one thing or person, but also with another thing or person that is less expected or understandable. | Let alone; not only~ (but also~); not to mention; to say nothing of; never mind; much less |
| 【Related Expression: は言うまでもなく; は言うに及ばず; はもちろん; だけでなく; のみならず】 | |
(ks). インターネットはおろか、パソコンも触ってことがないのだが、講習会についていけるだろうか。
Never having touched a computer, let alone used the Internet, I wonder if I will be able to keep up in the workshop.
| Noun1 | はおろかNoun2{も/でも/さえ/すら/まで} | |
| ひらがなはおろか漢字{も/でも/さえ/すら/まで} | Even (in) kanji, let along (in) hiragana |
(a). 最近は大学生はおろか、中学生でもかなりの者が海外旅行を経験している。
Never mind college students, these days even junior and senior high school students often have experienced traveling abroad.
(b). アメリカでは、隣町まで１００マイル、途中ガソリンスタンドはおろか、民家さえないという場所がたくさんある。
In America there are many places where the next town is 100 miles away and there are no houses, let alone a gas station, in between.
(c). ハリス氏は日本の現代文学はおろか、古典にまで通じている。
Mr. Harris is quite familiar with classics of Japanese literature, to say nothing of (his knowledge of) modern Japanese literature.
(d). 「近くて遠い」。この表現は日本との国交がない北朝鮮はおろか、韓国との関係を指すのにもよく使われてきた。
Near yet far. This phrase has often been used to describe Japan's relationship not only with North Korea, with which it has no diplomatic relations, but with South Korea as well.
(e). 英語を話すのが好きなだけで、英米の文学はおろか日本の文学もろくに読んでいない学生が英米学専攻に入ってくると悲惨だ。
It'll be a tragedy if a student who has barely even read any Japanese literature, much less British or American literature, signs up to major in English literature just because he or she likes to speak English.
(f). 企業は今、セキュリティのための支出を増やさなければ、セキュリティの強化はおろか、維持さえも難しくなっているという。
It is said that it has become more difficult for businesses to maintain security, let alone enhance it, without increasing their security expenses.
(g). このサイトは検索はおろか、本の内容紹介までしてくれるので非常に便利だ。
Not only does this website let you search (for books), it also gives a summary of the (searched) books' contents, so it's very convenient.
(h). 戦争はおろか食糧難すら経験したことがない者が、口先だけて戦争を議論しているのは笑止だ。
It is laughable that those people who have never even experienced a food shortage, much less a war, make glib arguments about war.
Advanced Page 697
Phrase
| A phrase that expresses the idea that something is not in proportion to what one would normally expect. | For; despite; although; (not) as much as; (not)~ because of that; considering |
| 【Related Expression: にしては】 | |
(ksa). この店のサービスランチは値段の割に(は)おいしくボリュームがある。
The bargain lunch at this restaurant is tasty and the portions are generous for the price.
(ksb). ビルはよく勉強している割に(は)成績が伸びない。
For all his hard work, Bill's grades don't seem to improve./ Although Bill studies hard, his grades do not improve.
(ksc). このチームは強い割に(は)人気がない。
This team is not popular despite its strength.
(ksd). 彼は大学で秀才だった割に(は)実社会であまり成功していない。
He's not doing very well in the business world considering that he was such a brilliant student at college./ He was a brilliant student at college, but, despite that, he is not doing very well in the business world.
(kse). 彼女はずばらしい研究をしているが、その割に(は)認められていない。
She is doing excellent research, but hasn't gained as much recognition as she deserves.
| (i)Noun | {の/である/だった/であった}割に(は) | |
| 値段の割に(は) | For it's price | |
| 先生{の/である/だった/であった}割に(は) | Considering that someone is/was a teacher | |
| (ii)Vinformal | 割に(は) | |
| よく{行く/行った}割に(は) | Considering that someone goes/went often; for as often as someone goes/went | |
| (iii)Adjectiveいinformal | 割に(は) | |
| {小さい/小さかった}割に(は) | For it's small size; considering that something is/was small | |
| (iv)Adjectiveなstem | {な/である/だった/であった}割に(は) | |
| 貧乏{な/である/だった/であった}割に(は) | Considering that someone is/was poor |
(a). 清水さんは年の割には若く見える。
Ms. Shimizu looks young for her age.
(b). この辺りはいつも海からの風があるので、強い日射しの割には過ごしやすい。
Because there is always a wind coming up off the sea in this area, it is comfortable (to stay here) despite the strong sun.
(c). このソフトは安い割には機能がよく、使いやすいです。
For as cheap as it is, this software is easy to use and has good functionality.
(d). この図書館は建物が立派な割には中の設備がよくない。
Despite the impressive building, the facilities inside this library are not that good.
(e). 多くの人が「有機野菜」表示を気にする割には、その意味を知っている人は少ない。
Although many people pay attention to "organic vegetable" labels (on produce), few know what they mean.
(f). シアトルなどの都市がある北部太平洋岸は比較的暖かく、緯度が北海道と変わらない割には冬の寒さも厳しくない。
The Pacific Northwest, which is home to cities like Seattle, has a relatively mild climate, and the winter is not as bitterly cold (as one would think,) despite the fact that it is at about the same latitude as Hokkaido.
(g). 記念すべきイベントの割には参加者が少なく物足りない気がする。
For an event that should be commemorated, there aren't many participants; I'm not quite satisfied.
(h). 彼は自国の大学で英語を教えていると言っているが、その割には英語が下手だ。
He says that he teaches English at a university in his country, but despite that his English is poor.
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Structure (usually used in conversation)
| A structure that emphatically presents actions, events or states as examples or reasons, or indicates that someone does something or something happens to a great extent. | X and Y; for example, X and Y; because X and Y; so many; so much; one after another |
| 【Related Expression: やら~やら】 | |
(ksa). 飛行機は12時間も遅れるわ荷物はなくなるわ(で)、今度の旅行は最悪だった。
The flight was delayed l2 hours, and my luggage was lost; this trip was the worst.
(ksb). 客が来るわ来るわ、またたく間に小さい店はいっぱいになった。
Customers came in one after another, and in the blink of an eye, the small shop had filled up.
| (i)S1informal nonpast | わS2informal nonpastわ | |
| 会議に遅れるわ名刺を忘れるわ | Someone was late for the meeting and forgot to bring his/her business cards | |
| 交通は不便だわ家賃は高いわ | Transportation is inconvenient and the rent is expensive | |
| (ii)V1informal nonpast | わV2informal nonpastわ | Where V1=V2 |
| 増えるわ増えるわ | Something increases so much (literally: increases and increases) |
(a). 仕事は増えるわ給料が下がるわ、今の状況は最悪だ。
We have more work to do, and our salaries have been cut; the current situation could not be worse.
(b). クレジットカードをなくすわ怪我をするわで、今度のスキー旅行ではひどい目に遭った。
Having lost my credit card and gotten injured--I had an awful time on this ski trip.
(c). 新しく雇った学生アルバイトは、仕事は遅いわ文句は多いわで、とても使いものにならない。
The student part-timer we hired recently is (of) no help (to us) because he (literally: his work) is slow and he complains a lot.
(d). この辺りは買い物には不便だわ環境は悪いわ、何一ついいところがない。
There's nothing good around here -the shopping is inconvenient and the environment is bad.
(e). 台所は何一つ手伝おうとしないわ、一緒に外食してもお金を払わないわ、もうあんな客は来てほしくない。
She never offered to help in the kitchen or paid anything when we went out to eat; I don't want any more houseguests like that.
(f). 面白い仕事はもらえるわ給料は上げてまらえるわ、新井君は最近いいことずくめだ。
He gets interesting work and a raise -Arai has had a real streak of good fortune lately.
(g). 辞書で「コウ」という発音の漢字を調べてみたら、あるわあるわ、全部で１７４も出ていた。
When I looked up the kanji with the pronunciation "kou" in a dictionary, there were so many of them -174 in all.
(h). 余程おなかが空いていたのだろう。食べるわ食べるわ、またたく間に大きな茶わんでご飯を5杯も平らげた。
He must have been very hungry. He ate and ate, and finished five large bowls of rice in an instant.
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Conjunction (usually used in formal writing and formal speech)
| A conjunction that expresses the idea that something happened or someone did something immediately following another event or action. | As soon as; no sooner~ than; the moment; soon after; immediately after |
| 【Related Expression: や; 途端(に); と同時に; とすぐ(に); たらすぐ(に); なり; が早いか; 瞬間に】 | |
(ks). その小説は発売されるや否やミリオンセラーになった。
The novel sold one million copies as soon as it went on sale.
| Vinformal nonpast | や否や | |
| 聞くや否や | As soon as someone heard something |
(a). 彼女は車から降りるや否や報道陣やファンに取り囲まれた。
She was surrounded by reporters and fans as soon as she got out of the car.
(b). スタジオに着くや否やリハーサルが始まった。
The rehearsal began as soon as I arrived at the studio.
(c). 秀夫はアパートに帰るや否やベッドに倒れ込んだ。
Hideo collapsed on his bed as soon as he returned to his apartment.
(d). 母の顔を見るや否や涙が込み上げてきた。
As soon as I saw my mother (literally: mother's face), my tears welled up.
(e). 小池氏はメディアから批判されるや否や、手のひらを返すように意見を変えた。
No sooner was he criticized by the media than Mr. Koike abruptly (literally: as if he turned his hand over) changed his opinion.
(f). ジョージは大学を卒業するや否やゲームソフトのビジネスを始めた。
George started his own game software business the moment he graduated from college.
(g). 安くておいしいと評判のそのレストランは、朝11時に開店するや否や、常連客でいっぱいになった。
The restaurant, which is popular for its reasonable prices and good food, was full of regular customers as soon as it opened at 11:00 a.m.
(h). そのテレビドラマは1回目が放映されるや否や、国中に大きな韓国ブームを引き起こした。
As soon as the first episode of the TV drama was telecast, it sparked a big Korea boom throughout the country.
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Particle (usually used in conversation)
| A sentence-final particle that marks a self-addressed question. | I wonder (if) |
| 【Related Expression: だろうか; かしら; か】 | |
(ksa). このビルが完成するのはいつになるのやら。
I wonder when this building will be finished.
(ksb). これから先、うちの会社は一体どうなることやら。
I wonder what will happen to our company from now on. (I'm quite worried.)
(ksc). こんな映画のどこがいいのやらさっぱり分からない。
I just don't understand what is good about this movie.
(ksd). 学生たちが何やら面白そうな計画をしている。
The students are planning something interesting.
| (i)Sinformalの | やら | だ after Adjectiveなstem and Noun changes to な |
| {行く/行った}のやら | I wonder if someone will go/went | |
| {高い/高かった}のやら | I wonder if something is/was expensive | |
| 不便{な/である/だった/であった}のやら | I wonder if something is/was inconvenient | |
| 学生{な/である/だった/であった}のやら | I wonder if someone is/was a student | |
| (ii)Sinformalこと | やら | だ cannot be used beforeこと Adjectiveな stem{な/である}こと;Nounであること |
| {行く/行った}ことやら | I wonder if someone will go/went | |
| {高い/高かった}ことやら | I wonder if something is/was expensive | |
| 不便{である/だった/であった}ことやら | I wonder if something is/was inconvenient | |
| 学生{である/だった/であった}ことやら | I wonder if someone is/was a student | |
| (ii)Sinformal | やら | だ after Adjectiveな stem and Noun is omitted |
| {行く/行った}やら | I wonder if someone will go/went; whether someone will go/went | |
| {大きい/大きかった}やら | I wonder if something is/was large; whether something is/was large | |
| 上手{∅/だった}やら | I wonder if someone is/was good at something; whether someone is/was skillful | |
| 学生{∅/だった}やら | I wonder if someone is/was a student; whether someone is/was a student |
(a). 競技場ははたしてオリンピック開会までに完成するのやら。
I really wonder if the stadium will be completed in time for the Olympic Games.
(b). 一体いつになったら自分の家が持てることやら。
I wonder when I'll be able to have my own house. (I feel almost hopeless.)
(c). さっきまでの元気はどこへ行ったのやら。
I wonder where all the energy he had just a little bit ago has gone.
(d). どこが入り口やら分からずビルの周りを何度も回った。
Not being able to figure out where the entrance was, I walked around the building several times.
(e). 誰も名札をつけていないので誰が誰やらさっぱり分からない。
No one is wearing a name tag, so I simply cannot figure out who's who.
(f). 今日はどんなご馳走を食べさせてもらえるのやら、とても楽しみだ。
I wonder what kind of feast they'll have for me to eat today. I can't wait!
(g). いつのまにやら外は暗くなっていた。
It got dark outside before I realised it.
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Structure
| A structure to present things, events, actions, etc., as examples, reasons or possibilities. | X and Y; things like X and Y; X, Y and so on; whether X or Y; whether X or not |
| 【Related Expression: や~や; とか~とか; たり~たり; か~か; わ~わ】 | |
(ksa). 私は会議やら講習会やらでこのところ出張が続いている。
I have been traveling for business a lot these days to conferences, workshops, etc.
(ksb). みんなに自分の写真をほめられて嬉しいやら恥ずかしいやら(で)変な気持ちでした。
When people praised the picture of me I felt strange, both happy and shy.
(ksc). 今日は、上司に叱られるやら財布を落とすやら(で)さんざんな一日だった。
I got told off by my boss; I lost my wallet -it's been a horrible day today.
(ksd). 久子は来るやらこないやら分からないから、もう行こう。
We can't tell whether Hisako will come or not, so let's just go.
(kse). 美術品のことは何も知らないので、この壷が安いのやら高いのやら全然見当がつかない。
Because I know nothing about art objects, I have no idea whether this pot is cheap or expensive.
| (i)X | やらYやら | |
| V1informal nonpastやらV2informal nonpastやら | 笑われるやら馬鹿にされるやら | Someone was laughed at and insulted, among other things |
| 今日帰るやら明日帰るやら | Whether someone will come home today or tomorrow | |
| Adjectiveい1informal nonpastやらAdjectiveい2informal nonpastやら | 悲しいやら悔しいやら | (I felt) sad and frustrated |
| いいやら悪いやら | Whether something is good or bad | |
| Adjectiveな1stemやらAdjectiveな2stemやら | 上手やら下手やら | Whether someone is good or poor at something |
| Noun1やらNoun2やら | クッキーやらチョコレートやら | Cookies, chocolates, and so on |
| 本物やら偽物やら | Real things and imitations; whether something is real or an imitation | |
| (ii)V1informal(affirmative) | やらV2informal (negative)やら | Where V1=V2 |
| 行くやら行かないやら | Whether someone will go or not | |
| 行ったやら行かなかったやら | Whether someone went or not | |
| (iii)Xの | やらYのやら | |
| V1informalのやらV2informalのやら | 行くのやら留まるのやら | Whether someone will go or stay |
| Adjectiveい1 informalのやらAdjectiveい2 informalのやら | 新しいのやら古いのやら | Whether something is new or old |
| Adjectiveな1stem{な/だった}のやらAdjectiveな2stem{な/だった}のやら | 上手なのやら下手なのやら | Where someone is good or poor at something |
| Noun1{な/だった} のやらNoun2{な/だった} のやら | 日本人なのやらアメリカ人なのやら | Whether someone is a Japanese or an American |
(a). 着替えやらお土産やらでスーツケースはもういっぱいになってしまった。
My suitcase is full now with a change of clothes and souvenirs and other things.)
(b). 趣味のことやら家族のことやらを時々ブログに書いている。
I write about my hobbies and my family in my blog from time to time.
(c). 音を立ててスープを飲むやら口にものを入れたまま話すやら、直樹のテーブルマナーはひどかった。
Naoki did things like slurping his soup and talking with food in his mouth -his table manners were horrible.
(d). アンディと楽しそうにおしゃべりしている陽子が憎らしいやらねたましいやらで、人と話していても上の空だった。
My mind was somewhere else when I was talking with people because I was mad at and jealous of Yoko, whom I saw talking happily with Andy.
(e). 彼女は日本語を話すそうだが、まだ話すのを聞いたことがないので、上手やら下手やら全く見当がつかない。
I heard that she speaks Japanese, but because I haven't heard her speak yet, I have no idea whether she's good or bad at it.
(f). この仕事は自分にできるやらできないやら、やってみなければ分からない。
I can't tell if l can do this job unless I try.
(g). 彼はアメリカ生まれの生粋のアメリカ人だが、日本人なのやらアメリカ人なのやら分からないくらい、考え方が日本人的だ。
He is a genuine born-in-the-USA American, but his ways of thinking are so much like those of Japanese people that we (almost) cannot tell whether he is a Japanese or an American. (literally: his ways of thinking are like those of Japanese people to the
(h). 貸してもらえるのやらもらえないのやら分からないお金を当てにしているのはよくない。
It's not good to count on the money before you know if they will lend it to you or not.
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Conjunction
| A conjunction that presents undesirable situation, which is assumed factual. | If; if it is true that; if it is the case that |
| 【Related Expression: ては】 | |
(ksa). 知らない単語が出てくるたびに辞書を引いているようではいつまでたっても速く読めない。
If (it is true that) you look up unfamiliar words in the dictionary every time you encounter a new one, you will never learn to read fast.
(ksb). アパートがそんなに高いようでは私たちは東京には住めない。
If (it is true that) apartments in Tokyo are that expensive, we cannot live there.
(ksc). 成績が今までのようでは困ります。
If you continue to show the level of performance you have to date, we will have a problem. (literally: If your performance is like what you have exhibited up to now, it's a problem.)
| (i){V/Adjectiveい}informal nonpast | ようでは | |
| 行くようでは | If it's true/the case that someone goes/is going | |
| 弱いようでは | If it's true/the case that something/someone is weak | |
| (ii)Adjectiveなstem | ようでは | |
| 下手なようでは | If it's true/the case that someone is bad at something | |
| (iii)Nounの | ようでは | |
| 二年のようでは | If something is like two years ago |
(a). 今からそんなに文句を言っているようでは、この仕事をやり遂げるのは難しいだろう。
If you complain like that now, it will be difficult to complete this job.
(b). 困った時に助けてくれないようでは友達とは言えない。
If (it is true that) he doesn't help you when you are in trouble, you cannot call him a friend.
(c). 朝が弱いようではこの仕事は無理でしょう。
If it is true that) you have trouble getting up early in the morning (literally: are weak in the morning), you probably won't be able to do this job.
(d). 千円程度の旅費払い戻しに4枚も5枚も書類が必要なようでは問題だ。
It is a problem if (it is true that) it takes four or five forms to request a travel reimbursement for an amount as small as one thousand yen.
(e). 今頃そんなことをしているようでは、とても締め切りに間に合わない。
If you're doing things like that now, there's no way you'll meet the deadline.
(f). 部下の面倒が見られないようでは上司失格だ。
If (it is true that) you cannot take care of the people under you, you are not qualified to be their boss.
(g). 大学の施設が現状のようでは、せっかく研究資金を増やしても有効に活用できない。
Even if we make an effort to increase research funding, with the university facilities the way they are (literally: if the university facilities are in their present condition), we won't be able to utilize the funds effectively.
(h). 次の試合も今日の試合のようでは、とても決勝には進めない。
If we play the next game like (we did in) today's game, there's no way we can advance to the finals.
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Phrase (usually used in formal writing and formal speech)
| A conjunctive phrase that presents an undesirable hypothetical situation. | If ~ happen to; if ~ at all; if ~ choose to |
| 【Related Expression: たりしたら】 | |
(ks). 山野氏は非常に時間に厳しい人で、面会時間に5分も遅れようものなら以後二度と会ってはもらえない。
Mr. Yamano is very strict about time; if you happen to be even five minutes late for an appointment with him, he won't meet with you again.
| Vvolitional | ものなら | |
| 聞こうものなら | If someone asks at all | |
| 食べようものなら | If someone eats something at all |
(a). 私はタバコの煙に特に敏感で、近くで吸われようものならもう何事にも集中できなくなってしまう。
I'm particularly sensitive to cigarette smoke, so when someone is smoking nearby, I cannot concentrate on anything.
(b). ニューヨークでは信号が青に変わって一秒でも発進が遅れようものなら、すかさず後ろからクラクションを鳴らされる。
In New York, if you happen to take even a second to move (your car) forward after the traffic light turns green, the driver behind you honks at you immediately.
(c). この島は、晴れていれば散歩や海水浴などが楽しめるが、雨に降られようものなら何もやることがなくなる。
On this island, you can have fun walking and swimming in the ocean on sunny days, but if it happens to rain, there's nothing to do.
(d). この飛行機は前の座席との間隔が極端に狭いので、私のように大きい人間は、前の人に椅子を倒されようものなら、文字通り身動きできなくなってしまう。
The seats in this airplane have an extremely small amount of space between them, so if someone in the seat ahead chooses to lean back, large people like me are stuck (literally: are in a situation in which they literally cannot move).
(e). 最近頻繁にやってくる訪問販売は頭痛の種です。断っても簡単には帰りませんし、うっかり家の中に入れようものなら買うまで帰りません。
The frequent visits of door-to-door salesmen these days are a real headache. The salesmen won't leave even if you say "no thanks," and if you happen to let them in the house by mistake, they won't leave until you buy (their products).
(f). 花粉症の季節にうっかりバイクで出かけようものなら、走行中にくしゃみ連発でフルフェイスのヘルメットの中は悲惨な状態になる。
If you happen to go out on a motorcycle in pollen season (literally: pollen allergy season) by mistake, you'll keep sneezing and be miserable inside your full-face helmet.
(g). この魚は猛毒を持っていて、間違ってそのトゲに刺されようものなら、患部が大きく腫れ上がってしまう。
This fish is very poisonous, and if you happen to be stung, that area will swell a lot.
(h). 田村さんは最近漢方医学に凝っていて、うっかりそのことを聞こうものなら、たっぷり一時間はその効用を聞くはめになる。
Ms. Tamura has taken up (studying) Chinese medicine recently and if you ask her about it by mistake, you will end up listening to (her talk about) its effects for a full hour.
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Phrase
| A conjunctive phrase that indicates concession: "even though someone tries to do something, he/she cannot do it for some reason". | Even though~ try/want to~; even though~ be thinking of doing~; although~ try/want to~; although~ be thinking of doing~ |
| 【Related Expression: ようたって; にも; たくても(~ない); たくとも(~ない)】 | |
(ksa). 徹に連絡しようにも電話番号もメールアドレスも知らない。
Even though I want to contact Toru, I don't know either her phone number or her e-mail address.
(ksb). ひどく頭が痛くて起きようにも起きられない。
I have a terrible headache, and I cannot get up even though I want to.
| Vvolitional | にも(～ない) | |
| 話そうにも(～ない) | (not) even though someone tries to talk | |
| 教えようにも(～ない) | (not) even though someone tries to teach |
(a). 記事を書こうにも書く材料がない。
Even though I'm thinking of writing an article, I have nothing to write about.
(b). 寿司を作ろうにも材料が手に入られない。
Even though I want to make sushi, I cannot get the ingredients (literally: materials).
(c). 苦情を言おうにも誰に言っていいか分からなかった。
Although I wanted to complain, I didn't know who to complain to.
(d). 体を動かそうにもあちこち痛くて腕も上げられない。
Although I'm trying to move my body, every part aches and I can't even lift my arms.
(e). 母は僕の日本人のガールフレンドと話しそうにも日本語ができなかった。
Even though my mother wanted to talk with my Japanese girlfriend, my mother (couldn't because she) can't speak Japanese.
(f). 気の毒に彼女は悩み事を相談しようにも相談できる人が近くにいない。
It's sad that even though she wants to talk to someone about her troubles, she has no one to talk to near her.
(g). カウンセリングに行こうにも、その質や学派も様々でついつい懐疑的になってしまいます。
Although I am thinking of going for counselling, the variation in quality and schools of thought makes me sceptical.
(h). その本は買おうにも絶版だった。
Although I wanted to buy the book, it was out of print.
(i). 携帯電話の電池が切れたので、電話をかけようにもかけられない。
Because my cell phone battery is dead, I cannot make a call even though I want to.
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Phrase
| Phrase conveys idea there is no other choice than to do something, or that something is true of only one of a select few things. | There is no (other) choice but to; there is no other way than to; have to; nothing but; but; not~ other than |
| 【Related Expression: なければならない; なければいけない; ざるを得ない; に~ない】 | |
(ksa). 公共の交通機関がないので、自分の車で行く(より)ほか(に)(は)ない。
Since there is no public transportation, we have no other choice but to go there in your/my car.
(ksb). 新聞はニューヨークタイムズのほか(に)は読まない。
I read nothing but the New York Times. (literally: I don't read any newspaper other than the New York Times.)
| (i)Vinformal nonpast | (より)はか(に)(は)ない | |
| 買う(より)はか(に)(は)ない | There is no other choice but to buy something | |
| (ii)Noun | {より/の}はか)(に)はVnegativeない | |
| アメリカ映画{より/の}はか)(に)は見ない | I see nothing but American movies | |
| 日本食は寿司{より/の}はか)(に)は食べない | I don't eat any Japanese food other than sushi |
(a). アルバイトの仕事が駄目になったので、両親にお金を借りるよりほかになかった。
Because I lost my part-time job, I had no choice but to borrow money from my parents.
(b). 友人がどうして気が狂ってしまったのかは推測するよりほかにはない。
I can only speculate as to why my friend was acting crazy.
(c). 信号機の故障で電車が止まってしまった以上、待っているよりほかない。
Since the train is stopped due to a signal problem we have no choice but to wait.
(d). 国際的に活躍したければ英語を学ぶよりほかはないだろう。
A person who wants to be internationally active will have no choice but to learn English.
(e). 秩序を回復するには権威の力を直接見せつけた容赦ない手段をとるよりほかはない。
In order to restore order, there is no other choice than to take ruthless means, directly demonstrating the power of our authority.
(f). モーツアルトが35年の生涯に６００曲以上の作品を書いたというのには、ただただ驚くよりほかはない。
The fact that Mozart composed more than 600 pieces during his life of thirty-five years is simply amazing (literally: leaves us no other choice than to be surprised).
(g). 典型的な科学者のイメージに合う人はアインシュタインのほかにはない。
Nobody but Einstein fits the stereotypical image of a scientist.
(h). 学会に出席している学者は数人のほかは面識がなかった。
All but a few of the attendees of the academic conference were total strangers.
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Noun (usually used in formal writing and formal speech)
| Dependent noun marks content of what writer has learned. | (I heard/It is said/etc.) that |
| 【Related Expression: とのこと】 | |
(ksa). この度は本社営業部長にご栄転の由、誠におめでとう存じます。
I heard of your promotion this time to manager of the headquarters' sales department. Please accept my sincere congratulations.
(ksb). 地球環境保護の国際会議が来年当市で開催される由(である)。
It is said that an international conference on global environmental protection will be held in this city next year.
(ksc). 野沢先生は来年一年ドイツにいらっしゃる由、伺っております。
I've been informed that next year Professor Nozawa is going to Germany for a year.
| (i)Nounの | 由 | |
| ご入院の由 | I heard of someone's hospitalisation | |
| (ii){V/Adjectiveい}informal | 由 | |
| {行う/行った}由 | I heard that someone will do/did something | |
| {高い/高かった}由 | I heard that something is/was expensive | |
| (iii){Adjectiveなstem/Noun} | {である/であった}由 | |
| 不便{である/であった}由 | I heard that something is/was inconvenient | |
| 先生{である/であった}由 | I heard that someone is/was a teacher |
(a). 第一子御出産の由、心からお祝い申し上げます。
I heard that you gave birth to your first child and I send my heartfelt congratulations.
(b). 当ホテルでのご滞在が快適でなかった由、誠に申し訳なく存じます。
We learned that your stay at our hotel was not a pleasant one. We are very sorry for that.
(c). 交通事故のこと伺いました。お怪我などなかった由、ほっといたしております。
I heard about the traffic accident. I am relieved to hear that you were not hurt.
(d). 石垣島は運よく台風の通過コースからはずれたため被害が少なかった由。
I was informed that there was not much damage on Ishigaki Island because, luckily, the typhoon missed it (literally: swerved away from it).
(e). 日本消費者連盟は、一部ウイスキーの不正表示に関して、公正取引委員会に申し入れる由である。
It is said that the Japan Consumers Union is going to appeal to the Fair Trade Commission regarding the dishonest labels on some whiskies.
(f). 懇親会にご出席の由、吉本君から連絡を受けました。
I heard from Mr. Yoshimoto that you will be attending the reception.
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Phrase (usually used in formal writing and formal speech)
| Conjunctive phrase expresses idea of concession. | Even if; whatever/whoever/ etc.; no matter what/who/how/etc.; whether X or Y |
| 【Related Expression: ても; ようとも】 | |
(ksa). 人が何と言おう{と/が}、私は自分の子供を信じている。
Whatever (other) people say, I believe my child.
(ksb). 頑固と言われよう{と/が}馬鹿と言われよう{と/が}、私は自分の信じることをやります。
Even if people say I'm stubborn or stupid, I'll do what I believe.
(ksc). あの教授は学生が分かろう{と/が}分かるまい{と/が}、かまわず授業を進めていく。
That professor keeps lecturing (literally: advances his lecture) regardless of whether his students understand it or not.
(ksd). 報酬が多かろう{と/が}少ないかろう{と/が}、私はやるべきことをやるだけだ。
Whether the compensation is high or low, l'll just do what I have to do.
(kse). 英語が上手だろう{と/が}下手だろう{と/が}そういうことは関係ない。
It doesn't matter whether his English is good or bad.
(ksf). プロの作品だろう{と/が}素人の作品だろう{と/が}いいものは採用する。
We'll adopt anything good, whether it's a work by a professional or an amateur.
| (i)Vvolitional | {と/が} | |
| 話そう{と/が} | Even if someone talks | |
| 見よう{と/が} | Even if someone looks/sees | |
| (ii)V1volitional | {と/が}V2volitional nonpastまい{と/が} | Where V1=V2 |
| 行こう{と/が}行くまい{と/が} | Whether or not someone wil go | |
| (iii)Adjectiveいstemかろう | {と/が} | |
| 高かろう{と/が}安かろう{と/が} | Whether something is expensive or cheap | |
| (vi){Adjectiveなstem/Noun} | {だろう/であろう}{と/が} | |
| 便利だろう{と/が}不便だろう{と/が} | Whether something is convenient or inconvenient | |
| 便利であろう{と/が}不便であろう{と/が} | Whether something is convenient or inconvenient | |
| 英語だろう{と/が}日本語だろう{と/が} | Whether it is English or Japanese | |
| 英語であろう{と/が}日本語であろう{と/が} | Whether it is English or Japanese |
(a). 人が何をしようと大きなお世話だ。
Whatever I do, it's none of your business.
(b). 費用がいくらかかろうとかまわない。何としてもこの訴訟勝たなければならない。
We don't care how much it may cost. We have to win this lawsuit by any means.
(c). 彼はみんなが聞いていようがおかまいなしで、上司の悪口を言っている。
He is saying bad things about his boss without regard to whether or not others are listening.
(d). 自分の子供たちが走り回ろうが飲み物をこぼそうが、親たちは叱りもしないで自分たちの話に夢中になっている。
Even if their children are running around or spilling drinks, the parents are too caught up in their own conversation to scold them.
(e). 彼女が結婚しようがするまいが、そんなことは私には関係ないことだ。
Whether she's going to marry or not, it has nothing to do with me.
(f). 高かろうが安かろうが、必要なものなら買えばいい。
Whether it's expensive or cheap, we should buy it if we need it.
(g). 参加者がたとえ一人であろうとツアーは予定通り行います。
We're going ahead with the tour as scheduled even if we have only one participant.
(h). 日本人だろうがアメリカ人だろうが、そういうことは関係ない。好きになったら結婚する。
It doesn't matter whether she is Japanese or American. If I fall in love (with someone), I'll marry that person.
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Conjunction (usually used in formal writing and formal speech)
| A conjunction that presents a reason or a cause. | Because; because of; due to; therefore |
| 【Related Expression: (為)に; から; ので; だから; 従って】 | |
(ksa). 彼女はその美貌(の)故(に)、悩みも多い。
Because of her good looks, she also has many things to worry about.
(ksb). 結果にこだわりすぎる(が)故(に)、小さなことに心を奪われることになる。
Because you want the end result to be perfect, you end up being distracted by little things.
(ksc). これは極めてデリケートな問題だ。(それ(が)/その)故に、慎重に取り組む必要がある。
This is an extremely delicate problem; therefore, we must handle it very carefully.
| (i){Noun(の)/Adjectiveなstem(な)} | 故(に) | |
| 天才(の)故(に) | Become someone is a genius | |
| 便利(な)故(に) | Because something is convenient | |
| (ii)Sinformal(が) | 故(に) | だ after Adjectiveなstem and Noun omitted |
| {間違いを/犯す/犯した}(が)故(に) | Because someone commits/commited an error | |
| {美しい/美しかった}(が)故(に) | Because someone/something is/was beautiful | |
| 便利{である/だった/であった}(が)故(に) | Because something is/was convenient | |
| 天才{である/だった/であった}(が)故(に) | Because someone is/was a genius | |
| (iii)Sentence1(それ(が)/その) | 故に、Sentence2。 | |
| この議論は前提がおかしい。(それ(が)/その)故に、結論も間違っている | This argument is based on a wrong premise. Therefore, the conclusion is also wrong |
(a). 彼の精神は大病の故に強靭になった。
His mind was strengthened because of his serious illness.
(b). 電子テキストは改変と公開が容易であるが、この特徴故に公開されている電子テキストは元データを追跡することが難しい。
Electronic texts are easy to revise and present to the public, but because of these characteristics, it is difficult to trace publicly-displayed electronic texts back to their original data.
(c). 携帯電話は便利故に、使い方を誤らないようにしなければならない。
Because cell phones are convenient, we have to be careful not to use them incorrectly.
(d). 山は高いが故に尊からず。
Mountains are not sacred just because they are tall.
(e). 日本列島は南北に伸びているが故に、温度差が大きい。
Because the Japanese archipelago extends north and south, the temperature difference (within Japan) is great.
(f). アメリカでは今でも黒人であるが故に差別されるということがある。
In the United States even now there are cases in which someone is discriminated against because he or she is black.
(g). 「我思う、故に我あり。」ーデカルト
I think, therefore I am. -Descartes
(h). 人はきっとミスをする。故に、それを前提とした対策を考える必要がある。
People will certainly make mistakes; therefore, we need to think of countermeasures based on that assumption.
(i). 俳句は言葉が最小限に抑えられている。それ故に。表現されていないことを想像しなければならない。
Haiku use a bare minimum of words. Therefore, one has to imagine what is not expressed.
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Phrase (usually used in formal writing and formal speech)
| Phrase expresses idea someone/something necessarily or naturally causes something to happen. | Be bound to; definitely; unmistakably; unquestionably; undoubtedly; without fail; without doubt |
| 【Related Expression: 必ず; 間違いなく; 絶対に; ずにはおられない/おれない/いられない】 | |
(ks). 技術の発達は社会環境の変化をもたらさずにはおかない。
Technological advancements are bound to bring about changes to social environments.
| Vnegative | ずにはおかない | Exception: する→せずにはおかない |
| 働かさずにはおかない | Someone definitely moves something |
(a). コンピュータの普及とインターネット利用の拡大は大きな教育の変革を促さずにはおかない。
The spread of computers and the expansion of Internet use are bound to promote big changes in education.
(b). この映画は観る者に感動を与えずにはおかない。
This movie is bound to move viewers. (literally: This movie does not leave viewers without moving them.)
(c). この小説は我々に人間とは何かを考えさせずにはおかない。
Without fail, this novel makes us think about what it is to be human.
(d). この事故は日本とアメリカの関係に影響を及ぼさずにはおかないだろう。
This accident will undoubtedly affect the relationship between Japan and America.
(e). 彼女は聴く者を魅了せずにはおかない音楽性とそれを表現する卓越した技術を持っている。
She has a musicality that unfailingly captivates her audiences and the superb technique to express it.
(f). 環境や用途に合わせて動物たちがつくりあげる構造物は、彼らの知恵と工夫がいたるところに見られ、我々の好奇心を惹起せずにはおかない。
Structures that animals construct according to their environment and needs exhibit in every aspect their wisdom and ideas, and are bound to arouse our curiosity.
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Phrase (usually used in formal writing and formal speech)
| Phrase meaning "without doing something". | Without~ ing; before (~ing); with no~; if~ do not; when~ do not |
| 【Related Expression: ずに; ないで】 | |
(ks). インカ帝国を知らずして南米大陸を語ることはできない。
You cannot talk about the South American continent without some knowledge of the Inca Empire.
| Vnegative | ずして | Exception: する→せずして |
| 待たずして | Without waiting | |
| 練習せずして | Without practicing |
(a). 我々のチームは最終日の最終戦を待たずして優勝が決定した。
Our team won the championship before (literally: without waiting for) the final game on the final day.
(b). 自分の義務を果たさずして人の責任を問うべきではない。
You should not call others to account when you have not performed your own duties.
(c). 文雄は宝くじが当たって労せずして大金を得た。
Fumio won the lottery, receiving a large sum of money with no effort.
(d). 新しい議長の選出で期せずしてみんなの意見が一致した。
In the election for a new chairman, unexpectedly (literally: without expecting), everybody agreed (on who it should be).
(e). 今勉強せずしていつするのか？
If we/you don't study now, when will you study?
(f). 荒木氏は自分の設計した建物の完成を見ずして亡くなってしまった。
Mr. Araki died before (literally: without) seeing the completion of the building he'd designed.
(g). ウイルスに感染した電子メールを社外の個人、団体に送信してしまい、意図せずして加害者になってしまった。
I became an offender without meaning to after sending a virus-infected e-mail to individuals and groups outside my company.
(h). 敵を知らずしては戦えない。
You cannot fight without knowing your enemy.
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Phrase (usually used in formal writing and formal speech)
| Conjunctive phrase indicates negative concession: "even if ~ not". | Without ~ing; even if ~ not; if ~ not |
| 【Related Expression: なくても; ないでも】 | |
(ksa). 今年の夏は涼しいので、エアコンを使わずとも過ごせそうだ。
It is cool this summer, so it looks like we can get by without using the air-conditioner.
(ksb). シカゴには親しい友人が何人かいるので、ホテルに泊まらずともよい。
Because I have several close friends in Chicago, I don't have to stay at a hotel.
(ksc). こんなに安くヨーロッパへ行けるなら、旅行好きならずとも行ってみたいと思うだろう。
If you can go to Europe this cheaply, even if you don't especially like to travel, you'll probably want to go.
| (i)Vnegative | ずとも | Exception: する→せずとも |
| 使わずとも | Even if one doesn't use something; without using something | |
| (ii)Nounなら | ずとも | |
| 専門家ならずとも | Even if someone is not a specialist |
(a). 東京で会えずとも、大阪では必ず会える。
(Even) if we cannot meet up in Tokyo, We will meet in Osaka for sure.
(b). 彼がどのくらいできるかはテストをせずとも見当がつく。
I can guess how much he can do without even giving him a test.
(c). この程度の故障ならサービスセンター送らずともこの店で修理できます。
We can repair this sort of trouble here at the store without sending (the product) to the service centre.
(d). この携帯電話は音声による操作が可能で、数字キーを押さずとも声だけで電話をかけられる。
This cell phone can be voice activated, so you can make a call using just your voice, without having to punch any numbers.
(e). これからは特別な訓練を受けずとも使えるようなユーザーインターフェースが必要となるだろう。
From now on it will be necessary to have a user interface that doesn't require special training.
(f). この理論は難解なので、今すぐ分からずともよい。
This theory is hard to understand, so it is all right if you don't understand it right away.
(g). 今回の野球ストは、これからのプロスポーツあり方を考えさせる出来事として、野球ファンならずとも注目する人が多かった。
Many people, even if they were not baseball fans, paid attention to the baseball strike this time because it (was an event that) made them think about what professional sports should be like in the future (literally: from now on).