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For those that have mastered the material of both Beginner's and Intermediate IMABI, Advanced I is the next step. You are by now able to easily comprehend the grammar and hopefully most of the vocabulary that you see in a publication. Advanced IMABI begins to add on more advanced grammar concepts as well as interesting topics.
上級
第204課: Tense I: The Auxiliary Verb -TA
第205課: Tense II: The Morpheme -RU/U
第210課: わけではない, わけがない, & わけにはいかない
第211課: The Particle ながらII: ながら(も) & ながらに(して)
第212課: No Doubt that: ~に違いない & ~に相違ない
第213課: Based on: ~に基づいて, ~を踏まえて, ~をもとにして, ~に沿って, ~に即して, & ~に則って
第214課: After II: ~てからというもの(は) & ~て以来
第215課: Circumstance: 場合 & ~に備えて
第216課: Whenever II: ~度, ~都度, & ~につけ
第217課: The Supplementary Verb する
第219課: Intransitive & Transitive: Part 1
第220課: Intransitive & Transitive: Part 2
第221課: Standpoint: ~として & ~にとって
第226課: The Causative II: Transitive Verb Corruption
第227課: Intransitive Verbs Translated in the Passive Voice
第230課: The Particle さえ, すら, & だに
第232課: More Negative Patterns: ~ないことには, ~なし・なき, ~なしで(は), ~なしに(は), ~なくして(は), ~ことなく, いとわない, & 甲斐もなく
第233課: Exception: ~をのぞいて, ~をおいて, & ~ならでは
第234課: can't Help I: ~ないではいられない
第235課: can't Help II: ~てならない, ~てあまない, ~てしかたがない, ~にたえない, & ~にたまらない
第236課: can't Help III: ~ないではすまない, ~ないではおかない, ~を余儀なく[される・させる], & ~を禁じ得ない
第237課: Intransitive & Transitive: Part 3
第238課: Intransitive & Transitive: Part 4
第239課: Intransitive & Transitive: Part 5 (Sino-Japanese)
第240課: Limit: ~限り, ~を限りに, ~限りでは, ~に限って, ~に限らない, & ~とは限らない
第241課: Addition: ~に加えて, ~にとどまらず, ~もさることながら, ~はおろか・もちろん・もとより, & ~ともあれ
第242課: The Particle と III: と+…ない
第243課: The Volitional II: The Negative Volitional: ~まい
第244課: As soon as: ~や(いなや), ~なり, ~途端(に), & ~次第
第245課: Combination Particles with ところ
第247課: Circumstance: まま, 思いきや, & もと
第248課: Result: ~結果, ~うえで, ~挙句, ~すえに, & ~始末だ
第249課: Compare & Contrast: ~に比べて, ~に引き換え, ~にもまして, & ~ないまでも
第250課: As (change): ~につれて, ~に従って, ~に伴って, ~とともに, ~に応じて, & ~に応えて
Japanese is an agglutinative language ( 膠着語 ). Agglutination in the case of Japanese refers to how endings attach to what are referred to as "bases" in chains, interwoven like DNA strands. Endings can range from auxiliaries, supplementary verbs, to even particles, but the bases they attach to are limited in number and the relationship between base and ending is not arbitrary.
It's important to understand that the bases will differ in appearance and slightly in usage depending on the part of speech. The parts of speech that have bases are those that can conjugate. Thus, we will be investigating verbs, adjectives, and auxiliaries. In this lesson, we consider タル形容動詞 as a separate part of speech as their set of bases is a special point of interest.
未然形 | 連用形 | 終止形 | 連体形 | 已然形 | 命令形 | |
上一段活用動詞 | い- | い- | いる | いる- | いれ- | いろ・いよ |
下一段活用動詞 | え- | え- | える | える- | えれ- | えろ・えよ |
五段活用動詞 | -あ-・-お- | -い- | -う | -う- | -え- | -え |
サ変活用動詞 | さ・し・せ- | し- | する | する- | すれ- | しろ・せよ・せい |
カ変活用動詞 | こ- | き- | くる | くる | くれ- | こい |
形容詞 | かろ- | く-・かり- | い | い-・(き-) | けれ- | かれ |
形容動詞 | だろ- | だっ・で・に- | だ | な- | なら- | X |
タル形容動詞 | (たら-) | と- | (たり) | たる- | (たれ-) | (たれ) |
~た | たろ- | たり | た | た | たら- | X |
~ず | ざら- | ず・ざり- | ず・ぬ・ん | ぬ・ざる- | ね・ざれ- | ざれ |
~べきだ | べから- | べく・べかり- | べし・べきだ | べき-・べかる | べけれ- | X |
~ます | ませ-・ましょ- | まし- | ます | ます(る) | ますれ- | ませ |
~なり | なら- | なり- | なり | なる- | なれ- | なれ |
~う・よう | X | X | う・よう | (う・よう-) | X | X |
~まい | X | X | まい | (まい・まじき) | X | X |
This is a lot of information condensed into one chart, so during the lesson individual examples from this chart will be discussed.
The 未然形 literally translates into English as the "Irrealis Form". This comes from the Classical Japanese usage of making the ば hypothetical, which attached to the 未然形 for this meaning. So, you would get something like 急がば instead of 急げば. In fact, there are still several instances in Modern Japanese where this is allowed. For instance, 急がば is seen in the common set phrase 急がば回れ, which translates to "slow and steady wins the race".
Remember that set phrases in any language are the most likely examples to find old-fashioned/archaic grammar. Yet, this example isn't the only example. In fact, whenever you use ~たらば or ~ならば, you are utilizing the 未然形+ば.
The use of ~たら and ~なら in this fashion should be ungrammatical because as the chart above shows, they are the 未然形 of ~た and ~なり respectively. So, they should have an ending following them. As we should all know, though, languages evolve from errors. Now, they are deemed as particles because they have deviated from the rules.
Examples
1. 星になれたならば
If you were able to become a star
2. できたら、見せてくれない?
If you were able to, can't you show me?
As this is the base of things not having realized, it is also followed by auxiliaries of intention/volition. For the volition, many items have a 未然形 sound change of /a/ to /o/.
3. 行こう!
Let's go!
4a. そうでもなかろう。(ちょっと古風)
4b. そうでもないでしょう。(もっと自然)
It's probably not so.
する
する’s original 未然形's was せ-. As it is the original, you should expect it to be used with old auxiliaries such as ~ず・ぬ・ん. These are all forms of each other, so this makes it easier to remember. Other endings that have attached to the 未然形 in Classical Japanese have all been replaced with other speech modals or changed somehow (like the volitional endings and their current relationship sound-wise with the 未然形).
5. 入会せずにはいられない。
I can't help but join.
6. 勉強せんと。 (ちょっと古風: 方言的)
I have to study.
The さ- variant in Modern Japanese is important for the forms される (passive) and させる (causative). However, in Classical Japanese you had せらる and せしむ respectively. So, the emergence of さ- comes about due the causative auxiliary さす. Essentially, the birth of させる was simultaneous with that of される. し- is paired with ~ない and the volitional ending ~よう.
7. 誘惑された人
A person that got lured
8. 喧嘩を売られたのはこっちのほうだ。
The one who had been picked into the fight was [him].
From 混声の森 (下) by 松本清張.
9. いや、そうさせはしないのだ。
No, [I] won't make [you] do such.
The 未然形 of 五段 verbs, 形容詞, 形容動詞, and some auxiliaries ends in /o-/.
10. 新しかろうが古かろうが
Whether it's new or old
11. 今夜勉強しないでしょう。
I probably won't study tonight.
12. 息子にも理屈はあろう。 (ちょっと古風)
His son must also have a reason.
From 混声の森 (下) by 松本清張.
Adjective 未然形 + Negation
Though the 未然形 of adjectives has limited usage with the auxiliary ~う, which is also replaced with 終止形+だろう, the old negative auxiliary ~ず attaches to the 未然形 of adjectives. Though this would mean any instances of this combination in Modern Japanese are old-fashioned, you will come across examples in literature.
13. いささか詩人らしからぬ月並みな表現である。
It's a commonplace expression unbecoming of a poet.
Potential Verbs
Before Modern Japanese, there were no special conjugations for the potential such as 行ける for 行く. This came about from a very important sound change involving the auxiliary ~れる when attached to the 未然形 of 五段 verbs.
Motivation for this lies in the fact that ~れる is primarily used to make the passive voice for 五段 and サ変 verbs. It also has another major function of making light 敬語, which is crucially important for situations such as talking to one's boss's boss or elderly people.
14. どちらに行かれますか。
Where are you going?
15. シャコはカモメに食われた。
The mantis shrimp was eaten by the sea gull.
How, then, did a whole new "conjugation" form? In Classical Japanese, Japanese actually didn't express "affirmative potential". Japanese culture has always placed value in being humble in regards to oneself. So, the means of expressing potential were used when expressing negative potential. The auxiliaries ~られる and れる were ~らる and ~る respectively. So, cannot swim would have been expressed as 泳がれず.
16. つゆまどろまれず。
I couldn't doze even a little.
From the 更級日記.
The 未然形 ~る was れ-, which is still the 未然形 of ~れる. Sometime during the Edo Period, "ar" in this potential pattern dropped. This renders 泳がれず as 泳げず. Though the changes in appearance of the negative and potential endings are separate events, this simple change that no doubt began as a colloquial contraction gave birth to fully independent potential verbs in the Japanese language.
Due to Western influence with many works being translated into Japanese, the 終止形 (final form) of the potential began being used, and with the large majority of verbs now having a fully functional independent form for the potential, it was perfect timing.
17. 手紙が書けず。
I can't write the letter.
In Modern Japanese, this is now being extended to 一段 verbs. So, things like 見られる is becoming 見れる. In another 50 years or so, this may be the fully standard way to make the potential for this verb class. This entire process, though, originates from just a simple adjustment to the rules of a conjugation involving the 未然形 because having the potential to do something doesn't mean you've done it yet.
18. 何でも食べれるよ。
You can eat anything.
19. 見れますか。
Can you see it?
Many people like to refer to this special development in these verbs as the 可能形. After all, it's far more deviant than the 連用形 sound changes with ~た・て.
聞く → 聞き- (連用形) + ~て → 聞きて → (Drop K) 聞いて Still using the 連用形
聞く → 聞か- (未然形) + ~れる → 聞かれる → (Drop ar) 聞ける Still using the 未然形
However, this doesn't work well with the base format as seen above. Bases apply to anything that conjugates. There is no doubt that the term 可能形 refers to this potential form phenomenon, but is it of the same vein as the 未然形, 連用形, etc.? No. If it were, everything that conjugates in the language would at least have the opportunity to have it.
Again, this is only a particular sound change of a process following the norm for a particular verb class. Furthermore, these resultant "potential verbs" have their own set of bases like any other verb. So, it is generally believed that these verbs should be treated as separate words that stem from the base verb, just as there are transitivity pairs in the language.
Transitivity pairs didn't exist in ancient forms of Japanese. So, the emerging of a new derivative of verbs should not be surprising in a historical sense. If anything, this has allowed the language to fix a major problem in battling ambiguity with other usages of the auxiliary ~れる.
はじむ (Old Japanese word for "to begin") → Modern Japanese: はじまる (Intransitive) はじめる (Transitive)
いづ (Old Japanese word for "to go out") → Modern Japanse: 出る (Intransitive)
出す (Transitive)
出せる (Potential)
There is a mistaken logic in Japanese texts that the 可能形 is made by affixing (attaching) る to the equivalent of the 已然形, which is what is meant by sources that call it the "E Base" because of the vowel that it ends with for all instances. However, this is nonsensical. It may be an easy way to remember how to make it for 五段 verbs. But, it completely neglects what the "E Base ≒ 已然形” is used for. It also ignores the sound change. The non-abbreviated form of the process 未然形+れる still has relevance in Modern Japanese. So, the downside that such an explanation brings is the watering down and unintended omission of important information to the student.
The purpose of the 連用形 is to show that an action/process is either taking place or has already taken place. Thus, it is often followed by auxiliaries such as ~た. Conjunctive particles such as て, つつ, and ながら also follow it to indicate continuation. This is by far the most used base in Japanese conjugation. Further important usages include the 連用中止形 and making compound verbs.
20. 食卓に焜炉を置いて鍋を囲み、楽しく語らいながら食事ができる。
You can have a dinner while enjoying eating and talking sitting around the pot on the konro [stove] on the dining table.
This sentence has several usages of the 連用形. You see it with て and the verb 置く, in the 連用中止形 with the verb 囲む, used as an adverb with the adjective 楽しい, and with the ながら with the verb 語る.
One of the most difficult aspects of the 連用形 are sound changes and multiple ones for certain items. A lot has changed in regards to the base. Consider the chart below which shows how it has changed. 文語 stands for Classical Japanese and 口語 stands for Modern Japanese.
文語 |
口語 |
||||||||
品詞 |
活用の種類 |
例語 |
語形 |
活用の種類 |
例語 |
語形 |
|||
動詞 |
四段活用 |
書く |
かき |
-i |
五段活用 |
書く |
かき
かい
|
-i
っ/ん/い
|
|
ラ行変格活用 |
あり |
あり |
-i |
||||||
ナ行変格活用 |
死ぬ |
しに |
-i |
||||||
下一段活用 |
蹴る |
け |
-e |
||||||
下二段活用 |
受く |
うけ |
-e |
下一段活用 |
受ける |
うけ |
-e |
||
上一段活用 |
着る |
き |
-i |
上一段活用 |
起きる |
おき |
-i |
||
上二段活用 |
起く |
おき |
-i |
||||||
カ行変格活用 |
来 |
き |
-i |
カ行変格活用 |
来る |
き |
-i |
||
サ行変格活用 |
す |
し |
-i |
サ行変格活用 |
する |
し |
-i |
||
形容詞 |
ク活用 |
なし |
なく
なかり
|
く
かり
|
|
ない |
なく
なかっ
|
く
かっ
|
|
シク活用 |
美し |
うつくしく
うつくしかり
|
しく
しかり
|
||||||
形容動詞 |
ナリ活用 |
静かなり |
しずかに
しずかなり
|
に
なり
|
|
静かだ |
しずかに
しずかだっ
しずかで
|
に
だっ
で
|
|
タリ活用 |
堂々たり |
どうどうと |
と |
買う → 買って | 書く → 書いて | 嗅ぐ → 嗅いで | 勝つ → 勝って | 噛む → 嚙んで | 刈る → 刈って |
文語 | 口語 | ||||||||
品詞 | 活用の種類 | 例語 | 語形 | 活用の種類 | 例語 | 語形 | |||
動詞 | 四段活用 | 書く | かき | -i | 五段活用 | 書く | かき かい |
-i っ/ん/い |
|
ラ行変格活用 | あり | あり | -i | ||||||
ナ行変格活用 | 死ぬ | しに | -i | ||||||
下一段活用 | 蹴る | け | -e | ||||||
下二段活用 | 受く | うけ | -e | 下一段活用 | 受ける | うけ | -e | ||
上一段活用 | 着る | き | -i | 上一段活用 | 起きる | おき | -i | ||
上二段活用 | 起く | おき | -i | ||||||
カ行変格活用 | 来 | き | -i | カ行変格活用 | 来 | き | -i | ||
サ行変格活用 | す | し | -i | サ行変格活用 | す | し | -i | ||
形容詞 | ク活用 | なし | なく なかり |
く かり |
ない | なく なかっ |
く かっ |
||
シク活用 | 美し | うつくしく うつくしかり |
しく しかり |
||||||
形容動詞 | ナリ活用 | 静かなり | しずかに しずかなり |
に なり |
静かだ | しずかに しずかだっ しずかで |
に だっ で |
||
タリ活用 | 堂々たり | どうどうと どうどうたり |
と たり |
文語 | 口語 | ||||||||
品詞 | 活用の種類 | 例語 | 語形 | 活用の種類 | 例語 | 語形 | |||
動詞 | 四段活用 | 書く | かき | -i | 五段活用 | 書く | かき かい |
-i っ/ん/い |
|
ラ行変格活用 | あり | あり | -i | ||||||
ナ行変格活用 | 死ぬ | しに | -i | ||||||
下一段活用 | 蹴る | け | -e | ||||||
下二段活用 | 受く | うけ | -e | 下一段活用 | 受ける | うけ | -e | ||
上一段活用 | 着る | き | -i | 上一段活用 | 起きる | おき | -i | ||
上二段活用 | 起く | おき | -i | ||||||
カ行変格活用 | 来 | き | -i | カ行変格活用 | 来 | き | -i | ||
サ行変格活用 | す | し | -i | サ行変格活用 | す | し | -i | ||
形容詞 | ク活用 | なし | なく なかり |
く かり |
ない | なく なかっ |
く かっ |
||
シク活用 | 美し | うつくしく うつくしかり |
しく しかり |
||||||
形容動詞 | ナリ活用 | 静かなり | しずかに しずかなり |
に なり |
静かだ | しずかに しずかだっ しずかで |
に だっ で |
||
タリ活用 | 堂々たり | どうどうと どうどうたり |
と たり |
This base marks the end of a sentence. This is very important. Everything that conjugates has a 終止形. It normally expresses the non-past tense unless there is a tense item involved. What it looks like is quite straightforward as it is equivalent to the 辞書形.
21. 左に曲がる。 (左に曲がれという意味)
Turn left.
Grammar Note: Some times, the 終止形 in context may be used to instruct someone to do something.
Recently in the history of Japanese, the 連体形 merged with the 終止形, causing the latter to look like the former for many things. For instance, the 終止形 of する used to be す, and the 連体形 was する. This also effected some auxiliaries. For instance, べし → べきだ, ず → ぬ.
Though in Modern Japanese completely identical in appearance to the 終止形 for most conjugatable items, it is syntactically extremely different. The 連体形 is the attributive form, which is used in Modern Japanese to solely modify nominal phrases.
22. きれいな字
Pretty handwriting
23. ずいぶんひどい内容
Quite horrible content/matter
24. もう宿題を出したんです。
I've already turned in my homework.
An issue that comes up a lot is students not realizing that verb phrases can modify sentences. There are even particle restrictions that come along with it. For instance, an embedded clause must never have the topic particle は unless there is a citation particle like と・って. Some make the mistake of finding the first が and assuming it's the subject, despite the fact that that is not always the case because of this fact.
25.
要旨
は、[
謙一
が長い間専務理事の
椅子
に
坐
って学園の管理を
壟断
している]こと、[会計に不正がある]こと、[それを理事会の席で大島に指摘されて謙一が
狼狽
した]こと、つづいて[彼が次の理事長の椅子を
狙
い
画策
している]ことなどであった。
The gist was that Ken'ichi has been sitting in the seat of the executive director for a long time and has been monopolizing on the management of the academy, has made a wrong in the accounting, and that that was pointed out in the board meeting by Ohshima and Ken'ichi was bewildered, and counting on, he was scheming for the seat of the next board chairman.
From 混声の森 (下) by 松本清張.
Sentence Note: The brackets indicate the long attributes phrases, and the 連体形 have been put in bold.
The 已然形 literally means "the already-realized form". This comes from the fact that in Classical Japanese, the particle ば would be used with it to mean "because; when". Thus, this grammar point has changed significantly. It is also used with the particle ど(も), which means although.
26. あかつきより雨降れば
Since it had been raining since early morning
From the 土佐日記.
27. エリスは
床
に
臥
すほどにはあらねど、小さき
鉄炉
のほとりに椅子さし寄せて言葉少なし。
Ellis wasn't to the point of being bedridden, but she lied on a chair near a small iron furnace and had little to say.
By
鷗外
.
You also see it used in the pattern こそすれ. In Modern Japanese grammar, it is sometimes called the 仮定形 (the hypothetical form) due to how the particle ば is now used. Nevertheless, the original name generally stands.
28. 男女の違いこそあれ、二人は
瓜
二つだね。
Of course they have their differences as man and woman, but they're like two peas in a pod.
The 命令形 is the imperative form, which creates a command. There are many ways to make commands in Japanese, but this is the core way to. It isn't difficult to make an imperative, but it is difficult to use these phrases--with the ultimate goal to request something--like native speakers would.
Construction Note: Making the 命令形 is relatively easy. As we have already studied how to construct it, please refer back to the chart at the beginning of this lesson.
Curriculum Note: As there is already a lesson about the 命令形, every point mentioned here is meant to be summarization and not intense dissection.
In Modern Japanese, the 命令形 is typically very stern and powerful. It is semantically impossible for it to be used with the past tense.
Examples
29. こっちに来い!
Come here!
30. 手を挙げろ!
Hands up!
31. あんたのいいようにしてくれ。 (Vulgar)
Do as is good for you.
32. ゴミを投げるな。
Don't throw trash!
33. 金を出せ!
Hand over money!
One can easily see a bank robber saying 金を出せ or a soldier yelling 手を挙げろ. It's not that stern commands are never used. It's just that from a productive standpoint, you should understand that its use is limited. Experience as to when the 命令形 is used is the best solution to not sound rude. There are plenty of other ways to get your point across about wanting something done.
34. 息子は、相手の家に謝りに行けという考えに反抗している。
His son was against his thought of going to apologize to his opponent's house.
From 混声の森 by 松本清張.
Grammar Note: In this instance, the command form is in quotations. Though there is a 上下関係 between the father and son, the 命令形 is used in this fashion a lot.
35. 一生懸命勉強しろといわれた。
I was told to study as hard as possible.
話者 VS 聴者
In studying more about the 命令形, we need to examine the relation between the 話者 (speaker) and 聴者 (listener). Inequality signs will demonstrate which side has the most power/influence. An equal sign would mean that they're equal in this regard.
話者 > 聴者話者 = 聴者話者 < 聴者
In the first situation, the speaker has more authority on the choice of action than the listener. There is no place for the speaker to decide what to do. In the second situation, the speaker allows for the action, and the listener has the power to consent to it or not interfere with it. In the third section, even if the speaker makes a request for the listener to do something, the listener has the power to decide. Thus, the speaker ends up making a suggestion or some sort of advice/aspiration.
With each of these situations, you can replace the 命令形 with various synonymous expressions. For instance, in the first relation, you could see ~なければならない or ~なさい. In the second situation, you could use ~ていい. In the third, ~た方がいい could be used instead. Though there are slight differences, relating the 命令形 with these patterns for the three broad situations it is used in will help you a lot in understanding it.
36. 黙って出されたものを食べろ。 (話者 > 聴者)
食べろ → 食べなさい
Shut up and eat what's been given to you!
37. これを飲め。 (話者 = 聴者)
飲め → 飲んで(も)いい
Drink this.
38. 一時間幸せになりたかったら酒を飲め,三日間幸せになりたかったら結婚しろ,一週間幸せになりたかったら豚を殺して食べろ,一生幸せになりたかったら釣りを覚えろ。
命令形 → ~た方がいい
If you want to become happy for an hour, drink; if you want to be happy for three days, get married; if you want to be happy for a week, kill a pig and eat it; if you want to be happy for a lifetime, learn how to fish. (話者 < 聴者)
A Quote from 開高健.
The notes after the example signify that the 命令形 could be paraphrased out.
命令形 Studies
Studying the 命令形 also interests Japanese grammarians. The 命令形 has been given many names. Some include 放任形 (non-interference form) and 命令法. However, is the word 命令 the most appropriate word?
One interesting usage that is typically not mentioned is that the 命令形 is the chosen command pattern for decrees in law. Related to this is the usage of it by bosses.
39. 止まれ
Stop!
This is the Japanese traffic lingo equivalent to "STOP" on stop signs. This shows an imperative and obligation to motorists and pedestrians to stop.
In 敬語
This has all been in regards to non-敬語 situations. There are things such as ~なさい and ~ませ that have different social implications that you need to pay close attention to.
40. いらっしゃいませ。
Welcome!
This usage, for example, is a very important set phrase that you hear all the time when entering businesses and restaurants.
41. 勉強しなさい。
Study!
This is something that you would hear a stern parent tell his child. Again, just as is the case in English, social dynamics play a crucial rule in how commands of any kind are perceived. As you have surely seen a lot of Japanese by now, this shouldn't be hard to understand.
Verbs in the 連用形 can be very noun-like. Whether the result is actually a true-noun, a limited noun, or rarely like a noun shouldn't distract us from noting how verbs in this form can clearly deviate from a truly verbal meaning.
First, let’s assume that a lot of verbs can at least be noun-like in some contexts. We can see at least five different types of resultant noun phrases.
Our example verb for this category is 光 (light). Although its meaning of radiance in 目の光 gets closer to its verb roots, if we were to say 〇が光り〇, we would treat 光り as a verb phrase in the 連用形. This difference between hikari and hikar-i suggests that the first comes from the second, but it has lost its literal connection to the verb 光る. The second clearly has not and is merely a form of the latter. In spelling, we distinguish the two for this verb, but that won’t always be a guarantee.
If the verb in which the noun comes from has disappeared, then it becomes even clearer how independent the noun is from its verbal root. Some examples including the following.
霧 (mist): Comes from the 連用形 of the old verb 霧る meaning “to mist”
相撲 (sumo wrestling): Comes from the 連用形 of the old verb 争(すま)ふ meaning to fight.
歌舞伎 (Kabuki theatre): Comes from the 連用形 of the old verb かぶく meaning “to tilt (one’s head)”.
Another interesting example is the verb 歌う. We find that there are two nouns derived from it: 歌 and 謡い. The 漢字 have the same reading here, but the words うた and うたい have different meanings. The first can mean song or even poem (though when meant to mean poem it is often spelled as 詩). You may even see the character 唄 to refer to a song akin to a lullaby. The latter, 謡い, refers specifically to Noh song. We see that the latter clearly comes from the 連用形. At first glance, it seems that 歌 is from the root of the verb. In reality, it is probably from the contraction of うたい.
This is a less drastic form of Type 1. For 連用形 of this type, it can be used like any other noun grammatically. It needs no context to be understood in isolation as a noun phrase with a specific meaning. This does not mean that the 連用形 can be used verbally. So, we could say that 光 may belong here.
Many verbs regarding psychological and emotional state are represented here as well as human cognitive activities, speech acts, and actions regarding expression.
1. ほとんどの
臓器
が日ごろ休みなく働き続けています。 (休む)
Almost all of your organs continue to work nonstop on a normal basis.
2.
疲
れを感じたときは、自分の体が「休んで!」と言っているサインです。 (疲れる)
When you've felt fatigue, that's a sign from your body telling you "to take a rest!".
3. 薬と死の
匂
いがする場所から
逃
れる。 (匂う)
To escape from a place with the smell of medicine and death.
4. ISISの
狙
いはシリアとイラクの
国境
地帯
にイスラム国家を
樹立
するところにあります。 (狙う)
The aim of ISIS is to establish an Islamic State in the border region between Syria and Iraq.
5. エジプト
市民
の
望
みは
叶
うのか。 (望む)
Will the hopes of the Egyptian people be fulfilled?
6. 新しい
知ら
せを伝える。 (知らせる)
To inform on a new notice.
7.
魔女
は
森永家
全員
に
呪
いをかけた。 (呪う)
The witch put a curse on all of the Morinaga family.
8. 川の流れに
沿
って泳ぐ。 (流れる)
To swim along the current of the river.
9.
難読
漢字
の読みを覚える
方法
を教えてくれませんか。 (読む)
Could you teach me methods to remember the readings of difficult to read Kanji?
10. どうしても何時間も
怒
りが
収
まらない。 (怒る)
(My/X's) anger won't simmer down for hours no matter what.
Even though these are clearly nouns, they still individually can have odd restrictions.
11a. きょうは仕事で疲れたなあ。〇
11b. きょうの仕事は疲れたなあ。〇・△
11c. きょうの働きは疲れだったなあ。 X (働く & 疲れる)
In this example, we see a major restriction on 働き and 疲れ. Even when you replace them with the correct words, the grammar is still off. This demonstrates how semantic and syntactic restrictions work in unison to form natural utterances like 11a. Take into consideration Ex. 12, which demonstrates the most natural and common use of 行き as a suffix.
12.
日本
行
の
飛行機
に乗る。 (行く = ゆく)
To ride a plain bound for Japan.
Many verbs need context to be used independently. The point here is at least they can be stand-alone nouns. They just need help to make any sense. Consider Ex. 13-14.
13a. 泳ぎは体にいいですね。X (泳ぐ)
13b. 泳ぐことは体にいいですね。〇
Swimming is good for you.
14. やっぱり魚は泳ぎが速いね。 (泳ぐ)
Fish are definitely fast at swimming.
Ex. 13 demonstrates how if you give the wrong sort of help, you get a bad sentence. Many examples of this are found in set idiomatic phrases. Some require a XはYが structure to appear whereas others simply want a subject attribute. The requirements to have these sort of nouns work varies a lot, which is why the mastery of this type is going to very difficult. You have to in a sense get used to how Japanese phrases things, which is not an easy task.
15a. 高まりを感じる。X (高まる)
15b. 心の高まりを感じる。〇
To feel an emotional high.
16. 彼は
分
かりが
遅
い。 (分かる)
He's a slow learner.
17.
画面
の
映
りが悪いですね。 (映る)
The quality of the screen is bad, isn't it?
18. エンジンのかかりが
遅
い。 (かかる)
The engine starts up slowly.
19.
庖丁
がなまって切れが悪くなった。 (切れる)
The kitchen knife has gotten dull and doesn't cut well.
20. 神経の
伝
わりを
遮断
することで痛みを
和
らげる
治療
です。 (伝わる)
This is a treatment to alleviate pain by circumventing neural transmissions.
21.
内臓
は
腐
りが早い。 (腐る)
Innards rot quickly.
21. エアコンの
効
きが悪い。 (効く)
The air conditioning doesn't work well.
22. 今年はピーマンの
出来
がイマイチですよ。 (出来る)
The pepper turnout this year is not that good.
23.
喫煙
などは、
血
の
巡
りを悪くする
主
な
原因
である。 (巡る)
Smoking and the like is a major factor in worsening blood circulation.
24. 細長く
粘
りのない
米
に
馴染
む。 (粘る)
To get to non-sticky thin rice.
25.
枝
が
湿
っていて、
焚
き
火
の
燃
えが悪い。 (燃える)
The branches are damp, and so the bonfire's flame is bad.
The next group requires compounding. Do not think, though, that words can't be in more than one category. Rather, we must truly investigate individual meanings of a word to determine what type it belongs to. For example, 出汁 (soup stock) comes from 出す and would be an example of Type 1. Aside from this, 出し needs to be in a compound like ゴミ出し to work as a noun.
Because of this required compounding, you do sometimes get sequential voicing.
26. プロでも
雪下
ろしは
困難
です。 (下ろす)
Removing snow is even difficult for professionals.
27.
江戸
時代
の根付を
相続
する。 (付ける)
To inherit netsuke from the Edo Period.
Item Note: Netsuke are small miniature carvings that are placed at the end of cords hanging from a pouch of some sort.
28.
木造
2階建てが
全焼
しました。 (建てる)
The wooden, two-story structure completely burned up.
29. 2014年の
梅雨入
りは6月8日と言われています。 (入る = いる)
They say that the start of 2014's rainy season was June, 8th.
30.
数字
合
わせ
錠
を使うのが
便利
です。 (合わせる)
Using a number combination lock is convenient.
31. 昼寝のあとに
頭痛
がします。 (寝る)
I have headaches after an afternoon nap.
32.
失策
の
穴埋
めを国民に求める。 (埋める)
To seek the patching of a failed policy from the people.
33.
鮭
と
野菜
をごちゃ
混
ぜにして焼きます。 (混ぜる)
We mix salmon and vegetables together and cook them.
34. 結婚の話が立ち
消
えになった。 (消える)
The talk of marriage fizzled away.
35. 人々の行き来が
賑
やかだった。 (来る)
The coming and going of people was lively.
連用形 → Noun → する Verb
At times, a noun made in this way may attach to another noun, but to be used verbally again, it needs to become a verb by adding する, which will be introduced shortly. As we haven't gone over how to conjugate this verb yet, we'll just look at some examples of this phenomenon. Consider the following words.
Phrase | Reading | Meaning | Phrase | Reading | Meaning |
目隠しする | めかくしする | To blindfold | タグ付けする | たぐつけする | To tag |
粗探しする | あらさがしする | To nitpick | 拾い読みする | ひろいよみする | To browse |
Part of Speech Note: The あら in 粗探し is actually from the stem of the adjective 粗い (rough/coarse).
In the grammar pattern 連用形+に+Motion Verb plus a few other instances we’ll see later on in Japanese grammar, verbs that do or don’t fall in the categories above are able to be used like nouns while simultaneously holding onto their verbal meaning.
If you want to say things like “I am going to watch the movie”, you must use this grammar pattern. The Japanese for this is 私は映画を見に行きます. The grammar is very parallel to English. In both languages, we would never call the verb a noun, per say. However, it certainly behaves like one in this situation.
If the verb is a する verb made by putting する after a Sino-Japanese word, then you don’t even need し. So, say you want to say, I’m going to observe at Kyoto University. You could say 京都大学を見学しに行きます. However, you could just say 京都大学を見学に行きます. Either way is grammatically fine.
Examples
36. 私は一人でイチゴを探しに歩きました。
I walked to search for strawberries by myself.
37.
慌
てて
荷物
を取りに
戻
った。
I rushed to return to get my luggage.
38. 彼は遊びに来た。
He came to play.
39.
相談
(し)に来る。
To come to discuss.
40. 買い
物
に行く。
To go shopping.
Sentence Note: 買い物をする is the verb phrase!
Phrase Note: ~物 attaches to the 連用形 of verbs of type 4 to refer to the things that you do the action with. So, 飲み物 = drink, 食べ物 = food, and 読み物 = reading (material).
41.
僕
らは
映画
を見に来たよ。
We came to see a movie.
42.
晩
ご
飯
を食べに来ませんか。
Will you come to eat dinner?
43.
妻
はハンドバッグを
取
りに帰った。
My wife went home to go get her handbag.
Instead of using the particle て, there is also a method called the 連用中止形. This is when you use the 連用形 but attach nothing to it, and in doing so, it functions like the particle て. This was in fact the original way. However, no two methods in Japanese evolve without differences emerging as well.
One of the first problems with using the 連用形 is that most learners don't know what it is. Even though by now you should know exactly what it is, here is a reminder.
Class | Example | 終止形 | 連用形 |
一段 | 見る | 見る | 見 |
五段 | 勝つ | 勝つ | 勝ち |
サ変 | する | する | し |
カ変 | 来る | 来る | 来 |
形容詞 | 少ない | 少ない | 少なく |
形容動詞 | 簡単だ | 簡単だ | 簡単で(あり) |
When you use いる in this grammatical pattern, you have to use おり, which is the 連用形 of its humble form おる. You should not use the 連用形 い. However, in older works, you do find ~てい instead of ~ており.
1. また、これまでに18万人が住まいを追われ、このうち7万5000人が各地にある国連のPKO=平和維持活動の施設に避難しており、国連は安全の確保や人道支援に全力を挙げているとしています。
Also, there have been 180,000 people driven from their dwellings, and of these, 75,000 have evacuated to UN PKO (Peacekeeping Operations) facilities, and the UN are putting all forces to human aid and safety security.
From the NHK Article 南スーダン緊張 7万人以上が避難 on December 31, 2013.
2. 出来た。出来ないにしろ、二人がお互いに愛してい、女が自分の存在に無頓着ならば、自分はどうすることも出来なかったにちがいない。
I was able to do it. Even if I couldn't, the two love each other, and had the women been indifferent to my own existence, there is no doubt that I wouldn't have been able to do anything.
From 友情 by 武者小路実篤.
Though more common in literature, due to the fact that they are two morae verbs, 見る, 寝る, and 来る are not near as common in this. This, though, is keeping in mind mediums such as very formal speech where this grammar structure is seen in the spoken language. As this is mainly 書き言葉, the frequency of any verb in this is determined by the refinement and formality of the language used. For instance, the Bible has a plethora of examples of the 連用中止形.
3. わたしは一つの事を主に願った。わたしはそれを求める。わたしの生きるかぎり、主の家に住んで、主のうるわしきを見、その宮で尋ねきわめることを。
I desired one thing from the Lord; that I sought. For as long as I live, may I dwell in the house of the Lord, look upon his beauty, and seek him in his temple.
From
詩篇
第二七章四節 口語訳
Again, instead of ~て, you can just use the 連用形, which is quite literary. Verbs and adjectives may be used in this way. It sounds more refined, and is often used in songs and poems.
4. 本を{読んで・読み}、しばらく考える。
To think awhile from reading a book.
5. 街中は人も少なく(て)、たまに車が通り過ぎるだけだった。
There were few people downtown and cars only occasionally passed by.
However, to truly investigate the interchangeability of the two, you need to know what て does and then see if there are any usages that can't be expressed with the 連用中止形. ~て, as has been seen in previous lessons, can be used to show successive action, ancillary/incidental conditions, cause/reason, and parallelism. The points of contingency involve ancillary conditions and cause/reason.
6a. 食べすぎて、お腹が痛い。〇
6b. 食べすぎ, お腹が痛い。 〇/?
7a. 座って話す。〇
7b. 座り、話す。X
In the first example, not using て means not establishing a cause-effect relationship. Rather, you end up just showing successive action.
Although using the 連用中止形 for showing successive action, it causes the sentence to sound very segmented, which may very well be how you want to express something, which can be seen in the first example. Though, in more spoken statements, it is more natural to mix it with て.
8. 過去を忘れ、職を探し、社員になり、私の生活は立派になりました。
I forgot the past, I looked for a job, I became a company employee, and my way of life became amazing.
9. お母さんは雑誌を読み、コーヒーを飲んで、出かけた。
My mother read a magazine, drank coffee, and left.
Consider the following bad sentence where て is the problem rather than the 連用中止形.
10a. 日本列島に初めて独自の文化を生み出した
縄文人
は
狩人
であって、
漁夫
だった。X
10b. 日本列島に初めて独自の文化を生み出した縄文人は狩人であり、漁夫だった。〇
The Jomon people who were the first in the Japanese islands to first form their own culture were farmers and fishermen.
This is the case because て borders sounding like it shows a contrast. To keep であって, it would have been best to have a just as equally complex latter clause that balances out the meaning of the first. The use of the 連用中止形 has no such problem and nicely segments the two properties in a formal fashion.
11.
太股
の上で握り
拳
を作っていた信人は、切ない気持ちで、
上目遣
いに上司を見た。
Nobuto, who had made a fist on top her thighs, looked with an upward glance and saddened emotion at her boss.
From 冷たい誘惑 by 乃南アサ.
Article from NHK
As stated earlier, one of the most common places you can find the 連用中止形 used is in writing. News articles utilize this pattern a lot. Notice how it is used in concert with て in the following article from NHK.
12.
元同級生を車内でも
暴行
か
7月19日 4時20分
広島県
呉市
の山中に元同級生とみられる遺体を
遺棄
したとして広島市の16歳の少女と知り合いの男女ら6人が
逮捕
された事件で、7人の一部は山中に向かう車の中で、元同級生を押さえつけ、暴行を繰り返していたとみられることが警察への取材で分かりました。
警察は初めから暴行を加えるつもりで元同級生を車で連れ出した疑いがあるとみて
捜査
を進めています。
今月14日、広島県呉市の山中に、
高等専修
学校の元同級生の16歳の少女とみられる遺体を遺棄したとして警察に
自首
した広島市の16歳の少女が逮捕され、17日、
鳥取県
湯梨浜町
の無職、
瀬戸大平
容疑者(21)と、16歳の無職の男女5人が死体遺棄の疑いで逮捕されました。
警察の調べに対し瀬戸容疑者は容疑を否認し、ほかの6人は容疑を認めているということです。
これまでの調べで7人が、元同級生を車に乗せて現場の山中に行き、車を降りたあと、集団で暴行を加えたと供述していることが分かっていて、警察は使われたとみられる車を18日夜、
押収
しました。その後の警察の調べで、7人の一部は、現場へ向かう車の中で、元同級生を押さえつけて
殴
ったり
蹴
ったりする暴行を繰り返していたとみられることが警察への取材で分かりました。
元同級生への暴行が山中に着く前の車内から続いていることから、警察は、初めから暴行を加えるつもりで元同級生を車で連れ出した疑いがあるとみて捜査を進めています。
Assaulting of Former Classmate also Inside Car?
July 19th, 4:20
It has been found out through police investigation that in the case in which a 16 year old girl and 6 men and women acquaintances from Hiroshima City were arrested for the abandonment of the body of a former classmate in the mountains of Hiroshima Prefecture Kure City, a group of 7 people inside a car towards the mountainside suppressed the former classmate, and repeatedly assaulted her. The police are furthering investigation into the suspicion that [the group] had taken the former student into the car with plans to assault her from the beginning.
This month on the 14th, a 16 year old girl who surrendered herself to police for the abandonment of the body in the mountains of Hiroshima Prefecture Kure City of a former 16 year old female student at [their] vocational high school was arrested, and on the 17th, unemployed 21 year old resident of Tottori Prefecture Yurihama Town Seto Ohira and 5 unemployed 16 year old men and women were arrested for suspicion in the body abandonment.
Suspect Ohira denies claims from the police, but the 6 others have confessed.
In investigation up to now, it’s understood that the 7 people are testifying that they put the former classmate into the vehicle, went to the scene in the mountains, and after getting off the vehicle, they group assaulted [her], and the police on the 18th seized the car thought to be used. In police investigation afterward, it has been found out from reports to the police that the group of 7 suppressed the former classmate inside the car towards the scene and repeatedly assaulted her by beating and kicking her.
In light of the the continuation of assault to their former classmate inside the vehicle before having reached the mountains, the police are furthering investigation into the charge that [the group] had brought the former student in the vehicle with plans to assault from the beginning.
In its basic understanding, the auxiliary verb -TA stands for the past tense, especially when it is in a mono-clausal sentence (a sentence with a single clause) in isolation from other grammatical circumstances. This can be demonstrated with the following examples.
1a.
私
はきのう、
登山
をしました。〇
1b.
私
はきのう、
登山
をします。X
I mountain climbed yesterday.
2a.
細
かいことは
明日発表
します。〇
2b.
細
かいことは
明日発表
しました。X
I will announce the fine details tomorrow.
These sentences demonstrate a basic understanding of what non-past and past tense are in Japanese, but they ignore the other varied nuances and situations that both forms can represent. This is because mono-clausal sentences like these only make up a small percentage of the complexity that can be found in the language.
Whenever you read a book or listen to speakers talk, you will notice that -TA and -RU/U (the morphemes used in the ‘non-past’ form) alternate from one to the other, and you’ll also notice that they often deviate far away from the concept of tense-agreement found in English. One grammatical circumstance that negates the notion that these endings are fixated to one tense is the creation of conditionals.
3. ドアを
開
けたら、
必
ず
閉
めてください。
If you open the door, please make sure to close it.
4. ドアを
開
けると、コウモリが
入
ってきた。
When I opened the door, a bat came inside.
Seeing as how the tense in both the dependent clauses of 3 and 4 are the same in English, the fact that there is this dichotomy between -TA and -RU/U is perplexing. Never will you see 開けるら, and never will you see 開けたと. One way to explain this is that Japanese makes a distinction between foreground and background circumstances. When something happens/is so in the background, it usually or must take -RU/U. This means that for 4, the door opening is a pretext for the bat having entered the home. The door is presumably open when the bat enters, and so that clause takes -RU. The bat entering is at the foreground of the sentence and thus takes -TA. In 3, the action of having opened the door is at the foreground when you get to closing it back shut. Therefore, it takes -TA. These examples demonstrate a need to analyze these endings far more closely.
First, we will study the individual usages of -TA. Then, in the next lesson we’ll study the individual usages of -RU/U. By doing so, you'll see how they both heavily reflect the speaker’s intent rather than follow concrete rules, which inevitably means that context must be looked at. Instead of having the decision between the two be mechanical based on a handful of criteria, deciding between the two often relies on a feel for the situation--pragmatics. As we study these forms, think about the dynamics that could change how you interpret them--time, voice (narrator versus self), state, etc.
Notation Note: For this lesson and the one that follows, the forms -RU/U, -TA, -TE IRU, and -TE ITA will be Romanized as such due to the technical nature of the discussion at hand. Although this lesson focuses on -TA, it also makes note usages of these other forms due to their similarities.
Terminology Note:
1. A morpheme is a meaningful unit of language that cannot be further divided.
2. The copula is also treated as being grammatically equal to -RU/U. All references to -RU/U, therefore, will also apply to it. The non-past forms of adjectives also count as being in the -RU/U form.
The auxiliary verb -TA comes from the conjunctive particle てcombined with the existential verb あり (Modern ある). At this time, it took the form たり and served to either show completion or continuation. Meaning, it was equivalent to either てしまった or てある・ている. Both these two meanings survive in their respective capacities in Modern Japanese. The large reason for why -TA has taken on so many meanings was that there were several other endings for aspect that collapsed into -TA over time.
-TA attaches to the 連用形 of conjugatable parts of speech. The bases of -TA—both classical and modern—are shown below:
The Bases 活用形 | Classical 古文 | Modern 現代語 |
Irrealis 未然形 | たら | たろ |
Continuative 連用形 | たり | たり |
Terminal 終止形 | たり | た |
Attributive 連体形 | たる | た |
Realis 已然形 Hypothetical 仮定形 |
たれ | たら |
Imperative 命令形 | たれ | た |
As implied by the chart, the particle たり is the continuative form ( 連用形 ) of -TA. Also, the particle たら is treated as the hypothetical form ( 仮定形 ) of -TA. Additionally, note how -TA has an imperative form. This will be one of the many usages discussed.
1. The most basic meaning of -TA is to demonstrate a situation that has happened (past tense) or has been completed (perfect tense) in the past. The nature of the act/event must be assessed by the context at hand to determine whether -TA denotes a past and/or perfect tense interpretation.
1a. In English, the past tense is made by adding –(e)d to the base form of the verb. Its function is to talk about the past. The “past simple” form is simply the verb + -(e)d and nothing more. The “past continuous/progressive” form, which denotes a continuing action which began in the past, involves the pattern “was + verb + -ing.”
i. I worked. →
私
は
働
きました。(Past Simple)
ii. I was working. →
私
は
働
いていました。 (Past Continuous)
Both -TA and -TE ITA can indicate past events/states whose duration was long. However, -TA does not explicitly denote duration of a past event.
5.
生徒
たちが
実験
を
行
いました。 (Past Simple)
The students conducted an experiment.
6.
大雨洪水警報
が
発表
された。(Past Simple + Passive)
A storm-flood warning was announced.
7.
私
も
話
していました。 (Past Continuous/Progressive)
I was also speaking.
8a.
彼
が
戦争
に
対
する
思
いを
語
った。
8b. 彼が戦争に対する思いを語っていました。
He spoke of his thoughts towards war. (9a)
He was speaking of his thoughts towards war. (9b)
1b. The perfect tenses are created by using the appropriate tense of the auxiliary verb “to have”—or “got”—plus the past participle of a verb.
iii. I have worked. →
働
いたことがあります。(Present Perfect)
iv. I had worked. → (かつて)
働
いていました。(Past Perfect/Pluperfect)
v. I will have worked. → それまでに
働
いたでしょう。(Future Perfect)
The present perfect is used to denote a past event that has occurred and been completed in the past yet has consequences in the present. In iii., the present consequence is that one has a work history. Similarly, the present progressive perfect is used to denote an action that has occurred up to the present and may continue.
9. アメリカ
政府
が
北朝鮮
に
対
して
挑発行為
をやめるよう
改
めて求めた。(Present Perfect)
The American government has once again requested that North Korea stop its provocations.
10.
受取人
が
既
に
死亡
していた
場合
(Present Perfect)
In the case the recipient has already died/is already deceased
11. 彼はその
秘密
をずっと
隠
していた! (Present Progressive Perfect)
He has been hiding that secret the whole time!
12 うまく
成長
したね。
You’ve sure grown, huh.
13.
彼女
は
背
が
高
くなった。 (Simple Past/Present Perfect)
She became tall/has become tall.
14.いつの
間
にか
声
が
低
くなった。(Present Perfect)
My voice got deep before I knew it.
-TE IRU may also express the present perfect if the state the action brings about is ongoing. This, though, can and is most often expressed with -TA when modifying nouns.
15.
停電
が
広
い
範囲
で
発生
している。
A blackout has occurred over a wide extent (and is still ongoing).
16.
不思議
な
形
をした
建物
が
並
んでいる。
Buildings in mysterious shapes are lined up.
The past perfect/pluperfect is used to denote a past event that had already been completed prior to a point in time which is referred to. In iv., the point in time when the speaker had worked is prior to “now” or an unspecified “then.” Although iv. utilizes -TE ITA, the past perfect can still be reworded to use -TA like in Ex. 17.
17.
過去
に
一回
は
働
いたことがあります。
I had worked once in the past.
18.
乗
っていた3
人
が
死亡
した。(Pluperfect/Past Continuous)
The three people who were/had been riding died.
19.
安全
バーの
鉄製
の
棒
が
根元付近
で
折
れていたことが
分
かりました。 (Pluperfect/Present Perfect)
It has been discovered that the metal rod near the base of the safety bar had/has been broken.
Sentence Note: Because it is likely that the rod is still not fixed as it is piece of evidence, the present perfect interpretation is also valid.
The future perfect is a verb form used to describe an event that is expected/planned to happen before a future point in time. This is usually denoted by -TA + でしょう, but the form is not limited to this for the future perfect (Ex. 20). The future progressive perfect also exists with -TE IRU, which indicates an event that is expected/planned to happen in the future whose effects are forecast to continue even after the event realizes.
20.
健太
が
結婚
した
自分
を
想像
してみた。
Kenta imagined himself as a married man.
2. Utilizing the past tense (in English translation), -TA may denote a situation that occurred under certain circumstances in the past. The circumstance may in fact be that it was in the past that one “would/used to” do something. With states, this would be interpreted as a repetitive situation in the past. With actions, this would be interpreted as habitual repetition.
21. あの
頃
は
幸
せだった。
I used to be happy in those days.
22. あの
頃
は
良
かった。
Those were the good old days.
23. かつてあの
店
に
行
きました。
I once would/used to go to that store.
24a.
若
い
頃
、
町
の
墓地
をよく
歩
いたものだ。
24b.
若
い
頃
、
町
の
墓地
をよく
歩
いたものだった。
I frequently used to walk the town’s cemetery when I was young. (24a)
He/she used to walk the town’s cemetery when he/she was young. (24b)
Grammar Note: “Used to” is frequently expressed with a verb in the -TA form while preceded by the adverb よく and followed by ものだ. The addition of ものだ gives a matter-of-fact nuance to the statement. The matter-of-fact being so in one’s interpretation of the past calls for the copula to be in the non-past form, but when switching from first person to third person, ものだった is used. This is because another person’s past situation cannot be stated at the same emotional level as would be the case with ものだ.
25. あの
頃
は、よく
見
に
行
っていました。
Those days, I used to always go to see it.
Grammar Note: The use of ものだ is not a requirement to bring about the meaning of “used to” as has been shown to be the case in Ex. 22. In this example, -TE ITA is demonstrated to also hold this function without the intervention of ものだ. The difference is that the “matter-of-fact” nuance is lost. Translation-wise, the use of -TE ITA in conjunction with よく brings about a non-literal interpretation of “always.”
26.
学校
から
帰
るとすぐに
宿題
を
済
ませた。
I would immediately finish my homework when I got home from school.
27.
歯
を
磨
くとよく
出血
しました。
I would often bleed when I brushed my teeth.
28. ジムに
行
くとよく
声
をかけられました。
I would often be called out by someone when I went to the gym.
29.
買
い
物
デートに
行
くと、よく
彼女
と
喧嘩
してしまいました。
I would often end up getting into arguments with my girlfriend when(ever) we went on shopping dates.
3. -TA may express a sudden recalling of a future event/plan that the speaker has already recognized as being definite. Many of the realizations we have in our daily lives involve things we already know about. Those facts may just be floating in the back of our minds until for some reason we remember about them and freak out. In the bigger picture, -TA can be viewed as denoting the point in time at which the speaker recognizes something to have already happened (Usages 1-2, 6-7) or recognize as being the case (Usages 3-5).
30. あ、
明日試験
があった!
Ah, I have an exam tomorrow!
31.
明日仕事
だった。。。
I have work tomorrow…
32.
今日
は
締切日
だった!
Today’s the deadline!
33. あ、
忘
れてた!
Oops, I’d forgotten!
4. In the same vein, -TA may also show sudden discovery of a certain state that has been and is still so. This form of discovery also implies that the speaker thinks he/she should have known about the discovery. In this sense, discovery is being treated semantically like remembering. This usage is also referred to as “Discovery Present” and is closely tied to present progressive perfect form.
34. ここだった!
It’s here!
So it was here!
35. え、
東京
にいたの?
What, you’re in Tokyo?
36. あ、
引
き
出
しに{あった・入ってた}!
Ah, it’s in the drawer!
Ah, it was in the drawer!
37. あ、そこにいたの!
There you are!
38. そう、ここにいたよ。
Yep, I’m here.
Yep, I was here along.
Contrast Note: If -RU/U were switched out in these sentences, they would still be grammatical. However, they would lose the indirect report feel because there would no longer be an implied admission that the speaker ought to have known.
5. Another usage of -TA is to request for confirmation of a fact from the listener. It may also be used in a rhetorical sense of confirmation. This usage is frequently employed in 敬語 to add another layer of formality when asking questions. It’s important to note that the use of a past tense marker for seeking confirmation can also be seen in English.
39.
失礼
ですが、どちら
様
でしたか。
I apologize for asking, but who were you again?
40. お
名前
はなんと仰いましたか。
What was your name?
41.
判子
をお
持
ちでしたね。
You had your seal, correct?
42.
同席
された
方
はどなたでしたか。
Who was it that you sat with?
43.
彼女
、
何歳
だ(った)っけ。
How old was she?
44.
次
は
私
の
番
でしたか。
Next turn was mine, was it.
45.
今日
は
月曜日
でしたね。
Today’s Monday, huh.
6. -TA may also be used to denote a proclamation, assertion, and or realization of a situation that has not realized; however, the situation is treated as if it has. This usage cannot be used with time expressions because it already has an implied sense of urgency for the statement to be taken seriously.
46. よし、
買
った!
Alright, I’m buying it!
47. もうやめた。
I quit.
48. もう
諦
めた!
I give up!
49. じゃあ、
頼
みましたよ。
Alright, well, I’m counting on you.
50. よし、これで
勝
った!
Alright, I’ll win with this!
7. -TA may be used to express an urgent/immediate command. This is the imperative usage of -TA mentioned earlier. How this works grammatically is that the speaker presses the listener so much to do something immediately that it’s as if it’s already been completed. Though not literally possible, this reflects the hyperbolic origin of this grammar point.
51. どいた、どいた!
Step back, step back!
52. 子供は帰った、帰った!
Kids go home, go home!
53. ちょっと
待
った!
Wait right there!
54. さあ、どんどん
歩
いた
歩
いた!
Well, get to walking!
55.
座
った、
座
った!
Sit, sit!
The morpheme -RU/U is one of the most fundamental morphemes in the Japanese language. Although it manifests differently depending on the part of speech, its functions remain depending on the semantic and syntactic conditions of the sentence.
In its basic understanding, the -RU/U form is thought of as being the non-past tense marker of Japanese. Although it is not limited to this interpretation, it can account for any usage in which it corresponds to either the present tense or future tense of English.
In this lesson, we will study the various usages of -RU/U form as well as learn how some of these usages overlap with -TA and -TE IRU. Before continuing, if you have not read through the previous lesson on -TA, please go back and read it first.
In Japanese, the -RU/U form is typically simply referred to as the ル 形 . It is a linguistic yet colloquial term for the terminal form ( 終止形 ) /attributive form ( 連体形 ). Because the latter terms are meant only to indicate morphology in relation to word order, we’ll stick to calling this the “-RU/U form” for the purposes of this discussion.
After the root of any conjugatable speech is a morpheme that forms the -RU/U form. For Ichidan verbs ( 一段動詞 ), the morpheme is most easily identified because it happens to be -ru which attaches to the stem of these verbs. For Godan Verbs ( 五段動詞 ), the morpheme manifests as -u, which attaches to the consonant-ending stems that these verbs have. For adjectives, the morpheme manifests as -i, -shii, or -jii. For the copula, because it is a contraction of である, it is appropriate to treat da as a whole to be the morpheme.
PRESENT TENSE
In English, the present tense expresses an action that is ongoing or habitually performed, or a state that currently and/or generally exists. -RU/U also expresses all these functions. However, it’s first important to understand how flexible even the concept of “now” can be in both English and Japanese. Take for example the following sentences:
i. My boyfriend just got home now. → 彼氏が今帰ったところだ。
ii. My boyfriend is coming home now. → 彼氏が今帰っているところだ。
iii. My boyfriend will come home now. → 彼氏が今帰る(ところだ)ね。
iv. My boyfriend is home now. → 彼氏がもう帰っている。
We associate “now” with the present, but as these examples demonstrate, it is not fixated solely to the present tense. This is analogous to how the -RU/U form functions. These examples also scratch at the surface of how complex the endings -RU/U, -TA, and -TE IRU can be. For instance, -TE IRU can both denote the present continuous/progressive form like in ii. and the present progressive perfect form like in iv. In iii., the act of “coming home” is perceived to just be starting, which is in contrast to the continued ongoing state implied in ii.
1. The most fundamental usage of the -RU/U form is to show present state. Existential verbs, adjectives, and adjectival nouns are quintessential here. Present states may very well be ongoing. For instance, in Ex. 5, the existence of people who want to quit their jobs is a present state. The act of wanting to quit is an ongoing state that is marked with -TE IRU. This emphasizes duration of a continued ongoing state. When the “continued” aspect of an ongoing action is not implied, however, -RU/U should be used instead.
1.
庭
には
木
が
3
本
ある。
There are three trees in the (court)yard.
2.
北海道
を
生息地
にする
亀
もいる。
There are also turtles who have Hokkaido as their habitat.
3.
彩
ちゃんの
服
、めっちゃかわいい。
Aya-chan’s clothes, they’re so cute.
4. これが
最高
(だ)!
This is the best!
Grammar Note: Even when the copula is omitted, the -RU/U morpheme is still present grammatically.
5.
仕事
を
辞
めたがっている人がたくさんいる。
There are lots of people who want to quit their jobs.
6.
何
でもケチをつけたがる
人
が
抱
く
心理
とは
何
か。
What is the mentality that people harbor who want to find fault in everything?
7.
猛烈
な
風
が
吹
いたと
見
られ{ます・ています}。
It is believed that there was fierce wind.
2. In the same vein as Usage 1, the -RU/U form may also denote a present psychological state. This is frequently employed with verbal/adjectival expressions of emotion.
8.
本当
にむかつくわ。
It really ticks me off.
9.
腹
が
立
つ。
This makes me mad.
10.
鳥肌
が
立
つ。
This gives me goosebumps.
11.
気持
ち
悪
い。
This is disgusting/unpleasant.
12.
怖
い。
I’m scared.
3. Some verbs are used in utterances whose implications are instantaneous with said utterance. These instances create what is known as the “utterance present ( 発言現在 ).
13.
誓
います。
I vow.
14. ご
冥福
をお
祈
りします。
I pray for his/her/their soul(s).
15.
二人
の
幸
せを
願
います。
I wish for the two’s happiness.
16.
約束
する!
I promise!
4. Sometimes, as if we’re narrating to ourselves, or perhaps when we are narrating, the -RU/U form is used similarly to that of an infinitive to describe what is happening/is to happen in front of the speaker’s/one’s eyes. Of course, if the action can't literally be seen with the eyes, this discrepancy doesn’t stop this usage from being valid.
Grammar Note: An infinitive is the basic form of verb which has no inflection binding it to a particular subject and/or tense, and this too is a function of the -RU/U form.
17.
雨
が
降
る。
Rain falls (in front of my eyes).
18.
韓国料理
を
食
べ
尽
くす。
Consuming Korean cuisine.
19.
刃
が
刺
さる。
The blade pierces.
20.
息
が
止
まる。
My breath stops.
5. Habitual repetition is another facet of a person’s current state. -TE IRU can similarly be used to denote what one “always does,” but it must be used with adverbs of frequency to establish this meaning. This is so that it can show present habitual action rather than an ongoing action. Even so, it doesn’t denote an inherent habitualness. The -RU/U form need not have such adverbs for this meaning to be had. However, it conversely becomes far more open ended in interpretation without words like “always” or “every day.” It could be interpreted as future intent without context guiding the listener to think habitual action.
Whenever the speaker feels a need to emphasize his current habit, especially when criticized for not doing something, the use of -TE IRU becomes imperative. Habitual statements with -RU/U are most suitable in neutral situations where there is no need to emphasize one’s current habit(s).
Grammar Note: This usage may also be used in the second and third person in question form.
21. いつも
零時
に
寝
ます。
I always go to sleep at midnight.
22.
私
は
食後
に
歯
を
磨
きます。
I brush my teeth after eating.
I will brush my teeth after eating (from now on).
23.
毎朝
シャワーを
浴
びます。
I take a shower every morning.
24.
毎週教会
に
行
きますか。
Do you go to church every week?
25a.
私
は
毎日公園
を
散歩
します。
25b.
私
は
毎日公園
を
散歩
しています。
I walk the park every day. (25a)
I’m walking the park every day. (25b)
26.
君
がいると、いつも
笑
えてる。
I’m always able to laugh when you’re here (with me).
27.
人
に
話
している
途中
で、
何
をしたかったのか
忘
れてしまうことはありませんか。
While talking to someone, do you ever forget what you wanted to talk about?
6. Yet another nuance that falls under the umbrella of current state is denoting a characteristic and/or general truth. However, a general truth need not literally be a current state. It could be a situation that regularly occurs under certain conditions.
28. カモメは
主
に
水辺
に
棲
みます。
Seagulls mainly live at waterfronts.
29.
中国語
って
難
しい。
Chinese is difficult.
30.
君
はよく
喋
るね。
You sure talk a lot.
31.
毛虫
が
蝶
に
変
わります。
Caterpillars become butterflies.
32.
一般人
は
人
を
殺
すと
逮捕
されます。
When ordinary person murders someone, he gets arrested.
33.
日本
は
地震
が
多
いところだ。
Japan is a place where there are many earthquakes.
34.
地震
はプレートが
元
に
戻
ろうとする
時
に起こります。
Earthquakes occur when plates try to return to their original positions.
FUTURE TENSE
7. The future tense in English denotes an action/state that has not yet happened. Even when it is used by itself with no other modal changes, -RU/U can indicate something that you are rather certain will occur in the future.
35. もうすぐ
消灯時間
だ。
It’s almost lights-out.
36.
電気
が
消
えるね。
The lights will go off, ok?
37.
明日
は
休日
だ。
Tomorrow is a holiday.
38.
帰
る
途中
で
銀行
に
寄
ってください。
Please stop by the bank while you’re coming home.
39. きっと
合格
するよ。
You’ll definitely pass.
8. -RU/U may show first-person intention and/or plan when used in the future tense. It must, though, be paired with a verb of volition (意志動詞). -RU/U may also simply provide information about what will happen in the future depending on the situation. In English, the -ing form or “going to…” pattern are frequently used for this.
Grammar Note: This usage may also be used in second person and third person in the form of a question. It may also be used in the affirmative in third person, but the -RU/U form must be paired with a modal change that incorporates a less direct tone. Lastly, when this usage is used in the affirmative in second person, it creates a command (See Usage 11).
40.
明日
テキサスに
発
ちます。
I head out to Texas tomorrow.
41.
今夜
は
晩御飯
を
外食
にする。
Tonight, I’m going to eat out for dinner.
42.
会社
を
辞
めます。
I’m quitting/going to quit my job (at the company).
43.
私用
で
休暇
を
取
ります。
I’m taking/going to take
44.
私
は
明日
から
1
週間京都
へ
行
きます。
As of tomorrow, I will be going to Kyoto for a week.
45. はい、
私
が
行
きます。
Yes, I am the one going.
46. はい、
消費税
は
来月
から
2
%
ほど
引
き
上
げられることになります。
Yes, as of next month, the consumers tax will be risen approximately two percent.
47.
何人
来
ますか。
How many people are coming?
48. この
車
がいくらなら
買
いますか。
How much would you buy this car for?
49.
台風
3
号
は、
九州
の
南部
に
接近
していて、
間
もなく
上陸
する
見込
みです。
Typhoon No. 3 is approached the southern portion of Kyushu, and it is forecast to make landfall any moment.
9.With a rising intonation, -RU/U indicates surprise about a future event. In second person, it can show disbelief, rebuke, or scoffing toward a statement the speaker deems improbable. However, it is not limited to these sorts of negative nuances in second person. You can express surprise about a future event in first and second person.
Grammar Note: -RU/U may also indicate surprise about a present state. Unlike the -TA form, it doesn't imply that the speaker should have known, and it doesn’t indicate the reality at hand as having been recognized in the past.
47. え、私が行く?
What, I’m going?
48. え、山田君がやる?冗談でしょう?
What, you’re going to do it, Yamada-kun? You’re joking, right?
49. あ、やってくれる?ありがとう!
Oh, you’re going to do it? Thank you!
50.
戦争
が
終
わる?それは
恐
らく
有
り
得
ないだろう。
The war’s going to end? That’s probably impossible.
51.
今年中
に
首都直下地震
が
起
きます?
There’s going to be an earthquake directly hitting the Tokyo area within this year?
52. あ、そうだ!
今日午後
3
時半
に
会議
がある。
Ah, that’s right! There’s a meeting at 3:30 PM today.
53. あ、あの
人
は
鈴木
さんだ。
Ah, that person is Mr. Suzuki.
INSTRUCTION
10. The -RU/U form may also be used to show step-by-step instructions. This is frequently used in recipes. The instructions are not necessarily directed at one particular person; however, commands can be made by using the -RU/U form (Usage 11).
54.
油
をフライパンに
入
れて、
175
度
くらいになるまでに
火
を
付
ける。
Add cooking oil to the frying pan and heat until it is about 175 degrees.
55.
鍋
に
湯
を
沸
かし、
豆腐
を
崩
し
入
れて、
笊
にあげて
水
を
切
る。
Boil water in the pot, break up the tofu, and drain in a strainer.
56.
調味料
と
玉
ネギを
加
えて
炒
め、
溶
き
卵
を
加
えて
軽
く
混
ぜ、
火
を
止
める。
Sauté upon adding spices and onion, add a beaten egg and lightly mix, and then turn off the heat.
57.
牛肉
は
食
べやすい
大
きさに
切
り、
片栗粉
をまぶす。
As for the beef, cut it into easy to eat sizes and then smear the beef with potato starch.
58. スキレットにごま
油
を
薄
くひいて
火
にかけ、ご
飯
を
広
げて
載
せる。
Lightly cover the skillet with sesame oil, add heat, and spread the rice on top.
COMMAND
11. When -RU/U is used to make a command, it does not have the same time constraint that -TA has. Although it implies that the listener better get to it--which is why it is often used by teachers, parents, or people with a clear higher status over someone else—it is not the case that it has to happen immediately for it to be grammatical.
59. さっさと
片付
ける。
Get to cleaning up.
60.
10
秒後
に
走
る。
Run in ten seconds.
This sentence would likely be said by a coach and/or someone who would be instructing you to do something. This sentence demonstrates how the “instruction” meaning of -RU/U derives from its sense of command. The pragmatic difference is that the “instructions” given in the -RU/U form are very frequently in polite speech. Even so, an instructor/knowledgeable person instructing is intrinsically higher in position than the listener learning from said individual.
61. すぐに
食
べる!
Eat it now!
Sentence Note: Ex. 61 would most likely be said by a semi-strict parent.
62.
我々
は
出発
する。
We’re departing.
Sentence Note: The use of first person plural allows for a rather subtle yet explicit means of getting others to act alongside oneself. The person saying this would be the leader of the group.
63.
君
は
明日
から
大阪
へ
出張
{する・だ}。
You will be going to Osaka on business starting tomorrow.
64. このお
客
さんは
君
が
接待
{する・だ}。
You’ll be entertaining this patron.
65.
今
だ!
Now!
Sentence Note: Ex. 65 can be used without imposing a sense of social hierarchy. However, the person stating it would still be taking the initiative to get others to act.
65.
書
くんだ!
Write!
Grammar Note: Though not exactly the same, it is important to note that the -RU/U form is used with のだ・んだ instead of the -TA form. This is due to the time restriction placed on -TA form imperatives.
PAST TENSE
12. -RU/U need not always refer to non-past time. There are instances where it does refer to a past event. If -TA were used, it would indicate that the speaker perceives the situation to be remote, but if -RU/U were used, it would mean that the past situation is perceived as if it were directly before the speaker. -TA suggests a detached, objective attitude on the part of the speaker toward the situation, but -RU/U suggests the speaker's subjective and psychological involvement with the situation.
When both -RU/U and -TA are present together, the -RU/U event/state must either be clearly completed/established before the -TA event/state. For instance, in Ex. 67, Mr. Hirota had good-looking teeth before ever showing them when he smiled. Ex. 67 also demonstrates how this facet of the -RU/U form also affects choosing between -TE IRU and -TE ITA. The latter would show definitive completion of a once ongoing event, which is not logical to posit in Ex. 67.
66. ひどいことを
言
うね。
What a horrible thing to say.
67.
山田
さんは
歯
を
出
して
笑
った。
割
と
綺麗
な
歯
を
持
っている。
Mr. Hirota smiled showing his teeth. He had rather good-looking teeth.
68.
女房
がどうしても
結婚
してほしいって
泣
いて
頼
むから、
仕方
なく
結婚
してやったんだよ。
My wife had cried and begged that I marry her, and so I reluctantly did.
69.
卵
がないと
文句
を
言
うから、もう
一回
買
いに
行
ったの。
You complained about there being no eggs, so I went out again to go buy some.
70.
血
も
涙
もないことを
言
うから、バチが
当
たったんだ。
You got what you deserved for saying something so heartless.
In this lesson, we will learn about the grammar point ~ては, which is a combination of the conjunctive particle て and the bound particle は, used here in its contrastive role. Firstly, as a very brief reminder, below is a quick summation of how to conjugate with ~ては. Because this grammar pattern only concerns verbs, we’ll only need to worry about when~ては may become ~では. This occurs for Godan verbs which end in ぐ・ぶ・む・ぬ.
Ichidan Verb | 食べる + ては → | 食べては |
Godan Verb | 立つ + ては → 死ぬ + ては → |
立っては 死んでは |
する | する + ては → | しては |
くる | くる + ては → | きては |
だ | だ + ては → | では |
Curriculum Note: This lesson does not cover how the contrastive は can go after the gerund use of the particle て as seen in phrases like ~について, ~に関して, ~に対して, etc. This is to be discussed later in IMABI.
Usage 1: Trouble Causing Hypotheticals
The first usage of ~ては we will look at is how it is used to express situations that bring about anxiety, misgivings, uneasiness, fear, and/or inconvenience.
1.
学校
の
体育
の
運動
で
喘息発作
が
出
ては
困
ります。
I’m troubled with asthma attacks happening due to exercise at school in gymnastics.
2.
老人
に
見
られては
困
ります。
I’m embarrassed when I’m looked at by old people.
3.
誤解
があっては
困
りますので。
Since it’d be worrisome if there is a misunderstanding.
4.
傷
が
残
っては
大変
だ。
Things will be difficult if there are any wounds/nicks.
5.
鹿
にやられては
元
も
子
もないので、
森林
の
周囲
を
電気柵
で
囲
っています。
Since it’d all be for naught if it were ruined by deer, we have the surroundings of the forest enclosed in an electric fence.
~ては(いけない・ならない・だめ)
We have actually already learned about this usage of ~ては when we learned about “must” and “must not” conditional phrases. As review, we will go over the basic combinations for these conditional phrases once more.
・~てはいけない: This is used to tell someone he/she mustn’t do something. It isn’t simply used just to forcibly prohibit things. It could simply imply that the act in question is not favorable and that it will not be approved of by the speaker. This pattern is not typically used towards those who are higher in social status.
・~てはならない: This is used to prohibit something with a sense of duty and responsibility. Whereas the phrase above is most frequently used to prohibit and/or disapprove of the action(s) of individuals, this phrase is most frequently used to objectively state things that ought not be allowed by society at large. Because of this, it is frequently used in law and other important, official documents.
・~てはだめだ: This phrase is a more colloquial, softer variant of ~てはいけない.
6. お
盆
に
土
を
掘
ってはいけない。
One mustn’t dig up dirt during the Festival of the Dead.
7.
私
たちが
責任
を
放棄
してはならない。
We must not abdicate our responsibility.
8.
動物
を
殺
してはだめなのはなぜなんだろう。
Why is it that it’s bad to kill animals?
9.
見
た
目
で
判断
してはいけません。
One mustn’t judge based on appearance.
10. もう
二度
と
戦争
を
起
こしてはなりません。
We mustn’t start a war ever again.
【Must】
・~なくてはいけない: The use of this pattern indicates that the listener ought to do something, not just because the speaker is demanding such action, but that not doing whatever it is will be unbeneficial/unfavorable for the speaker and/or listener. This is often used to make statements regarding common sense, morality, societal common wisdom, or current trends. Typically, the sentence is not interpreted as first-person unless a first-person pronoun is explicitly used.
・~なくてはならない: This pattern is used for very affirmative commands out of a sense of duty, but this “must” pattern is directed more so toward individual responsibilities rather than societal ones. This pattern is also preferred in formal writing over the phrase above.
11. なんで
勉強
(を)しなくてはいけないの?
Why do you have to study?
Sentence Note: The “you” in the sentence is the indirect “you” and not necessarily literally second-person. This is also the case for Ex. 12
12.
親知
らずは
絶対
に
抜
かなくてはいけないんですか。
Do you have to always pull wisdom teeth?
13.
経済
も
国民
ひとりひとりも
常
に
成長
を
目指
さなくてはいけないのです。
Not just the economy but also each and every citizen must constantly aim at growth.
14.
携帯電話
は、
私
にとってなくてはならない
必需品
だ。
A cellphone is a necessity that one can't be without to me.
15.
台風
でも
出勤
しなくてはならない
会社
の
体制
をどう思いますか。
What do you think about company systems that mandate (workers) be present even during typhoons?
Usage 2: Condition for Strong Emotional Response
This usage of ~ては is used to express that an action/state that has come about is the reason for a strong emotional response, whether that response be a rebuke, retort, or astonishment.
16. そこまで
言
われては
反論
しないわけにはいかない。
Being talked about to that degree, I have no choice but object.
17. そこまでからかわれ
馬鹿
にされては
我慢
(が)なりません。
I can't stand being so ridiculed and made a fool of.
18.
筋
の
通
らないことを
平然
とやられては
黙
っていられない。
I can't stay silent having something illogical so calmly be done to me.
19.
命
まで
危険
に
晒
されては
黙
っていられない。
I can't stay silent as even my life is put in danger.
20.
濡
れ
衣
を
着
せられては
黙
ってはいられない。
I can't stay silent when I’m falsely accused.
Usage 3: Repeated Action/Effect
Similar to the particle たり, ~ては is most frequently used to express the repetition (of a series of) actions. This is usage is more naturally emphatic than たり due to the presence of the contrastive/emphatic は. It is most frequently used in the written language and song lyrics as it adds a layer of expressive capability that isn’t necessarily indicative of standard conversation.
Grammatically speaking, the second verbal element of the pattern V+ては+V needs to be in the 連用中止形. This is the form of a verb that can at times be used as nouns. Incidentally, this pattern can be treated as a complex nominal phrase as an effect (See Ex. 28).
21.
書
いては
消
し、
書
いては
消
し、なんとかレポートを
書
き
上
げた。
I wrote and erased, wrote and erased in writing up the report.
22.
走
っては
休
み、
走
っては
休
み、
進
み
続
けた。
From running to resting, I continued forward.
23.
目
を
閉
じ、
息
を
吸
っては
吐
く。
Eyes closed, I inhale and exhale.
24.
人生
とは
波
のように
寄
せては
返
しているものである。
Life breaks and retreats like waves.
25. あの
猫
は、
死
んでは
生
き
返
り、
生
き
返
っては
死
に、まるで
不死身
だ。
That cat constantly dies and comes back to life; it’s as if it’s immortal.
26. これまで
結婚
しては
離婚
と
再婚
を
重
ねた
不二子
は、なんと
4
度
もデキ
婚
!
Fujiko, who has up till now repeatedly been married, divorced, and then remarried, has had four shotgun weddings!
27.
様々
な
景色
が現れては
消
えていった。
Various sceneries appeared and went away.
28.
鬱状態
になると
落
ち
着
きがなくなり、ずっと
部屋
を
歩
き
回
ったり、
立
っては
座
りを
繰
り
返
したり(する)などが
見
られます。
When someone becomes depressed, one will see behaviors such as loss of composure, walking constantly back and forth in rooms, and repeatedly standing up and sitting down.
29.
服
を
選
ぶときしっくりこなくて、
脱
いでは
着
てを
何回
も
繰
り
返
してしまいます。
When I pick out clothes, I can't get it together and I end up repeatedly taking clothes off and putting them back on many times over.
Grammar Note: Verbs that end up being one-mora long when put in the 連用中止形 usually manifest in the て form when the “V + ては + V” is used as a noun.
30.
夕食
が
遅
いうえにたくさん
食
べては
太
るのは
当
たり
前
だ。
On top of dinner being late, it’s only natural to be gaining weight each time one eats.
Usage 4: Infallible Repeat
The purpose of this usage of ~ては is to explain how something always happens under the condition that it marks. Think of this as an amalgam of the three usages above being intended simultaneously.
31.
他
の
人
と
同
じようなことをしていては、いつまでも
成功
しない。
You will not succeed forever by repeatedly doing the same things as other people.
32.
皆
のように
遊
んでは
何
もプラスにはならないよ。
There will be no plus to messing around like everyone else.
33. コソコソしていては
何事
もうまくいかない。
Nothing will go well from constantly being sneaky about things.
34.
自分
の
身体
を
否定
していてはダイエットは
成功
できない。
You cannot succeed with a diet by constantly denying what your body (is trying to tell you).
35.
急
いては
事
を
損
じる。
Haste makes waste.
Usage 5: ~てはみる
The purpose of ~てはみる is to express that although one will make an attempt at doing something, one doesn’t have the confidence and/or doesn’t expect a good result.
36.
考
えてはみるよ。
I’ll think about it (but I’m not so sure I’ll be okay with it).
37. やってはみるけど、うまくいくかどうかは
分
からない。
I’ll definitely try, but I don’t know whether it’ll go well.
38.
一応毎回
クリックしてはみるものの、
一回
も
当
たったことありません。
I at any rate try clicking it every time, but I have yet to win even once.
39.
食事
だって
気
を
付
けてるし、
色々
と
挑戦
してはみるけれど、どんなに
頑張
ってもヤセない。
I pay attention to what my meals are and I try all sorts of challenges, but not matter how much I try, I don’t get slimmer.
40.
英単語
を
覚
えてはみるけど、いつも
覚
えられない、
覚
えられる
気
がしない。
I’ll try committing English vocabulary to memory, but I always can't remember, or I’m always not in the mood to be able to remember them.
Usage 6: ~てはどうか
By using the pattern ~てはどうか, you can suggest that someone do something. There is an implication that the suggestion hasn’t been tried yet by the speaker, thus the use of the contrastive は. In more formal speech, this is expressed as ~てはいかがですか.
41.
魔法
の
世界
に
来
てはどう?
How about coming to the world of magic?
42.
手
を
貸
すから
車椅子
に
乗
ってはどうか。
How about if you use the while chair if I lend you my hands?
43.
捨
てる
前
に
利用
してはどうですか。
How about using it before throwing it away?
44.
避暑地
へ
足
を
延
ばしてはいかがですか。
How would you like going to relax at a summer resort?
45. ご
覧
になってはいかがですか。
How would you like seeing it?
Usage 7: ~てはいる
The contrastive marker は may be inserted inside ~ている to imply that one is doing something, or that what is in question is indeed the case, but that other actions/states are not being undertaken/happening.
46.ここ
5
年
は
同
じ
男
と
同棲
してはいるが、
何
も
築
いてはいない。
Although I’ve been living with the same man for the last five years, we haven’t built anything (together).
47. お
父
さんは
亡
くなってはいるけれど、その
存在
は
家族
のなかにずっとあるものです。
Although our father is no longer with us, his being remains forever within our family.
48.
会社
としてはそういう
意図
でやってはいるけど、その
意図
どおりに
伝
わっているかはまた
別問題
なわけで、それはしょうがないのではないか。
As a company, it is doing so with that intent, but whether it’s being transmitted as intended is a separate problem, but
49. トランプ
大統領
が
提案
した
予算
は
極端
に
削減
されてはいるが、
財政支出
は
同氏
が
大統領選
の
選挙活動中
にこだわった
問題
ではなかった。
Although the budget presented by President Trump is exclusively reduced, government spending was not a problem that he fussed over during his campaigning in the presidential election.
50.
様々
な
舞台
で
核廃絶
が
議論
されてはいるが、
各国
の
思惑
から
必
ずしも
進展
しているとは
言
い
難
い。
Although total abolition of nuclear weapons is discussed in various settings, it is difficult to say that it is necessarily progressing due to each country’s ulterior motives.
Usage 8: ~ではない
As the last use of ~ては to be discussed in this lesson, we return to a grammar point that was first introduced in Lesson 9. Now that you understand how the particle は is exclusively treated as a contrast marker after the particle て, it is only natural to conclude that some degree of contrast is implied with ~ではない, which is indeed the case.
51.
実態
は
必
ずしもそうではない。
The reality is not always so.
52. イチジクは果物ではない。
Figs are not fruit.
53. しばしば、この
組織
は
結果
ではなく
過程
や
官僚主義
に
気
をとられている。
Too often the focus of this organization has not been on results, but on bureaucracy and process.
54. どの
国
も
軍事的
、
財政的
な
負担
の
不均衡
に
耐
える
必要
があるべきではない。
No nation should have to bear a disproportionate share of the burden, militarily, or financially.
55. ブラジルのテメル
大統領
は
19
日午前
、
国連総会
で、
北朝鮮
を
強
く
批判
するとともに、
軍事力
に
頼
るのではなく、
各国
が
協力
して
平和的
な
解決方法
を
探
るべきだと
訴
えました。
President Temer of Brazil on the morning of the 19th at the United Nations General Assembly, along with strongly criticizing North Korea, urged that each nation not rely on military force but rather search for peaceful solutions through mutual collaboration.
Contractions
For Usages 1, 2, 3, 4, and 8, you may find ては contracted to ちゃ(あ) ・じゃ(あ) . There isn't any difference in meaning whether the vowel /a/ is elongated.
56.
悪
いことはしちゃいけないよ。
You mustn’t do anything bad.
57.
最初
から
新
しい
勤
めに
遅
れちゃあ
大変
だろう?
Wouldn’t it be terrible if you were late to your new job from the very beginning?
58.
挑
むって
言
われちゃあ、
俺
らがやんなきゃなあ。
We gotta do it if we’re told to have a throw down.
59.
自滅
してちゃ
勝
てるわけがない!
You can't possibly when by constantly ruining yourself!
60.
優
しいだけじゃ
困
るわ。
It’d just be trouble if (he/she) were just nice.
61. いや、
呼
んじゃあまずい。
No, now’s not the time to call for (him/her).
62. ワガママで
自分本位
な
男
じゃ(あ)
困
る。
I’d be in a rut with a man who’s selfish and egotistic.
63. いつまでも
泣
いてちゃいけないね。
You mustn’t cry forever.
64.
黙
ってちゃ
困
るんだよ。
[I’m/we’re] going to go through a bunch of trouble with you staying quiet.
65. ぐずぐずしてちゃ
駄目
だ!
You can't just be dawdling!
The particle のみ is very similar to だけ. One of the main things to keep in mind is that it is not のに.
のみ has fallen into more so literary usage due to the rise of だけ. のみ has four distinct usages.
Examples
1. この
村
のみが
水害
に{免れた・
遭
わなかった}。
Only this village escaped the damages from the flood.
2. 神
のみぞ
知
る。
Only God knows.
3. 我々はただ
忍耐
があるのみだ。
We only have perseverance.
4. 入場
は
招待者
のみ可
Admission by invitation only
5. 老兵
は
死
なずただ
消
え
去
るのみ。
Old soldiers never die, they just fade away.
6. 富士山
はただ
高
いのみならず、
美
しいのです。
Mount Fuji is not just tall, but it is also beautiful.
7.
剣術
のみか
世故
にも
長
け
Not only know about fencing, but also know about worldly affairs.
From 池波正太郎
8a. この
水族館
には、
深海魚
のみならず、
熱帯魚
もいます。(A little old-fashioned)
8b. この
水族館
には、
深海魚
だけでなく、
熱帯魚
もいます。(More natural)
In this aquarium, there are not only deep-sea fish but also tropical fish.
Grammar Note: Using だけでなく is much more common because, again, のみ is very literary.
9.
緊急
の
場合
にのみ
連絡
せよ。
Call me in only in the case of an emergency.
10.
水不足
はいよいよ
深刻
だ。
後
はただ
雨
が
降
るのを
待
つのみだ。
The water shortage is really serious. The only thing to do is wait for it to rain.
こそ is a rather straightforward particle to understand, but its usage is a little tricky.
The first instances of こそ students learn about are set phrases like こちらこそ (likewise), 今度こそ (surely next time), and 今年こそ (surely next year). However, even these set phrases can get messed up.
1a. 今年こそ危機に瀕する言語の重要性が分かるようになりました。 X
1b. 今年になってはじめて危機に瀕する言語の重要性が分かるようになりました。〇
I've finally understood for the first time this year the importance of endangered languages.
2a. 彼こその努力すれば、東大に行けるでしょう。X
2b. 彼ほどの努力をすれば、東大に行けるでしょう。〇
If you strive like him, you’ll be able to go to Tokyo University.
こそ strongly emphasizes what precedes it similarly to the words "certainly" and "indeed." It can be seen after nouns (especially those concerning people), time phrases, Verb+て, and the 連用形 of verbs.
3. 企業家精神こそ最もリスクが小さな道である。
The entrepreneurial spirit is certainly the least risky road to take.
4. 物腰こそ
慇懃
だが、根は黒い。
His demeanor is indeed courteous, but his true nature is mean.
5. 明日こそ鳥は羽ばたく。
The birds will certainly flap tomorrow.
6. 今こそ始めましょう。
Let’s get started now!
7. 今度こそうまくいきますよう!
You'll certainly do better next time!
8. まさかの時の友こそ真の友。
A friend in need is a friend indeed.
9. 今年こそ日本へ行ってみよう。
This year, indeed, let's try going to Japan.
10. このひどい子宮から逃げようと失敗したが、今度こそこの地獄を切り抜けて自由を手に入れよう!
I failed in trying to escape this damned uterus, but next time I will definitely come clear out of this hell and attain freedom!
Sentence Note: Someone like Stewie from Family Guy would say something like this.
11. 健全な国民が存在してこそ国家が成り立つ。
A nation is born with the existence of a healthy citizen body.
12. 喜びこそすれ、怒ることはない。
There’s nothing to be angry about when you’re joyous.
Grammar Note: ~こそすれ・こそなれ・こそであれ involve the 已然形 of the verbal element that follow こそ.
13. 褒めこそすれ、非難することはない。
She does speak highly (of others), but she never criticizes.
13. 愚かな女でこそあれ、良妻賢母だなんて、とんでもない。
So long as the woman is a fool, “good wife, wise mother” means nothing.
14. 毒にこそなれ薬にはならない。
Do more harm than good.
Word Note: When you take out こそ in にこそなれ, you get the archaic copula なり.
Because こそ is so emphatic, sentences with it often end in ~だ, ~(よ)う, ~べきだ, etc. It is used a lot, but it is more common in the written language. Reasons for this include sentences like the last where traditional grammar holds on. In the spoken language, it tends to be used in statements by politicians and what not, and a few of the sentences above could definitely be used as slogans.
The particle こそ can also be paired before or after を, but this is optional and quite uncommon. It may also be paired with the particles に, へ, で, と, から, in which case it will always be preceded by these particles.
15. 山田氏{(を)こそ・こそ(を)}知事に推薦したい。
We want to recommend Mr. Yamada to the governor.
16. 日本にこそおいしい食べ物がありますよ。
There is indeed delicious food in Japan.
17. 今でこそ、嘘がつけるが、あのときは、どうもつけなかった。
Now I can absolutely lie, but at that time, I couldn't whatsoever.
Unlike using が, which sounds like the speaker is picking one thing as the focus, こそ emphasizes this “focus” as the sole thing fit for the situation. It is often used in sentences where one quality is highlighted in the first clause with こそ, but then it gets negated. When this gets flipped around, the second clause with こそ shows what’s actually the case.
18. 「オバマ大統領の支持率が低いですね。」「いえ、違いますよ。支持率こそ伸び悩んでいますが、何かやってくれそうですよ。」
“President Obama’s approval rating is low, isn't it?” No, you’re wrong. Though his approval rating may very well be lagging behind, he seems like he’s going to do something for us”.
19. お金は悪の元とは言うが、お金の金銭欲こそ悪の元である。
They say money is the root of evil, but it’s the lust for money that is the root of evil.
Using ~こそが instead of ~こそ can't be easily explained. If a noun phrase being modified by こそ is the subject of the sentence, grammatically speaking, there is nothing wrong with using ~こそが. If the particle is dropped, it may be because other things in your sentence are just off for the tone to work.
20. 去勢と卵巣除去こそが犬の数の急増を防ぐのです。猫の場合は、毒を加えたミルクで十分なはずでしょう。
Spaying and neutering will definitely prevent the rapid increase of the dog population. As for cats, poison laced milk should do it.
"A+からこそ+B" and "A+ばこそ+B" are mostly interchangeable, translating roughly as "indeed it is because." Both are used when the speaker compares the situation with past experience or knowledge and can't think of anything but reason A for result B. A statement of reason, with the addition of こそ, becomes a declaration of what the speaker perceives to be fact.
21. だからこそ、強い日本を作るために、憲法をなおそう!
Precisely because of this, in order to create a strong Japan, let us fix the constitution!
22. あなたのことを思って{いるから・いれば}こそ、こう言うのです。It's precisely because I’m thinking about you that I say this.
23. たとえ過去に犯罪を犯したとしても、人のために全力を{尽くすから・尽くせば}こそ、神様に報われるのです。
Even if you've committed a crime in the past, it is precisely because you are giving your all to the better of people that you will be rewarded by God.
24. 愛して{いるから・いれば}こそ、別れなければならないのです。
It is exactly because I love you that we must separate.
25. 気が{短いからこそ・短ければこそ}、喧嘩してはなりません。
It is precisely because of your short temper that you mustn't get into an argument.
26. 充実した毎日を送れるのは、心身が健康{だから(こそ)・であればこそ}だ。
The reason why I am able to live fulfilled each day is the fact that my mind and body are healthy.
27. その発想があったからこそ、道子は同棲生活をとりあえず清算して山岳拠点に身を投ずることができた。
It was precisely because Michiko had that conception that she was for now able to throw herself to the base in the mountains and end her cohabitation lifestyle.
From 光の雨 by 立松和平.
Word Note: 身を投ずる = 身を投じる.
Grammar Note: ~ばこそ has become more literary, and it is usually not used by the younger generations. Inverting the sentences can cause grammatical problems. When ~からこそだ ends the sentence, it is often the case that こそ just gets dropped. Sometimes, keeping it can make the sentence sound unnatural, especially in the spoken language.
Examples with the format A{から・ば}こそB can be reworded to BのはA{から・ば}こそだ if the context is resultative, but in contradictory contexts, this is not possible. However, when you can reword to BのはAからこそだ, it is because A is expressing a positive cause/reason. Negative situations don't go.
~ばこそ: 一般条件
~ばこそ may be used in showing a general condition. This is simply based on the fact that you are using the conditional particle ば in the pattern. As stated above, the context does not involve contradictory clauses. ば functions as a general condition, and the situation is in regards to knowledge, morals, or logic of some sort. The pattern becomes unnatural when the situation is already a defined condition of the past.
28. 政府のことを{思ったからこそ 〇・思えばからこそX}、腹を立てたんじゃないか。
It's surely because you thought about the government that you got mad, no?
29. 政府のことを思えばこそ、腹を立てることも多い。
Of course, when you think about the government, you often get mad.
30. 親友の友だちが励まして{くれるから・くれればこそ}、挫折せずに生きていけるんだ。
Because I certainly have a true friend to encourage me on, I can live on without setbacks.
"A+{から・ば}こそ+B" are used to express personal declaration, but when one is making a statement about objective fact regarding the laws of nature, then they become unnatural.
31. 本当に信じていればこそ、こうして頼んでいるのです。
Because I truly believe in you, I am asking you this.
32. 岡田さんのことを思うからこそ、本当のことを言うべきでしょう?
Because I truly think about Okada-san, should I tell him/her the truth?
33a. 火星にも引力が{あるからこそ・あればこそ}、物体は地表へと落下する。X
33b. 火星にも引力があるから、物体は地表へ(と)落下する。〇
Since there is also gravity on Mars, objects will fall to the surface.
34. 表題作の「光と影」も、まさに医家でなければもてない眼差しと、作家でなければ見抜くことができない眼差しがあったればこそと、私は確信している。
Along with the title work "Light and Shadow", I'm confident that he had the eye that only a doctor could have and the eye with which he could see through things being a novelist.
From 光と影 by 渡辺淳一 in the 解説 by 小松伸六.
Grammar Note: あったれば = あれば.
AてこそB is used when the speaker is evaluating or persuading the listener based on experience/social wisdom/morals/ethics and a positive B coming about. Because there is a condition A, a positive B naturally/necessarily comes about. B must be some noun (of condition), adjective, potential or passive phrase, all of which are non-volitional. B can't be a phrase that shows the speaker’s/your volition.
35. 見知らぬ人を快く歓迎してこそ、誰にも熱く歓迎されるのです。
As you cheerfully welcome strangers, you will be warmly welcomed by anyone.
36. 身を捨ててこそ浮ぶ瀬もあれ。(Set Phrase)
Literally: Just as throw your own self away, there are also rapids for your body to float in.
Risk all and gain all.
37. この山中に暮らしをしてこそ、完璧に平等な理想の社会を築くことができるのではないか。人間らしい叫び声を上げることができてこそ、革命家たり得るはずなのだ。
Isn't it not possible to build a perfectly impartial society by living within the mountains? It should be possible to become a revolutionist by simply giving a human shout.
From 光の雨 by 立松和平.
38. 原因があり条件があってこそ現象としてとらえられるのだが、条件は刻一刻と変化する。
One can grasp things as phenomena so long as there is a cause and condition, but conditions change moment by moment.
From 光の雨 by 立松和平.
Grammar Note: たり得る is a combination of たり (a classical copula) and ~得る (showing potential). It is equivalent to であることができる。
All instances of ~てこそ may be replaced with ~てはじめて, but this doesn't mean that ~てはじめて is always interchangeable with ~てこそ. Just like ~ばこそ, ~てこそ cannot be used with some past or individual event with a defined condition.
39. 君と会ってはじめて本当の愛の意味が分かった気がする。
Since meeting you, I feel like I've understood the meaning of true love for the first time.
AてこそB is interchangeable with A{から・ば}こそB whenever the situation is a defined, resultative condition, the likes of which are seen with から・ので. However, if the situation is hypothetical, you should use ~てからこそ・ばこそ. If it is a situation that could be defined as hypothetical but not necessarily, paraphrasing ~てこそ out with ~てからこそ, ~ばこそ, ~ば, or ~から would be fine.
40a. 全力を尽く{してこそ・せばこそ・してはじめて}、神様に報われるのです。〇
40b. 全力を尽くせば、神様に報われるのです。X
It is precisely because of you giving your all that you will be rewarded by God.
41a. 人々がこの地球を守ってこそ、人類はサバイバルが可能だ。〇
41b. 人々がこの地球を{守ってからこそ・守ればこそ}、人類はサバイバルが可能だ。〇41c. 人々がこの地球を守るから、人類はサバイバルが可能だ。X/△
So long as people protect this earth, humanity has the potential to survive.
42. 一生懸命{頑張ってこそ・頑張るからこそ・頑張ればこそ・頑張るから・頑張れば}、成功するのだ。
You'll succeed if I try all my might. Of course, by now you should realize that there are minor nuance changes in switching between the options, but at least you know what a situation looks like in which all are fine.
The noun 訳 when read as わけ can be translated as “conclusion from reasoning”, but it is not to be confused with the reading やく, which means “translation."
1. そのわけは
未
だ
解明
されていない。
The reason for that has still yet to be clarified.
2. なるほど、そんなわけで、
金子
は
帰国
したのか。
I see, so that’s why Kaneko returned to Japan.
3. あいつはいつも
訳
の
分
からないことばかりやってるよ。
That guy always does a bunch of nonsense.
4. ロケット
団
がピカチュウを
追
っている
理由
はこういうわけです。
This is the reasoning for Team Rocket chasing Pikachu.
5. てなわけで、ごきげんよう!
With that, have a nice day!
Contraction Note: てなわけで comes from というようなわけで. It is equivalent to “with that being said” and is very fitting in this example sentence in concluding the conversation, but it is rather interchangeable with the phrase ということで. Just as in English, either of these two phrases are used in making transitions.
6.
訳
もなく、
彼
は
机
を
壊
した。
Without any reason, he broke the desk.
7. ちゅうわけで、
今夜
も
行
こうぜ~。
With that, let’s go tonight too!
Contraction Note: ちゅう is a contraction of という, and together, ちゅうわけで is yet another means of saying “so with that…”
訳だ, most frequently spelled as わけだ, is multifaceted in meaning, but its fundamental meaning is to express reasoning which has come about from having thought along the logic or reasoning from one certain circumstance which led the speaker to yet another circumstance. Meaning, there is a known fact that leads to a reason or cause for which one draws a conclusion. In doing so, this pattern draws parallels with はずだ and ことになる, but as is always the case with interrelated grammar points, it will be necessary for us to delve into when and how these patterns are ever interchangeable.
All three of these patterns demonstrate an inevitable conclusion that the speaker makes after having thought things through logically. However, whereas わけだ and ことになる can be viewed as stating a matter as logically based established fact, はずだ more so states induction with a high degree of confidence—not quite fact.
8. このガス
雲
は、ブラックホールの
潮汐力
によって
破壊
され、
降着円盤
に
衝突
するはずです。
This gas cloud should be destroyed by the tidal force of the black hole and collide with the accretion disk.
9.
水蒸気
を
含
んだ
空気
が
上昇
し、
雪雲
を
作
ると、
雪
が
降
るわけです。
When air filled with water vapor rises and creates snow clouds, it snows.
10.
乱層雲
は、
横
に
広
がっているので、
小雨
が
長
く
降
り
続
くことになる。
The nimbostratus stretches horizontally, and so the light rain will continue to fall for a long time.
わけだ is at its heart an expression that decisively demonstrates a logical conclusion based on some premise. はずだ, on the other hand, does not assert knowledge of the truth as it only infers a conclusion based on the extent of information at the speaker’s disposal. It is a “should” and nothing more. The predicates before わけだ and はずだ, thus, have a fundamental difference. For the former, the predicate is known as fact and is in response to why it is so. For the latter, the predicate is not known to be fact, but its validation is what is being set in motion. Their focal points may share some similarity in showing a conclusion, but hazu da はずだ places emphasis on the speaker’s high confidence about how something ought to be the case while わけだ places emphasis on what has come about from following a logical path of reasoning. Both, however, are used in a very explanatory sense. They simply differ in the nature of the explanation: fact or conjecture.
Conjugation Note: Because わけだ is composed of a noun, there is nothing special about how it attaches to other parts of speech.
Both わけだ and はずだ are actually subjective in nature despite わけだ emphasizing what the speaker feels to be established fact, but this is exactly how both demonstrate subjectivity. Of course, はずだ is by far the most subjective in nature. Even if the statement which the speaker is trying to make with はずだ is based on facts, it is at the very most inference that is hoping to squeeze agreement from the listener. This is so much so that if that if what ends up being the case is different than what expected and asserted with はずだ, suspicion as to whether said realization is true is inferred. This never happens with わけだ.
11.
普通
なら
固体
は
液体
に
沈
むんですが、これってなんで
浮
いてるの?
Usually, solids sink in liquids, but why is this floating?
12.
氷
は
水
より
軽
いので、
固体
とはいえ
水
に
浮
くわけです。
Ice is lighter than water, and so although it’s a solid, that’s why it floats in water.
Where does ことになる fall in all this? It is quite interchangeable with わけだ as it too expresses how an inevitable conclusion is brought about by following logic, fact, and or the course of things, but unlike わけだ, it is extremely objective in nature. In summary, all three patterns show conclusions based on logic, but they differ in objectivity and in the nature of their claims.
13.
形
あるものは
全
て
壊
れるわけですよね?
Things with form must all go to pieces, right?
14. アセトアルデヒドは、
有害物質
なので、さらに
炭酸
ガスと
水分
に
分解
されることになります。
Because acetaldehyde is a toxic substance, it becomes further decomposed to carbonic acid and water.
As far as わけだ is concerned, its fundamental meaning being to express reasoning, which has come about from having thought along the logic or reasoning from one certain circumstance which led the speaker to yet another circumstance, is not so difficult to comprehend, but there are issues that arise when looking further into the relationship between the two circumstances intrinsically implied with わけだ. At times, what わけだ attaches to shows reason/cause, and at other times it shows result, which at first glance seem to be contradictory. In order to reconcile this, it is necessary to separate the individual functions of わけだ according to the flow of awareness of the speaker as this will help determine the relationship meant by whatever two circumstances are linked with it.
The reason for why all this is necessary is because わけだ is intrinsically subjective to some degree. The subjective nature lies in the fact that although it may be based on established fact/logic, these facts and or logic are being represented with the speaker’s personal point of view. Depending on where one’s flow of thought goes, one’s thoughts may levitate toward to either the reason/cause or the effect of the logical conclusion clause that わけだ attaches to.
When showing result/effect, わけだ can be associated with claims that refer to an unconfirmed event in the past as well as claims based on established fact and as of yet established ‘fact.’ Choosing はずだ or ことになる instead depends on the objectivity you wish to give to the result, but it is worth noting that ことになる doesn’t work when the result has already happened.
15. フランスはフィンランドと
1
時間
の
時差
があるから、ホテルには
日本時間
の
15
時
ごろに
着
くわけだ。
Because there is a one-hour time difference between France and Finland, (I) will arrive at the hotel around 3 PM JST.
16. そんなに
市場
に
出回
ってるんだったら、
確
かに
乱獲
とかで
5
年後
に
姿
を
完全
に
消
してしまうわけですね。
If it’s circulating that much in the markets, then it’ll definitely completely disappear five years from now due to overfishing and what not.
17.
2
時間遅
れでシアトルを
出発
したので、
2
時間遅
れでハワイに
到着
したわけです。
(I/We) departed Seattle with a two-hour delay, which is why we arrived at Hawaii two-hours late.
18.
2
時間遅
れでシドニーを
出発
したので、およそ
2
時間遅
れでジャカルタに
到着
したはずです。
(They) departed Sydney with a two-hour delay, and so they should have arrived at Jakarta approximately two-hours late.
19.
執筆者
の
方
は、ベンチャーキャピタル
出身
の
公認会計士
なので、
道理
で
内部事情
に
詳
しいわけです。
The author (of this) is a certified public accountant from a venture capital, which is no wonder why he is well-informed about internal state of affairs.
20.
岡田
さんは
韓国
で
5
年
くらい
働
いていたので、そもそも
韓国
の
内部事情
に
詳
しいはずです。
Mr. Okada had worked in South Korea for around five years, and so he should know about the internal state of South Korea anyway.
21. ところで、
最近農薬
を
使
い
始
めたよね。で、もう
害虫
がつかない{わけですか・ことになりますか}。
By the way, you’ve started to use agrochemicals, right? Will the pests no longer stick?
Grammar Note: The question form of はずだ does not exist due to the strong subjective nature it has in expressing the speaker’s thoughts of what something “should” be.
If the reason/cause is known from established fact, then はずだ can't be used, but if the reason/cause deals with something that one hasn’t gone out and confirmed, then either can be used. It’s just that わけだ would be somewhat subjective whilst still presenting the matter as fact.
22.
部屋
がとっても
静
かですね。あ、みんなが
休憩
に
入
ったわけですね。
The room is very quiet isn’t it? Ah, everyone’s gone on break.
23.
今年
は、ブドウの
出来
が
去年
と
比
べてやや
悪
かったんですけど、ま、
冷夏
だったわけですね。
This year, the quality of the grapes was bad compared to last year, but, well, it was a cold summer.
24.
今年
のトマトの
出来
が
悪
かったです。まあ、
本来
この
夏
も
冷夏
だったはずなので、
仕方
がないですね。
This year’s tomato quality was bad. Well, this summer was originally supposed to be a cold summer, so it can't be helped.
25.
台風
が
近
づいているわけですが、
近所
の
周
りは
雨
が
降
ったり、
青空
が
見
えたり、
嫌
な
雲
が
流
れてきたりしてて、
天気
が
落
ち着きません。
It’s because the typhoon is approaching but, in and around the neighborhood, it rains, lets up to see the blue sky, then awful looking clouds flood in…back and forth. The weather won’t calm down.
Grammar Note: ことになる is incapable of being used to show reason/cause. It is limited to show result/effect in the most objective of situations.
When acknowledging the truth of something, わけだ is interchangeable with はずだ, but the nuance changes to showing what something ought to be, which isn’t surprising. However, for every “ought” you can think of, there are just as many situations that are in fact true which you can then acknowledge with わけだ, and these situations can overlap a lot.
26.「
日本
にいつ
来
たの」「
2
歳
のとき」「はあ?じゃ、
日本
に
住
んで
20
年
?
道理
で
日本語
が
流暢
なわけだね」
“When did you come to Japan?” “When I was two years old.” “What? Then, you’ve lived in Japan for 20 years? Well no wonder you’re fluent in Japanese.”
27.
開
かないわけだよ。そもそも
違
う
鍵
を
渡
したんだから。
It won’t open. That’s because I handed you the wrong key in the first place.
28.
少子高齢化
が
進
んでいる。このため、
健康保険料
は
高
くなっているわけだ。
The decreasing birthrate and aging population is advancing. Because of this, health insurance has gone up.
29. 「いくら
一生懸命勉強
しても、まだ
英語
の
能力
が
足
りません。」「
要
するに、
英語
を
話
すのが
下手
だというわけでしょう。」
"No matter how much I study, my English skills are still lacking." "In short, you're not good at speaking English, right?"
はずだ Not Possible
If there is no chance of speculation from not having verified the claim oneself, はずだ can't be used. It doesn’t make sense to make an inference about something you’ve already observed.
30. 「
岸本
さんは
会社
でクビになったらしいよ」「だからずっと
家
に
籠
ってるわけね」
“It seems that Mr. Kishimoto was fired at his company. “So that’s why he’s confined himself at home this whole time.”
はずだ would not make sense in this sentence because the second speaker has observed Kishimoto being in his home the whole time.
31.
確
かに、
火災
の
後
、
目
が
痛
いと
訴
えて
出
る
者
が
多
かった。あの、
音道
としか
話
そうとしなかったアルバイトの
娘
も、
目
が
痛
み、
黒
い
煙
が
出
たと
言
っていた。あの
時
には、まさかこんな
妙
な
事件
になるなんて、
考
えてもみなかった。それが、
男
が
勝手
に
燃
え
出
したというし、
時限装置
は
見
つかるし、お
陰
で
俺
は、お
嬢様
と
楽
しい
毎日
を
過
ごすことになっちまったってわけだ。
There were certainly many people who came forward claiming that their eyes hurt after the fire. That girl, who was a part-time worker and only tried to speak Otomichi, also claimed that her eyes hurt and that there was black smoke. At that time, I never even thought that this would become such a strange case. That…a man would just catch himself on fire, that a timing device would be found, and thanks to all this, I’ve ended up spending every pleasant day with the lady (detective).
32.
夫
と
浮気相手
の
会話
の
録音
は
不貞行為
の
存在
を
示
す
証拠
になります。
Recording of one’s husband and lover becomes proof of the existence of unfaithful acts.
わけだ also happens to be frequently used with statements that the speaker deems to be common sense/well-known establish fact, so much so that it can viewed as a final particle. In fact, this is so prevalent that わけ by itself at the end of a sentence is almost as common as hearing other final particles like よ or ね.
33.
口
に
入
れた
瞬間
、もう
旨味
が
口
に
広
がるわけ。
The moment you put it in your mouth, the taste spreads through your mouth.
34. そこが
男
らしいわけよ。
That right there is what’s manly.
35. こうして
二人
は
結婚
して
幸
せに
暮
らしたわけです。
And so the two married and lived happily.
In the previous lesson, we learned all about the phrase わけだ and its relation with similar phrases. What we did not do is cover what happens when we use this in the negative. This is because there are three possible options that are all different from each other in their own unique ways. These phrases are as follows:
Because the situations they are respectively used in are quite different, it will be very important to hone down on these differences in order to properly use them.
わけではない is, simply put, the basic negation of わけだ. Therefore, it may be used in all five usages mentioned in the previous lesson. Therefore, context will be necessary to show whether it used in negating reason, cause/effect, acknowledge, or (re)stating fact. It is simply translated as “it is not that…” However, despite showing negation, it can be viewed as not being a 100% denial.
1.
絶対
に
反対
(だ)というわけではないんですが、もうすこし
考
えてみたいんです。
It’s not that I’m absolutely against it, but I would like to think about it a little more.
2. 「
僕
は
何
とも
言
えないんですけれど、
根本
さんも
賛成
なんでしょうか」「いや、うちもその
意見
には
全面的
に
賛成
(だ)というわけじゃありません」
“I can't really say anything, but are you too in support of it, Mr. Nemoto?” ”No, it’s not that I’m wholeheartedly in support of the opinion either.”
3.
彼氏
の
考
えてることがすべて
分
かるわけじゃないが、おおよそは
分
かるよ。
It’s not that I understand everything my boyfriend is thinking, but I generally do.
4. 「ベジタリアンということは、
肉
や
魚
は
全然食
べないということですか。」「いろいろなベジタリアンがいますが、
私
の
場合
は、
全然
食
べないというわけではありません。
魚
は
食
べることがありますから。つまり、
魚菜食主義者
なんです。ペスクタリアンとも
言
いますよ。」
“Is being a vegetarian not eating any meat or fish?” “There are many kinds of vegetarians, but as for myself, it’s not that I don’t completely eat (meat). That’s because I eat fish. In other words, I follow pescaterianism. You can also call me a pescatarian.”
5. お
酒
はあまり
飲
みませんが、
飲
めないわけじゃないですよ。
I don’t really drink alcohol, but it’s not that I can't drink it.
6.
全
てが
私
の
責任
(だ)というわけではありません。
That doesn't mean it's entirely my fault.
7. そこまで
本気
で
英語
を
勉強
したいわけではない。
It’s not that I want to seriously study English to that extent.
8.
梅雨
の
頃
はよく
降
りますが、
毎日降
るわけではありません。
In the rainy season it frequently rains, but it’s not the case that it rains every day.
9.
死
ぬ
気
でやっても
本当
に
死
ぬわけじゃないよ。
Even if you did it with the will to die, it’s not that you will really die.
10. まだ
結婚
していないですが、
結婚
したくないわけでもないんです。
I’m not married yet, but it’s not that I don’t want to get married.
11. ホタテのこういうことを
知
りたかったわけじゃないのよ。
It’s not the case at all that I wanted to know this about scallops.
12. 「この
患者
は
全然助
からないんですか。」「いいえ、
全然助
からないというわけではありませんが、
難
しいでしょう。」
“Can this patient not be saved?” “No, well it’s not the case that he can't be helped at all, but it’ll be difficult.”
13.
恋
を
知
らないわけじゃないし、
逃
げてるわけでもない。
It’s not that I don’t know love, and it’s also not even that I’m running away.
14.「
智君
のこと、
好
きじゃないの?」「
好
きじゃないってわけじゃないけど…」
“Do you not like Satoshi?” “It’s not that I don’t like him, but…”
15.
悪
いことをしたわけじゃない。
It’s not that I did something bad.
16. ビッグフートが
存在
するわけがない。
There’s no way that Big Foot exists.
17.
六月
に
雪
が
降
るわけがない。
There’s no way that it will/can snow in June.
18. ペンギンは
絶滅
するわけがないでしょう。
Surely there’s no way that penguins will go extinct.
19.
偶然
なわけがないでしょう。
Surely there’s no way it was a coincidence.
20.
英語
はおろか、
中国語
も
学
べるわけないでしょう。
English is one thing, but there’s no way that I could learn Chinese, no?
21.
黙
って
見送
ることなど
出来
るわけがないでしょう。
There’s no way I can just stay silent and see (him) off, you know.
22.
皆
に
信用
されるわけがないでしょう。
There’s definitely no way that (he) would be trusted by everyone, you know.
23.
病院
を
退院
して
1
日
も
過
ぎていないんだから、
旅行
に
行
けるわけなんてないよ。
It hasn’t even been a day since (he) left the hospital, so there’s absolutely no way he’d go traveling.
24.
稚魚
はたとえば
小
さい
池
だったら、
全部駆除
できるのかもしれないけど、
琵琶湖
みたいなところでは
完全
に
駆除
できるわけがないでしょう。
If say it were a small pond, you could exterminate all the juvenile fish, but if it were a large place like Lake Biwa, there’s no way that you could possibly completely exterminate them.
25. いくら
頭
がいい
人
でも、
一年間
で
広東語
がマスターできるわけがありません。
No matter how smart someone is, there’s no way one could master Cantonese in year.
When stating that an action is not reasonable/proper for obvious reasons and cannot be done as an effect, you use わけにはいかない. It can be translated as “there’s no way...can…/...cannot afford to…”
26. まだまだ
終了報告出
してないから、
帰
るわけにはいかないだろう。
I still haven’t done the end of the day report, so there’s no way I can go home.
27.
曖昧
な
態度
を
取
るわけにはいきません。
You cannot afford to take a vague attitude.
28.
風邪
を
引
いてしまったんですが、
今日
は
大事
な
会議
があるので、
休
むわけにはいきません。
I caught a cold, but because I have an important meeting today, I can't afford to take the day off.
29.
車
で
来
ちゃったから、お
酒飲
むわけにはいかん。
I accidentally came by car, so there’s no way I can drink.
30.
彼氏
が
作
った
料理
は
辛
すぎても、
食
べないわけにはいかない。
Even if my boyfriend’s cooking is too spicy, there’s no way I can just not eat it.
31.
休
みだからといって、
勉強
しないわけではない。
I can't afford to not be studying just because we’re on holiday.
32.
義父母
が
訪
ねてくるから、
掃除
しないわけにはいかないですね。
My in-laws are coming to visit, so I can't afford not to clean.
33.
山口
さんも
一緒
に
来
てくださるわけにはいきませんか。
Is there no way that you can't come with us, Mr. Yamaguchi?
34.
冬
だからって、
毎日髪
を
洗
わないわけにはいかない。
I can't afford to not wash my hair every day just because it’s winter.
35.
日本語教育
は
理想
ばかり
言
っても
現実
を
無視
するわけにはいきません。
Even if Japanese education only speaks of ideals, we can't afford to ignore reality.
36.
負
けるわけにはいかないよ。
I can't afford to lose!
37.
疲
れたからってやめるわけにはいかない。
You can't afford to quit just because you got tired.
38. そうかといって、
信
じるわけにはいかない。
Even so, you can't afford to believe (that).
39. 「
明日
まで
待
っていただけないでしょうか」「ええ、でも、
急
いでいるので、
長
い
間待
つわけにはいかないんです」
"Could you wait until tomorrow?" "Yes, but, since I'm in a hurry, I can't afford to wait long."
40.
断
るわけにはいかないので、
命令
に
従
おう。
I cannot afford to refuse, and so I’ll follow the order.
In this second installment concerning the particle ながら, we learn about its second most common usage: showing contradiction.
The particle ながら, when used to show contradiction, follows the same restraints on clauses as when it shows simultaneous action. This is because the contradiction involves the same subject and because the two parts of the contradiction still happen in the same time span.
Unlike its primary usage to show non-contradictory simultaneous action, this use of ながら can attach to pretty much anything. You can find it directly after nouns, adjectival nouns, adjectives, adverbs, and verbs.
Affirmative | Negative | |
Nouns | N (であり)+ ながら(も) | Nではない + ながら(も) |
Adjectival Nouns | Adj. N(であり)+ながら(も) | Adj. Nではない+ながら(も) |
Adjectives | Adj. +ながら(も) | Drop /i/ + くない+ながら(も) |
Adverbs | Adv. + ながら(も) | |
Verbs | Stem + ながら(も) | V +ない → ず・ぬ + ながら(も) |
The productivity of all these combinations will not be equal in the real world. ながら(も) is most frequently used with verbs, and for everything else it may be follow, creative license is required. Due to the fact that this pattern is more so employed in the written language, you will need to explore this grammar on a case-by-case basis. There are many set phrases that utilize this, some of which are very important. For instance, 残念だ means “to be unfortunate,” and when used with ながら as 残念ながら, it’s used to mean “unfortunately…”
The addition of the particle も in this expression is only used for emphatic purposes. As such , normally, ながら and ながらも are interchangeable.
1.
彼女
はあんなにいろいろ
苦労
しながらも、それを
苦
にしていない。
Even though she's going through that many troubles, she isn't worrying about them.
2.
湯沢
さんは
大企業
の
社長
(であり)ながら(も)、
静
かな
落
ち
着
いた
物腰
が
印象的
でした。
Though Mr. Yuzawa is the president of a large corporation, his quiet and calm demeanor is impressive.
3.
真由子
は
初心者
(であり)ながら(も)、
潜在
能力
はかなりあると
思
います。
Even though Mayuko is a beginner, I think that her skills are considerably good.
4. しかしながら、
予算案
はまだ
修正
の
余地
がある。
Nevertheless, the budget still has plenty of room for improvement.
5. すでに
一月
を
過
ごしてしまったのですが、
遅
まきながら
初詣
に
出
かけました。
I’ve already let January pass, but I belatedly went out to my first shrine visit of the New Year.
6.
讃岐
うどんとは
言
いながらも、ほとんどは
外国産
の
小麦
で
作
られている。
Although we call it “Sanuki Udon,” most of it is made with foreign manufactured wheat.
7.
彼女
はダイエットしていると
言
いながら(も)ケーキばかり
食
べている。
Although she says that she’s on a diet, all she eats is cake.
8.
恥
ずかしながら、
自己紹介
です。
As embarrassing as this is, this is my self-introduction.
Form Note: Note that with the adjective 恥ずかしい, the final /i/ is dropped.
9.{
我
・
自分
}ながら
情
けない。
This is deplorable even if I do say so myself.
10. ゾンビーは
死
んでいながらも、
生前
と
同
じ
行動
を
繰
り
返
します。
Zombies, though dead, repeat the same actions as when they were alive.
11. ゆっくりながら(も)、
完成
に
近
づいています。
Although slowly, I’m approaching completion.
12.
残念
ながら、
記録
は
更新
できませんでした。
Unfortunately, I was unable to break the record.
13.
憲太郎君
は
失敗
するとわかりながら(も)、そのままやってしまう
性格
だ。
Kentaro has the kind of personality of doing something as is even if he understands that he’ll fail.
14.
神
が
赦
さない
罪
だと
知
っていながらも、
故意
に
続
けていく。
To continue purposely doing something whilst knowing it is a sin God does not condone.
15.
社員
が
不正
を
知
りながら
勧誘
していたことがわかりました。
It has been discovered that company employees were soliciting whilst knowing of the illegality.
16.
狭
いながらも、
自分
のアパートを
手
に
入
れることができました。
While small, I’ve obtained my own apartment.
17.
貧
しいながらも、
穏
やかに
暮
らすことができます。
Once can live calmly live whilst being poor.
18.
及
ばずながら、
一生懸命
やります。
I’ll do it to the best of my ability, as poor as that may be.
19.
完全
ではないながらも、
英語
の
綴
りと
音
にはある
程度規則
があります。
Although not absolute, there are rules to some degree to the spelling and sounds of English.
もさることながら
もさることながら is a set phrase that follows nouns that states that the one quality is of course true, but a second quality is also just as so.
20.
中華料理
は
味
もさることながら、
健康
にいいですよ。
It goes without saying that Chinese food is tasty, but it's also good for you.
21.
富士山
は
紅葉
もさることながら、
冬景色
も
綺麗
です。
The autumn leaves of Mt. Fuji go without saying, but its winter-scape is also pretty.
22. この
車
は
燃費
の
良
さもさることながら、ネット
上
での
評判
も
高
かったです。
The gas mileage of this car goes without saying, but its internet review was high as well.
In the patterns ながらに(して)or ながら(の), the particle ながら may also mean “as” as in staying “as is” in a certain condition. Just as is the case with the past usage, instances of this meaning ought to be learned on a case-by-case basis.
23. すべての
人
は
生
まれながらに
平等
である。
All men are born equal.
24.
田中
さんは
家
に
居
ながらにして、
月
に
70
万円
くらいの
収入
を
得
ている。
Mr. Tanaka earns an income of approximately 700,000 yen a month whilst staying at home.
25.
村民
は
昔
ながらの
伝統
を
守
り
続
けている。
The villages continue protecting traditions as they were long ago.
26.
彼
は
子供
ながらにしっかりしている。
He’s quite level-headed despite being a kid.
27.
夏子
は、
自分
の
目
の
前
で
起
こった
悲惨
な
出来事
を
涙
ながらに
語
りました。
Natsuko tearfully spoke of the tragic events that transpired in front of her eyes.
28. いつもながら、
彼氏
の
料理
はとてもうまい。
My boyfriend’s cooking is very delicious as always.
29. この
会社
は
昔
ながらの
製法
で
豆腐
を
作
っている。
This company makes tofu with traditional methods.
30.
人間
には、
生
まれながらにして
貧富
の
差
がある。
Humans are born with a disparity of wealth.
~に違いない and ~に相違ない are not necessarily difficult, but there are certain problems that students have. The unusual way it connects to adjective/verb expressions, not properly understanding what can follow them, and not understanding formality differences are the main sources of error. The lesson will be ended with the similar ~に決まっている.
First and foremost, these expressions are both translated as “there is without a doubt that…”. This is the immediate source of confusion because you can add phrases like “I think that” or “probably” in English without causing ungrammaticality. However, with these Japanese expressions, doing so does. First, consider the following defining of these terms.
~に違いない: Not from objective proof or logical speculation, but rather from the speaker’s own experience, this phrase shows one’s intuitive speculation/confidence. With such a bold move, it is without surprise that this is quite strong. It is often used in situations where it's as if one is talking to oneself in attempts to verify one’s own guess or deliberation.
~に相違ない: Like ~に違いない, it shows intuitive speculation/confidence, but it is more stiff and formal. This formality difference is very important to keep in mind. One reason is that speech modals more akin to the spoken language like the final particle から, which is commonly used with ~に違いない, are not typically used with ~相違ない. This also implies that there is no mistake in it; thus, it gives a more confident tone. Thus, although adverbs like きっと are common with ~に違いない, it is not with ~に相違ない due to the tone. Although perhaps of old logic, some speakers feel this is more so indicative of middle-aged/old men as they are more likely to use old-fashioned expressions, which would not be old-fashioned for them, and fits the traditional tone for masculine speech.
These patterns attach to phrases in the following manner.
Nouns | N(である)+~に{違い・相違}ない |
形容詞 | 形容詞 + ~に{違い・相違}ない |
形容動詞 | 形容詞(である) + ~に{違い・相違}ない |
Verbs | Verb + ~に{違い・相違}ない |
Notice that it does not say Adj/V + こと + に{違い・相違}ない. It is a set phrase, and like other phrases with に, the reason for why this is allowed stems from a Classical Japanese grammatical maneuver of using conjugational parts of speech as nominal phrases when in the 連体形. As this base has changed appearance for many items, it's not surprising that in Modern Japanese this technique is limited.
Examples
1. 政府の報道官の応答はどんなに(か)悔しかったに違いない。
The response of the government spokesperson was in no doubt overly regrettable.
Grammar Note: In a more literary sense どんなに(か) may be replaced with いかばかりか. Also note that the use of か with this in the first place is hardly ever heard.
2. 違いない(その通り)、君の言う通りだ。
That’s right. It's just as you say.
3. この計画の実行は困難に違いない。
It is without a doubt that this plan's implementation is difficult.
4.
泥棒
が入ったに違いない。
There is no doubt that a robber came in.
5.
馬鹿者
には違いないが、責任を取らざるをえないだろう。
Although it's without a doubt that you're an idiot, there's no other way but to take responsibility.
By
大仏次郎
6. 明日は
曇
るに違いない。
It will definitely be cloudy tomorrow.
7. 社長は天才であることに相違ない。
There's no doubt that the company president is a genius.
8. 「あの女の人は誰でしょうか」「ケンさんのガールフレンドに違いありません。手を
繋
いで一緒に歩いていますから」
"Who is that woman?" "There's no doubt that she's Ken's girlfriend because they're holding hands walking together".
9. 「あの人は
何語
の学生でしょうか」「日本語の学生に違いありません。読んでいるものに「新しい」と書いてありますから」
"What language student is that person? "That person is no doubt a Japanese student because the thing (that person) is reading has "atarashii" written on it"
10. 「あの人は日本に住んでいたんでしょうか」「そうに違いありません。日本の新聞を読んでいますから」
"I wonder if that person lived in Japan" There's no doubt about it because he's reading a Japanese newspaper"
11. 「あの女の人は結婚しているんでしょうか」「そうに違いありません。
指輪
を
嵌
めていますから」
"I wonder if that woman is married" "There's no doubt about it because she's wearing a ring"
~に決まっている means "it is certainly..." and follows nouns, adjectives, or verbs. This speech modal shows 100% certainty and is reflective of 話し言葉. It shows that the speaker is very confident in labeling something as so. It is also used in chastising.
12. 彼は
嘘
をついているに決まっている。
He's certainly lying.
13. 夏は暑いに決まっている。
It is certainly hot in summer.
14. 負けるに決まってる。(Casual)
(They) will certainly lose.
These phrases are definitely very similar to each other, but as you will see during the compare and contrast sections of this lesson, there are important differences to keep in mind.
~に基づいて means "on the basis of/based off of/based on". Its attribute form may either be ~に基づいての or ~に基づいた. Broadly speaking, there are two main usages of Xに基づいてY. The first is "without deterring from a standard/criterion/norm/rule/law X, one carries out/executes an action Y". The other, which is found primarily in the written language, is "having A as a basis/foundation/modal/example/pattern/reference, one does/makes a decision B".
1. 事実に基づいた
記述
をする。
Describe on the basis of reality.
2. 彼女の議論は確かに
証拠
に
基
づいていなかった。
Her argument was certainly not on the basis of evidence.
3. 明らかなことに基づいた議論の
余地
のない事実。
Unarguable facts based on obvious things.
4. このマニュアルに基づいて操作します。
I will operate it based on this manual.
5. 規則に基づいて処理する。
To process according to regulations.
6. さっきの例文に基づいた、もっと複雑なものです。
These are more complicated ones based off of the previous example sentences.
7. 証拠に基づいて、
加害者
に
死刑
を言い
渡
した。
In line with the evidence, the assailant was sentenced to death.
Variant Note: ~に基づいて may also be ~に基づき in stiffer writing.
Grammar Note: For the attribute form, ~に基づいての must only be used when what it precedes is a standard of some sort. If it is not, you must use ~に基づいた instead.
The 一段 verb 踏まえる means "to be based on". So, ~を踏まえて means "on the basis of" just like ~に基づいて. It can also be seen as ~を踏まえ in the written language. Its attribute form may either be ~を踏まえての or ~を踏まえた. As its original literal meaning is "to tread on" in a defensive posture, it is used after words that can show a basis/foundation/precedent for something. Again, it cannot follow material for reference as a standard. Rather, it must follow an extant basis. This pattern is usually seen in the written language and finds itself in news reports all the time.
8. 自分の経験を踏まえてこういう。
To say such based on one's own experience.
9. これまでの状況を踏まえて得た最終結論です。
This is the last argument gotten based on the conditions up to now.
10. 報告を{踏まえた・踏まえての}処理
Processing based on the report
Translation Note: 踏まえる may also mean "to tread".
11. 両足で大地を{踏まえて・踏んで}立って!
Tread on the ground with both your legs and stand!
~をもとにして is used to show that one bases off of the good qualities of something. It does not necessarily have to be 100% congruent with the full truth in the circumstances. It shows willful change, and it is usually shortened in the spoken language to ~をもとに. When this pattern happens to be used as an attribute, it becomes ~をもとにした.
12. 私は
親譲
りの財産をもとにして
富
を作りました。
I built my wealth on the fortune from my father.
13.
嘘
をもとにして
行
う。
To act upon a lie.
14. 事実を基にして書かれた劇だ。
It is a play written on the basis of the truth.
漢字 Note: Although this pattern is used both in the spoken and written language, when もと is written in 漢字, you have the options 基, 本, 素, 原, 源, 元, and 下. Thus, the meaning of this expression can be further refined. The first refers to a standard. The second refers to the foundation of something. The third refers to the subject matter. The fourth refers to raw materials. The fifth refers to a source. The sixth refers to the original way. The seventh refers to being under an influence. However, most natives cannot distinguish this well, and this is only knowledge relevant for when reading through literature.
~に沿って
~に沿って is used in a physical or cause and effect sense. It can also be seen as ~に沿い is stiff writing, but even here it is considerably rare. The attribute forms ~に沿った and ~に沿っての are slightly different. The former can be used when A fits nicely with B, but there can be some deviance. However, there can be no such deviance with the latter.
15.
時勢
に沿って生きる。
To live in consonance of the times.
16. 土手に沿って、
苔
が生えている。
Moss is growing along the embankment.
17. 事実に沿って、話しをしてくださいますか。
Could you please talk along the facts (of the case)?
18. 湖に{〇 沿った・X 沿っての}公園を歩きました。
I walked through the park that's alongside the lake.
19. 事業計画に{沿った・沿っての}
実施状況
The status of implementation along the business plan
20. 僕は川に沿って歩いた。
I walked along the river.
Variant Note: ~に沿って may be replaced by the suffixes ~ 沿 い and ~ 伝 い in the physical sense.
21.
軒
づたいに
倉庫
の裏に廻って行った。
Along the eaves, I went around the back of the storehouse.
22. 川伝いに走り回る。
To run around along the river.
23.
湖畔
沿いの道路を歩く。
To walk through the street alongside the lake shore.
24. 流れに沿うてやがて広野に出ると、
頂上
は面白く切り
刻
んだようで、そこからゆるやかに美しい
斜線
が遠い
裾
まで伸びている山の
端
に月が色づいた。
野末
にただ一つの眺めである、その山の
全
き姿を、淡い夕映えの空がくっきりと
濃深縹色
に描き出した。
Along the stream, when we at last entered the wide, the moon changed colors in the edge of the mountain, which had a gently beautiful slant with the peak interestingly cutting it that stretched to the far base of the mountain. The light sunset sky sharply drew the perfect view of the mountain for the single view at the corner of the field a light yet deep indigo.
From 雪国 by 川端康成.
漢字 Note: The spellings 添う・副う exist. The first is seen with the sense of "addition" and the latter is seen with the sense of "expectation/satisfaction".
25. 身に添った悲しみ
The sadness on oneself
26. 花が期待に副って見事に咲いたよ。
The flowers bloomed splendidly to my expectations.
~に即して
~に即して is reserved to writing and often very stiff. If used in the spoken language, it is very formal or official sounding. It is frequently used to show that something is based on/along things. In even more formal writing, it can be seen as ~に即し.
27. 時代に即した教育
Education according to the times
28. 事実に即したドラマ
A drama in accordance with the facts
29. 法律に即した判断
A decision in accordance with the law
30. 理念に即した行動
Actions in accordance to an ideal
Spelling Note: As for spelling そくして, when the situation is based off of a given fact or observation you use 即して. However, if the situation is based on rules you use 則して, following the meanings of the 漢字 in question. There is a tendency to only use the former.
31. 前例に則して処理する。
To process according to precedent.
Attribute Note: The attribute forms available depends on the spelling. If 即して, you can only use に即した. If 則して, you can use either ~に則しての or ~に則した. Although with ~に即して one can't feel any sense of excess or deviance, with ~に則して you can. Thus, the differences in possible attribute forms arise. It's opposite to that of ~に沿って's attribute forms, so be careful.
~にのっとって
~に則って is from the て形 of 則る, which is used to show that one protects some sort of tradition/rule set up in the past. This part of the meaning comes from an old verb のる in combination with 採る. This のり can still be found in many words written as 法: 御法 (humble law), 内法 (inside measure), etc. This is why 則る can also, but rarely, be seen written as 法る. It is no surprise that these two concepts are found in the word 法則 (law; rule).
Whether this pattern is used in the spoken language or not is debatable, but it is very literary/rather stiff written speech modal. It can be used in official situations and in technical terms in relation to rules/costumes. It can also be seen as ~に則り, and the attribute form can be seen as ~に則っての or ~に則った without any restriction.
32. 遺言状に則って、遺産相続がなされます。
Inheritance will be carried out according to the will.
33. 憲法に則り、最高裁判所の判断が示される。
The Supreme Court's decision will be presented in accordance with the Constitution.
34. 仕来りに{則った・則っての}儀式
A ceremony that is in accordance with tradition
Although this section is not meant to exhaustively nitpick things, by the end of this section you will certainly have a better understanding of the differences between these phrases taught. Note that only those that truly seem synonymous will be addressed here.
35a. これまでの経験に基づいて、これからも頑張りたいと思う。X
35b. これまでの経験を元にして、これからも頑張りたいと思う。〇
If you paid any attention to the kind of words and situations above with ~に基づいて, you should have noticed that they are all in the same vein in regards to the basis of something in regards to fact or circumstances. The problem with the first sentence, though, will lead us into a serious issue: what are the differences between ~に基づいて, ~をもとにして, ~に沿って, ~に即して, and ~に則って.
1. ~に基づいて, ~に基いて being a less common spelling, shows that an action or circumstance is taking place based on fundamentals, matter at hand, or in combination with some sort of proof.
36. 判決に{基づいて・基づき}、刑が執行される。
The verdict will be carried out according to the punishment.
37. 人は法に基づいて裁かれる。
People are judged according/based on the law.
Usage Note: This pattern is often used after words like 事実, 証拠, 経験, 規則, 情報, etc. Words that often follow this pattern include 判断する, 行動する, 決める, 作る, 裁く, 言い渡す, 下す, 等.
2. ~をもとにして, on the other hand, shows a meaning of “basing on fundamentals or matter at hand, while one capitalizes/utilizes on it or while one utilizes a certain part…”. The orientation of the expressions, thus, are quite different.
38. 資料を基にする。
To base it on the materials.
39. 人の噂をもとにして判断してはいけないよ。
I mustn't judge something based on people’s rumors!
40. これまでの経験をもとにして、頑張りたいと思う。
I wish to try hard based on my experience up to now.
Usage Note: This pattern is often used after words like データ, 情報, 事件, 話, 噂, 等. Words that often follow this pattern include 頑張る, 書く, 作る, 対処する, 等.
3. ~に沿って, like the above two, all share the feature of being based on the matter at hand or fundamentals of something, but the peculiar part about this is that the meaning of “without there being a physical distance” is included.
41. 道に沿って花が植えられている。
Flowers are planted along the street.
42. 塀にそって進んでくれ。(Vulgar command)
Move forward along the wall!
43. 川に沿って歩きなさい。
Walk along the river.
44. 私の考えにそってやってほしい。
I would like for it to be done along my ideas.
Usage Note: This pattern is often used after words like 道路, 道, 川, 壁, 歩道, 考え, 意向, 等. Words that often follow this pattern include 行く, 歩く, する, やる, 進む, 等.
Without getting into the other two remaining patterns, there are still times when all three structures appear to work. However, there will always be nuance differences based on the lines outlined above.
45. 事実{に基づいて・をもとにして・にそって}作ってある。
It was created and based on facts.
Nuances differences still exist. The first sounds purely factual. The second sounds like it was based on fact but not entirely. The third sounds like it was closely aligned with the facts. In more complex sentences, these differences can be large enough for ungrammaticality calls if violated.
46. 取材{〇 に基づいて・〇 をもとにして・X にそって}書かれている。
It is written based on collected data.
Grammar Note: ~にそって is bad because collected data could be conflicting. If this were known not to be the case, the unnaturalness would go away. Contextual environment and what kind of word(s) you’re using a pattern with help you put things together within grammatical restrictions.
47. その図面{〇 に基づいて・X をもと(にして)・X にそって}、配線工事をお願いします。
Please do the wiring work according to the blueprint.
48. この判例{に基づいて・をもと(にして)}裁判での闘い方を考えてみよう。
Let's try to consider the ways of fighting in the trial based on this judicial precedent.
49. 高校で得た経験に基づいて頑張りたい。X → をもとにして
I will try hard based on experience I got from high school.
50. 過去の経験に基づいて判断した。〇
I judged based on past experience.
~に即して・に則って
Besides getting the reading wrong for the last one, which is ~にのっとって, the latter is often attached to words concerning standards/norms. Experiences are personal, so using it with such expressions would be unnatural. On the other hand, ~に即して also has the same meaning of “being based on/following”, just not with the particular restraint as ~に則って. If the spelling of the first is changed to ~に則して, it can have a meaning of showing something is done along rules/laws.
51. 伝統に{則って・即して・基づいて}行われている。
It is being done according to tradition.
52. 不法入国者は法律に則して強制送還される。
Illegal immigrants will be forcefully repatriated according to the law.
This lesson will primarily focus on ~てからというもの(は), but it will also take time to compare it with ~てから ~て以来, which has not been discussed at this point.
~てからというもの(は): Right after something happens, there is a change, and that change persists from that point on. This pattern is not used for things in the recent past. This pattern is not used very often. So, it may be somewhat unnatural if the context doesn't sound really serious.
1. ギリシャに来てからというもの、国の家族のことを思わない日はありません。
Ever since I've come to Greece, there has not been a day where I don't think of my family at home.
2. ドル安の問題は深刻である。今年度になってからというもの、ドル安(の)
傾向
は進む一方である。
The weak dollar is a serious problem. The weak dollar trend will continue onward through this fiscal year and onward.
3. このタブレット
端末
を使ってからというもの、
手放
せなくなった。
Ever since using this tablet, I have not been able to let go of it.
To begin comparing ~てから, ~てからというもの, and ~て以来 (which will be discussed for the first time), consider the following examples.
4. この夏の
検査
で、
進行
膵臓癌
と
診断
されて{から・からというもの・以来}、明日にでも死ぬかのような
恐怖
に
捉
われている。
Ever since being diagnosed with advanced pancreatic cancer in this summer’s scan, I have been entrapped by the fear of maybe dying at morning’s wake.
5. 就職して15年、部長になって{から・からというもの・以来}、ほとんど毎晩のように
残業
で遅くなり、目に見えて
顔色
が悪くなっている。
Since becoming the department head after working for 15 years, he has been late almost every night it seems due to overtime, and his complexion has visibly worsened.
6.
武山
美
砂子
15歳のときからずっと付き合っていた
恋人
と
失恋
して{から・からというもの・以来}、食事も
喉
を通らなくなって、
窶
れ
果
てて、見る
影
もなくなってしまった。
Misako Takeyama couldn’t put down food and withered down to the point of leaving a mere shadow of her former self ever since being lovelorn with her partner she had been with since the age of 15.
7. 愛犬を亡くして{から・からというもの・以来}、すっかり元気をなくし、人が変わったようになってしまった。
Since losing (his) beloved dog, (he) has lost all vitality, and (his) entire persona changed.
“A + て{からというもの・以来}+B” means that “After Situation A occurs, Situation B continues indefinitely since”. The first option ~てからというもの agrees well with native Japanese phrasing and is occasionally used in the spoken language. On the other hand, ~て以来 is more appropriate in the written language. Even so, there are still nuance differences to keep in mind.
Traditional Nuances of ~てからというもの & ~て以来
First, the nuances implied in Standard Japanese (標準語) will be discussed. It is important to understand now that what is to be described is now more often than not the case if you were to talk to speakers of the younger generation. However, knowing what has traditionally been went will help you when you see these phrases used in literature.
~てからというもの usually has a general negative evaluation of Situation B. There is the thought in the speaker that things could be a whole lot better, and there is thus a sense of severity of seriousness involved. Contrarily, ~て以来 is the opposite and generally has Situation B be positive. Both are ungrammatical, though, if Situation B is not continuing. So, neither allows Situation B to be the instant of a change.
In reality, not even ~てからというもの is used that much in the spoken language. It has essentially become almost as 書き言葉的 as ~て以来 despite not being a Sino-Japanese phrase.
Though Situation B has its limitations, there is historically no problem in negating it within the same sentence afterward. In order for this to work for both, a 期間 (time period) phrase such as #年 is attached after ~てから or ~て以来. So, you get ~てから#年というもの or ~て以来#年というもの. In fact, this pattern is often used without ~てから or ~て以来 for the same effect.
8. セスさんは、愛犬を亡くして{から・以来}3年というもの、人が変わったようになっていたが、最近、少し元気を取り戻しつつあるようだ。
Seth seemed as if his personality shifted drastically since his dear dog died three years ago, but he has recently seemed to be recovering his vitality.
9. 今年は、とりわけ干ばつが長引き、この一月というもの、火事などが
大
暴
れをして、各地に大きな
被害
をもたらしている。
As for this year, drought has especially prolonged, and in this month, wild fires and such have raged on and continued to bring great damage everywhere.
Restrictions a Thing of the Past
It appears, though, that the restrictions on these phrases are disappearing due to disuse, and some can't really tell that they are different than ~てから. But, there should be some people who think gloom is coming if they heard the following with ~てからというもの. As said at the beginning, it is now more so emphatic with one’s emotional appeal in presenting a change since as being severe or serious in now either a good or bad way.
10. 先月、
競馬
で
大穴
を当ててからというもの、何であれ、勝ちに勝ちまくっているそうだ。
Ever since winning big last month in the horse races, I hear that he’s raking in the wins no matter what the game is.
11. 大学生になってからというもの、毎日が楽しい。
Ever since becoming a college student, everyday is fun.
12. タバコをやめてからというもの、体が元気になった。
Ever since quitting smoking, my body has felt great.
13. タバコをやめてからというもの、体の調子がいい。
Ever since quitting smoking, my physical condition has been good.
場合 means "circumstance" and the grammar behind it and its usage are very important.
場合 is often in ~場合(は) to mean "in the case/event of...". It is a nominal phrase, so it is not limited to this grammatical construction. It is very similar to the particle ~たら in that it presents a hypothetical. As it is used to pinpoint a circumstance, it often replaces the particle in doing so. Though you see it after ~た, it is a hypothetical situation of what could happen. So, it is inappropriate if the situation that you are raising is actually of the past.
1. 火事の場合、段階を使いなさい。
In the case of fire, use staircases.
2. 英語の場合はちゃんとイエスやノーを言いますが、日本語の場合は違います。
In the case of English, you precisely say yes or no, but in the case of Japanese, it’s different.
3. 何か問題があった場合、
誰
に
連絡
すればいいですか。
In case of any problems, who would be good to contact?
It is very easy to use this phrase when stating a particular situation after stating the norm. After all, you are pinpointing a hypothetical that is important.
4a. 日曜や祝日は手数料は要らないが、平日の場合は手数料がかかる。
4b. 日曜や祝日は手数料は要らない。ただし、平日の場合は手数料がかかる。
There is no need for handling fees on Sundays and holidays, but on week days there is a charge.
Grammar Note: The two paraphrases are important in showing different situations where 場合 may be used, with the second option clearly being used in showing it in a two sentence statement.
Particle Note: The difference between ~場合, ~場合は, and ~場合に is essentially the same as with ~とき. The second option, of course, is used particularly when emphatically raising something or creating a contrast with another situation. The third option is used easily when the following clause involves an action/change.
5.
A: このゴムはどう使うんですか。
B: 椅子がガタガタする場合に、ここに嵌めてください。
A: ああ、なるほど。
B: 通常の場合は、椅子の後ろのポケットに入れておいてください。
A: How do you use this rubber?
B: Fit it in here in the event that the chair rattles.
A: Ah, I see.
B: In regular cases, place it the pocket behind the chair.
From 中級日本語文法と教え方のポイント by 市川保子.
6. 火事の場合は、エレベーターを使わないでください。
In the event of a fire, please do not use the elevators.
7. 地震が起こった場合、階段を使ってください。
In the case of an earthquake, use the stairs.
8. エレベーターに閉じ込められた場合、長期戦を
覚悟
して体力を
消耗
しないようにしてください。
In the case you are trapped in an elevator, try not to waste your energy and prepare yourself for long fight.
9. 地震が起こった場合、
慌
てて階段を降りたり
昇
ったりするのは危険なのでその場にしゃがんで待機しましょう。
In the event of an earthquake, because it is dangerous to hastily go up and down the stairs, let’s crouch in that place and be on standby.
10.
最悪
の
場合
を覚悟する。
To prepare for the worst.
11. それは極端な場合だよ。
That's an extreme case.
12. 場合によりけりだ。
It depends on the case.
13. 雨天の場合には、お電話ください。
Call me in the case that it rains.
14. 緊急の場合は警察を呼びなさい。
In the case of an emergency, call the police.
~ている場合 is used to criticize someone that is not dealing with a tense situation appropriately.
15. 笑ってる場合か?
Is this really the time to be laughing?
Also, ~場合{が・も}ある, is similar to ことがある because it shows that something happens given a certain situation but doesn't always happen.
16. たまに遅刻する場合がある。
There are times when I'm late.
The 一段 verb 備える has several related meanings: "to provide","to furnish", "to have (attributes)". In ~に備えて, it is equivalent to either "in case of", "for", etc. and is similar to phrases like ~ために and ~しないように.
17. 大洪水に備えて
擁壁
を造る。
To build a retaining wall to prevent a big flood.
18. いつ起こるか分からない災害に備えておきましょう。
Let's prepare for the disasters we can't see predict.
19. 事故に備えて車ではいつもシートベルトを締めていてください。
Always keep your seat belt on in a car in case of an accident.
20. 私はオリンピックに備えて練習しています。
I am training for the Olympics.
21. 台風に備えるのは重要だ。
Preparing for typhoons is important.
This lesson will discuss slightly more advanced phrases that equate to "whenever".
~度(毎)に means "whenever". 度 is the native word/counter for the number of times, making it common in set phrases such as 度を重ねる (to continue repeat itself). Grammatically speaking, it is after either nouns or the non-past form of a verb. What it follows is either a definite integer of place, time, action, or activity. This X is the trigger for Y, which without doubt will occur. Thus, whenever you say “whenever” with ~度に, you are saying that Y will 100% happen.
Now, the ごと is important to keep in mind. In the past, it was not uncommon to see ~ごとに after verbs. Now, it causes the sentence to become unnatural. So, as an effect, ~度毎に is also typically only found with nouns.
Examples
1.
幾度
も
失敗
を
繰
り返すのはつらいですね。
Repeating a failure countless times is painful, isn't it?
2.
何事
も
度
を
重
ねれば
必
ずや
上達
する。
If you repeat anything all the time, you will certainly improve.
3.
機会
がある度に
Whenever you get a chance
4.
俺
はやる度に失敗しちまうんだよ。(Casual; masculine)
Whenever I do it, I end up failing (which is why I won't do it)
Grammar Notes:
1. This makes it very similar to ~につけ, which will be discussed in this lesson. However, if you interchange it for ~度に, you speak objectively and the emotional feel is lost entirely.
2. There is some similarity between ~ごとに and ~たびに. ~ごとに shows that when there is a chance, a habitual action is simply repeated. ~たびに, despite also showing same habitual action, when one encounters a particular opportunity, it gives a sense that it is not incidental. Thus, even if the action is special but the timing is not, you can't use ~たびに.
The most appropriate translation of 都度 is "whenever". Like 度, it must be used with の when with another nominal phrase, and it may also be accompanied by に. What is neat about 都度 is that it is often seen in the pattern その都度.
都度 is less emphatic and less likely to be in more personal situations. It is very similar "each time it happens".
Examples
5.
取引
のつど
残高欄
に残高
金額
が示されるようにしたものです。
Whenever it is exchanged, the balance amount is made shown in the bank balance column.
6. 彼氏に会うその
都度
、彼女はとても
嬉
しくなるようです。
It seems that she becomes very happy whenever she meets her boyfriend.
7. 夫の両親が来る時はその都度
喧嘩
が始まる。
Whenever my husband's parents come, an argument gets started (with them).
Following nouns or the 連体形 of verbs or adjectives, ~につけ means "each time when/both...and...". It is mainly used in the written language, but it is also used in formal speaking situations. What comes before it/what it follows is a constant that causes a change. In other words, if there is a situation X, then no matter what, along with X, Y reflexively occurs, and at the same time, a psychological change is brought about.
In the case that Y describes a past event, X is the trigger in remembering Y, and a sense of emotion suitable to that memory is expressed. This pattern is often after verbs such as 見る, 聞く, and 思う. The pattern is then often followed by phrase that captures the emotion the speaker wishes to portray.
~につけて is naturally more suitable for the spoken language, but when used in examples like the first one and others such as 雨につけ風につけ, ~につけて is impossible. This is due to the antithetical element.
There is also ~につけても. This adds the particle も, which in this situation adds the function of analogy. So, aside from A, it is used to show various changes of B happening.
Examples
8. 喜びにつけ悲しみにつけ
Both in joy and in sorrow
9. あいつを見るにつけ、兄を思い出させる。
Each time I see him, he reminds me of my older brother.
10. 試験をもう一度失敗するにつけ、
憂鬱
が
蘇
る。
Each time when I fail the exam once more, my depression comes back.
11. 何事につけても、喜んでお手伝いします。
Whatever you do, we're ready to gladly help you.
12. 年のせいなんだろう、暑いにつけ、寒いにつけ、よく風邪を引くようになった。
I wonder if it's because of my age; both when hot and when cold, I have become more prone to having colds.
13. この写真を見るにつけ、いつも思い出すのは、あの決して美しくはなかった青春時代のことである。(Written)
Each time I see this photo, I always remember my completely ugly youth.
Essentially all material in this lesson should be review. What this lesson will try to do is showcase the various usages of the supplementary verb する, which by now you should be accustomed to seeing and using.
Bound particles are often placed after a base and followed by the supplementary verb する. For example, the particles は, も, and や may follow the 連用形 and are then followed by する to greatly emphasize the verb.
1. 彼女は褒めこそすれ、非難したことはない。
She does speaks highly (of others), but she never criticizes.
2. 聞きもしないで批評すんな。
Don't criticize without listening.
3. 彼女は日本語が話せはするが、うまくはないね。
She can speak Japanese, but she's not good.
4. 責めやしないのはいつまでも最良の決定です。
Not blaming (others) is the best decision no matter what.
5. 彼は顔の前で両手を広げ、それからぱたんとあわせる。「世の中にはいっぱい納屋があって、それらがみんな僕に焼かれるのを待っているような気がするんです。海辺にぽつんと建った納屋やら、たんぼのまん中に建った納屋やら・・・・・・とにかく、いろんな納屋です。十五分もあれば
綺麗
に燃えつきちゃうんです。まるでそもそもの最初からそんなもの存在もしなかったみたいにね。誰も悲しみゃしません。ただ―消えちゃうんです。
ぷつん
ってね」
He spread out his hands in front of his face, clapped them together with a bang and then said, ”There are a lot of barns in this world, and I feel like waiting for them all to burn. Whether it is the barn standing up all alone on the seashore, the barn built in the middle of a field, just a wide variety of barns. Given fifteen minutes, one can burn down completely quite nicely. It's as if from the very beginning like those barns had no existence. No one is saddened by this. They just disappear, with a snap".
From 納屋を焼く by 村上春樹.
Grammar Note: Notice how は may contract in the construction ”連用形+はする”.
する is a very important verb in humble speech. It is seen after the stems of verbs to show first person action.
6. ご案内します。
I will guide you.
7. ご奉納します。
I will offer (this).
8. お待ちします。
I will wait.
たり attaches to the 連用形 to primarily show back and forth action and must always be used with する. In the same fashion, など may also list actions by following the 連体形 of a verb.
9. 休日に雑誌を読むなどして過ごすのは本当につまらない。
To spend the holidays doing stuff like reading magazines is really boring.
10. 彼は泣いたり笑ったりばかりしている男だ。
He's only a guy that cries and laughs.
11. 遊んだり働いたりしているというのが若さの意味だ。
The meaning of youth is to play and work.
12. 彼女は掃除をするなどして暮らしていた。
She lived on doing things such as cleaning.
With the auxiliary verbs ~う, ~よう, and ~まい + と it shows volition in trying to (not) do something. Of course, the first two auxiliaries are positive and the last is negative.
13. 嘘をつこうとしたが、つけなかった。
I tried to lie, but I couldn't.
14. 負けるまいとする。
To try not to lose.
15. 彼は歌おうとしたが、うまくなかった。
He tried to sing, but it wasn't good.
This usage is translated as "to try...". This is to try to do something for the long run, unlike above. Furthermore, the よう in this pattern is from 様: it's not the volitional ending. The volitional ending ~よう came from a sound change when the original volitional contracted from む → ん and then → う. With some verb classes, this resulted in the birth of ~よう, most certainly because of pronunciation ease.
16. できるだけ野菜を食べるようにする。
I'll try to eat vegetables as much as possible.
17. もう二度と会わないようにした。
I tried to not see him a second time.
18. 遅れないようにしてください。
Please try not be late.
Variant Note: ~ようとする is a more formal variant.
In this speech pattern the speaker shows what he or she decided with his or her own will. Remember that this pattern can also be seen as ~こととする, which is deemed to be more punctual and formal.
19. 私は酒を飲むのをやめることとしました。
I have decided to quit drinking liquor.
20. 東京に引っ越すことにした。
I have decided to move to Tokyo.
21. たばこをやめることにしましたよ。
I've decided to quit smoking!
Being equivalent to ~ともあろうものが, it shows dismay and regret for someone's abnormal misbehavior.
22. 彼女としたことが、大変なことを言ってしまった。
Of all people, she accidentally said something that bad!
~と[すると・したら・すれば] means "if there were". The slightly different nuances of the conditional patterns still apply.
23. 十時に出たとすればもう着いているだろう?
If we had left at 10 o' clock, wouldn't we already have arrived?
24.
四次元
の
世界
があるとすれば、どのようなものだと思いますか。
What do you think of what kind of a world it would be if we assumed that there was a 4 dimensional world?
25. 仮に戦争が起ったとしたら、何千、何百万の人々の命が失われるだろう。
Supposed that war broke out, tens, hundreds of millions of lives would be lost.
26. 温泉に行くとしたら、どこがいいのでしょうか。
If we were to go to a hot spring, where would be good?
27. 雨だとすると、中止だろう。
If there's rain, it'll probably be postponed.
28. 大地震が起こるとすると、どうすればいいのか。
If there were to be a big earthquake, what would we do?
29. 大学とすれば、
抗議
しないといけない。
Assuming it's the university, we must protest.
~に対して is something that gets abused and confused with a lot of things. One of the biggest errors with it is using it in the first place. On top of that, it is frequently confused with other phrases as ~にとって and ~について, and students often don’t know when to add は to make ~に対しては. This lesson will hopefully enable you to avoid such errors.
"Noun + ~に対して" gives a meaning of targeting something and facing/confronting it.
1. この頃の親は子供に(対して)甘すぎる。
Parents these days are being too sweet towards their kids.
2. 政府に(対して)不満を{言う・持つ}な。
Don't complain about the government.
3a. 大統領は記者団の質問に対して事実関係を否定した。〇
3b. 大統領は記者団の質問に事実関係を否定した。X
The president denied all facts of the case to the press group’s questions.
At the end of the sentence there is a verb or adjective that shows some sort of urging/pressure. It wouldn’t change the meaning to get rid of ~に対して in the sentences above, but it’s used to clearly state the object and direction of action. However, in sentences like the third one, it has to be used because it’s used in a sense of "against".
4. 今の意見に質問がありますか。今の意見に対してご質問、ご意見があったらお願いします。
Do you have questions to the opinion now? If you have any questions or ideas concerning this opinion, please feel free.
5.
寄生虫
に対して、どうしたらいいでしょうか。
What should we do against parasites?
~に対しては
This is still used in the spoken language, but it does have somewhat of a formal tone. ~に対しては strengthens the speaker’s judgment/feeling by emphasizing/contrasting.
6. 報道官は記者団に対してはまだ何も答えていません。
The Press Secretary is still not answering anything to the press corps.
7. 日本人は知らない人に対しては消極的だが、親しい人に対しては積極的な態度を見せることが多い。
Japanese people often show negative attitudes towards people they don’t know and positive attitudes to people that they are close with.
8. 危険を与えるようなものに対しては、人間側が配慮すべきであろう。
The human side should consider things that cause hazard.
文体
~に対しまして (very polite) and ~に対し (very stiff/formal/literary) are also possible.
9. 今回の
不祥事
に対して、お
詫
び申し上げます。
I deeply apologize for this scandal.
10. ご家族の皆様に対し、心よりお
悔
やみ申し上げます。
To all of those in the families, please accept my heartfelt condolences.
読み物: 殺害の事件
3日夜
神奈川県
葉山町
の住宅で9歳と生後9ヶ月の姉妹が
刃物
で
刺
されて殺害された事件で
殺人未遂
の疑いで
逮捕
された母親が、警察の調べに対し「
果物
ナイフで刺した」と供述しているということで、警察は動機や
経緯
について調べを進めることにしています。
The mother arrested on the night of the third under the charge of attempted manslaughter of her daughters aged 9 and 9 months old by stabbing them at home in Hayama Town, Kanagawa Prefecture says in her affidavit in the police investigation that she "stabbed (them) with a fruit knife", and the police are to investigate the motive and cause.
From NHK on October, 3, 2012.
1. How is に対して being used in this sentence?
2. Why would using に alone instead be wrong?
~に対して、というより
"に対して、というより" is a very common combination. In this case, you would not see ~に、というより. This would beat the point of making something stand out.
11. このことは日本人に対して、というよりすべての国の人に知っておいてほしいことです。
Rather than to Japanese, but I want this to be known to people of all countries.
連体形
There are two attributive forms of this pattern that are generally interchangeable, ~に対する and ~に対しての.
12. 結婚{に対しての・に対する}
両家
の
価値観
の違いに不安を感じます。
I feel anxiety over the differences of the two families values towards marriage.
13.
汚染
問題に対する解決策は
余分
の法律を可決するというわけではありませんよ。
The resolution to our pollution problem is not to pass further legislation.
数量+~に対して: 割合
With number/counter phrases, ~に対して shows a ratio.
14.
白菜
1キロに対して塩50グラム入れてください。
For every kilogram of nappa, add 50 grams of salt.
15. 彼には一人の敵に対して百人もの
味方
がいた。
For one enemy he had a hundred friends.
~に対して VS ~について・に関して
Now, when is this phrase similar to ~について and ~に関して? They all have a commonality of targeting something to show concern. However, the kinds of relation they represent are never the same. ~に対して shows something in regards of confronting whereas ~について・に関して state something regarding to the thing itself.
16a. その問題に対して説明してください。X
16b. その問題について説明してください。〇
Please explain that problem.
17. スピード
違反
に対する3万円の
反則金
なんて辛いんだよな。
A penalty of 30,000 yen for a traffic ticket is harsh, isn't it?
18a. その意見について反対します。X
18b. その意見に対して反対します。〇
I am against that opinion.
19a. 昨日、水不足に関して
節水制限
が
導入
されました。X
19b. 昨日、水不足に対して節水制限が導入されました。〇
Yesterday, water restrictions were introduced concerning the water shortage.
Examples
As one can never have too many examples, the following examples will hopefully give you even more data to pull on in understanding ~に対して.
20a. 勉強しない学生に対して、
除名
しましょう。X
20b. 勉強しない学生を除名しましょう。
Let’s drop students that don’t study.
21.
軍隊
は反乱軍に対して
嘗
てないほどの大規模な攻撃をした。
The army made the biggest ever large-scale attack against the rebel army.
Orthography Note: 嘗て is normally just written as かつて.
22. 高田がぐうたらであるのに対して、益田は
勤勉
だ。
In comparison to Takada being lazy, Masuda is a hard worker.
23. 2010年に円はドルに対してずっと
手堅
い動きをしていた。
The yen stayed firm against the dollar in 2010.
24. 我が国は、アジア
諸国
の人々に(対して)多大の
損害
と
苦痛
を与えました。
Our country brought great damage and pain to all of the peoples of Asia.
Based off of the 村山談話.
25. むしこなーずは何の虫に対して
効果
がありますか。
What bugs does “big corners” have an effect on?
Word Note: むしこなーず is a kind of bug killer/repellent.
26. 私たちに(対して)
遠慮
しないでください。
Please speak outright to us.
27. この品は値段に対して品質が悪い。
As for these goods, the quality is bad for the price.
28. 日本では
平均
して職員一人に対して百万円の
経費
がかかります。
In Japan, on average, for a single worker, the outlay costs 1 million yen.
29. 和平に対する北朝鮮の
疑惑
は日本の防衛を
脅
かしています。
Suspicions of North Korea for peace threatens Japanese security.
30. キックに対してもパンチに対しても使うのですか?
Do you even use it in regards to a kick or even a punch?
31. 取扱説明書は、コンピュータに対する静電気の
危険性
を、間接的に警告します。
Guidebooks indirectly warn of the danger to computers by static electricity.
32. 友だちの経済学に対する関心はもっぱら学問上のもののようですが。
It seems that my friends’ interest in economics is largely academic.
Particle Note: が shows that the sentence is cut off, perhaps leading into something else.
33. トヨタのものづくりに対する
情熱
と、日本のものづくりに対するこだわりは
創業
以来、決して変わらない。
The passion towards Toyota manufacturing and dwelling on Japanese manufacturing, since our founding, will never change.
By 豊田章男 in April 2013.
Previously, we learned about how the particle を can be used with intransitive verbs to mean “through.” In this lesson, we will look at verbs that don’t change form depending on whether they’re used as a transitive or an intransitive verb. These verbs in Japanese are called 自他同形動詞.
One mistake that many students as well as educators make all the time is downplay the number and importance of these kinds of verbs. Japanese only has about 300 important intransitive-transitive verb pairs, and a lot of these pairs are not straightforward, and that means all other verbs can either be one or the other…or both.
Each one of these verbs that can be both deserves special attention. That means we’ll be returning to this topic several times until we’ve truly gone through the mysterious quirks of Japanese transitivity.
閉じる
閉じる means “to close” and can be used with various things such books, the eyes, flip phones, legs, or anything that can be conceptualized as stuck/sealed and/or put back to how it was.
1.
傘
を
閉
じてください。
Please close your umbrella.
2.
調理後
も
殻
が
閉
じたままの
貝
は
必
ず
捨
ててください。
Please always throw away shellfish whose shells remain closed even after being prepared.
3.
赤
ちゃんは、
妊娠
8
ヶ
月
に
入
ると、
起床時
には
目
が
開
いて、
寝
ているときには
目
が
閉
じるようになります。
A baby’s eyes, once one has entered month eight of pregnancy, opens when it wakes up and stays closed when sleeping.
4.
目
を
閉
じてください。
Please close your eyes.
Its transitive usage is similar to the words 閉める and 閉ざす. 閉める means “to shut/close” and can be used with various things like doors, lids, shutters, businesses, gates, etc. When spelled as 締める, it has various other usages such as “to fasten,” “to wear (necktie, belt, etc.), to sum up, etc. Lastly, 閉ざす is used in metaphoric expressions by personifying some emotionally packed word like 心 or 気持ち.
5. ドアを
閉
めてください。
Please shut the door.
6.
店
を
閉
めるときに
売
れ
残
った
商品
はどうするんですか。
When closing down a store, what do you do with unsold merchandise?
7.
糸
を
締
めてください。
Please fasten the strings.
8.
刺
し
身
を
酢
でしめてください。
Please marinate the sashimi with vinegar.
9.
共和党
は
衆議院
の
過半数
を
占
めています。
The Republican Party holds the majority in the House of Representatives.
10. {
自
ら・
自分
}の
首
を
絞
める。
To strangle one’s own neck.
11.
彼
は
家族
に
心
を
閉
ざしてしまっていた。
He has had his heart shut off to his family.
伴う
伴う can be used with either the particles が, に, or を. With the particle が, 伴う means “to accompany” in the sense “mountain climbing accompanied by danger.” With the particle に, 伴う means “to accompany” in the sense “to be accompanied with.” With the particle を, 伴う means “to accompany” in the sense “to be accompanied by/to bring with…”
12.
最後
の
過程
には、
相当
の
文化的喪失
が
伴
うだろう。
In the final course, a considerable cultural loss will go hand in hand.
13. この
業種
は
危険
を
伴
う
仕事
です。
This type of industry is the kind of job that brings danger with it.
14. リスクを
伴
う
金融市場
に
従事
する。
To engage oneself in the finance market which is accompanied with risk.
15.
家族
を
伴
って
行
くのもお
薦
めです。
Going and bringing your family along is also recommended.
16.
不況
に
伴
って、
会社
の
業績
が
悪化
した。
The company’s performance worsened accordingly with the recession.
17.
地形
や
季節
の
変化
に
伴
って
気候
がどのように
変化
するのかがわかります。
We understand how the climate changes per topography and seasons.
張る
The verb 張る has several meanings such as “to stretch/strain/etc.” among many other things. For the most part, its usages can easily be rephrased from being intransitive to transitive and vice versa.
18.
自分
たちでテントを
張
りました。
We pitched tents by ourselves.
19.
根
が
張
っていてなかなか
抜
き
切
れない。
The roots have spread and I can't seem to completely remove them.
20. フロントガラスに
氷
が
張
っている。
Ice is forming on the windshield.
21. お
風呂
に
水
を
張
っておきましょう。
Let’s fill the bath with water ahead of time.
22.
気
が
張
っていると
風邪
を
引
かないよ。
You won’t catch a cold when you’re tensed.
23. そんなに
気
を
張
って
疲
れませんか。
Don’t you get exhausted straining your nerves like that?
24.
声
を
張
ってください。
Raise your voice.
When used to mean “to stick/post,” is spelled as 貼る.
25.
封筒
に
切手
を
貼
ってください。
Put a stamp on the envelope.
開く
The verb 開く is both intransitive and transitive, but the subject of the sentence acts differently depending on how it’s used. First, let’s consider the following examples in English.
i. The rose buds are blooming.
ii. The rose bloomed.
iii. The school door opened on its own.
iv. He opened the door for me.
In Japanese, 開く would appear in all four of these sentences. Its usages differ in the emotional state of the subject. If the usage utilizes a subject that has no willful control of itself, then changing the sentence from an intransitive one to a transitive one doesn’t change this fact.
26. ハスの
蕾
が
開
くときはバラのように
綺麗
ですね。
The lotus blooming is beautiful like roses, huh.
Spelling Note: ハス may also be spelled as 蓮. バラ may also be spelled as 薔薇.
27.
青
いバラが
蕾
を
開
いた。
The blue roses bloomed.
As you can see, 開く can mean “to bloom,” and when its buds bloom, you can describe this as a transitive sentence, with the plant having its buds flower. This, though, is an involuntary action as the act of blooming happens naturally.
However, when the subject switches from one that has no volition over itself to one that does, the subject’s willfulness becomes prominent using を.
28. ドアが
開
いた。
The door opened.
29.
窓
を
開
きました。
I opened the window.
The next question that is presented here is the existence of two readings for 開く. It may either be read as あく or ひらく. The former is essentially only used as an intransitive verb in the sense of a gap/vacancy/etc. opening. When used to describe emptiness/vacancy, it is spelled as 空く.
30.
穴
が{
開
いて・
空
いて}しまった。
A hole opened.
31.
店員
が、
空
いたカップを
片付
けに
来
た。
A clerk came to tidy up the empty cups.
32. いつなら
空
いている?
When are you free?
33.
昌子
は
今
、
口
を
開
いて
寝
ています。
Shōko wa ima, kuchi wo [hiraite/aite ??] nete imasu.
Shoko is now sleeping with her mouth open.
However, some speakers do use it like in Ex. 33 to indicate involuntary opening that is carried out by a clear agent. Although Shoko may be asleep, she is still the one opening her mouth when she is asleep. As sound as this reasoning may be, most speakers would still either use 開ける or ひらく.
As for the difference between 開ける and ひらく, the former is only used to indicate the opening of a partition or exposing a space of some sort. That’s why it may also be used to mean “to empty” when spelled as 空ける.
34.
窓
を
開
けました。
I opened the window.
35.
中身
を
空
けてください。
Please empty out its contents.
36.
店
を
開
けてください。
Please open the store.
This means that business at a store has begun. The actual "opening” of the store would usually be described as 店をひらく. ひらく tends to be politer and more formal than 開ける whenever both can be used. ひらく, though, indicates two or more surfaces that are pulled apart. Think of eyelids, books, two-part doors and windows. If any such item doesn't lead to the opening of some physical space or content, then 開ける can't be used.
37a.
本
を
開
けてください。X
37b.
本
を
開
いてください。○
Please open the book.
38.
瞼
を
開
けてください。
Please open your eye(lids).
Spelling Note: 瞼 may be alternatively spelled as 目蓋.
39.
目
を
開
いてください。
Please open your eye.
Nuance Note: In this last example, ひらく has a deeper meaning beyond the literal physical act of opening one’s eyes.
Below are more examples of ひらく to showcase more of its scope of use.
40.
口座
を
開
いてみませんか。
Why not try to open a bank account?
41.
抜糸後
、
傷口
が
開
いてしまいました。
The wound opened after having my stitches removed.
42.
教科書
を
開
いてください。
Please open your textbook.
43.
定期的
に
展示会
を
開
いています。
We’re routinely holding exhibitions.
44.
魚
を
開
いて、
骨
を
取
り
除
きましょう。
(Let’s) cut open the fish and remove the bones.
45.
平清盛
は
宋
との
国交
を
開
いて
貿易
を
振興
した。
Taira no Kiyomori opened up diplomatic relations with the Song Dynasty and promoted trade.
46.
源頼朝
が
鎌倉
に
幕府
を
開
いた
理由
は
何
ですか。
What is the reason for why Minamoto no Yoritomo opened the Bakufu Shogunate in Kamakura?
47.
設定画面
を
開
いてください。
Please open the settings screen.
48.
山林
を{
拓
いて・
開拓
して}
農地
にしました。
I opened up the forest and mountain and turned it into farmland.
Spelling Note: In the sense of “to open up (land),” ひらく may also be spelled as 拓く.
限る
The verb 限る can be both a transitive meaning "to restrict/limit" and "to be restricted." Its intransitive usage is discussed at length in Lesson 226. The transitive sense is frequently used in the passive form. The intransitive form, as you will see, has no active agent. Like most other intransitive verbs, it lacks volition. This is how you can differentiate it from its transitive form, which is the opposite of this.
・Transitive Examples
49.
駐車
は
1
時間
に
限
られています。
Parking is limited to one hour.
50.
被害者
を
女性
に
限
っている
現在
の
規定
を
見直
し、
性別
にかかわらず
被害者
になりうる。
(The government) is to re-examine the current stipulation restricting victims to women so that people may be (deemed) victims regardless of sex.
51.
対象者
を
成人
に
限
っています。
We are limiting the target group to adults.
・Intransitive Examples
52. うちの
子供
に
限
ってそんなはずがない。
That could never happen to one's own child.
53.
急
いでいる
時
に
限
って
信号
に
次々
(と)
止
められたことはありますか。
Have you ever been stopped by lights one after another particularly when you were in a hurry?
言う
You know how the verb 言う as a transitive verb is used to mean "to say." You also know how it's used as a supplementary verb in grammar patterns such as という. As an intransitive verb, it is used to mean "to make a sound." In this sense, it is used with various onomatopoeic expressions.
Pronunciation Note: Remember that this verb is technically pronounced as "yū."
54.
犬
はワンワンと
言
って
何
か
喋
っているのですか。
When dogs bark, are they saying something?
55. ベッドに
座
るとミシミシ(と)
言
う
音
は
隣
に
聞
こえるんですか。
When you sit in your bed, can the creaking be heard next door?
56. プロポーズって
何
を
言
えばいいの?
What should you say in a (marriage) proposal?
In this second lesson on verbs with both intransitive and transitive usages, we’ll continue to uncover peculiarities in Japanese at the individual word basis.
巻く
巻く can be used to “to wind/coil/etc.” as an intransitive or a transitive verb. Its intransitive usage is not that common, and it is usually rephrased out of the sentence, often with 巻き付く.
1.
思
いがけないほど
渦
(が)
巻
いている。
The whirlpool is swirling beyond expectation.
It is whirling beyond expectation. (Without が).
2.
上空
の
雲
が
渦
(を)
巻
いている。
The clouds in the sky above are swirling in a whirlpool.
3.
薬
を
塗
って
包帯
を
巻
いてください。
Please apply the medicine and wind a bandage (around the wound).
4. くるりと
巻
いた
針
のような
長
い
口
が
特徴
です。
It’s long and completely wrapped up mouth, which is akin to a needle, is its trait.
5.
蛇
がとぐろを
巻
いている。
The snake has coiled itself up.
Spelling Note: とぐろ may also be spelled as 蜷局.
6.
細
いツルが
巻
(き
付
)いている。
The slender vines are twined around.
Spelling Note: ツル may also be spelled as 蔓.
7.
城
が
白
い
煙
に{
包
まれている・
囲
まれている・
巻
かれている}。
The castle is enveloped by white smoke.
蒔く, 播く, & 撒く
There are three more まく that need to be addressed. All three are solely transitive verbs.
蒔く: Used to mean “to plant/sow/seed.”
播く: Interchangeable with 蒔く.
撒く: Used to mean “to scatter.” It may also be used in a figurative sense such as in “to spread (rumors).”
8.
野菜
の
種
を{
蒔
・
播
いた}のに、
芽
が
出
ません。
Even though I’ve sowed the vegetable seeds, they haven’t sprouted.
9. ベランダや
玄関先
だけに
豆
を
撒
いたとしても、きちんと
回収
することは
必要
です。
Even if you’ve only scattered beans on your veranda and at your front door, it is necessary that you properly retrieve them.
Cultural Note: This is a reference to cleanup efforts after having scattered beans as part of commemorating 節分 (the last day of winter in the traditional Japanese calendar).
10.
悪
い
噂
を
撒
き
散
らしている
人
も、あまり
信用
されていないんでしょう。
The people spreading awful rumors are also likely not all that trusted either.
11. うちの
猫
はほぼ
毎日
、
遊
びでトイレ(の)
砂
を
撒
き
散
らしてしまいます。
My cat scatters the sand in its litter box out of play almost every day.
運ぶ
As an intransitive verb, 運ぶ means “to proceed/to go (well),” but it is far more commonly used as a transitive verb to mean “to carry/transport.”
12.
植物
の
多
くは、
種
を
作
るために
花粉
を
風
で
運
ばなければなりません。
A lot of plants must carry their pollen via the wind to create their seeds.
13.
物事
がうまく{いっている・
運
んでいる}ときにも
油断
(を)してはいけない。
You also mustn’t be careless when things are going well.
14.
成果
が
出
ているからといって、
人生
がうまく{いっている・
運
んでいる}とは
限
らない。
Just because one is making results, it isn’t necessarily the case that life is going well.
15.
全
てがうまく{いっている・
運
んでいる}わけではありませんが、
大
きな
失敗
もしていません。
It’s not the case that everything is going well, but I’m also not making any great failures.
As the following example sentence demonstrates, 運ぶ can also be used to mean “to carry out.” However, the verb 進める is far more common in this regard.
16.
対等
に
交渉
を{
進
める・
運
ぶ}ことは
困難
です。
Carrying out negotiations equally is difficult.
17.
本日
の
作業
をもちまして
一旦中断
の
運
びとさせていただきます。
We will temporarily suspend progress as of today’s work.
Grammar Note: As a noun, 運び far more frequently is used to mean “progress” than its verbal form 運ぶ.
Fuku 吹く
The verb 吹く can be used as both an intransitive and a transitive verb, but as a transitive verb, it is rather restricted. For one, the subject never acts out of its own volition. This is just like what was the case with ひらく and the meaning “to bloom.”
18.
部屋
の
隅
から
微風
が
吹
いてきた。
A breeze blew in from the corner of the room.
Reading Note: In literature, 微風 may seldom be read as びふう.
19.
夜
に
口笛
を
吹
いてはいけない。
You mustn’t whistle at night.
20. カモメは、
海
から
吹
く
上昇気流
に
乗
って
飛
びます。
Seagulls fly by riding the updrafts that blow from the sea.
Spelling Note: カモメ may also be spelled as 鴎・鷗. The former variant is an unofficial abbreviation that has become widely used.
When used to mean “to bud,” 吹くcan never be used in the passive. This is largely due to the absence of volition plants have in budding. It's also important to note that the verb 芽吹く, which has 吹く in it, typically replaces 吹く for this nuance.
21a.
木々
が
芽
を
吹
き
始
めた。
21b.
木々
が
芽吹
き
始
めた。
21c. 芽が
木々
によって
吹
かれた。X
The trees have begun to bud.
22.
突然
、
鍋
が
噴
き
零
れて、
熱湯
が
足
に
掛
かって
火傷
をしてしまいました。
Suddenly, the stew boiled over and my leg got burned by boiling water.
Word Note: Just as in English, a pot for stew can be used to refer to the stew itself.
There are two other verbs that are also ふく. Both are purely transitive and do not have the same grammatical constraints as 吹く・噴く above.
23.
手
を
濡
らしたハンカチで
拭
く。
To wipe one’s hand(s) with a wettened handkerchief.
24. 犬が顔を拭かれて怒ってしまった。
The dog got angry from having its face wiped.
25.
瓦
で
屋根
を
葺
きました。
I thatched the roof with tile.
26.
草
で
葺
かれた
部分
が
吹
き
飛
ばされた。
The parts thatched with grass were blown off.
催す
When you open up a dictionary, the first meaning of 催す that you will find is “to hold (a ceremony).” However, instances like 宴を催す (to hold a banquet) are rare and literary. Although the verb itself is usually only used in the written language, its most important meaning is “to feel (a physical sensation).” In that sense, it can be used as either an intransitive or a transitive verb, and although が and を appear seemingly interchangeable, the use of が is disappearing.
27.
少
し
眠気
{が・を}
催
してから、
安定剤
を
飲
む。
To take a stabilizer after showing signs of some drowsiness.
28. ビールで
尿意
{が・を}
催
すのはアルコールに
利尿作用
があるためです。
Having the urge to urinate from bear is due to the diuretic effect of alcohol.
29.
意識
が
朦朧
とし、
吐
き
気
{が・を}
催
す。
To feel nauseated while in a hazy state.
30.
浣腸
(を)して
便意
{が・を}
催
す。
To feel a bowel movement from taking an enema.
結ぶ
結ぶ is usually used as a transitive verb meaning “to tie/link.” As an intransitive verb, it can be used to mean “to bear (fruit)” or for dew to coagulate, but other verbs typically replace it.
31.
草
の
葉
に
露
が{
付
いている・
付着
している・
結
んでいる}。
Dew has attached/condensed onto the grass leaves.
32.
努力
が{
実
を
結
ぶ・
実
る}と
信
じている。
I believe our efforts will bear fruit.
33.
努力
の
実
が
結
ぶことを
願
っています。
I wish that the fruits of our efforts will manifest.
34. マカオと
香港
(と)を
結
ぶ
橋
の
工事
が
進
んでいる。
Construction on a bridge connecting Macao and Hong Kong is making progress.
Spelling Note: Traditionally, マカオ is spelled as 澳門.
35.
条約
を{
結
ぶ・
締結
する}ことに
成功
する。
To succeed in entering a treaty.
頼る
The verb 頼る has three different nuances depending on how it is used.
・In "(X を) Yに頼る," it shows dependency meaning “to rely on Y (for X).”
・In “Yを頼る,” it shows from whom/what you get help from. Essentially, you are purposely using connections.
・In "Yを頼りにする,” it shows with whom/what one depends on out of trust.
36.
日本
が
今
、
100
パーセント
輸入
に
頼
っている
食
べ
物
ってなんですか?
What foods does Japan now 100% rely on imports for?
37.
医者
と
薬
に
頼
るのを
止
めませんか。
Why not stop relying upon doctors and medicine?
38. スマホに
頼
ると、
集中力
が
落
ちる。
If you rely on your smart phone, your concentration will drop.
39.
需要予測
に
頼
りすぎるべきではない。
You mustn't over-rely on demand forecasts.
40.
経済
を
資源
の
輸出
に
頼
る
国
が
多
くあります。
There are many countries who rely on the importing of resources for their economies.
41.
飼料
として
使
われる
穀物
の
多
くを
海外
からの
輸入
に
頼
っている。
We rely on the imports from foreign countries for a lot of the grain that is used for feed.
42.
使用量
のほとんどを
中国
に
頼
っている。
We’re relying on China for most of the amount used, has no choice but to accept.
43.
知人
を
頼
って
渡米
しました。
I relied on an acquaintance to travel to America.
44.
一度地図
を
頼
って
行
ってみました。
I tried going once by depending on a map.
45.
伝手
を
頼
ってソマリアの
海賊
たちに
会
いに
行
きました。
I used connections to go meet the Somalian pirates.
46.
皆
さんは
何
を
頼
りに
生
きていらっしゃいますか。
What does everyone rely on to live?
47.
地図
を
頼
りに
最寄
りの
駅
に
向
かいました。
I headed toward the nearest train station, relying on a map.
48. いくら
結婚
できなくても
婚活
ビジネスを
頼
るのはやめた
方
がいい。
No matter how much trouble you have in getting married, it’s better to stop relying on marriage hunting businesses.
49.
名医
を
頼
って
病院
を
選
ぶという
人
は
少
なくありません。
There are far from few individuals who chose hospitals by recoursing to noted physicians.
50.
現在親
を
頼
って
生活
しています。
Currently, I am living by relying on my parents.
This lesson is about relatively similar speech modals that concern describing standpoint or point of view. Although their English translations cause great confusion to learners, don't let this beat you.
1. The first uses of ~として that we will study are after nominal phrases. This is something really important to keep in mind because other usages of this will go after other things. So, don't get things confused in your mind.
The first thing that として is most known for is when it shows "qualification/title". In other words, it functions like the as in "to carry out one's duty as an officer". It can also be used to show what you have something as. This is somewhat causative in nature, but in this sense it is closer to utility. So, just as you can say, "to use a sharp stick as a knife", you can say 鋭い枝をナイフとして使う. Notice, though, that "as" in English can be used in many more situations than what has just been defined for として.
"(Aは)B としては" is typically just a contrastive usage of として, but it can have nuances more similar to "among" in the sense of ~の場合には. It could also emphasis a side of judgment. For instance, if you were to say 私としては, you are emphasizing your side of opinion.
Particle Note: When used to modify another noun phrase, which is possible as well in English, you must use ~としての.
1. ジョン
万次郎
は、日本人として始めて、アメリカで教育を受けた。
Jon Manjiro was the first person as a Japanese to receive an education in America.
2. 石炭を燃料として使う。
To use coal as fuel.
3. 私一己としては
For my own part/personally
4. 私としては、彼の意見に反対です。
As for me, I don't agree with his opinion.
5. 最高傑作として作る。X → 最高傑作を作る。
To create as a masterpiece.
6. 最高傑作としての条件 〇
Conditions as a best work masterpiece
7. くそあいつは教師としても無能だぞ。(Vulgar)
That guy is also incompetent as a teacher.
Usage Note: This usage is deemed to be case.
2. Shows complete negation with a word showing unit.
8. 僕は、一日として彼女のことを思わない日はない。
There's not even a single day that I don't think about her.
9. 一人として賛成しません。
Not one person can agree.
Usage Note: This usage is deemed to be adverbial.
3. After the 終止形 it means "in assuming that" or "with the reason of".
10. 話は後でするとして、まず食事にしましょう。
Let's leave talking for later and eat first.
Usage Note: This usage is deemed to be conjunctive.
Grammar Note: として is a grammaticalized object that should be studied separately from とする. Though its usages derive from it, it has become its own grammar point in its own right. Thus, it should be differentiated from a として from とする used at the end of a dependent clause, in which て would still have a conjunctive function. The として is also not the same as the として found in the 連用形 of タル形容動詞.
11. 堂堂としている。
It's magnificent. (Grand; impressive)
12. われわれはその実験の結果を基礎として、学会雑誌に発表することになりました。
We had the results of that experiment as our basis and published (the results) in a scientific journal.
In Relation to ~とする
Up to now, there have been several mentions of ~とする. How exactly does this fit with this section? Furthermore, how are you supposed to know what you're looking at? "AをBとする" is "to make/have A be B" a certain way where と shows the content/substance of a result. ~とする can mean "to presume; to think that; etc.
13. その結果を基礎としている。
To be having the results as the basis.
14. 業としている。
To be pursuing a vocation.
15. 石炭を燃料とする。
To have coal be (used as) fuel.
16. 今は配慮を必要としている。
We need forethought now.
17. 一時として目が離せないよ。
My eyes can leave a single moment.
18. 長官として発言する。
To speak as a general.
19. 初めて会う人やよく知らない人には敬語を使うのが礼儀だとされていますよ。
It is deemed proper etiquette to use Keigo towards people such as those you first meet or don't know well.
20. 人を殺すのが犯罪(だ)とされていない者はいるのか。
Is there a person that doesn't deem killing a person a crime?
~としても
~としても is after nominal phrases to mean "even the position of..." or "even if...were to...".
21. 私としても、この事柄は重要ではないとよく分かります。
As for me, too, I understand well that this matter is not important.
22. 新車を買うとしても、今度もやっぱ(り)黒いのにしよう。
Even if we were to buy a new vehicle, let's surely get the black one this time.
23. 行けるとしても、少し遅れてしまうかも。
Even if we were able to go, we would end up being a little late.
24. 生まれ変わったとしても、またそんなことをするのか。
Even if I were born again, would such a thing happen again?
~にとって, equivalent to "(の立場・たちば)からみて", means "to/for" and shows someone's perspective on something. ~にとって may be with は to make a slightly contrasting image or with の attributively. It may be ~にとりまして in polite speech and ~にとっちゃ(あ) in slang.
25. 彼にとっちゃその方がええんだよ。(砕けた)
For him, that way's better.
26. 初心者にとってはあのクラスは難しい。
That class is difficult to beginners.
27. 人間にとっての
事柄
A circumstance to humans
28. 韓国語を知っている人にとって、日本語は難しくないはずです。
For people who know Korean, Japanese isn't supposed to be difficult.
29.
核爆弾
は世界平和にとっての重大な
脅威
です。
Nuclear weapons are great threats to world peace.
Many students often overextend the usages of these two speech modals. Common mistakes include confusing these patterns with topicalization and "although phrases". As a quick exercise, consider the following sentences and what you should do to fix them.
30a. 彼女は学生として、学校へ行かず、遊んでばかりいるよ。X
30b. 外国人として大変なのは食べ物だと思います。X
30c. 僕にとってその色はあんまり好きじゃない。X
Hopefully you found something wrong with these sentences. The first order of business is to where these speech modals literally come from. ~として comes from the case particle と + the verb する; ~にとって comes from the case particle に + the verb 取る. Once put together, they mark their own unique case function. Thus, some people often call them "compound case particles".
"Noun + ~として" and "Noun + ~にとって" both show position/point of view, but in the case of the former, it is often used to state an action that one does/did as qualification and/or from a position/standpoint. This may sound confusing, but consider the following.
31. クラスの代表として委員会に出席しました。(Qualification/position)
I attended the committee meeting as the class representative.
32. あなたの医者として、食事の量を減らすよう忠告します。
As your doctor, I advise you to decrease the amount you eat.
On the other hand, ~にとって shows an evaluation or value judgment from the/a standpoint (of someone).
33. 私にとりまして、出張は大変思い出深かったです。
For me, the business trip was very profoundly memorable.
Usage Note: ~にとりまして is normally used when talking to someone much older than you. So, the above sentence would most likely be 私にとって、出張は大変思い出深かったです.
34. これは私にとって忘れられない思い出です。
This is a memory to me that I can't forget.
35. これはあたしにとってとっても大切なものなんだわ。(Feminine; Emphatic)
This is something very important to me.
With は
は is added to them when raising a circumstance as the topic, emphasis, or show a contrast.
36. 私としては、その考えには賛成いたしかねます。
As for me, I can't agree to that idea.
37. あんたにとっちゃ朝飯前かもしれんが、俺にとっちゃ大変な仕事なんだよ。(砕けた)
To you it may be trivial, but to me it's a big job.
Contrast
38. 人{として・にとって]大切なことは何か。
With ~として, the sentence suggests that what's being important should be done by people whereas ~にとって simply states what's so, or in this case simply stating a question.
39.
Aさん: A銀行がB銀行と
合併
するそうですよ。
Bさん: へえ。でも、A銀行{としては・にとっては}、そう悪いことではないんじゃないですか。
Aさん: でも、B銀行としては黙って見ているわけにはいかないんじゃないですか。
40.
Aさん:
文部省
としてはどう考えていますか。
Bさん: 文部省としましては、今回の
処置
はやむを得ないものと考えております。(謙譲語)
Exercise: Translate the last two passages!
These patterns also differ greatly in what kinds of sentences they're used in.
~として | |
Circumstance | There is a sentence that shows that something happens, and the sentence after shows an opinion or stance concerning it. |
Opinion | Used to present one's opinion and then show an opposite position. |
41. 市から感謝状と記念品をいただきました。これは我が家の家宝として大切にしたいです。
I received a letter of thanks and mementos from the city. I would like to treat this as a family treasure in our home.
42. 義務教育の段階で外国語を教えた方がいい。外国語が話せるのは社会人として絶対に必要な教育である。
Foreign language should be taught at the level of mandatory education. Being able to speak a foreign language is absolutely necessary education for a person of society.
~にとって | |
~にとって~の/ことは~だ/である | A very emphatic derivative of the basic form. |
In topic sentence | After introducing the topic, a concrete explanation follows. |
43. 今僕にとって唯一の楽しみになっているのは日本語の勉強です。
What has now become my sole enjoyment is my Japanese studies.
44. 昔の人々の生活にとって、お寺は欠かせないものだった。
The temple was a necessary thing to the lives of the ancient.
Words Used with Them
1. XとしてY
Words that follow Y:
Verbs that describe action: 言う、許す、行動する.
Verbs/adjectives that describe condition: 恥ずかしい、有名だ、知られている.
45. 彼は弁護士としては無能です。
He is no good as a lawyer.
2. XにとってY
Words that follow Y:
Potential expressions: 可能だ、忘れられない.
Adjectives of evaluation: 大切だ、難しい、大変だ.
Adjective + Noun
46. 世界の経済にとって、
金融
を引き
締
めるのは
好
ましくない事態だ。
For the world economy, tightening the money market is not a desirable situation.
あ
なたの
医者
として、
食事
の
量
を
減
らすよう
忠告
します。
As your doctor, I advise you to decrease the amount you eat.
Aさん: A銀行がB銀行と合併するそうですよ。
Bさん: へえ。でも、A銀行{としては・にとっては}、そう悪いことではないんじゃないですか。
Aさん: でも、B銀行としては黙って見ているわけにはいかないんじゃないですか。
Aさん: 文部省としてはどう考えていますか。
Bさん: 文部省としましては、今回の処置はやむを得ないものと考えております。(謙譲語)
Exercise: Translate the last two passages!
~を通して and ~を通じて without context are completely interchangeable. So, getting the small details straight will probably be the hardest thing about this lesson.
漢字 Note: Note that there is also 通 う and 通 る. The first is used in the sense of “commute” or flowing/understanding such as in phrases like 学校に通う and 心が通う. 通る expresses transit. Ex. 道を通る.
を通しで and ~通(とお)じて are incorrect. Pronunciation is perhaps the most common mistakes about these. That should be good news. Both show a meaning equivalent to ~を経て/を仲介して to show a means "of through (the intermediary of)". They can also be used to mean "through" in a temporal sense.
1. 仕事を{通じて・通して}人脈が広がっていった。
My connections spread through my job.
2. 1年を{通じて・通して}スキーができる。
You can ski (here) throughout the year.
3. 日本語の勉強を{通じて・通して}日本人の考え方が少し分かってきました。
Through my Japanese studies, I have come to understand the Japanese way of thinking a little.
通じる is a verb used to show the result gained by a certain action; 通す is thought to hold a volitional side. Although even in these examples either is OK, when you want to show volitional, the latter is the best choice.
In a normal situation where this is not an exceptional circumstance, it is best not to use ~を通じて. The longer the sentence, the easier it gets to become to decide whether it fits this criterion or not. Certain speech modals also aid in the decision.
4. 私はインターネット{〇 を通して・X を通じて}役に立つニュースを得ました。
I got useful news through the Internet.
5. 一緒に働いた経験{〇 を通して・X を通じて}、ふたりは生涯かわらぬ友愛をもちつづけた。
Through the experience of working together, they continued to hold a friendship for life.
6. 仲人を通して縁談をすすめたほうがいいでしょう。
Isn't it best to forward an engagement through a middleman?
7. ハッカーたちは、ウイルスに感染されたファイルが送りこめるインターネット{〇 を通じて、Xを通して}、ユーザーのシステムを破壊していく。
Hackers through the internet that can send files infected with viruses go on to destroy the user’s system.
Even when either is fine, there will always be slight nuance differences.
8. 社長との連絡は、すべて秘書を{通して・通じて}行われた。
All contact with the company president was carried out through the secretary.
The first option makes the situation far from out of the ordinary, but the second option makes it sound secretive.
There are two broad situations that can describe most sentences with these modals. There could be an intermediary between an X and Y, or through the means of A, B is done. Consider the following information for further distinguishing.
Aを通してB: Through the intermediation/means of A, B is done simply and clearly.
Aを通じてB: A, which is an intermediate or means, is something that can't be public, must be a secret, or is something unjust.
As mentioned earlier, there is a peculiar nature about ~を通じて, and special circumstances are often mysterious, clandestine, and may involve some sort of secret means. In this sense, it contrasts the openness and simplicity of action implied by statements with ~を通して.
Now, what about a sentence like the following?
9. この種の松林は、日本全国を{通して・通じて}見ることができる。
You can see this kind of pine forest throughout all of Japan.
If you get a native speaker that doesn't like one version or another, you probably need to find a different opinion. This sentence is different because there is no intermediation or means involved. In this sense they are similar to “throughout”. The decision as to which one should be used goes down to individual speaker variation pending on whether that person likes more native words over 漢語. With this, ~を通じて can be used in a stiffer and more literary fashion.
Attribute Forms
Don't you just love attribute forms? As you may have guessed, ~を通した, ~通しての, ~通じた, and ~を通じての are all possible, but they are not completely interchangeable.
Aを{通した・通じた}B can't be used in situations where A is a direct information source. This is because "Aを通す" and "A{を・が}通じる" originally meant that through the intermediation of A, two spaces are connected (examples of this will be shown later in this lesson).
Accordingly, A both can be used as the go-between X and Y, but when A becomes the information source, "Aを通じてのB" or "Aを通してのB" must be used.
10. 秘書を{通した・通じた・通しての・通じての}連絡が社長に届いた。
A contact through the secretary reached the company president
11. 今回、入手した情報は、その筋の人を{〇 通しての・〇 通じての・X 通した・X 通じた}ものです。.
The information I received this time is info from a person of that source.
When showing consistency temporally or geographically, ~を通しての and ~を通じての are your only options.
12. 日本全国を{通じての・通しての}この種の松林は、日本の森林を特徴づけるもののひとつである。
This kind of pine forest throughout Japan is one characteristic of the forests of Japan.
13. 山を{〇 通しての・△ 通じての}トンネル
A tunnel through a mountain
It does become more natural to rephrase them out, especially since there’s not much of a sense of familiarity in sentences like the second to last. Also, when there is not a sense of a go-between, ~を通じた・を通した mustn't be used.
14. 彼らは一緒に働いた経験を通しての友愛を持ち続けた。
They continued to a hold friendship through the experience of working together.
Other Meanings
Remember that 通す means "pass through" and can be used in several contexts. This remains the case in ~を通して. 通じる can mean “to lead through/get through/get across”. Both are used in many idioms as well.
15. 道を開けて、車を通す。
To open up the road and let cars pass through.
16. 前に化け物が立ちはだかって、僕を通そうとしなかった。
A monster blocked my path in front of me, and it didn't attempt to let me pass by.
17. 空港まで政府が高速道路と新幹線を開通させた。
The government created passage through a highway and bullet train line up to the airport.
Word Note: 開通する is more appropriate here, but 新幹線を通す is an appropriate phrase, but it is more general in nature and doesn't fit well with 政府.
18. 肉に串を通す。
To put meet through a skewer.
19. 目を通す。
To scan.
20. やりたいことを通す。
To do what one wants.
21. 戻ってきてから、目を通すから。
I'll look over it when I come back.
22. 針に糸を通す。
To thread yard in a needle.
23. 袖に手が通せるか。
Can you pass your hands through your sleeves?
24. 刺身を氷水に通さなきゃいけない。
You have to pass sashimi through ice water.
25. 彼らに私の中国語は通じませんでした。
I couldn't make myself understood to them in Chinese.
26. 電話が通じなくなりました。
The phone went dead.
27a. バスがオースティンとサン・アントニオの間に通じている。
27b. バスがオースティンとサン・アントニオの間を通している。(もっと自然)
The bus runs between Austin and San Antonio.
28. 肉を熱湯に通すと、殺菌できる。
If you put meat through hot water, you'll sterilize it.
29. 黒いものは熱を通しやすい。
It is easy for black objects to transmit heat.
30. これは水を通さない。
This will not let water pass through.
31. 通してくださいませんか。
Could you let me through?
32. {火・熱}を通す。
To heat (food).
33. 我を通す。
To have one's way.
34a. 風を通さないように窓を閉めてください。
34b. 風が通らないように窓を閉めてください。(もっと自然)
In order to not ventilate air, please shut your windows.
35. 肉の中まで火を通す。
To pass the meat up to the center in the fire.
36. ステーキはよく火を通すべきだ。
You should cook steak well.
37. 堅を通して僕は彼女と知り合った。
I got acquainted with her through Ken.
38. 政界で成功したければ、自分の建て前を明確に通さなければなりません。
If you want to succeed in politics, you have to correctly put in one's official stance.
39. 理屈を通す。
To correctly arrange the logic (in something).
40. 自己の信念を通すとは真に勇気があるという意味だ。
Persisting in one's belief is the true definition of courage.
41. 独身で通すのはださいな。
Remaining single sucks.
42a. インターネットを通じてビデオゲームを注文する。(書き言葉)
42b. インターネットでビデオゲームを注文する。(話し言葉)
To order video games via the Internet.
43. 全歴史を通じて、東北関東大震災は第5番目のもっとも巨大な地震です。
Throughout all of history, the Tohoku-Kanto Earthquake Disaster is the 5th largest earthquake.
44. 一年を{通して・通じて}
Throughout the year
45. 週末を通じて仕上げられるのか。(ちょっと硬い)
Can you do it over the weekend?
46a.
名刺
を差し出して面会を求める。
46b.
刺
を通じて、面会を求める。(Very Rare)
47b. 名刺を通じて、面会を求める。(Rare)
To present one's card and seek a meeting.
48.
気脈
を通じる。
To have secret connections with something/one.
49a.
電流
を通じる。
49b. 電流が通じる。(More natural)
To connect an electric current.
50. あいつは
敵
に通じてる。
He's colluding with the enemy!
51. そんなことでは社会では通じません。
In such manner is not accepted in society.
52.
事情
に通じている。
I'm well-informed of the circumstances.
53. 僕の中国語は通じなかった。
My Chinese wouldn't get across.
54. 電話が通じなくなった。
My phone went dead.
55. この道は
頂上
に通じている。
This road leads to the summit.
56.
停電
で何も通じない。
Nothing will go through due to the blackout.
57. 参議院{において・で}法案を通す。
To pass a bill through the House of Councilors.
58. 立法者たちは米議会で法律を無理矢理通しすぎる。
Lawmakers pass too many laws forcibly through the US Congress.
59a. 補聴器を通して話が聴けるようになった。(改まった)
59b. 補聴器で話が聴けるようになった。(自然)
I have become able to listen to conversations with a hearing aid.
60. フィルターを通して不純物を除去すればよい。
It is good for you to get rid of impurities through a filter.
61. 昼夜{を通して・を問わず}工事を続けた。
(The workers) continued to work on the construction around the clock.
62. 全幕を通して役者を見る。
To see through the entire curtain and watch the actors.
63. 一生独身を通す。
To live one's whole life single.
64a. 傷にオキシドールを塗れば、消毒できるようになります。(もっと自然)
64b. 傷をオキシドールに通して、消毒できるようになります。
If you will pass your wound through hydrogen peroxide, you'll be able to disinfect it.
65a. レインコートの中まで雨が沁みてきた。(もっと自然)
65b. レインコートを通して雨が沁みてきた。
Rain has started to soak in through my raincoat.
66a. 一年中和服で過ごす人は少ない。(自然)
66b. 一年中和服で通す人は少ない。(ちょっと不自然)
There are seldom people that wear traditional Japanese clothing throughout the year.
67. 気持ちが通じる。
To have one's feelings get across.
68a.
世故
に
通
じている。
68b. 世故にたけている。
I know fully about worldly affairs.
69.
人妻
と通じる。
To commit adultery.
70.
大便
が通じる。
To have a bowel movement.
71.
自然
であることは幸せに通じている。
Being natural is tied to happiness.
72. 『
憶
』は『
臆
』に通じる。
To not distinguish between 憶 and 臆.
73a. 服装を通して人の風俗を考える。
73b. 服装から人に品位を考える。(もっと自然)
To think about the manners of people through their dress.
74a. 高校生の女子は夜通し語り合った。
74b. 高校生の女子は夜を通して語り合った。(Wordier)
The high school girls talked to each other all through the night.
~によって VS ~に通して・に通じて
Although mentioned in the lesson about ~によって, there is some interchangeability between ~によって, ~を通じて, and ~を通して with this usage. However, the first places emphasis on the connection between the method and effect/result. The latter two place emphasis on the process.
75. インターネット{によって・を通じて・を通して}、アルバムを販売する。
To sell albums by/via/through the internet.
76. 選挙{〇 によって・X を通じて・X を通して]委員長になる。
To become the committee chairman by election.
A common error made by students is not understanding the difference between ~から~まで and ~から~にかけて. Then, if they learn about ~にわたって, this quickly becomes confused with ~にかけて. The nouns that students chose before these expressions are also often very problematic. So, this lesson will delve into these issues so that you don’t end up making the same mistakes!
First, let’s discuss the basic information about ~から~にかけて. This is a less concrete variant of ~から~まで. Both から and まで concretely define beginning and end points, so with the replacement of まで with ~にかけて, you make this less poignant. The main issues, then, will come from not thinking closely enough as to what’s practical.
1a. 秋田から大阪まで地震がありました。X
1b. 秋田から大阪にかけて地震がありました。〇
There was an earthquake from Akita to Osaka.
2. この道路は夕方5時半から9時にかけて必ず
渋滞
する。
This road is always congested from 5:30 to 9 in the evening.
3. 青森県から岩手県にかけて震度5の地震が起こりました。
A Shindo scale 5 earthquake occurred from Aomori to Iwate Prefecture.
4a. 午前8時から午後7時にかけて宿題をしました。X
4b. 午前8時から午後7時まで宿題をしました。〇
I did my homework from 8 A.M to 7 P.M.
5a. オースティンでは、北側から南側にかけて車で一時間でかかる。X
5b. オースティンでは、北側から南側に行くのに車で一時間かかる。〇
In Austin, it takes an hour by car to get from the north side to the south side.
6. テキサスからフロリダにかけて土砂降りに降った。
It down-poured from Texas to Florida.
7. 週末にかけて仕事をする。
To work over the weekend.
Before getting to any particular usage of わたる, it’s important to know all what it could possibly mean. This gives insight as to what particles and kinds of words that it is to be used with. This, of course, is the primary source of confusion and error by students, so it’s very important to pay attention to these things.
# | 語義 | 適当な助詞 | 書き方 |
1. | To cross over | を | 渡る・渉る |
2. | To cross over a route/bridge | を | 渡る |
3. | One goes to/comes from a far place | に/から | 渡る |
4. | To pass (by) through things such as the air | を | 渡る |
5. | To migrate through the sky | を | 渡る |
6. | To wander about | を | 渡る |
7. | To live through | を | 渡る・亘る・亙る |
8. | 手に渡る = To be handed down | に | 渡る |
9. | To cover/range/span | に | 渡る・亘る・亙る |
10. | To continue without being interrupted | に | 渡る・亘る・亙る |
Orthography Note: This verb regardless of meaning is almost always written as 渡る. Most Japanese people might not even recognize the alternative spellings. So, keep that in mind.
These meanings for the most are interrelated with each other. So, it shouldn't feel as if you're learning over ten completely different usages. Rather, it’s just defining with more specificity the kinds of environments that you can find the word in.
Examples
8. 私事に{
関
わる・
亙
る}質問をするのは失礼ですね。
Asking personal questions is rude, isn't it?
9. 橋を渡る。
To cross a bridge.
10. 通りを向こう側へ渡る。
To get across the street.
11. 彼は中国へ渡りました。
He went over to China.
12. その土地は彼女の息子の手に渡った。
The land was passed down to her son.
13. 世の中をうまく渡っていく。
To get along living well in the world.
14.
微風
が
梢
を渡った。
The breeze passed through the treetops.
15.
雁
が空中を渡る。
Wild geese migrate through the skies.
This grammar point is the て形 of usage #9 from the chart above, and as implied, this pattern follows a noun that expresses some quantity in regards to time, parameter, space, etc. The noun that precedesにわたって is quite limited, and the verb phrase that follows deals with continuation.
16a. ゴールデンウィークにわたって関東全体を観光した。X
16b. ゴールデンウィークのあいだ、関東全体を観光した。〇
During Golden week, I went sightseeing through all of Kanto.
17a.
老若男女
にわたって
世論調査
が行われました。X
17b. 老若男女すべてに(対して)世論調査が行われました。〇
A public opinion survey was done to men and women of all ages.
18.
五十肩
かもしれませんけど、肩から腕にかけて、痛くて、重くて・・・・。
It may be a stiff shoulder, but it’s heavy and painful from my shoulder to my arm.
19. 倉田博士は35年にわたって研究を続け、新療法を開発した。
Professor Kurata continued to research over 35 years and developed a new treatment.
20. その火事は広範囲に渡って損害を与えた。
The fire gave damage over a vast range.
21. 営業案内が全員に渡った。
A pamphlet of business information was passed out to everyone.
As errors arise from incorrect matching of pattern and word choice, we will now example the kind of sentences and words that accompany ~にかけて and ~にわたって.
Condition: ~から~にかけて。(だから・それで~)
22. 今晩から明朝にかけて台風が上陸します。海岸寄りの皆さんは高潮に警戒してください。
The typhoon will reach landfall from this evening to tomorrow morning. Everyone along the coast please take caution with high tide.
This could be reworded in a sentence that more explicitly shows reasoning. In this manner, it is possible to see ~から~にかけては.
23. 今晩から明朝にかけて台風が上陸するので、海岸寄りの皆さんは高潮に警戒してください。
The typhoon will reach landfall from this evening to tomorrow morning, so everyone along the coast please take caution with high tide.
24. 豪雪が予測されるので、北海道から福島県にかけては注意が必要です。
Since heavy snow is expected, warning is needed from Hokkaido to Fukushima Prefectures.
Pattern Note: The pattern ~にかけては is quite different from above. Rather than showing a temporal or spatial range, it is followed by expressions of high evaluation regarding ability, strength, etc. In this sense, it can be translated as “regarding”.
25. 彼は法律にかけては欠けている。
He lacks regarding to the (knowledge of the) law.
26. ラーメン作りにかけては王さんの右に出る人はいない。
In regards to ramen making, there is no one superior to Mr. Wang.
Condition: Clause concerning the course of a condition + ~にわたって + Effect
The effect doesn't necessarily have to be bad. However, most usages of ~にわたって fit pretty well within this framework.
27. 15年にわたって遺跡の調査が行われた。その結果、このあたりは奈良時代の住居の跡だということがわかってきた。
An excavation inquiry has gone on for a span of 15 years. As a result, we have come to understand that this area is the remains of Nara Period dwellings.
Word Notes:
1. Words that ~にかけて easily follows: Words of time/place such as ~日, ~時, ~県.
2. Words that easily follow ~にかけて: Verbs that describe something happening: 降る, 起こる, ある, 発生する, 等.
3. Words that ~にわたって easily follows: Words of some parameter such as 長年, 全般, ~年, 将来, 範囲, 等.
4. Words that easily follow ~にわたって: Verbs of continuation: 続ける, 記録する, 継続する, 行(な)う, 等.
When we learned about the agent marker に, we learned how several functions of に are interrelated. From its basic definition of showing where something exists, に by extension marks the existence of an agent. As we learned in that lesson and the lessons that followed, に marks the agent of stative-transitive, passive sentences, and causative predicates.
At the conclusion of our discussion on how に functions as an agent, we learned that に can in fact follow verbal expressions. By doing so, the verb becomes grammatically nominalized, but because the resultant noun is still verbal in nature, the “agent” becomes interpreted as a reason/purpose/cause for the main predicate of the sentence. Thus, the purpose-marker is born.
In Lesson 115, we briefly discussed how ~によって can be used to mark the agent. This is the combination of the agent-marker に and よる, which has various nuances including “to be caused by/to depend on/to be based on.” At its basic understanding, it helps fully establish that something is an agent, especially when other usages of に are present.
1. 原因 (Cause)・理由 (Reason): The first usage of ~によって is to objectively and indifferently present cause/reason. This speech pattern, thus, is not used so much in general conversation due to its lack of emotion. It is, however, perfectly appropriate for speaking in a technical manner.
In English, this usage translates as “due to.” Whenever it is used to directly modify a noun, you use ~による (Exs. 3-6).
Spelling Note: The Kanji spelling for this nuance is に因って.
1.
踏切
での
大
きな
衝突事故
によって、
運行
に
20
時間
の
遅
れが
出
た。
Due to a large collision at the railroad crossing, a 20-hour delay came out in operations.
2. このビルは
大地震
{によって・で}ばらばらに
破壊
された。
This building was destroyed to pieces [by/in] the big earthquake.
3.
過失
による
人身事故
Traffic accident caused by a blunder
4.
大地震
による
家屋倒壊
は、すでに
一万戸
を
超
えているといわれる。
It's said that the number of homes that collapsed due to the big earthquake has already surpassed 10,000 homes.
5.
福島原発事故
による
放射能環境汚染
Environmental radioactivity pollution caused by the Fukushima Nuclear Accident
6.
牛
インフルエンザによる
死亡者
が
続出
しています。
Deaths are occurring one after another due to cow influenza.
2. 手段 (Method): によって can also be used in the sense of “by” to express method. This usage has considerable overlap with the particle で, but because によって deals heavily in showing agents of happenstance, when method is being used in a way that is not a speaker literally using a tool/method, then only によって would be appropriate.
When modifying nouns directly with this meaning, ~によって takes either the form ~による or ~によっての.
7. インターネットにより
世界
のニュースを
知
る。
To know the world news by the Internet.
8. インターネット{によって・で}、
人間
は
居
ながらにして、
世界
を
概観
できる。
Through/with the internet, people can stay seated as they can survey the world.
9.
投票
{によって・で}
決
めよう。
Let's decide by vote.
10.
大抵
の
成功
は
不断
の
努力
によって
得
られる。
Most success is gained by ceaseless effort.
~によって VS ~を通じて・通して
There is some interchangeability between ~によって, ~を通じて, and ~を通して with Usage 2. ~によって places emphasis on the connection between the method and effect/result, which is in line with how the agent-maker に behaves. The latter two phrases, on the other hand, place emphasis on the process.
12. インターネット{によって・を
通
じて・を
通
して}、アルバムを
販売
する。
To sell albums by/via/through the Internet.
13.
選挙
{〇 によって・X を
通
じて・X を
通
して}
委員長
になる。
To become the committee chairman by election.
3. 受身の動作主 (Agent of a Passive Structure): As we have already learned about, ~によって can be used with the passive form of a verb to show the agent (doer). If a sentence with a receiver (indirect object) is passivized, the agent must be marked by ~によって. Additionally, ~による is the only acceptable attribute form for this usage.
14.
田中
さん{〇 によって・X に}
岡田
さんに
手紙
が
書
かれた。
A letter was written to Mr. Okada by Mr. Tanaka.
15. その
仕事
は
加藤
さんによってなされました。
The work was done by Mr. Kato.
16. ライトアップ{によって・で}
夢幻的
な
光景
が
生
み
出
された。
A dreamy scenery was created by/with a light-up.
17.
松本清張
による
小説
A novel by Matsumoto Seichō
4. 根拠 (Proof)・拠り所 (Basis): Following a rule/law/example/precedent/previous example/etc., it is used a lot to clearly show proof/basis. In this usage, ~による is the only acceptable attribute form. This should only be used when something clear is understood. It should not be used for mere hearsay.
18.
証言
による
真実
Truth according to testimony
19.
前例
{による・に
基
づく}
判決
が
下
されることになる。
A judgment is to be made based on precedent.
5. 場合 (Circumstance)・相応変化 (Reasonable Change): This usage is perhaps the most common in the spoken language, equating to “depending on…” Both ~による and ~によっての are correct attribute forms, although the latter is more common in the spoken language.
20.
天候
によっては
中止
もありえるでしょう。
Depending on the weather conditions, (the match) may possibly be canceled.
21.
時
と
場合
に{よっての・よる}
対処
Approach which depends on the time and circumstance
22. お
金
によって、
人
は
変
わるものです。
People change depending on money.
23. この
仕事
は
販売数
によって
給料
が
変
わります。
As for this job, one's salary changes depending on sales.
24.
板前長
の
腕
によって、
寿司
の
味
の
良
し悪しが
左右
されます。
The quality of the flavor of sushi is dependent on the skill of the chef.
25.
含
まれる
材料
によって、いろいろな
味
のラーメンがあります。
There are many flavors of ramen based on the ingredients put in it.
26.
人
によって
考
えが
違
います。
Opinions vary from person to person.
27.
挨拶言葉
はその
日
の
天気
によっていろいろ
言
えばよい。
It's best to say that there are various greetings based on the weather of the day.
28.
曜日
によって
授業
が
変
わります。
Classes change depending on the day of the week.
29.
人
によって
好
きなものと
嫌
いなものは
異
なります。
One's likes and dislikes differ from person to person.
30. 「でも、すごいのよ。
二階
の
人
が
歩
くと、
天井
がみしみしって
鳴
るの。
窓枠
も
木
だし、
風向
きによってはかたかた
鳴
って、すきま
風
が
入
ってくるみたい。ドアなんか、鍵なんかなくても体当たりすれば開きそうよ」
“But, it’s dreadful! When the people on the second-floor walk, the ceiling creaks. The window frame is made of wood, which makes it clatter in the wind, and it’s like a draft is coming in. The door, it seems like it’ll open if you charge at it even if there wasn't a lock."From 冷たい誘惑 by 乃南アサ.
~ず is an old negative auxiliary, and when it is paired with ~による, the resulting phrase gives a meaning of "in any situation everything/despite/regardless".
31.
何事
によらず
注意
が
肝心
だ。
No matter what, attention is crucial.
32.
誰
によらず
人
の
不始末
の
尻拭
いなどしたくはないよ。
No matter who it is, I don't want to reap the harvests off other people's misconduct.
~によると
Also seen as ~によりますと in extremely polite/formal speech, the most common usage of this is to mean "according to".
33.
新聞
によると
台風
が
接近中
だった。
According to the newspaper, the typhoon was approaching.
34. (
天気
)
予報
によりますと、
明日
は
晴
れるそうです。
According to the weather report, it'll clear up tomorrow.
35. ニュースによると、
朝
は
晴
れだそうだ。
According to the news, morning will be clear skies.
36.
電灯
の
発明
はエジソンによるとされている。
The invention of electric light is credited to Edison.
~によれば
A more direct and personal means of saying "according to" is ~によれば.
37.
お
母
さま
方
のために
古事記
、
日本書紀
(
記紀
)によれば、
伊弉諾尊
(
男神
)、
伊弉冉尊
(
女神
)
二柱
の
大神
による
国生
みの
神話
は、
日本
の
国土誕生物語
です。
私
たち
日本人
の
祖先
は、
日本
の
国土
は
神様
がお
生
みになり、
住
みやすく
良
い
国
に
作
りあげられたものと
信
じていました。ですから、
日本
の
国土
に
住
む
日本人
は、すべて
神様
の
子
としてかたく
結
ばれている
意識
が非常に強かったのです。
For Mothers
According to the Kojiki and Nihon Shoki (Kiki), the tale of the birth of our nation by the two-great kami Izanagi (male kami) and Izanami (female kami), is the creation story of Japan. Our Japanese ancestors that the kami created the Japanese land to make a great and easy to live country. That is why Japanese people living in the land of Japan felt a strong and tight binding connection to the land as all being children of the kami.
Citation Note: From かみさまのおはなし.
~によったら
~によったら would directly translate as "if it were according to." It is most common in the set phrase ことによったら, meaning "perhaps."
38. {ことによると・ことによったら}
列車
が
停止
するかもしれません。
Perhaps the train might halt.
The を in these phrases is not the case particle you are used to. Here, it is a conjunctive particle, which is a usage from Classical Japanese that remains in these expressions. Pay attention to what phrases these phrases are similar and the things that make them different.
漢字 Note: The やむ in やむを得ない can be written in 漢字 as 止む or 已む.
~ざる is the 連体形 of the classical/old-fashioned negative auxiliary verb ~ず; thus, this pattern attaches to the 未然形 . 得 ない is the negative form of 得る. Put together, ~ざるを 得 ない means "there is no other choice but to". As for する and 来る, you must use the せ- and こ- 未然形 respectively because we are using an older ending. So, never say しざる.
する → | せざる |
来る → | 来ざる |
Common questions in regards to this pattern include what the subject of the sentence is, when it is appropriate to use the pattern, and how the pattern differs from the “must phrases”.
This phrase has a negative tone, and it should not be used in situations where such implications would be inappropriate. The action is something that the agent does not truly want to do. There is also some outside force that is making the agent act.
Although this is typically more common in the written language, it is still occasionally used in the spoken language. In this case, it is often followed by things like ~だろう・でしょう, ~(ん)じゃないか, ~と思う, 等.
Examples
1. ...ということを
認
めざるを得ません。
We have no other choice but to recognize…
2.
悪天候
のため、
我々
はピクニックを
中止
せざるを得なかったです。
There was no other choice but to call off the picnic due to the weather.
3. このコンピューターが壊れたら、新しいのを買わざるをえないよ。
If this computer breaks, there is no other choice but to buy a new one.
4.
歯医者
さんに行かざるを得ない。
There's no other choice but to go to the dentist.
5. 僕が引き受けざるを得ないじゃないか。
There’s no other way but me having to undertake it, no?
6. 海外旅行に行くと、自分がアメリカ人であることを意識せざるをえない。
When you travel overseas, you have no other choice but to be conscious of the fact that you are an American.
7. 生徒が試験に失敗をすれば、先生は責任を取らざるをえない。
If the student fails an exam, the student has no choice but to take responsibility.
8. 社長からの命令なので、やらざるを得ません。
Since this is an order from the company president, I have no choice but to do it.
9a. この問題はもう一度検討しざるを得ない。X
9b. この問題はもう一度検討せざるを得ない。〇
We have no choice but to examine this problem one more time.
止 むを得ない shows that something is inevitable. We don't attach it to anything like the phrase above because 止む is a verb--the intransitive form of やめる.
10. それは
恐
らく止むを得なかったのだろう。
It was perhaps inevitable.
11. 止むを得ない理由の
遅刻
だから。
It's because of inevitable delays.
Causative conjugations in Japanese are complicated. Historically, many transitive verbs are derived by adding す to a stem, creating naturally causative-like expressions. So, 燃やす describes the event of someone putting something on fire. The thing doesn't just spontaneously ignite. If it were to, you would use the intransitive 燃える. Yet, the causative forms for both 燃える and 燃やす involve using a form ultimately coming from the same source as す that makes so many transitive verbs.
Verb Root | Intransitive | Intransitive Causative | Transitive | Transitive Causative |
moy- | moeru to burn |
moesaseru to make X burn |
moyasu to burn X |
moyasaseru to make someone burn X |
One would hope that this could be straightforward for every verb, but reality tells otherwise. There is also the short causative 燃えさす for 燃えさせる, but this form is usually △・X for most speakers. If the verb in the base form were a 五段 verb not ending in す, then it would be OK to anyone. Due to the fact that せる comes from す, the す in more and more transitive verbs is starting to become せる. This lesson will explain the ins and outs of this problem.
Intransitive → Transitive and or Intransitive Causative
Historically, the causative endings were さす and す. The す ending transitives and causative phrases is the same word, ignoring conjugation differences. Odd vowel changes may happen when attaching す to make transitives, but they all semantically resemble causative phrases.
To burn → To burn it | 燃える → 燃やす | To boil → To boil it | 沸く → 沸かす |
To get off → To drop off | 降りる → 降ろす | To melt → To melt it | 溶く → 溶かす |
On the left side, we have verbs with transitive forms and intransitive causative forms. That means 燃えさせる・燃やす and 降りさせる・降ろす are all words with significant difference in meaning. On the right side, we have verbs with no intransitive causative form. These forms, though, look and act like intransitive causative phrases. Verbs like on the left are able to have both forms with the aid of さ insertion. What then would need to happen in form for verbs on the right to have a causative form?
If ~せる comes from す, then ~せる should be able to be used just like ~させる to create intransitive causative phrases. Consider 澄む (to be transparent). 澄む's transitive form is 澄ます, which is causative in nature. A causative form of 澄む would be identical in meaning to a transitive form. So, 澄ませる would be the potential form of 澄ます. Nevertheless, because 澄ます is causative in nature, the す is seen by more speakers as the short causative and changing it to 澄ませる for the causative. Even so, no one would ever have a problem telling when 澄ませる is meant to be the causative or potential.
So, which transitive verbs ending in す are vulnerable to changing to end in せる? Certainly, any intransitive verb with no distinct transitive and intransitive causative form is vulnerable. As we look at individual cases of this change, the majority fall under this situation. Even so, -asu is becoming more stigmatic of dialectical speech. Thus, verbs with intransitive causative and transitive verbs are now starting to have the transitive form ending in せる. 沸かす and 溶かす are more vulnerable to change than 燃やす, but the verb 甘やかす (to spoil), which you'll see later as well, has already changed for some speakers to 甘やかせる. This is despite the fact that 甘えさせる exists. This means that one day speakers may use 燃やせる to mean "to burn X".
Comparing Old and Modern Conjugations
To tell whether an intransitive verb has both a causative and transitive form, let's compare the modern and old conjugations for the causative. させる and せる come from さす and す. They did not conjugate exactly like す(る) as in the present or the past, but they were still similar due to them sharing the same origin. The chart below show shows the old causative conjugations and the modern ones (short and long). As you can see, although the short causative is a retention of the old, some change has occurred.
未然形 | 連用形 | 終止形 | 連体形 | 已然形 | 命令形 | |
Old さす | させ | させ | さす | さする | さすれ | させよ |
Old す | せ | せ | す | する | すれ | せよ |
Modern させる | させ | させ | させる | させる | させれ | させろ |
Modern せる | せ | せ | せる | せる | せれ | せろ |
Modern さす | X | (し) | (さす) | X | X | X |
Modern す | さ | し | す | す | せ | (せ) |
The modern さす is almost nonexistent in Standard Japanese. Its usage is usually dialectical. As for the modern す, it is still really productive. Its 連体形 and 已然形 are not as common, but they're usually not felt as being wrong. The 命令形 is questionable to some speakers, so it will be left in parentheses. Aside from the short causative-passive usage of the 未然形 with the modern す, the modern long causative forms are the most used (and at times the only ones you can/should use).
As you can see, さす has almost died out. Any instance of it is dialectical. The modern す is also starting to die. Signs of this are evident in the chart. One base is already questionable, and as stated above, aside from the short-causative passive, you're likely to use the modern せる. If the language is hating on -asu, then it's no wonder transitive verbs ending in this are starting to end in -aseru.
Case-by-Case Study
So far, we have seen what verbs are being most affected, and we've even looked at the causative conjugations of the past and present and found yet another source of the problem. Now, we are going to look at individual examples to see how well they fit into the framework described thus far. There is a lot of individual variation, so it is almost impossible to fully express all the details of the options.
When 下一段 is Most Common
Transitive verbs which have shifted from す → せる are most certainly the trigger for all the change we see in other verbs.
When Both 下一段 & 五段 are Most Common
These next verbs are undergoing change to only ending in せる, but the traditional form is still holding on strong. Unlike the previous verbs, form preference is more hectic.
Intransitive | Intransitive Causative | Transitive | Transitive Causative | New Transitive |
甘える | 甘えさせる | 甘やかす | 甘やかさせる | 甘やかせる |
ひけらかす | ひけらかさせる | ひけらかせる | ||
尽きる | 尽きさせる | 尽くす・尽かす | 尽くさせる・尽かさせる | 尽かせる |
Knowing what form to use is not an easy task as a learner. In the end, the best thing that you should do is listening to what Japanese speakers are using. If various forms exist, they're likely going to be different. For instance, 甘えさせる and 甘やかす exist, but they're vastly different. The first is a good thing and the second is a bad thing.
Intransitive verbs with causative-like transitive forms do exist, but the causative should still come from the transitive version of the verb. These include verbs like 鳴る and 散る, but they're in the minority. For instance, 照る means "to shine" and 照らす means "to brighten", but the causative is 照らさせる. You cannot find 照らせる to mean 照らす. It is the potential as expected.
Over time, more verbs will switch over to having their transitive forms end in せる. This lesson was about transitive verbs having corrupted forms due to the causative. This confusion arose due to common etymology, and there is various degrees of acceptance of variant forms. This is what you can expect in a wider change affecting the entire language. Sadly, this will only be truly easy centuries later when this change has fully taken effect.
Examples
Forms are listed from most to least common.
1. 食事を{済ませる・済ます}。
To finish supper.
2. 知識を{ひけらかす 〇・ひけらかせる △}。
To show off one's knowledge.
3. 子供を{甘やかす 〇・甘やかせる △}。
To spoil one's/a children.
4. 聴衆を{飽きさせない・飽かさない・飽かせない}。
It doesn't bore the crowd.
There are many times when an intransitive verb is technically translated with an English passive expression. For instance, 決まる, the first verb we’ll be looking at, can either be translated as “to be decided/settled.” However, just because it’s translated as this doesn’t mean that there isn’t a transitive passive equivalent with a different nuance. In this lesson, a handful of these kinds of verbs will be looked at carefully so that you may get the sense of when to use which.
The verbs 決まる and 決める create an intransitive-transitive verb pair meaning “to be decided/to decide.” However, 決められる (to be decided) also exists. This means that one must truly look at the meanings of both 決まる and 決める carefully to make tales of how 決まる and 決められる may differ.
Firstly, it’s important to understand that although they share basic meanings, there are plenty of instances that only one or the other may be used.
決まる indicates a matter that is fixated/settled upon as a natural conclusion. The agent of the action, even if one exists, is not emphasized at all. 決める is the opposite of this. The agent is emphasized and its presence is felt in any form that it takes.
1.
裁判
で
有罪
が
決
まった
国会議員
は
議員
を
辞
めさせられます。
The Diet member whose guilty verdict was decided in court will be made to resign his seat.
2. どうにも
腹
が
決
まらない。
I can't make up my mind.
Idiom Note: In Japanese, “to make up one’s mind” is 腹を決める. Essentially, the Japanese use the “gut” as the reference point for gut decisions. The reason why 決める is switched to 決まる in Ex. 2 is to emphasis the lack of control the speaker has in making up his own mind. This incapability goes well with the lack of volition that 決まる has in the outcome of things.
3.
毎晩
、
決
まった
時間
に
尿意
で
起
きます。
Every evening, I wake up at a fixed time to go pee.
4.
予
め
講師
と
交渉
して
日時
を
決
めてください。
Negotiate with your lecturer beforehand and decide upon a date and time.
5. ピンクのスーツで
決
めましょう。
Dress up nicely with a pink suit.
Meaning Note: 決める can be used to mean “to dress up (nicely).” 決まる may also be used to indicate that one’s attire/appearance is good looking.
6. スクイズを
決
め、
3
点
を
奪取
した。
(The player) successfully carried out a squeeze and took back three points.
One pattern that 決まる is only used in is に決まっている. This is a highly subjective statement used to indicate that whatever it follows is undoubtedly so without a shadow of a doubt. This attaches directly after nouns, adjectives, and verbs.
7.
話
が
矛盾
だらけで
本人
が
犯人
に
決
まっているでしょう。
(His) story is littered with contradictions; it’s without a doubt that he himself is the criminal.
8.
台風
が
来
れば、
電車
は
遅
れるに
決
まっている。
When a typhoon comes, it’s a guarantee that the trains will be late.
決める, when used in に決める, is very similar to にする. The use of 決める over する is used to emphasize the decision aspect.
9.
青汁
を
飲
むことに
決
めました。
I have decided to drink aojiru.
Word Note: 青汁 is a Japanese drink made from green leafy vegetables. An American equivalent would be something like V8.
10a. マサチューセッツ
州
へ
留学
することに{
決
めた・した}。
I’ve decided to study abroad at Massachusetts.
10b. マサチューセッツ
州
に
留学
することを
決
めた。
I’ve decided to study abroad at Massachusetts.
Grammar Note: Although it's not wrong to have two に phrases in one sentence, whenever it can be helped, one of the に usually has to go. In 10a. the particle へ is used, but in 10b. the first に is kept and 決める is preceded by を. The nuance difference of using を instead of に indicates that the decider had at least more than one option and after some thought chose. The use of に does not imply a decision process from multiple options. Incidentally, the use of the particle を can emphasize satisfaction to the decision (See Ex. 11 below).
11.
大分
に
残
ることを
決
めました。
I’ve decided to stay in Ōita.
When に決めている is after a noun, it shows what is always decided upon.
12.
家族
が
集
まるときはドライブイン
鳥
に
決
めています。
When the family gathers, we make a habit of going to Drivein-Tori.
13.
一日
の
小遣
いは
昼食込
みで1000
円
に
決
めています。
Daily allowance is set to 1000 yen including lunch.
The difference between using こと or よう before に決める is rather small. With こと, you demonstrate what you’ve decided to do. With よう, you demonstrate what you’re determined to try to do.
14.
一緒
にプレイしない{こと・よう}に
決
めている。
[We’ve settled/we’re determined] not to play together.
In the realm of sports, 決める can indicate a successful move. In the realm of martial arts, it can mean “to immobilize” with certain techniques. As for 決まる, its use in sports indicates that a match is settled.
15.
閂
に
決
めているように
見
えるが、
完全
に
決
まっていない。
It appears that (he) is immobilized from the overhook, but (the match) is not entirely settled.
As for 決められる, one thing that must be noted is that sometimes it is simply the potential form of 決める.
16.
一人
で
決
められずにいたのですが、やっと
決
められました。
I had been unable to decide on my own, but I’ve finally been able to decide.
決められる always implies an agent even if it isn’t explicitly expressed. In Ex. 17, the ‘indirect passive’ is used. This is because the speaker is upset that what was to become of his/her dental treatment was decided by the doctor without full consent. In the rest of the examples that follow, 決められる is used as a normal passive verb with the agent either expressed or readily obvious.
17.
歯
の
治療方針
を
勝手
に
決
められました。
My dental treatment plan was arbitrarily decided.
18.
西暦
325
年
には、
第一
ニカイア
公会議
が
行
われ、「
春分
の
日
」が
3
月
21
日
に
決
められた。
In the year 325 AD, the First Council of Nicaea was convened, and the Vernal Equinox was decided upon to be March 21st.
19.
参加国
の
投票
により、グリニッジ
天文台
を
通
る
子午線
を
経度
0
度
とすることが
決
められました。
By vote from participating countries, the prime meridian was decided upon to be the merdian that goes through the Greenwich Observatory.
20.
1982
年
に「
海洋法
に
関
する
国際連合条約
」が
作
られ、
領海
は
12
海里以内
とすることが
決
められました。
The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea was created in 1982, and the extent of national waters was set to be within 12 nautical miles.
定まる and 定める are more formal equivalents to 決まる and 決める. For instance, 定まる can also indicate that a decision has been settled. However, 定まる implies that a certain situation is maintained by said decision. When 定められる is used, as was the case for 決められる, the agent is either explicitly stated or obvious and there is volition behind the action. There is no volition implied with 定まる.
21.
運命
が
定
まっているわけではない。
It is not the case that one’s destiny is fixed.
22.
民進党政権
の
焦点
が
定
まった。
The focus of the Democratic Party of Japan has been set.
23.
桓武天皇
はなぜ
京都
に
都
を
定
めたのでしょうか。
Why is that Emperor Kanmu set the capital to Kyoto?
24.
各州
および
市
などの
税務当局
が
独自
の
税制
を
定
めている。
Each state and city tax authority sets its own system of taxation.
25. その
瞳
は、まるで
獲物
に
狙
いを
定
めた
虎
の
目
だ。
Those eyes were like that of a tiger’s locked onto its prey.
In the following examples, 定まる would not be used instead. 定められる happens to be the verb of choice in technical circumstances. This is likely because the agent needs to be unambiguous.
26.
法律
で
定
められた
勤務時間
の
上限
を
知
りたいのです。
I want to know the upper limit on working hours set by law.
27. 「
食品表示基準
」で
定
められた
名称
が
記載
されている。
The names set by the “Food Product Labeling Standards” are listed.
焦げる is a verb meaning “to be burned” by some sort of fire or heat. Its transitive equivalent is 焦がす. The transitive version, however, can be used in non-literal expressions, widening its range of usage. 焦がされる gets used to mean “to get burned” by the fault of someone or something. The agent, then, is emphasized with it. With 焦げる, there is no ‘culprit’ involved.
28.
料理
をしていて、うっかり
鍋
やフライパンを
焦
がしてしまったことはありませんか。
Have you ever unintentionally burned at pot or frying pan while cooking?
29. アイロンでワイシャツが
焦
げてしまった。
The white shirt got burnt by the iron.
30. ライターで
髪
を
焦
がされてしまったのですが、
髪
の
毛
が
焦
げてしまったとき、どのようなケアをすればいいんでしょうか。
My hair got burnt by someone with a lighter, and so what sort of care should you do when your hair gets burned?
31. 旦那様のご経験に食材を火に入れすぎて焦がされてしまったことはございませんか。
In your experiences with your husband, have you ever had a situation where he heated the ingredients for too long and burned them?
Grammar Note: Ex. 31 is a perfect example demonstrating a bridging context for how one can see the interconnection between light honorifics and the passive. In this case, 焦がされる should be interpreted as the light honorific form of 焦がす, but interpreting as the passive does not really alter the meaning of the sentence.
32.
太陽
に
焦
がされて
火照
った。
I was flushed from the sun.
The verb かかる and かける as we know have many usages. The most basic meaning of the two is “to be hung” and “to hang” respectively. The former has no volition entailed in it. However, かける always does. Thus, when you use かけられる, the agent of the action is always implied if it isn’t explicitly stated.
Orthography Note: As the sentences below demonstrate, かかる and かける have various spellings depending on nuance.
33.
10
万円
の
賞金
が
懸
かっている。
There is a prize for 100,000 yen.
34. テーブルの
上
の
壁
に
掛
けられた
鏡
が、
彼女
の目を
惹
いた。
The mirror hung up on the wall above the table caught her eye.
35.
他人
からかけられた
呪
いを
跳
ね
返
すにはどうすればいいでしょうか。
What should I do to repel a spell cast on me by someone?
36. キリストは、
何故
、
十字架
に
架
けられたのでしょうか。
Why was it that Christ was put on the cross?
37.
空
に
見事
な
虹
が
架
かっている。
There is a magnificent rainbow suspended in the sky.
38. ホテルには
夜景
を
描
いた
絵
が
掛
かっている。
There is a picture of the nightscape hung up in the hotel.
伝わる is an intransitive verb meaning “to be handed down/transmitted/circulated” and its transitive counterpart is 伝える, which is typically translated as “to convey/transmit/communicate/propagate.” 伝わる does not imply personal volition, and so whenever there is an agent with volition involved, when used in a passive sense, 伝えられる becomes your choice.
39.
言
いたいことが
伝
わらない。
I can't get across what I want to say.
40.
我
が
家
に
代々伝
わるレシピをご
紹介
します。
I will introduce a recipe passed down from generation to generation in my family.
41.
上
からの
音
は
壁
を
伝
わって
聞
こえてきます。
Noise from above can be heard through the walls.
42. ダイヤモンドは
熱
をよく
伝
えると
言
われます。
It’s say that diamonds conduct heat well.
43.
仏教
は
朝鮮人
によって
日本
に
伝
えられた。
Buddhism was propagated to Japan by Koreans.
44.
中国大陸
や
朝鮮半島
から
移住
した
人々
によって、
日本列島
に
稲作
が
伝
えられました。
Rice cultivation was propagated to the Japanese Archipelago by people who had migrated there from Mainland China and the Korean Peninsula.
To “gather/assemble” in the intransitive sense is 集まる. In the transitive sense, it’s 集める. Because the intransitive sense can also be translated in English as “to be gathered,” some may confuse it with the passive of the transitive form, 集められる. However, as continues to be the case for all the other examples in this lesson, 集められる has an agent, and the action involved is done by the volition of said agent. 集まる has no volition entailed.
45.
食卓
にはいつも、
世界中
から
様々
な
食材
が
集
まっています。
There are always various ingredients from all over the world gathered on the dinner table.
46.
安倍内閣
に
支持
が
集
まっている
状況
だ。
The circumstance is that support is gathering for Abe’s cabinet.
47. あの
人
の
周
りには
常
に
人
が
集
まっている。
There are always people gathered around that person.
48.
顧客
からの
苦情
がたくさん
集
められている。
Tons of complaints are being gathered from customers.
49.
献血
によって
集
められた
血液
はどのようなルートで
患者
に
輸血
されるんですか。
Through what sort of routes do the blood that is gathered by donations transfused into patients?
The verb 収まる can be translated as “to settle into/be settled into/installed/in one’s place.” Essentially, it refers to things being in place and settled. That’s why it can even refer to a weapon being sheathed. When used to refer to payment having been paid, it’s spelled as 納まる. Conversely, 収める・納める handles the transitive twist of these meanings. As is the case with all the other verbs, 収まる・納まる has no volition. Therefore, 収められる・納められる is the correct passive expression when there is a willful agent involved.
50.
満腹
なのに
胃
に
収
まっていく。
Even despite being full, it smoothly settles in one’s stomach.
51.
2
年以内
に
99
.
2
%
の
納
めるべき
税額
が
国庫
に
納
まっているということになります。
99.2% of the taxes that you ought to pay within two years is paid to the national treasury.
52.
刀
を
鞘
に
収
める。
To sheathe a sword.
53. 中世の重要な資料や遺産などが収められている。
Important medieval materials and heritage items are dedicated (here).
54.
壁
の
穴
の
中
に
仏像
が
納
められています。
Buddha statues are installed in the holes of the walls.
まざる and まじる both mean “to be blended/mixed.” まざる is closer to “to be blended” whereasまじる is closer to “to be mixed.” The use of the character 混 is to emphasize things being mixed but technically separate whereas the character 交 is used to emphasize that things are blended together as one. Both まざる and まじる have zero volition. It is まぜられる that you need to use for when things are mixed together with an active agent.
55. この
生地
にナイロンが{混・交}ざっている。
Nylon is blended into this fabric.
56.
辛味
の
少
ない
野菜
カレーを
混
ぜればマイルドな
味
わいになります。
If you mix in a vegetable curry, which has little spice, it becomes a mild flavor.
57.
痰
に
血
が
混
じっている。
Blood is mixed in the phlegm.
58.
大小
の
建物
が
入
り{混・交}じっている。
Buildings big and small are mixed together.
59.
給食室
の
蛇口
から
出
た
水道水
に
黒
い
異物
が{
混入
して・
混
じって・
雑
じって・}いた。
A black foreign substance was mixed in the tap-water from the faucet in the lunch room.
Spelling Note: When used for saying that a foreign substance is mixed in with something, the spelling 雑ざるmay occasionally be used.
60.
油
で
混
ぜられた
絵
の
具
で
絵
を
描
く。
To draw a picture with coloring materials mixed with oil.
Of course, 混ぜられる can also be the potential form of 混ぜる.
61. ジュースにも
混
ぜられるからいいですね。
It’s good because you can also mix it in juice.
The verb 育つ means “to grow up.” Because it can also be translated as “to be raised/brought up,” some confuse it with 育てられる. However, there is no active agent with 育つ. To express an active agent in the passive sense, 育てられる, the passive form of the transitive form, needs to be used. Of course, there is also the fact that 育てられる may also be used as the potential form of 育てる.
62.
僕
が
育
った
町
に
少
しでも
何
か
貢献
したいなと
思
っています。
I’d like to donate something back, even if it’s just a little, to the town I grew up in.
63.
私
は
東京
で
生
まれて、
大阪
で
育
ちました。
I was born in Tokyo and raised in Ōsaka.
64.
動物
に
育
てられた
人
って
本当
にいるの?
Is it really true that there are people who were raised by animals?
65.
猿
の
一族
に
育
てられました。
I was raised by a family of monkeys.
In this lesson, we will discuss a handful of verbs that are called 自受動詞. These verbs are naturally passive-like intransitive verbs, and they incidentally share some level of interchangeability with their transitive verb pair passive forms. In this lesson, we will study the following verb forms:
A key requirement to be a 自受動詞 is that the number of required parts (arguments) in the sentence must be the same as when it’s written in a transitive fashion.
i. [I] lost [to John].
ii. [I] was beaten [by John].
Just from looking at English, we can see that 負ける and 負かされる qualify as 自受動詞. Another requirement is that there be two arguments in the sentence for both means of phrasing. 負ける and 負かされる help make 負ける qualify to be a 自受動詞.
Before delving into examples, it is important to understand what defines the differences between the first and second options. When using a 自受動詞, you are inherently being more objective. Using the transitive passive forms requires that you be more specific about what is going on. This is because using these forms implies a far higher level of subjectivity. Grounding your statement with specifics is a natural means of providing legitimacy to what you’re saying. This logic is what defines the naturalness and nuance splicing of deciding between a 自受動詞 and a transitive passive verb of the same thing.
The intransitive verb 見つかる creates an intransitive-transitive verb pair with 見つける. The verb 見つかる indicates the rather spontaneous finding of something. It lacks volition and, again, implies that the act of finding was incidental in nature. It is very objective as an effect. However, 見つける is the willful act of having found something. In other words, what the agent finds was actively sought out. As such, its passive form 見つけられる has volition, an active agent, and a high level of subjectivity, all characteristics that 見つかる lacks.
1. きのう
夕方
、
家出
した
行方不明
の
学生
が
近所
の
人
に{
見
つかりました・
見
つけられました}。
Yesterday evening, the missing student who had run away was found by someone in the neighborhood.
Sentence Note: When 見つかる is used, the discovery sounds incidental. When 見つけられる is used, the person found was actively sought out. The question “who found the person” also becomes more likely to be raised. If it’s just 見つかる, then the listener is more likely to react, “oh, the person was found.” If it’s 見つけられる, then the listener is more likely to react, “Huh, I wonder who found the person, probably the police looking for him.”
2.
未成年
にタバコを
販売
したのが
警察
に{
見
つかりました・
見
つけられました}。
I was caught by the police selling tobacco to a minor.
Spelling Note: タバコ can also be spelled as たばこ or 煙草.
Sentence Note: When 見つかる is used, it sounds as if the police incidentally found out about the speaker selling the tobacco to a minor. The sentence simply states the situation of the police finding out. Not much more can be gleamed from the statement, but not much more is necessarily going to be asked of by a listener. When 見つけられる is used, it sounds like the police actively tried snatching the establishment when the worker made the mistake of selling the tobacco to the minor.
3.
信号無視
をしていたら、
警察
に
見
つかりました。
Just as I was ignoring the traffic signal, I was caught by the police.
Sentence Note: In this sentence, the speaker was caught ignoring a traffic signal meant for a pedestrian. A policeman was incidentally there to notice the speaker flagrantly ignoring it and promptly snatched him/her.
4.
失踪者
が、
成人
の
場合
は、
警察
に
見
つかったとしても、
本人
の
意思
が
尊重
されます。
Even if a missing person is found by the police, in the even that the individual is an adult, the person’s intention are respected.
5.
膵臓癌
を
早
いうちに
見
つけられた。
The pancreatic cancer was caught early.
Sentence Note: The use of 見つけられる implies an active role of the patient and physician(s) to find the cancer in its early stage.
6. すでに
閉店
している
店舗紹介
ページを
見
つけられた
場合
は、お
問
い
合
わせフォームよりご連絡ください。
If you find an introductory page to a store that has already closed, please contact us from our inquiry form.
Sentence Note: The 見つけられる in this sentence is simply the light honorific form of 見つける. Of course, this has the same origin as the passive form, which also demonstrates how this usage of ~(ら)れる is only possible with the transitive verb forms here.
Spelling Note: すでに may also be spelled as 既に.
7.
住宅
が
全焼
し、
1
人
の
遺体
が
見
つかりました。
The home completely burned up, and one body was found.
8. この
女性
は
男性
の
部屋
で
胸
に
包丁
が
刺
さった
状態
で
見
つかりました。
The woman was discovered stabbed in the chest with a kitchen knife in the man’s room.
9.
自分
に
似合
う
色
ってなかなか
見
つけられません。
I can't seem to find a color that suits me.
Sentence Note: This 見つけられる utilizes the potential meaning of ~られる.
10a. どうしても
仕事
が
見
つからない。
I simply can't find a job.
10b. どうしても
仕事
が
見
つけられない。
I simply can't find a job.
Sentence Note: In 10a, the speaker is making a simple fact-of-the-matter statement that jobs aren’t to be found whereas 10b implies an incapability of finding a job.
The verb 掴まる creates an intransitive-transitive verb pair with 捕まえる for “to be caught” and “to catch” respectively. When 掴まる is used, the objective act of being captured/arrested is what is being described. When 捕まえられる is used, the sentence becomes very subjective. Although it is not always necessary to include by whom the action was done in the sentence, but not including this information will have the listener wondering about more details.
Orthography Note: The characters 掴・摑 can be used instead if the person is being forcibly held down.
11a.
繁華街
の
防犯
カメラに
映
っていた
容疑者
がきょう、
県警
に
捕
まった。
Today, the suspect, who had been captured by downtown security cameras, was caught by prefectural police.
11b.
繁華街
の
防犯
カメラに
映
っていた
容疑者
がきょう、
県警
に
捕
まえられた。
Today, the suspect, who had been captured by downtown security cameras, was caught by prefectural police.
11c.
県警
がきょう、
繁華街
の
防犯
カメラに
映
っていた
容疑者
を
捕
まえた。
Today, the prefectural police caught the suspect, who had been captured by downtown security cameras.
12.
世
の
中
には、まだ
捕
まっていない
殺人犯
が
相当
いる。
There is a considerable number of criminals in the world who have yet to be caught.
13. ピカチュウを
捕
まえた!
I caught a Pikachu!
14. あいつは
万引
きで
捕
まえられた。
The guy was caught shoplifting.
15.
犯人
は、
大通
りを
横切
った
瞬間
に
警察
に
捕
まえられた。
The criminal was caught by police the instant he/she tried crossing the boulevard.
16.
未
だメタモンを
捕
まえられていない
人
が
結構
いるようです。
It appears that there are quite a lot of people who haven’t been able to catch Ditto yet.
Sentence Note: Ex. 16 demonstrates how 捕まえられる, unlike 捕まる, can be used to indicate the potential. It’s even possible for it to be used as the light honorific form of 捕まえる. Noticing that particle usage is different for the ‘passive’ interpretation than it is for the potential and the light honorific interpretations is very important in preventing confusion.
17.
先日
、
友達
が
交通違反
で
捕
まってしまった。
The other day, my friend got caught for a traffic violation.
18. ついに宇宙人が捕まえられた!
The alien has at last been caught!
I've at last been able to capture the alien!
19.
私
は
窃盗
で
警察
に{
逮捕
されました・
捕
まえられました}。
I was arrested by police for theft.
Sentence Note: When 捕まえられる is used, Ex. 19 sounds like the speaker had been actively sought and then arrested. Perhaps the speaker had been caught close to the scene after a short chase. 逮捕される, on the other hand, is a more formal variation of 捕まる. It just incidentally catches the meaning that the speaker was arrested for theft. All the listener would know is that the speaker could have surrendered himself/herself at the police station.
20.
飲酒運転
で
捕
まると、
罰金
はいくらですか。
When you’re arrested/caught for drunk-driving, how much is the fine?
The intransitive verb 負ける when meaning “to lose (to)” is similar in meaning to 負かされる, meaning “to be beaten (by).” Although 負ける is naturally more objective and 負かされる is more subjective, over all, 負ける is far more common. This is because 負ける can be used in very emotional situations, and so the heightened emotion that 負かされる would provide is usually unnecessary.
21. (
弁護士
の)
原田
さんは、
口論
になると、いつも
奥
さんに
負
けてしまうらしいです。
(The lawyer by the name of) Mr. Harada seems to lose every time he gets into an argument with his wife.
22. (
弁護士
の)
原田
さんは、
皮肉
にも、
口論
になると、いつも
奥
さんに
負
かされてしまうらしいです。
Ironically, (the lawyer by the name of) Mr. Harada seems to always get defeated by his wife when they get into an argument.
23. あんなにきれいさっぱり
負
かされるのが
我慢
できなかったんです。
I just couldn’t stand being completely defeated like that.
24.
棋士
がコンピュータに{
負
かされる・
負
ける}
日
が
来
るなど、とても
考
えられなかった。
It was totally unthinkable that the day would come a shogi/go player would [be defeated by/lose to] a computer.
25.
癌
に
負
けない!
I will not lose to cancer!
26.
交渉
は、
相手
を
負
かすことではありません。
Negotiating is not defeating one’s opponent.
27.
女
の
子
に
負
かされた
屈辱感
が
増
していった。
The sense of humiliation from having been defeated by a girl grew.
28.
怒
りに{
負
けない・
負
かされない}ようにしましょう。
Let’s try not to [lose/be defeated by] anger.
29.
初心者
に{
負
けて・
負
かされて}もめげない。
Even if I [lose to/am defeated by] a beginner, I won’t be discouraged.
30.
彼
は
無名
の
新人
に{
負
けた・
負
かされた}。
He [lost to/was defeated by] an anonymous newcomer.
The verb やぶれる and やぶる create an intransitive-transitive verb pair, but their meanings are not quite the same. Additionally, how they’re spelled is also different.
At first glance, it appears that 敗れる is interchangeable with 負ける. Although this is true for the most part, 敗れる is slightly more literary. Furthermore, 敗れる, being that it is the same verb as the other 破れる, gives a nuance that the loss at hand was due to one’s group falling apart. 破れる・敗れる and 負ける will also differ in set phrases.
Because set phrases are set, you can't just switch out a key component and be fine. Therefore, 負けるが勝ち (he that fights and runs away may live to fight another day) and 恋に破れる (to be disappointed in love) won’t ever be seen with the two verbs flipped with each other.
Although 破る may be used to mean “defeat,” in which case it is interchangeable with the more common 打ち負かす (to defeat), it is not used in the passive. However, 破られる is used as the passive form for all the other usages.
31.
結局
は
試合
に
敗
れてしまった。
In the end, I was defeated in the match.
32.
彼氏
に
約束
を
破
られたら
別
れますか。
Do you break up if your boyfriend breaks a promise on you?
33.
旅館
やホテルの
障子
を
破
ってしまった
時
、
料金
はどうなりますか。
When you accidentally tear a paper sliding door at a ryokan or hotel, what happens to the fare?
34.
静寂
が
破
られた。
The silence was broken.
35.
錦織圭
は、
準々決勝
で
敗
れた。
Kei Nishikori was defeated in the quarterfinal.
The intransitive form of 知る is 知れる. 知れる means “to come to light/to be known.” Aside from these two basic meanings, it also means “to obviously not amount to much” in the set phrase 高が知れている. It also appears in the infamous phrase かも知れない (might/maybe).
Clearly, because it is used in かも知れない, 知れる is a very common verb. However, its use outside set phrases is rather limited. When the sense of “to come to light” extends to “to be found out,” 知られる is far more frequent. Also, the more serious and/or complex the situation being found out is, the more likely 知られる is used over 知れる.
The reason for this is simple. In the positive sense of something being known to other people, 知れる is contained to set phrases. For instance, 名の知れた (well-known) is one example. Usually, the sense of “to be well-known” is taken over by the compound verb 知れ渡る.
Usually, 知れる is rather negative to the point of contempt. When used to indicate that something is obviously known it’s not worth saying or that something doesn’t amount to much, it clearly isn’t being used nicely. This is likely why 知られる is almost always used in general situations to show that something was found out by others.
36. お
里
が
知
れてしまう
時
ってどんな
時
ですか。
What sort of moments does your upbringing get found out?
Sentence Note: Ex. 36 refers to the location of one’s upbringing being found out by one’s dialect. Even if a person learns how to speak in a standardized manner, slip-ups always occur. When directed at other people, お里が知れる is not a nice phrase.
37.
自衛隊
に
応募
しましたが、
親
に
知
れて、
阻止
されてしまった
過去
があります。
There was a moment in the past where I enlisted into the Self-Defense-Force but my parents found out and I was prevented from joining.
38.
彼
はゲーム
業界
では
名
の
知
れた
人物
だ。
He is a well-known figure in the game industry.
39.
一人
でできることはたかが
知
れている。
What one can do by oneself doesn’t amount to much.
40. マイナンバーで
生活保護受給
は
会社
に
知
られるのでしょうか。
Will being a welfare recipient be found out by my company through My Number?
41. クレジットカードは
番号
を
知
られるだけで
危険
です。
A credit card is dangerous just by having the number found out.
42. クレジットカードの
暗証番号
を
他人
に
知
られてしまった。
The PIN to my credit card was found out by another person.
43.
転職
の
際
、
年金
(の)
手続
きで
離婚歴
が
知
られてしまうでしょうか。
When switching jobs, would one’s divorce history be found out via pension procedures?
44.
誰
にも
知
られないでしょう。
It probably won’t be found out by anyone.
45.
辞書
を
引
けば
分
かるのに、こんな
質問
を
投稿
する
人
の
気
が
知
れない。
I can't for the life of me understand people who post these kinds of questions even though they could’ve figured them out by pulling out a dictionary.
Grammar Note: Ex. 45 is an example of 知れる being the potential form of 知る. As this example shows, when it’s used this way, it’s usually going to be in the negative form and the sentence overall will not be so kind.
46.
杳
として
行方
{(が)
不明
だ・が
分
からない・が
知
れない}。
(The person’s) whereabouts are completely unknown.
47. それは
言
わずと
知
れたことだよ。
That’s needless to point out.
48.
君
のことをどれほど
心配
したか
知
れないよ。
You have no idea how worried I was about you.
49.
欧米圏
では
広
く
知
れ
渡
っている。
It’s widely known in the West.
50.
健康保険
を
使
って
病院
{で・を?}
受診
しても
会社
に
知
られることはありません。
Even if you get seen at a hospital with health insurance, (the visit) won’t be found out by your company.
If there is such thing as a 自受動詞, then 他受動詞 ought to exist as well. Unsurprisingly, they do. The only difference between the two is that 他受動詞 have a minimum requirement of three arguments.
i. [I] am being taught [karate] by [my instructor.]
ii. [I] am borrowing [this pencil] from [my friend].
iii. [I] was entrusted with [the care of several animals] from [my neighbors].
Although Japanese has a high tendency of dropping things that are apparent in context such as first person and other elements of the sentence, with verbs that are 他受動詞, the three arguments of “subject,” “direct object,” and “indirect object” are always implied because they are absolutely required in the same sense that they are with their English equivalents in the examples above.
As you should have already gathered, the Japanese equivalents of the verbs in the examples above along with other verbs like them make up the topic of this lesson. The verbs to be looked at are categorized neatly below. As you can see, comparing them to their passive transitive counterparts will be the primary goal of this lesson. The dichotomy for 他受動詞 behaves the same as with 自受動詞. That means if you figured out the nuances discussed in the previous lesson, then this lesson should be a breeze.
Movement of Information
教わる vs 教えられる
Movement of Something
授かる vs 授けられる
預かる vs 預けられる
借りる vs 貸される
Carrying out Orders
言い付かる vs 言い付けられる
言付かる vs 言付けられる
Being Caught Doing Something
見つかる vs 見つけられる
捕まる vs 捕まえられる
教わる vs 教えられる
Contrary to expectations, 教えられる is not that frequently used in the passive form. This is because its uses in light honorifics and as the potential form of 教える are more common than its passive meaning. When the passive meaning is employed, it is usually juxtaposed with 教える in some way, or the statement itself is personally indifferent.
1a. 私は李先生{に・から}韓国語会話を教わっています。
I’m learning Korean conversation from Mr. Lee.
1b. 私は李先生から韓国語会話を教えられていますよ(△)。
I’m being taught Korean conversation from Mr. Lee.
1c. 私は李先生{に・から}韓国語会話を教えてもらっています(よ)。
I’m having Mr. Lee teach me Korean conversation.
Grammar Note: When using the passive form as shown in 1b, the personal nature of the statement in combination with the relative lack of use of this form for such a personal comment requires that the particle から be used in order to make the sentence passable as natural. It's also important to note that when there is a clear person stated as to who is teaching you, 教えてもらう is used more than 教わる. This is so the subjective nature of the flow of learning is emphasized since 教わる naturally lacks a subjective feel to it because it is a 他受動詞.
2.
温室
での
栽培
のやり
方
を
教
わっています。
I’m being taught how to cultivate in a greenhouse.
3. ネイティブから
英語
を
教
わらないほうがいいかもしれない。
It might not be best to learn English from a native.
4.
先輩
から
教
わった
事
がなかなか
覚
えられません。
I can't seem to remember what I learned from my senpai.
5.
広州
で、
餃子
と
麺
の
作
り
方
を
教
わりました。
I learned how to make gyoza and noodles in Guangzhou.
6.
家庭教師
の
方
に
英語
を
教
わっていました。
I had been learning English from a private teacher.
7.
彼
は
間違
った
歴史
を
教
えられているという
認識
がない。
He has no knowledge that he is being taught incorrect history.
8.
教
える
側
と
教
えられる
側
は、どちらの
立場
が
上
ですか。
Which standpoint is higher in rank, ‘teaching’ or ‘being taught’?
9.
負
うた
子
に
教
えられて
浅瀬
を
渡
る。
A fool may give a wise man counsel.
10.
教
えたり
教
えられたりするときに
大切
なのは
理解
することです。
What’s important when teaching or being taught is understanding.
11.
会話
を
教
えられても、
綴
りをきちんと
書
けなければならない。
Even if you’re taught conversation, you still have to be able to properly spell.
12.
仕事
で
明
らかに
間違
いを
教
えられていると
思
う(ん)なら、きちんと
仕事
をして
見返
してやってはどうですか。
If you really think that you are being taught something clearly wrong at work, why not get back at the person by doing the job properly?
13.
教師
から
間違
いを
教
えられました。
I was informed of my mistake by a teacher.
14.
道徳
は
教
えられるのか。
Can morals be taught?
15.
先生
は
何
を
教
えられているんですか。
Teacher, what is it that you teach?
授かる vs 授けられる
The verbs 授かる and 授けられる have the following meanings.
Together, they create an intransitive-transitive verb pair even though both utilize the particle を. Both words are quite literary and are rarely employed in the spoken language. As for 授けられる, it is not used nearly as often as 授かる, but when it is, the context is usually religious and/or text translated from European languages.
授かる being more objective and 授けられる being more subjective is certainly applicable here, but as you will see in the examples, 授かる tends to be more natural; however, there are many instances in which another verb altogether is more common. Even so, one nuance that 授かる and 授ける would share that another verb wouldn’t necessarily have is emphasizing how what is being bestowed is something worth more than what can be bought by money. Essentially, price tags aren’t placed on what is being given.
16.
女王陛下
から
爵位
を{
与
えられる・
授
かる・
授
けられる}。
To be awarded a court rank from Her Majesty.
17.
弟子
たちは、
神様
{に・から}
授
けられた
権威
を
持
って
悪霊
を
追
い
出
し、
病
を
癒
し、
神
の
国
を
宣
べ
伝
えるために
遣
わされた。
The disciples, with power granted to them [by/from] God, were sent to cast out evil spirits, heal disease, and proclaim God’s kingdom.
18.
戒名
とは、
元々
は
仏教徒
となったときに
授
けられる
名前
で、
本来
は
生前
に
授
かるものです。
A (posthumous) Buddhist name, was originally a name granted to someone once he became a Buddhist, and so originally, it was something awarded during one’s lifetime.
19.
戒名
は
必
ずしも
僧侶
から{
授
かる・
授
けられる}ものではない。
A posthumous Buddhist name is not something you are granted by a monk.
20.
人間
は
理性
と
良心
を
{
与
えられている・
授
けられている} 。
Humans are given reasoning power and a conscience.
21. ロシア
皇帝
から
勲章
を{
受
ける・
授
かる・
与
えられる・
授
けられる}。
To [receive/be granted] a medal from the Russian emperor.
22.
使徒以外
に
神
の
国
の
奥義
を
授
けられた
人
はいないのです。
Aside from the disciples, no man has been bestowed the secrets of God’s kingdom.
23. この
称号
は
王家
の
認証状
で
授
けられ、
特許状
によって
授
けられるのではない。
This title is granted by royal charter; it is not granted by a patent.
Grammar Note: Ex. 23 demonstrates how 授けられる is the correct form when using the 連用中止形. However, another reason that makes it the appropriate verb choice is that the entity granting the title is bureaucratic in nature, although royal. Although homage is being paid to the royal establishment, the sentence sounds procedural and not one of glorification.
24.
教会
で
子
どもに
洗礼
を
授
けました。
I baptized the children at (the) church.
25.
子供
を
授
からない
人生
を
選
んできたのです。
I’ve chosen a life of not being blessed with children.
預かる vs 預けられる
The verbs 預かる and 預ける create an intransitive-transitive verb pair for “to take care of” and “to leave in someone’s care.” Incidentally, both verbs utilize the particle を. However, the “who” does what isn’t the same. For 預かる, it is either the speaker taking care of something for someone or the speaker telling someone to look after someone. For 預ける, the speaker is leaving something in someone’s care. The something is often money, kids, or other things that need taking care of that you entrust with someone.
Although 預かる typically translates as “to take care of/to look after,” 預けられる typically translates as “to be given custody/to be left…to look after/to be entrusted with…” It turns out that from the standpoint of English phrasing, there shouldn’t be much reason why you would ever confuse the two.
26.
忘
れ
物
を
預
かっています。
I’m looking after lost belongings.
27.
斉藤
は
元妻
から
子供
を
無理
やり
預
けられて
困惑
した。
Saito was bewildered from being forcibly given custody of his kids by his ex-wife.
Spelling Note: 無理やり may also be spelled as 無理矢理.
28.
叔母
にお
金
を
預
けました。
I entrusted money to my aunt.
29.
鍵
を
預
かってください。
Please hold onto the key.
30.
急
な
用事
が
出来
たので、
保育所
で
短期間
だけ
子供
を
預
かってもらえるでしょうか。
I’ve got a sudden matter to attend to, so could I have my kids looked after for just a short period of time at a nursery?
31.
小
さいうちから
保育園
に
預
けられている
子供
って
可哀想
じゃないですか。
Aren’t kids who are left in the care of a nursery school from a young age pitiable?
32. ペットホテルには、
予防接種
をしていない
動物
も
預
けられているため、
自分
のペットが
感染
してしまうかもしれないというリスクがあることをご
理解
ください。
At the pet hotel, because there are also animals in its care that are not immunized, please understand that there is the risk that your pet may become infected with something.
33. 荷物を彼に預けました。
I entrusted my luggage to him.
34.
預
けられない
手荷物
はありますか。
Is there any baggage that can't be kept?
35.
子供
を
預
けられないので
連
れていくつもりでいますが、
大丈夫
でしょうか。
I’ve been planning to bring my children along because I can't leave them somewhere, but would that be okay?
借りる vs 貸される
The verbs 借りる and 貸す create an intransitive-verb pair for "to borrow" and "to lend" respectively. Etymologically speaking, 借りる is the intransitive counterpart of 貸す. In fact, for most of its history, it’s actually been 借る, which is still a valid form of the verb in most of West Japan. Incidentally, both the concept of borrowing and the concept of lending involve the particle を.
The two verbs technically become synonymous when す becomes 貸される. This is because “to be lent” is the same thing as “to borrow.” The only difference is that “to borrow” always implies that one is purposely having someone loan something to oneself whereas if one is lent something, the lender could just be providing a kind gesture without seeking any word as to whether the act is necessary in the first place. Incidentally, this nuance splicing creates problems with the frequency of use for 貸される. It turns out that its only practical application is with the set phrase 手を貸す (to lend a hand). As you will see, a foreseeable situation to use the passive form is when an opponent/adversary offers a hand to you, but you don’t necessarily like the fact that the person did so.
36.
住宅
ローンを
借
りています。
I’m borrowing a home loan.
37.
友達
に
貸
したお
金
が
返
ってこない。
The money I lent my friend has yet to return.
38.
手
を
貸
されることが
嫌
いな
子
がいれば、
積極的
に
大人
に
手
を
借
りる
子
もいます。
If there are kids that hate having a hand lent to them, there are also kids that positively borrow a hand from adults.
39.
相手
から
手
を
貸
されたら
屈辱
だと
思
わない?
Do you not think it’s a disgrace to be lent a hand from an opponent?
40.
私
の
年収
でいくら
借
りられるんですか。
How much can I borrow with my annual income?
言い付かる vs 言い付けられる
仰せ付かる vs 仰せ付けられる
The verbs 言い付かる and 言い付ける create an intransitive-transitive verb pair meaning “to be told to/ordered to” and “to tell to do/order to do/to tell on someone.”
The objective/subjective dichotomy between 他受動詞 and the passive forms of their transitive counterparts becomes very evident with 言い付かる and 言い付けられる. 言い付かる is rather objective and it is safe to assume that the order is legitimate and deserves being followed trough. In Ex. 43, you can see how it would be used in reference to an order from a superior. 言い付けられる, on the other hand, almost always refers to orders people essentially drag you down with. Most contexts involve the speaker being annoyed at the person making all the orders.
As for 仰せ付かる and 仰せ付けられる, the only difference is that the element of the verbs meaning “to say” is replaced with the honorific form of 言う, 仰せる, usually seen as 仰る (a contraction of 仰せられる). However, as you may be able to deduce from what’s been said thus far, the concept of respecting the order of a superior and being melodramatic about being bossed around don’t mix together. As such, 仰せ付けられる is essentially not used. However, you might find it in obscure text from older translation works from European languages. In which case, it would come from a literal translation in which the passive is used with an explicitly stated indirect object. Overall, it is important to note that 仰せ付かる is not really used aside from contexts such as Ex. 44.
41.
用事
を
言
い
付
けてこないでください。
Please don’t come telling me to take care of something.
42.
夜勤明
けで
帰
ってきたばかりなのに、
犬
の
散歩
を
言
いつけられた。
I was told to walk the dog despite having just gotten home from night shift.
43.
棚
の
整理
を{
言
い
付
かった・
言
い
付
けられた}が、
整理能力
がまったくないので
困
っています。
I was [ordered/told to] arrange the shelves, but because I have absolutely no organization skills, I’m in a bind.
44. 大役を仰せ付かりました。
I’ve been appointed an important task/major part.
45.
妻
に
浴槽
の
掃除
を
言
いつけられた。
I was told to scrub the tub by my wife.
言付かる vs 言付けられる
The verbs 言付かる and 言付ける have the following meanings:
Both words are meant to be formal. The former may be seen in business settings in which one is entrusted with a message to relay information. Ex. 47 is exemplary of honorifics that is slightly out-of-date, not because of the word choice but because of the situation in which one implies you’re going to meet someone of importance outside one’s inside group because one is following orders. In the minds of people today, that takes away from one’s sense of humility towards a client.
言付ける, alternatively spelled as 託ける, has two rather different meanings. The first is translated in a way that makes it seem to be passive in nature, but this is only an issue with English phrasing. In actuality, it simply refers to entrusting a word/item to someone so that it may be passed to the right person. The second usage meaning "to make an excuse” has for the most part been entirely taken over by the verb , which incidentally is also spelled as 託ける. This coincidence likely has a reason for why the verb overall is usually not used, being substituted for an explanation of the circumstances. The passive form 言付けられる is hardly ever used. Although it can be used in completely grammatical sentences, it is simply out of style.
46.
何
も
伝言
を
言付
かっておりません。
I have not been entrusted with any messages.
47. 橋本が只今出張中の為、佐々木様によろしくお伝えくださいと言付かって参りました。
Mr. Hashimoto is currently on a business trip, and so I have come to convey his best regards to you, Mr. Sasaki, per his request.
48.
山本殿
を
境内
までお
連
れするよう
言付
かって
参
りました。
I have come here under orders that I lead you into the compound, Lord Yamamoto.
49.
用
を
言付
かって
来
ました。
I have been brought here under orders of service.
50.
用
を
言付
けられてやってきた。
I came here under the pretext of a task.
を見つかる & を捕まる
With the addition of what one is caught “doing” 見つかる and 捕まる can be used as 他受動詞. It is important to note that although some speakers will occasionally use them anyway, the passive transitive counterpart forms are not compatible in this situation. This is because there is no intent involved with the speaker being caught doing something. The situation is spontaneous and there is no logical reason for subjectivity to be interjected. People sometimes just get caught red-handed.
51. ベッドで
寝
ているところを
見
つかった
猫
が
驚
いて
逃
げ
出
した。
The cat caught sleeping on the bed was startled and ran off.
52.
街
でデートしているところを
見
つかった。
I was caught on a date in town.
53. 親に酒を飲んでいるところを見つかった。
I was caught drinking by my parents.
54.
活動家
25
人
が
油田
のプラットフォームを
襲
っているところを
捕
まった。
Twenty-five activists were captured assaulting an oil platform.
55.
彼
らは
女性
や
難民
のふりをしているところを
捕
まった。
They were captured pretending to be women and refugees.
56.
彼
は
運転中
に
携帯
を
使用
しているところを
捕
まった。
He was caught using his cellphone while driving.
The particles さえ, すら, and だに are often interchangeable, but pay close attention to detail. There is some history involved, so try not to use these words anachronistically. Although they're interchangeable with each other, there are subtle differences.
すら is the original particle for minimal example--"even...not to mention..". Now it has evolved to show minimal expectation, which is showing an extreme (usually negative) example. So, it is equal to "(not) even". It can be seen as ですら. すら is faded into literature and somehow survived to the present. Now, だに is ironically rarer than すら.
Using this with other particles is very tricky as there is historical and personal variation. For instance, using it with を isn't wrong. However, many people just use すら. For when you do want to use it with を, をすら and すらを are both possible, but the latter is extremely old-fashioned. Even so, it still pops up.
1. なにしろ、警視庁みずから一般人の犯歴データを流していたことが問題になったばかりなのに、公の裁判所の正式決定すらをはねつけたんですからね。
Anyhow, although the Metropolitan Police themselves having been leaking out general people's criminal record data has just become a problem, it's because they even rejected a public court's official decision.
From 明日はどっちだ! by 岡留安則.
さえ comes from the verb 添ふ (to add), which has become 添える in Modern Japanese. So, the original meaning of this particle was "in addition to". Eventually, さえ began to be used to show minimal example. Both usages survive today, but the latter can be alternatively expressed with でさえ, as is demonstrated in the example below. It is to note that both ですら and でさえ are only used after nouns! This is because the case particle で is in these expressions.
2. 今どき、男の子だったら、小学生でさえ知ってるよ。
These days even boys in elementary school know.
The meaning of X(で)さえY is this. Some X matter and some Y action/happening/condition are usually not connected in any one, yet when you bind them together, you emphasize a situation that is not the norm by any means. This is what minimal example means.
3. 虎でさえ彼を傷つけることはできない。
Not even a tiger can hurt him.
It's sometimes hard to tell which meaning is meant. Minimal example is often used in negative expressions, but when this is not the case, consider the context. "Even a kid can understand it" is minimum example. "In addition to us, even the dogs understand" shows addition. It doesn't help that both English and Japanese are vague on this.
5. 雪どころか雨さえ降らなかった。
Not even rain fell, let alone snow.
6 初心者にさえできることだ。
It's something even a beginner can do.
7a. 子供{(で){さえ・すら}・でも}(そのこと)知ってる(ことだ)よ。〇
7b. 子供もさえそんなこと知ってるよ。X
Even kids know that.
8. ただでさえ電車が遅れているのに、寄り道をしようだなんて。
Even under normal circumstances, hanging out along the way even when the train is late is just...
9a. ぼくは独りだから、君さえぼくの心の頼りだよ。X
9b. ぼくは独りだから、君だけがぼくの心の頼りだよ。〇
Because I'm all alone, you're the only thing my heart relies on.
Particle Note:
1. さえ can be after other particles like に. をさえ is also possible, but を is usually dropped. In literature, however, をさえ is more common.
10. 秘密にしていたのに、三歳の子供にさえ気づかれてしまった。
Even though I was keeping it a secret, it was even found out by a three year old.
11. 自分はまだ生きているのだという実感をさえ持つことができたのだった。
I was able to have the realization that I myself was still alive.
From 光の雨 by 立松和平.
2. There is also さえも and さえもが. Both are more emphatic than さえ and show minimal example, but が implies new information and or surprise. If you understand も and が well enough, this shouldn't be hard to visualize.
12. 死さえもが玉井にとっては安楽なのだ。
Even death was something which would be bring ease to Tamai.
From 光の雨 by 立松和平.
Important Patterns
Both さえ and すら can be after the 連用形 of verbs similar to は, や. etc. You can also use them after て. This creates a phrase that puts emphasis on the action rather than the noun. すら, again, is increasingly becoming rarer, so you will probably only see it with nouns. Here is a chart using the pattern さえ…ば (if only you~) to illustrate this grammar.
Noun + さえ + Verb + ば | 薬さえ飲めば | If you only drank this medicine (and no other) |
Verb (連用形) + さえ + すれば | 薬を飲みさえすれば | If you only drink this medicine (and do nothing else) |
Verb + て + さえ + いれば | 薬を飲んでさえいれば | If you are drinking this medicine (and doing nothing else) |
Grammar Note: Verb+ている+さえすれば → Verb+ていさえすれば. In this case, it doesn't matter that 連用形 of いる is left like that. Remember, this is not like ~ており、・・・.
14. 食べ((すぎ)さえし)なければ、もっとやせ(られる・るようになるよ)。
If you would only not eat, you would be able to lose more weight.
15. 幸せでありさえすればかまわないんだ。
I don't care so long as you are happy.
16. 知ってさえいればな~。(Colloquial Spelling)
If only I had known!
17. 時間さえあれば、手伝うんだが。
If only I had time, I'd help.
18. 生きていさえすれば、何も要らない。
If you just live on, you won't need anything.
19. 勉強さえすれば、試験はできるでしょう。
If you just study, you should be able to do the exam.
20. 一生懸命頑張りさえすれば、何でも好きなことができる。
If you just try with all your hardest, you should be able to do anything you like.
21. 分からない漢字は、調べさえすれば分かりますよ。
If you simply look up Kanji you don't understand, you'll understand them.
22. 日本語は、日本人と毎日話そうとしてさえいれば話せるようになります。
If you just try talking to Japanese people everyday, you'll become able to speak in Japanese.
23. 病気は、この漢方薬さえ飲めば、よくなります。
If you drink just this herbal medicine, your sickness should become better.
24. 和書さえ読めれば、幸せです。
If I read just Japanese books, I'm happy.
25. これさえあれば、後は何も要らない。
If we only had this, we'd need nothing later.
Nuance Note: Again, these particles emphasize what they directly follow, so although there is some levity on where to place さえ in a sentence, be aware of this.
Speech Style Note: Though さえ may be used in the spoken language, it is more common in the written language.
26. しかしこの進学については、思い出すさえ忌々しい事情がある。
But, remembering about going onto university brought on annoying circumstances by just remembering.
From 金閣寺 by 三島由紀夫.
Grammar Note: さえ also rarely follows the 連体形 of verbs. This is essentially old-fashioned.
だに, not to be confused with the noun ダニ (tick), is used in both negative and positive sentences. It raises the most probable thing and negates it and anything aside from it. Originally, it showed minimal desire or want. In this sense it means "at the least". This led to it being used to show minimal example just like さえ and すら. This is equivalent to だけで. It is the rarest of the three.
27a. 夢にだに思ったことはない。(かなり古風)
27b. 夢でさえ思ったこともない。(もっと一般的)
I have not thought of something in just a dream.
28. ネオンは錯綜し、吞み屋の大きな赤い提灯は微動だもしなかった。
The neon lights complicated things, and the bar's big, red lantern didn't even sway a bit.
From スタア by 三島由紀夫.
Grammar Note: だも is a contraction of だにも.
In this lesson we'll learn about the compound particle ~において and its attribute form ~における.
~において・おける can be used to mark the place of an event or field of activity. As you could imagine, ~における is the attribute form.
1. 国会における発言
The remark in the Diet
2. 大会は上海において1週間にわたって開かれます。
The convention will be open in Shanghai over a week’s time.
3. 来年の総会はベルリンにおいて行われます。
Next year’s general meeting will be held in Berlin.
4. 会議は第一会議室において行われました。
The meeting was held in the first conference room.
Unlike で, however, it can be used to specify a non-physical location. It could still be paraphrased out, but lack of emphasis and this connection are as consequence. The examples below, though, aren’t truly quite like existential statements. Rather, they force emphasis on the setting in which the attributed item is in.
5. 人生におけるいくつかの過ちと選択
The several mistakes and choices in human life
From the title of a book by ウォーリー・ラム.
6. それは私の人生における最良の日であった。
That was the best day in my life.
7. 恋と戦争においては全てが正当であるというのは本当かな。
I wonder if all is truly fair in love and war.
When it is used to show the time of something, it is interchangeable with the particle に. Unlike に, though it does not indicate a specific time. ~における, as one would imagine, is interchangeable with の. This only means that whenever you can use ~における, you could use の instead, not the other way around.
Speech Style Note: It’s very formal and usually replaced by other things in 話し言葉. As such, it is rarely ever used in reference to personal activity.
8. 私は毎日友達の家において勉強します。X
Orthography Note: It can be written in 漢字 as に[於いて・於ける]. You may often see “at” written as 於 on info cards.
9. 過去においての出来事
Happenings in the past
10. 地震などの災害時においては、特に正確な情報が必要である。
In times of natural disaster such as earthquakes, it’s important to especially have accurate information.
11a. 2014年のG8のサミットはブラジルにおいて行われます。(More formal)
11b. 2014年のG8のサミットはブラジルで行われます。
The 2014 G8 summit will be held in Brazil.
12. 彼は経済学において{優れて・秀でて}います。
He is outstanding in the field of economics.
13. 人生に於ける使命感のある人。
A person who has a sense of mission in life.
14.
畦
は、
稲作農業
において、水田と水田の境に
泥土
を盛り上げて、水が外に漏れないようにしたものである。
Causeways in rice farming are things made for water to not leak out from piling up mud on the boarders of rice patty fields.
From ウィキペディア.
15. 絵画においても、音楽においても、彼女より才能に恵まれた人はあまりいない。
In both art and music, there aren’t many more gifted than her.
Adapted from A Dictionary of Japanese Particles by Sue A. Kawashima.
16. 家族や友だち等と一緒の食卓においては、子どもの心身の成長・発達の変化を日々観察することが可能である。
It is possible to observe the development changes and mind and soul growth of children daily at the dinner table together with family and friends.
From 保育所における食事の提供ガイドライン
It may also be used in the sense of “regards to” and translated as such to be “at/in”.
17. 技術において他国に優る。
To be superior to other countries in technology.
18. 個人の名において
As to individual names
19. 統計の分析の能力において彰子は非常に優れている。
In regards to statistic analysis, Shoko is extremely excellent.
20. この点において私と彼女とは意見が食い違っています。
As for this point, my opinion differs with hers.
21. 自分の責任において
At one’s risk
Etymology Note: 於ける comes from the verb おく's 命令形 + ~り in its 連体形. ~り is an archaic auxiliary that shows completion.
This lesson will introduce you to more patterns that utilize ~ない or derivations of it.
AないことにはB means "if...don't/in not...; unless". So, if you don't do A, you get stuck with B. B could be positive or negative depending on the outcome that you wish to express. It can be used with verbs, adjectives, or the copula, but don't forget how to properly use ない! This pattern must be only used in declarative sentences.
品詞 | 接続 | 例 |
名詞 | N+でないことには | 人でないことには |
形容詞 | Adj → く-連用形 + ないことには | 高くないことには |
形容動詞 | Adj + でないことには | 精密でないことには |
動詞 | Adj → 未然形 + ないことには | しないことには |
1. 泳がないことには、海岸に行けなくなった。
In not swimming, I became unable to go to the beach.
2. 急がないことには、間に合わなくなる。
In not hurrying, you won't make it in time.
3. 勝たないことには、
試合
に負ける。
If you don't win, you lose in the tournament.
4. がんばらないことには、今度の韓国語の試験に合格できないよ。
Unless you try hard, you won't pass this next Korean exam.
Grammar Note: Do not confuse this with ...ないことには where は is simply emphatic. The phrase discussed in this section is conjunctive in nature whereas this isn't.
5. 自分に関わりのないことには口を出すなよ。
Don't interfere in things that don't concern you!
無 し means "without" and is after nominal phrases. If なし for some reason is placed before a noun, it becomes 無き. There is more behind this form of ない. The problem lies with how to use ~なしに(は), ~なしで(は), and ~なくして(は). These phrases show that if something were not to happen, a certain event won't be. These phrases show necessity, and there is a negative phrase in the next clause.
6. コーヒーなしに過ごせない。
I can't go on without coffee.
7. 涙なしに語ることができない。(書き言葉的)
I can't tell it without tears coming.
8. 国民の理解と協力なしには実行できない。(書き言葉)
We can't act forth without the understanding and cooperation of the citizens.
9. 政府開発援助なしではこの革新的な医学研究は続けることができない。
Without government development aid, this groundbreaking medical research can't continue.
10. しっかりと準備することなくしては成功できぬ。 (硬い書き言葉)
Without properly preparing, you can't succeed.
11. 先生方のご指導なくして私の大学合格は有り得ませんでした。(とても丁寧; Useful expression)
Without the guidance of my teachers, my college success wouldn't have been possible.
12.
政治家
はテレプロンプター(原稿)なしで話せない。
Politicians can't talk without a teleprompter.
13.
百害
あって
一利
なし。(Set phrase/proverb)
To do no good but a lot of harm.
14. 「憲法を改正することなくして、軍事大国になれない」と考える人が増えているそうだ。
It sounds that the number of people who think that without revising the constitution, [Japan] won't be able to become a military power is growing.
Grammar Note: Also seen as ~ずして(は), ~なくして(は) is a more old-fashioned/archaic equivalent of ~なしに(は), but it can be used in plus and or negative situations.
~なしで(は) VS ~なしに(は)
Although both present a premise X, which makes Y possible, they are slightly different.
1. ~なしで(は) is used with a noun that shows a general condition, and the listener is told that there must be X. Thus, the speaker can use this when pointing out a ban or the need for evasion.
2. ~なしに(は) can't be used directly towards the listener to get that person working. When these expressions are interchangeable, the former shows an individual cause whereas the latter shows a more obvious situation that is deemed to be evident and necessary. Thus, it is more suited for the written language.
15. スペイン語?無理いうなや。辞書なし{で・に}は、分からんわ。(ちょっと関西弁っぽい)
Spanish? Don't be unreasonable. I can't understand it without a dictionary.
16. 客商売だから、ネクタイなし{〇 で・X に}は、困るんだけども。(話し言葉)
Since it's business (client-oriented), it'd be troubling without a tie.
17. 届け出なし{〇 に・△ で}外泊するのは、キャンプの規則に違反することになります。
Sleeping outdoors is now a violation of camp rules without notification.
18. ノックなしに(は)、ドアを開けないでください。
Don't open the door without knocking.
Grammar Note: は in the last situation would make it fit well, but the message was probably written on the door rather than spoken. Had the sentence been spoken, with ノックしないで being more common, ~なしに would exemplary demonstrate consideration to the listener.
~ないことには~ない VS ~ことなしに(は)~ない VS ~ことなく
XないことにはYない shows that for the realization of Y, X is necessary. X can be a positive or negative situation. However, ~ことなしに(は)~ない and ~ことなく can only be used with verbs whereas the former pattern is also seen with nouns and adjectives. Furthermore, these latter expressions show that "for Y to realize, X is unavoidable". So, it's not positive.
19a.
努力
{することなしには・しないことには}、成功はできない。
19b. 成功するためには、努力を
避
けていることはできない。
You cannot succeed unless you put in effort.
20. 「憲法を変え{・ることなしには・ないことには}、軍事大国になれないと考える人が増えている」といわれますが、本当かどうかよく分かりませんね。
It's said that the number of people that think that without changing the constitution, [Japan] won't be able to come a military power is growing, but I don't really know if that's true.
21. 優しい人でないことには、お金があっても、結婚できませんよ。
You can't get married even if you have money if you're not a nice person.
Other things to keep in mind is that both ~ことなしに(は)~ない and ~ことなく are more 書き言葉的; however, the former is even more 硬 い because it has the old なし in it. You do still see ~こと(も)なく in the spoken language, though, in which it has interchangeability with 連用形+もしないで.
22a. 多少のリスクを負わないことには、ビジネスなんかできないよ。とうてい避けられないもんだから。〇
22b. 多少のリスクを負う{ことなく・ことなしに}、ビジネスなんかできないよ。とうてい避けられないもんだから。X
Without taking some risk, you can't do business. That's because you can't avoid it no matter what.
24. しょうことなく、メザキさんと並んで、いくら行っても太くもならないし細くもならない道を、長く歩いた。
With it not being helped, I went along with Mr. Mezaki, and we walked a long ways down the road, which no matter how much you go neither widens nor thins.
From 溺レる by 川上弘美.
Phrase Note: しょうことなく = しょうことなしに = やむを得ず.
甲斐 means "avail" and 甲斐 もなく, thus, means "to no avail/in vain". Just as in English, it is not really casual.
25. 私たちは
練習
した
甲斐
もなく負けてしまった。
We lost despite practicing.
26. わざわざフランスから出かけてきた甲斐がありました。
It was worth our while to have come all the way from France.
27. 勉強した甲斐もなく落ちてしまいました。
I ended up failing to no avail of studying.
28.
働
き
甲斐
Just the value of working
29.
年甲斐
もなく
Unbecoming to one's age
These phrases limit things as exceptions in their own unique ways.
After a noun phrase of some sort, ~除いて is used to mean “except…” and is often left in ひらがな. It is a general phrase and will differ with the emotive power of the following grammar point ~をおいて. The verb 除く can mean “to remove/exclude”, and “exclude” can also be expressed with the verb 除外 する, which is of the vein of “to set aside/rule out”.
1.
一隻
を除いて
艦船
は全部
沈
んだ。
Except for one vessel, all of the carriers sank.
2. きのう、暑かったことをのぞいて、僕らは楽しいときを過ごした。
Yesterday, except it being hot, we had a good time.
3. 私は除いてください。
Please include me out.
4. 私は報道記者と政治家を除く全ての人々が平等であると信じている。
I believe it in the equality of all people except reporters and politicians.
5. 北部をのぞいて、お天気はよかったですよ。
The weather was good except in the north.
6. わたしを除いて全ての人がそれを知っていたそ。
Except me, it seems that everyone knew about it.
7. 女性は
調査対象
から除外することになった。
It was decided that women were to be taken out of the inquiry subjects.
Variant Note: In more formal literary fashion, this can also be seen as ~のぞき.
8. 政府の 規制改革会議 が 全面的 な 解禁 を求めている、インターネットを使った 市販薬 の販売について、 菅官房長官 や 田村厚生労働大臣 ら関係4 閣僚 は、 副作用 のリスクの評価が終わっていない、ごく一部の市販薬を除き、 大半 を解禁する方向で 調整 を進める見通しです。
In regards to the all-round band lift of the sale of over-the-counter drugs using the internet that a government regulation reform meeting is seeking, Chief Cabinet Secretary Kan, Prime Minister Tamura of the Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare, and four other bureaucrats in connection are forecast to further the coordination in the direction of lifting the ban in large part with exception to a small amount of over-the-counter drugs of which the evaluation of side-effect risks is not over.
From NHK on June 4, 2013.
Warning Note: Do not confuse this with the verb 覗く, which means to “to peep/take a look at” and has the same pronunciation.
~をのぞいて VS ~以外
This is very similar to ~以外. One thing to notice, though, is that ~以外 is a suffix, and as seen below, the phrase is more affirmative and somewhat more formal sounding.
9. 九州以外のどこも地震が発生した。
With exception of Kyushu, earthquakes occurred everywhere.
10. これ以外に方法はありませんよ。
There is no method other than this.
~をおいて means "apart from". This phrase is used to highly evaluate something or someone. So, it's a good thing. There is always something like ほかに...(い)ない after it. When you are generally saying "aside from", use ~を除いて. Like ~除いて, ~をおいて is used after noun phrases.
This phrase originally showed a meaning of "without emphasizing A as something important, one treats A as being useless and throws it out/places it to the side/separates it apart/removes it. In this sense, Aをおいてほかに(い)ない becomes a double negative expression, which then makes it an extremely powerful affirmative statement of A being number one.
In Japanese it is usually the case that very powerful expressions are kept in the written language, and although this is the case for をおいて, in rather formal situations, it can be used to declare one's top recommendation. It doesn't necessarily have to be in formal situations; however, as the first example sentence demonstrates clearly.
Examples
11. 君をおいて
適任者
はいないぞ!
Apart from you there's no responsible person!
12. 頼れるのは彼女をおいてほかにない。
There is no one to rely apart from her.
13. これをおいてほかに方法はなかった。
There was no way but this.
14. それはさておき・それはさておいて
Aside from that
15. 九州と四国を除いてそこかしこで東日本大震災は多数の死者を出して大災害が発生する結果となりました。
Apart from Kyushu and Shikoku, no matter where there are many deaths and major catastrophes have occurred in the Tohoku-Kanto Earthquake Catastrophe.
~別 VS ~をおいて
The following paraphrases with 別 is used rather than ~をおいて because the situation is not one of pointing out as the best but something that should be treated separately.
16a. 震度7 は別として、釜石市には津波が押し寄せました。
16b. 震度7度の地震とは別に、津波が釜石市を
襲
った。
Apart from a 7 earthquake, Kamaishi City got flooded by a tsunami.
Word Note: The 震度 system is on a different scale than the Richter scale.
~ならでは is one of those instances where classical grammar holds on strong. The なら in this expression, like the particle なら comes from the 未然形 of the Classical Japanese copular verb なり. It is then followed by a classical usage of で, which is not related to the contraction of にて. In this case, it is the contraction of ~ずて, which is equivalent to ~なくて. は, here, is here for contrastive purposes. If the pattern were translated into something solely Modern Japanese, it would be equivalent to ~でなくては・~でなければ.
This pattern is used to express the brilliance/wonderfulness of something by claiming that only it is as such. In the unabbreviated state of a sentence with it, a complementing verbal/adjectival phrase follows, but this can be omitted out if that phrase is being used as an attribute by replacing it with の, giving ~ならではの, which is the more common form of the pattern.
The entire phrase, which is “AならではBない(C )” is, then, equivalent to expressions such as “AであってはじめてB” and “AだからこそB”. In the case that A is a commonplace noun, ~ならでは is of the sense of the former coming from the position of societal wisdom/common sense. However, when A is particular, it shows that only A can do C.
Examples
17. 君ならではできないことだよ!
Without you, this cannot be done!
18. それ、中国の方ならでは{できない・の}ものの考え方ですよ。
That is only a matter of thought possibly by a person from China.
19. それって、大阪弁ならでは{ありえない・の}人当たりのよさですね。
That is charm only that of Osaka Dialect, isn’t it?
20.
社長
ならではの
発想
ですね。
This can only be a conception of the company president, isn't it?
21. この
教科書
ならではの
特徴
です。
This is a characteristic only in this textbook.
22. 50年続いた老舗ならでは出せないこの味の良さ!
The goodness of this flavor that only an old shop for 50 years can offer!
23. この体験は沖縄ならではですよ。
This experience can only be in Okinawa!
Grammar Note: As you can see, another exceptional thing about ~ならでは is that it can be followed by ~です with the rest of the pattern omitted.
24. さすが一流レストランのシェフならでは{出せない・の}味ですね。
This is as expected flavor that can only be from a first rate restaurant chef.
Phrase Note: さすが, which is an adverb that shows something as something to be expected, is frequently used with ~ならでは.
Double negative expressions seem to cause confusion for Japanese learners. Especially if these learners come from language backgrounds that include languages where these kind of expressions still yield negative meaning, it’s not surprising that phrases like ~ないではいられない would cause problems.
It’s also not helpful that some textbooks call certain adverbs “negative” when it’s just a matter of semantics. In this lesson, you will learn about ~ないではいられない by knowing not only what it means, but also what it is similar to and how it is different.
At a basic understanding, ~ないではいられない means "cannot help but...". This translation, however, makes it seem a whole lot like ~てしまう.It also looks vaguely similar to ~なければならない and happens to also mean something similar. Consider the following errors.
1a. 期末試験があるので、今晩勉強しないではいられない。X
1b. 期末試験があるので、今晩勉強しなければならない。〇
Intended: Since I have a final exam, I have to study tonight.
2a. その赤ちゃんの笑顔を見ると、笑わないではいられなくなる。X
2b. その赤ちゃんの笑顔を見ると、自然と笑ってしまう。〇
Intended: When(ever) I see that baby’s smiling face, I cannot help but laugh.
If you couldn't figure out why the first wording was wrong, we'll reexamine them later as to why they’re wrong after we go through some facts about ~ないではいられない.
Conjugation and Variants
This pattern can also be seen as ~ずにはいられない, which is more literary. ~ず is an old negative ending. Like other negative endings, it attaches to the 未然形. As it is old, it attaches to the old 未然形 of する, せ-. Thus, you get せずにはいられない, and not しずにはいられない.
Class | 例 | ~ないではいられない | ~ずにはいられない (書き言葉的) |
一段 | 感じる | 感じないではいられない | 感じずにはいられない 感ぜずにはいられない (古風) |
一段 | 食べる | 食べないではいられない | 食べずにはいられない |
五段 | 泣く | 泣かないではいられない | 泣かずにはいられない |
五段 | 思う | 思わないではいられない | 思わずにはいられない |
カ変 | 来る | 来ないではいられない | 来ずにはいられない |
サ変 | する | しないではいられない | せずにはいられない |
Defining
Now, what does ~ずにはいられない really mean? Consider the following.
~ずにはいられない: This expression shows the speaker's feeling of ending up doing something without being able to restrain one’s willpower. So, it cannot be used with things that are deemed to be spontaneous. The situation must be one where you should have willful control over, but you succumb to something. This, though, doesn't have to always be used in a negative fashion, because it’s often the case that the situation is good.
3. 会社でいやなことがあって、飲ま{ないで・ずに}はいられなかったんだ。
Bad things happened at the company, and so I couldn't help but drink.
4. ダイエット中でも食べずにはいられない。
I can't help but eat even during a diet.
5. 僕の彼女に勧められれば、買わないではいられないよ。
If I’m recommended to by my girlfriend, I can't help but buy it.
More Notes
This phrase, as the last example shows, is often used with conditionals. Remember that when talking about a third person, speech modals like ~だろう and ~ようだ become necessary. This pattern is also frequently used after clauses that establish a reason as for why “one cannot help but…”. Although earlier it was noted that this does not necessarily have to be used in a negative light, it still can be.
6. その話を聞いたら、いくらやさしい彼女でも怒らずにはいられないだろう。
Even such a nice person like her wouldn't probably be able to help but be angry if she heard that story.
7. そのニュースに対して疑問を抱かずにはいられませんでした。
I couldn't help but hold doubts in regards to that news.
This expression is frequently used with verbs of action, emotion, and thought. As this pattern indicates a slipping of willful control to letting go in doing such action, it is frequently used with adverbs such as どうしても, なぜか, つい, etc.
8. 僕は黙ってたほうがええと思ったが、どうしても一言言わないではいられんかった。(Casual)
I thought that it would be best to just stay quiet, but I couldn't help but say something.
This pattern is similar to ~てしまう in that both show a sense of accidentally doing something, but if something is felt to spontaneously/physiologically occur, ~てしまう remains grammatical while ~ないではいられない does not.
9a. 嬉しくて買わないではいられなかった。X
9b. 嬉しくて買ってしまった。
I was happy and ended up/accidentally bought it.
Mixing this phrase up with ~なければならない is not acceptable. The literal translation of such a mistake doesn't even make much sense in English, that is unless you’re purposely being humorous, which in that case humor often breaks grammatical rules regardless of language.
10. 笑わないではいられません。
I can't help but laugh.
11. おかしくて笑わないではいられない。
I couldn't help but laugh because it was funny.
Sentence Note: Although the first sentence in this lesson with 笑う was marked wrong, with context that implies the willful effort of trying to withhold laughter, this pattern can be used. Remember that with this pattern you can't restrain oneself from doing something, so there has to be some sense that you gave up trying.
More Examples
12. 会わないではいられなかった。
I couldn't help but see her.
13. 泣かないではいられませんでした。
I couldn't help but cry.
14. お酒を飲まないではいられない。
I can't help but drink sake.
15. サービスが悪いと、一言文句を言わないではいられない。
When the service is bad, I can't help but complain a bit.
16. 単純な質問を見ると、答えずにはいられないよ。
When I see a simple question, I can't help but answer it.
17. 何かできることを手伝わないではいられなかった。
I couldn't help but do what I could.
18. この本を読み始めたら、終りまで読まないではいられませんでした。
When I started reading this book, I couldn't help but read it until the end.
19. 私は困っ{た・ている}人を見ると、声をかけないではいられません。
When I see someone in distress, I can't help but call to them.
20. 私は困っ{た・ている}人を見ると、助けないではいられません。
When I see someone in distress, I can't help but help them.
21.
当選
したからって
喜
んではいられない。
I can't be so happy just because I got elected.
Grammar Note: When you do not make this phrase a double negative, you change the translation as seen in the example above to “can't be..”.
Curriculum Note: We will return to similar expressions dealing with restraint of various sorts later in IMABI.
~ざるを得ない VS ~ないではいられない
~ざるを得ない is very similar, but the speaker has more control in the fact that they feel an obligation to do something, but obligation itself is not all there has to be for someone to actually do something. Thus, the speaker still has some control, howbeit very little.
22. 酔っ払いに注意しないではいられなかった。
I couldn't help but pay attention to the drunks.
23. 酔っ払いに注意せざるを得なかった。
I had no choice but to pay attention to the drunks.
This lesson will continue coverage on phrases regarding "not being able to restrain" one's emotions or feeling. The phrases here with exception to ~にたえない, which is brought up because of ~てこたらない, all use the て form to attach to verbs/adjectives, but be careful about what kind of words they can semantically be used with.
~てならない is found primarily in the written language, though this doesn't mean you can't hear it be used in the spoken language, and its purpose is to show that a certain feeling can't be helped being felt/thought. If the verb, though, does not refer to emotion or something spontaneous, it cannot be used. This pattern, also, does not attach to the negative form.
1. 不思議
に思えてならない。
I can't help but think it’s strange.
2. 悪化するように思えてならない。
I can't help but think that it’s going to get worse.
3. もう10年も
故郷
に帰っていないので、両親に会いたくてならない。
Since it's already been 10 years since I haven't been home at my hometown, I can't help but want to meet my parents.
漢字 Note: 故郷 may also be read as こきょう.
4.
肘
が痛くてならない。
I can't help but think about my hurting elbow.
5.
退屈
な日本語の授業に出ていると、眠くてならない。
I can't help but sleep when I'm at my boring Japanese class.
6. 毎日
寂
しくてならない。
I can't help but be sad every day.
7. 日本語能力試験が心配でならない。
I can't help but worry about the JLPT.
8. 失敗するような気がしてなりません。
I can't help but have the feeling that I'm going to fail.
Warning Note: Do not confuse this with the must/must not pattern ~てはならない.
~てやまない is a somewhat 硬 い phrase that is used to show that one will continue to be holding a strong feeling. You just won’t stop. It is used with verbs concerning emotion, but it is not used with emotional verbs that describe temporary states. The grammatical person is usually first person. Understandably, it is not appropriate to attach this phrase to the negative form.
9. この写真に
写
っているのは私が愛してやまない犬だ。
The thing in this picture is a dog that I shall always love.
10. 親は子供の将来を期待してやまないものだ。
Parents never stop hoping for their children;s future.
11. 愛犬が死んで悲しくてやまない。
I will continue to be sad over my beloved dog dying.
12. 皆さんの幸せを願ってやみません。
I will continue to wish for everyone's happiness.
13. ご
活躍
を願ってやまない。
I can't stop wishing for you to flourish.
~てしかたがない is very similar to ~てならない, but since it originally referred to there not being a way to withstand or conquer, it gives off a feeling that one can't stand something while thinking at the same time that there is nothing else that could be done. Therefore, it is also very common in the spoken language. This is unlike ~てならない which is often felt to be quite old-fashioned.
~てならない and ~てしかたがない are different when the verb doesn’t express something spontaneous or emotional, in which case you use ~てしかたがない because nothing is predicated in its definition that it must be used with a verb of emotion. However, this does not mean that ~てしかたがない can't be used with verbs of spontaneity and or emotion because it still can.
Variant Note: ~しようがない and ~てしょうがない are more casual versions with the latter being the most casual.
Examples
14. もう残念でしかたがない。
It’s no use that it’s already regrettable.
15. いくら着込んでも寒くてしょうねーな。
No matter how much I wear, I’m still cold!
16. 彼が言うと、僕を非難しているように聞こえて{ならない・しかたがない}。
Whenever he says (something), I can't help but hear it that he's criticizing me.
17. 朝っぱらからくそ犬めが鳴くんで、うるさくしょうがねーよ。(Vulgar)
Since the damn dog barks from early in the morning, it's annoying as hell.
18.
抽選
にもれたなんて、残念でしかたないね。
It can't be helped that I'm disappointed that I didn't get drawn.
耐える means " to endure". ~に耐える is seen after nouns and verbs of personal attention to show the worth of something. With する verbs, する is dropped. For example, it is used in contexts such as being worth to read, hear, criticize, applaud, value, etc.
~に耐えない, though, has two usages. When used with the 連体形, it means "cannot stand/endure to...". When used after a noun, it shows a strong emotional reaction in which one can't hold back such emotions. This may sound very similar to the first usage, but this usage is strictly used with nouns.
Spelling Note: The phrase can also be spelled as に堪えない.
Style/Word Choice Note: It is somewhat of a stiff phrase and used with a limited number of nouns such as 感謝, 感激, 慙愧 (shame), 等.
Examples
19. 感謝に耐えません。
I can't help but thank you.
20. 見るに耐えないOLだぞ。
She's a butt-ugly office lady.
21.
慙愧
(の念)に堪えない。
To be deeply ashamed of oneself.
22. お忙しいところを多くの方にお集まりいただき、感激に堪えません。(謙譲語)
I am overwhelmed with emotion from receiving all of you gathering while you are all busy.
23. 気の毒で同情に堪えない。
I am deeply sorry for you and sympathize with you.
24.
誠
に
慨嘆
に堪えない。
It is truly a matter for great regret.
25. 父は聞くに耐えない
歌
いぶりをする。
My dad has an awful manner of singing.
26. 鑑賞に耐えるものだ。
It is something worth appreciating.
Word Note: Again, this phrase is used with limited words such as 見る、聞く、批判、 鑑賞 、議論、etc.
Although usually left in かな, if you do see this pattern written in 漢字, don’t confuse the reading for the one in ~(に)堪えない. They're not the same, of course. This is a very common phrase in the spoken language, unlike a lot of the phrases in this lesson, and it is a strong speech style meant to show that one can't resist a certain emotion, sense, or want.
~てたまらない can't be used with spontaneous verbs. This is contrast with things like ~てならない and ~てしかたがない. On the other hand, if you are using an adjective that shows an objective degree, ~てたまらない can be used but ~てならない・~てしかたがない can't.
Examples
26. 日本へ帰りたくてたまらない。
I can't stand but want to go back home to Japan.
27. 隣の車のマフラー音がうるさくて、たまらないよ。
The muffler of the car next to me is annoying, and I can't stand it.
28. 隣の駐車場の車の音がうるさくて、たまりません。困ってますよ。
The car noise from the parking lot next to me is annoying, and I can't stand it. I’m at a loss.
29. お兄さんは毎日退屈で堪らないそうです。
I hear that your older brother can't stand him being bored every day?
These are even more difficult phrases dealing with not being able to help one's emotions, etc. Not only do you need to try to separate these in your mind from the phrases found in the two previous lessons about this topic, but you're going to have to pay even more attention to the differences among these patterns.
Also seen as ~ずにはすまない, which is more formal but can still be found used in the spoken language, is used to show that if one thinks from a societal point of view with a given circumstance, doing something is simply and certainly unavoidable. It is difficult to use, however, when you think that you have to do something from personal emotion. Given that the phrase is stiff, this should be understandable.
1. 人の心を傷つけてしまったなら、謝らずにはすまない。
If you are to hurt someone’s heart, you can't avoid apologizing.
2. 借金をせずにはすむまい。(古風で、硬い言い方)
You can't get by without borrowing money.
3. 親に知られたら叱られないではすまないよ。
If your parents found out, you won’t be able to avoid getting scolded.
The non-double negative form above result in ~ないで 済 む, which means "to get by without...". Just as in English, this implies a good thing because you got away without doing something. 済む itself may show that something is done.
4. 済んだことだ。
It's finished.
5. 済んだのですか。
Is it over?
6. 金を払わないで済みました。
I got by without paying for it.
7. 気づかれずに済む。
To escape attention.
8. 彼が
怪我
をせずに済んでよかった。
I'm glad that he got by without injury.
9.
冗談
ですまない。
To go beyond a joke. (Shows guilt)
10. 済んだことは
元
に
戻
らない。
What's done cannot be undone.
11. 蜂を見つけたら、ゆっくり離れたほうがいい。体に止まっても振り払わずにじっとしていれば刺されずに済むよ。
If you are to find a bee, it’s best to separate oneself from it slowly. Even if it lands on you, you can leave without being stung if you stay still.
12. もう一つは、犯行後、同じように夜を待ち、普通の道を河内長野方面に向かって歩いたかもしれないことだ。これは車道以外に近道の旧道もあるので、ここを歩けば夜間は誰にも見られずに済む。
Another possibility is that (the criminal) waited just like that for night after the crime and walked down a regular road toward Kawachi-Nagano. This could go without being seen by anyone at night walking through here because there are also old shortcuts aside from the roadway.
From 二重葉脈 by 松本清張.
Also seen as ~ずにはおかない, this pattern is used to show that one will certainly happen naturally or that you won’t allow something to stay not being done. It shows strong resolution. The situation where one won’t allow for something deals with first person. However, the first situation deals with subjects outside of first person, which includes inanimate things.
13. あの話はやはり嘘だったと、絶対に
白状
させないではおかないぞ。
If that was indeed a lie, I will absolutely not stand without making (that person) confess.
14. 彼女が歌ったのは聞く人の心を
揺
さぶらずにはおかない。
What she had sung will surely move the hearts of those who hear.
余儀 means "another way/problem" and 余儀ない expresses "out of one's control". So, ~を余儀なくされる, shows that one had to do something that was not of one's will and there was no other choice to get around it. You are essentially driven into a corner in a certain situation. This can also be seen in the causative as ~を余儀なくさせる. Usually the subject of sentences with ~を余儀なくされる is usually human, but the subject of sentences with ~を余儀なくさせる is usually not human but a something.
15. 悪天候のため試合の中止を余儀なくされました。
Bad weather made us postpone the match.
16. アメリカの圧力が
貿易
自由化を余儀なくさせた。
American pressure made free trade unavoidable.
17. 暴風雨で遠足は延期を余儀なくされた。
We had to put off the field trip due to fierce rain.
18. {余儀ない・やむを得ない}事情で欠席しました。
I was absent due to an uncontrollable situation.
19. 辞任
を余儀なくされる。
To become out of one’s control to resign.
Although most dictionaries will just tell you this is the same as ~ないではいられない, this is not enough information to help you get a question right about it on the JLPT. Like all the other phrases in this series, this phrase describes not being able to withhold emotions, but this portrays an image of not being able to restrain emotions that have sprung up due to the circumstances. This phrase attaches to nouns that imply emotion. Sentences with it are usually first person.
20. 涙を禁じえなかった。
I couldn't hold back the tears.
21. 犯人の供述を聞き、
犯行動機
の
身勝手
さに
怒
りを禁じ得なかった。
I couldn't withhold my anger at the selfishness of the motive from listening to the criminal’s affidavit.
22. 同情の念を禁じえない。
I can't hold back sympathy
23. 残された子犬を見て、涙を禁じ得なかった。
I couldn't hold back the tears from looking at the puppy that was left.
In this third lesson on verbs with both intransitive and transitive usages, we’ll continue to uncover peculiarities in Japanese at the individual word basis.
する
する is the most important verb in the Japanese language as we have already learned due to how many usages it has and how important those usages are to the entirety of the language. Unsurprisingly, its usages can be classified as either being intransitive or transitive in nature.
As an intransitive verb, する can demonstrate a sense being sensed, in some state (often with onomatopoeia), show the worth of something (as in price), or the elapse of time (with time phrases).
1. アテモヤは
砂糖
で
煮詰
めたリンゴのような
味
がします。
The atemoya has a flavor like that of an apple boiled down in sugar.
Spelling Note: Ringo is seldom spelled as 林檎.
2.
目
がぐるぐると
回
るような
眩暈
がした。
I got dizzy as if my eyes were spinning.
3.
耳鳴
りがするとお
化
けが
側
にいるって
本当
ですか。
Is it true that a ghost is next to you when your ears ring?
4.
背後
に
強烈
な
爆発音
がした。
There was the sound of an intense explosion in the background.
5. しばらくしてから
行
きましょう。
Let’s go after a little while.
Spelling Note: しばらく is sometimes written as 暫く.
6. このネックレスはいくらしたの?
How much was this necklace?
Spelling Note: いくら is seldom spelled as 幾ら.
7.
狭
くて
息
が
詰
まるような
感
じする。
I feel cramped.
8.
日焼
けしちゃった。
I got sunburned.
As a transitive verb, its primary meaning is “to do.” Aside from its complex grammatical usages that happen to be transitive, it can be used to show occupation, mean “to play (a game/sport/etc.),” “to wear (an accessory)", or even “to be...(shaped)/to have a…(face)/etc.” when describing appearances.
9.
何
をしたらいいでしょうか。
What should I do?
10. ここは、
代々
パン
屋
をしている
老舗
です。
This here is an old bakery past down for generations.
11.
手袋
をしなさい。
Please wear your cloves.
12.
彼
は
長
い
髪
をしている。
He has long hair.
13.
買
い
物
でもしようか。
How about we shop or something?
14.
僕
の
勤
めている
会社
にパチンコをする
人
が
数人
いました。
There were several people who play pachinko at the company where I work.
15.
惑星
ってどんな
形
をしているんですか。
What sort of shape do planets have?
16.
変
な
顔
しないでよ。
Don’t make weird faces.
Spelling Note: 為る may very well be the Kanji for “to do,” but it is no longer used in regular writing. If, though, you feel compelled to know how in its truly transitive sense of “to do” is spelled in Kanji, then this is how.
増す
増す is a literary verb that means “to increase.” In this regard, it is very similar to the intransitive/transitive verb pair 増える and 増やす. 増える, unlike 増す, is commonly used in both the written and spoken language. It, though, can have emotion attached to it whereas 増す is only used in an objective sense. However, unlike 増す, it cannot be used to express (dramatic) increase in degree (See Exs. 17, 18, and 21).
17. プミポン
国王
の
喪失
で、タイの
将来
への
不安
が
増
している。
With the loss of King Bhumibol, suspense over Thailand’s future is massing.
18.
極右政党
が
勢
いを
増
している。
The far right political party is gathering strength.
19.
日本
では
高齢者
の
人口
が
増
している。
In Japan, the elderly population is increasing.
20.
前日
の
大雨
で
川
の
水嵩
が
増
して、
川
が
氾濫
した。
In the heavy rain the other day, the river’s banks enlarged, causing the river to inundate.
21.
地震波
は、
深
さと
共
に
速度
を
増
している。
The seismic waves are increasing in depth as well as speed.
22.
研究人
の
人数
が
増
えた。
The number of researchers has increased.
23.
交通事故
の
数
が
増
えているのは
何故
だろうか。
Why is that the number of traffic accidents is increasing?
24.
強盗
が
増
えてきているため、
宝石店
などでは
厳重
な
防犯対策
が
必要
です。
Because robberies have risen, strong crime prevention measures are necessary at places such as jewelry stores.
増やす is used in the sense of “to increase the number of (resources).” When used in the sense of “to increase (fortune/animals/plants)” as in promulgation, it is often spelled as 殖やす. When this meaning is used in an intransitive sense, 殖える can be used.
25.
相続財産
が{
増
えて・
殖
えて}いきます。
Your inheritance will increase.
26.
商品
の
種類
を
増
やすことで、カナダでの
売
り
上
げを
伸
ばしたいと
思
います。
By increasing the variety of merchandise, I would like to expand sales in Canada.
27.
生物
の
種類
を
殖
やしていきたいと
思
います。
I would like to increase the diversity of living things.
28.
不動産
を
活用
して
財産
を
殖
やす。
To increase assets by utilizing real estate.
働く
As an intransitive verb, 働く means “to work” or “to function.” As a transitive verb, it means “to perpetrate.”
29.
中国
では、
出稼
ぎ
労働者
の
多
くは、
工場
などで
働
いているようです。
In China, a lot of migrant workers seem to work at places like factories.
30.
上司
が
不正
を
働
いていることにたまたま
気
づいてしまいました。
I’ve incidentally noticed that my boss is committing fraud.
Spelling Note: たまたま is seldom spelled as 偶々.
31.
悪事
を
働
いても
何
も
感
じないという
人
は
少
ない。
There are few people who don’t feel anything from having committed an evil deed.
32.
息子
が
盗
みを
働
いているとは
考
えたくなかった。
I didn't want to think that my son was committing robberies.
引く
As a transitive verb, ひく can mean a variety of things with just as many ways to spell it. 引く just happens to be the most basic way to spell it. As an intransitive verb, it simply means “to ebb/fade.”
33. くじを
引
いてみました。
I tried drawing a lot.
Spelling Note: くじ may also be spelled as 籤.
34.
参加者
の
目
を
惹
いていました。
It had been drawing the participants’ attention.
Spelling Note: When used to mean “to attract/captivate,” ひく is usually written as 惹く.
35.
先日
、
風邪
を引きました。
I caught a cold the other day.
36. {まっすぐに
線
・
直線
}を
引
いてください。
Please draw a straight line.
Spelling Note: まっすぐ may alternatively be spelled as 真っ直ぐ.
37.
辞書
を
引
いてください。
Please consult a dictionary.
38.
3
から
2
を
引
くと、
1
になります。
When you subtract 2 from 3, you get 1.
39. カードを
引
いてください。
Please draw a card.
40.
熱
が
引
いてから2、
3
日
は
外出
を
控
えてください。
Refrain from going out for two to three days after the fever has receded.
41. 潮が
引
いたら
歩
いて
渡
れます。
You can walk across once the tide has ebbed away.
42.
孫氏
は
長年
、
政治
の
表舞台
を{
引退
している・
退
いている/
退
いている}。
Mr. Sun has retired from the center stage of politics for many years.
Spelling Note: When used to mean “to draw back/retire,” ひく is often written as 退く but it becomes indistinguishable from the verb しりぞく, which is far more common and used for the same purpose.
43.
挽
き
肉
を
自分
で
挽
きたいのですが、どんな
肉
を
用意
すればいいでしょうか。
I’d like to mince ground meet by myself, but what sort of meat should I prepare?
Spelling Note: When used to mean “to saw/mince,” ひく is usually written as 挽く.
44. コーヒー
豆
を{
挽
く・
碾
く}と、いい
香
りがします。
Coffee grains have a good scent when you grind them.
Spelling Note: When used to mean “to grind/mill,” ひく is often written as 挽く. It may also be traditionally written as 碾く.
45.
抹茶
はなぜ
石臼
で{
挽
く・
碾
く}んですか。
Why is it that you grind matcha in a stone mortar?
Culture Note: 抹茶 is powdered green tea.
46.
私
が
自転車
に
乗
って
直進
していたところ、
前
からきた
左折
する
車
に
轢
かれました。
As I was riding straight ahead on my bicycle, I was knocked down by a car turning left which had come from ahead.
Spelling Note: When used to mean “to run over (with a vehicle)", ひく is usually spelled as 轢く.
47. ピアノを
弾
けますか。
Can you play the piano?
Spelling Note: When used to mean “to play (a string instrument)", ひくis spelled as 弾く.
Spelling Notes: ひく may seldom be spelled as 曳く with a nuance of “to tow.” This is especially the case with towing boats, which may be expressed alternatively with the verb 曳航する. When used to mean “to pull/drag ahead,” ひく may seldom be spelled as 牽く. In this sense of “traction/hauling,” the verb 牽引する would be far more common.
In this fourth lesson on verbs with both intransitive and transitive usages, we’ll continue to uncover peculiarities in Japanese at the individual word basis.
持つ
As a transitive verb, 持つ means “to hold/possess/have.” As an intransitive verb, it means to keep (as in perishable goods) or “to be durable (as in the body).” As an intransitive verb, it is usually spelled as もつ.
1.
誰
でも
自分
の
行動
に
責任
を
持
っている。
Everyone holds responsible for his own actions.
2. ブランドの
財布
を
持
っています。
I have a brand wallet.
3. このままでは
体
がもたない。
At this rate, my body won’t last.
4. お
味噌汁
を
作
ったら、
何日
くらいもちますか。
Once you've made miso soup, about how many days is it good for?
馳せる
馳せる has almost entirely disappeared from Modern Japanese, but its grammar is interesting. In the physical sense, it either means “to hurry/run to…” or “to ride…fast.” Nowadays, the verb is usually limited to set phrases like 思いを馳せる (to give more than a passing thought to…).
5.
彼
は
頼朝
のもとへ(と)
馳
せようとした。
He ran for Yoritomo’s side.
6.
城
の
方
から
馬
が{
走
り
寄
って・
駆
け
寄
って・
馳
せて}
来
た。
Horses came running from the direction of the castle.
7.
武者
が
馬
を{
走
らせながら・
馳
せながら}
矢
を
射
た。
The warriors shot arrows as they raced their horses.
8.
米国
の
暮
らしに
思
いを{
巡
らして・
馳
せて}います。
I’ve been thinking nostalgically upon my living in America.
跳ねる
Haneru as an intransitive verb means “to jump/leap/splash,” and as a transitive verb it means “to splash/hit (with a car)/reject” among other things. Traditionally, the intransitive form is spelled as 跳ねる and the transitive form is spelled as 撥ねる. Usually, though, 跳ねる or はねる will work.
Grammatically speaking, the intransitive form cannot be used in certain forms such as the passive. In such instances, the transitive form must be used.
9.
揚
げ
物
をしていて
油
が
跳
ねて
目
に
入
った。
I was deep-frying food when oil splashed up and got in my eyes.
10.
海面
には、
魚
が
跳
ねています。
Fish are leaping up from the sea.
11. あの
車
は、
水溜
りの
泥
を
歩行者
に{
跳
ねた・
撥
ねた}。
That car splashed mud from the muddle over the pedestrian(s).
12.
泥
が
私
の
晴
れ
着
に
跳
ねてしまった。
Mud splashed onto my best clothes.
13.
車
に
水
をはねられて
濡
れてしまった。
I got wet from being splattered with water by a car.
14.
走行中
に
丸太
のようなものをはねてしまった。
I ran over a log of some sort while driving.
15.
警備員
の
男性
がはねられて
死亡
しました。
A male security officer passed away from being ran over.
16.
検査
で
不良
品をはね(のけ)る。
To exclude defective products in inspection.
Spelling Note: Hanenokeru may be spelled as 撥ね除ける.
In addition to the meanings mentioned above, the transitive 撥ねる may also be used to mean “to point up/add a hook.” This is typically in reference to things like mustaches or the hooks on characters.
17. 「干」という
漢字
を
撥
ねて
書
くと、「于」という
別字
になります。
The Kanji "干" when written with a hook becomes “于,” a separate character.
The transitive 撥ねる also has the meaning “to make nasal.” This is in reference to sound changes in Japanese that result in sounds being turned into ん.
18. 「
死
にて」は「
死
んで」と
撥
ねます。
We nasalize “shinite” as “shinde.”
The transitive haneru also has the meaning of “to behead.” Although typically spelled as はねる, its traditional spelling is 刎ねる.
19.
首
を
刎
ねろ!
Behead him!
Word Note: Kubi may refer to the head along with the neck. This comes from the fact that the neck is the point of severing in a beheading. Historically, 頸 should be the character for neck because 首 refers to the head in Chinese. In anatomy, the head is often referred to as 頭部(とうぶ) while the neck is referred to as 頸部(けいぶ).
はだける
開ける is unique in that it traditionally creates an intransitive/transitive verb pair with 開かる. From appearances alone, 開かる should be the intransitive form and 開ける should be the transitive form, but now, 開ける can be used as both to mean “to open (one’s clothes) to expose (one’s chest).” Although not limited to the chest, it can be used to indicate clothing no longer covering some part of the body.
20.
足
を
動
かしても、
裾
が{
開
ける・
開
かる}
心配
などありません。
Even if you move your legs, there’s no worry of your cuffs being exposed.
21.
着用
が
困難
で、
胸
が
開
ける
恐
れもある。
Wearing is difficult, and there is also the fear of your chest becoming exposed.
22.
彼
はシャツのボタンを
外
し、
筋肉質
の
胸
を
開
けた。
He undid the buttons of his shirt and exposed his muscular chest.
One meaning that 開かる doesn’t share with 開ける is “to obstruct/block (the way),” and in this sense, it is usually seen in the compound verb 立ちはだかる.
23.
目
の
前
に
大
きな
壁
が
立
ちはだかっている。
A large wall stands in the way in front of my eyes.
生じる
The verb 生じる means “to happen/occur/germinate.” For the most part, it is usually used as an intransitive verb. However, it can technically also be used as a transitive verb. This is possible when the subject of the verb can be viewed as the agent. Yet, many speakers don’t like the verb being used as a transitive verb if it’s not used in the causative form 生じさせる. This is why, as the example sentences demonstrate, there will always be a way to phrase out the transitive 生じる.
24.
表面近
くの
細胞
から
芽
が{
出
る・
生
じる}ことが分かりました。
We discovered that buds sprout from the cells close to the surface.
25. その
違
いによって、
貿易
から
利益
が
生
じる。
Based on that difference, profit results from trade.
26a.
豆腐
にカビが{
生
えた・
生
じた}。
26b.
豆腐
がカビを
生
じた。
Mold grew on the tofu.
Spelling Note: Kabi may also be spelled as 黴.
27.
不利益
を{
被
る・
生
じる}
可能性
が
高
い。
There is a high probability of suffering a loss.
28.
多少
の
混乱
を{
招
く・
生
じる}
言葉
の
一
つです。
This is one (of several) words that causes some confusion.
29.
呼吸
に
問題
{が・を}
生
じる
疾患
では、
呼吸障害
だけが
問題
になることは
少
ない。
In ailments that cause problems in one’s respiration, there are few instances in which respiratory impairment is the only problem at hand.
30.
副作用
を
生
じ(させ)ることなく
良好
な
睡眠
を
得
ることができます。
We will be ale to get satisfactory sleep without causing any side effects.
31.
免疫機能
に
支障
を{
来
たす・
生
じ(させ)る}
重篤
な
疾病
に
罹
ってしまう。
To suffer from a severe illness that creates an impediment to one’s immune system.
Word Notes: There are several words for “illness.” Of these include 病気, 病い, 疾病, 疾患, and 患い.
疾病 is a clinical terminology for “illness.” 疾患 refers to ailments that bring about physical and or mental symptoms. 病気 is the more general term for “illness” used most commonly in the spoken language and in more subjective situations. 病い is the native word for “sickness,” but it takes on a personal tone to an ailment. Whereas 疾患 can refer to a medical state of function failure, 胸の病い would refer to personal suffering in the chest. The native equivalent of 疾患 is 患い and is even more emphatic than 病い, but it is more so used to refer to suffering of the heart. However, it is rarely used outside of literature.
踊る
踊る can be used to mean “to dance” in an intransitive or transitive sense. When used to mean “to pound/throb/jump,” it’s spelled as 躍る.
32. ワルツを
踊
りましょう。
Let’s dance the waltz.
33.
心
が
躍
っている。
My heart is throbbing.
寄せる
As an intransitive verb, 寄せる means “to surge (as in waves).” As a transitive verb, it means “to come/bring near.”
34.
沖
に
波
が
寄
せている。
Waves are surging in the open sea.
35.
彼
は
耳元
に
口
を
寄
せてそっと
囁
いた。
He brought his mouth near to my ears and softly whispered.
36. いつも
眉間
に
皺
を
寄
せている
人
といつも
笑顔
の
人
はどちらが
好
きですか。
Which do you like, people who are always furrowing their brows or people who always have a smile on their face?
37.
今日
も、マムシたちが
草藪
に
身
を
寄
せていた。
The pit vipers were living under the clump of bushes today as well.
Spelling Note: Mamushi may also be spelled as 蝮.
誤る
Traditionally, 誤る was the intransitive version of 過つ, both revolving around expressing failure/mistake. Nowadays, 過つ is hardly used aside from its noun form 過ち (fault/indiscretion), and 誤る exists both as an intransitive and a transitive verb, but mostly a transitive verb aside from when 誤った is used similarly to 間違った (mistaken) before nouns.
38. どこで
道
を
誤
ってしまったのだろうか。
Where have I gone wrong?
39.
操作
を
誤
って
相手先
の
電話番号
を
一
つ
削除
してしまった。
I made a mistake in handling (my phone) and accidentally deleted one of my contact’s phone numbers.
40. あなたは
鍼
について
誤
った
認識
をしていませんか。
Do you not have a mistaken perception about acupuncture?
笑う
As an intransitive verb, 笑う means “to laugh,” but as a transitive verb it means “to laugh at/make fun of.” As a transitive verb, it can alternatively be spelled as 嗤う.
41.
犬
も
笑
うんでしょうか。
Do dogs also laugh?
42.
彼
の
嬉
しそうに
笑
っている
姿
を
想像
してみた。
I tried imagining the look of him happily laughing.
43.
一円
を{
笑
う・
嗤
う}
者
は
一円
に
泣
く。
He who makes fun of one yen will cry at one yen.
44.
目糞鼻糞
を{
笑
う・
嗤
う}。
The pot calls the kettle black.
45.
何故笑
ってはいけない
場面
で
笑
ってしまうんだろうか。
We do (I/we) laugh in scenes where we ought not to laugh?
つとめる
Tsutomeru has both intransitive and transitive nuances. They are conveniently spelled differently.
Intransitive Nuances: 勤める, 努める
Transitive Nuance: 務める
46.
大手会社
に
勤
めています。
I work at a major company.
47.
実現
に
努
めています。
I’m striving to realize it.
48.
代理人
を
務
めています。
I’m serving as a proxy/agent/representative.
There is also an intransitive 勤まる・務まる, which is used to mean “to be fit for (job/post).” In the case of a typical job, the former spelling is used. In the case of a typical post, the latter spelling is used.
49. 私に務まるだろうか。
Am I even fit (for the post)?
50. とても
勤
まりそうもない。
I’m far from fit (for the job).
In our fifth installment on verbs that do not change based on whether it is used as an intransitive or a transitive verb, we will focus on Sino-Japanese examples.
There are plenty of verbs from Chinese that can be used either in an intransitive sense or a transitive sense because there is no morphological distinction made in Chinese. Therefore, the lack of marking transitivity found in Chinese simply carries over into Japanese. Japanese then compensates by using its backup system of particles, if you will, to help the speaker determine how the verb should be interpreted.
This, as one might imagine, does cause issues. As you will soon see in the example sentences, many speakers frequently change する to される or to させる depending on whether they wish to make it clear that the Sino-Japanese verb in question is being used in an intransitive or transitive sense respectively. This causes grammatical ambiguity, understandably, because される and させる stand for the passive and causative forms respectively.
Before you go on thinking that Japanese is being overly complicated, think about English for one moment. English is just as guilty as Chinese for not marking transitivity in verbal conjugations.
i. I started the movie three minutes ago.
ii. The movie started three minutes ago.
If English does a poor job in marking transitivity, and if it’s the case that Japanese has borrowed many words from English, one might also assume that Sino-Japanese verbs are not the only foreign verbs that have this transitivity problem.
iii.
事務処理能力
をアップすることで、
仕事
のすべての
能力
がアップするのですから、
効率化
をアップさせましょう。
By raising one’s clerical work capacity, all your job skills will improve, so try upping your efficiency.
This example marvelously demonstrates the flux in transitivity that you will find with the verbs discussed in this lesson. Now, to learn as many of these verbs as possible, each Sino-Japanese verb taught will have a minimum of two sentences to account for its intransitive and transitive use. If nuance requires further investigation, more example sentences will be provided.
・変形する - To transform/metamorphize/deform
変形する is used both in the spoken and written language. Its intransitive and transitive usages are both very common.
1.
式
を
変形
する
問題
です。
This problem is about transforming an equation.
2.
軟骨
が
増殖
したり、
骨
が
軟化
したりするこことで、
関節
が
変形
していきます。
Joints become deformed by cartilage increasing, bones softening, etc.
・分解する – To disassemble/dismantle/decompose/factor/deblock
分解する is used both in the spoken language and written language. It is especially important in construction, science, and computer science. Its intransitive and transitive usages are both very common.
3.
水
を
電気分解
すると、
水素
と
酸素
が
発生
し
水
が
分解
します。
When you electrolyze water, hydrogen and oxygen are produced, which results in the water decomposing.
4.
下記
の
式
を
因数分解
しなさい。
Factor the equation(s) below.
5.
脂肪
を
分解
する
酵素
があります。
There is an enzyme that breaks down fat.
・決定する - To decide/determine
決定する is largely literary, but it is commonly used in news reports. Its intransitive form is more common than its transitive form, but neither usage is rare by any means.
6.
委員会
は
今年度
の
政策方針
を
決定
した。
The committee decided upon the line of policy for this fiscal year.
7.
放送日
が
決定
しました。
Hōsōbi ga kettei shimashita.
The air date has been determined.
Grammar Note: Some speakers use 決定される for the intransitive usage, but this is not grammatically necessary.
・内定する - To make a tentative decision
内定する is formal and literary. Its intransitive usage is the most common.
8.
先週
の
選挙
で
落選
した○○
氏
が
内定
したことが
分
かりました。
It has been discovered that Mr. ##, who lost in last week’s election, has been unofficially decided (for a certain post).
9.
役員人事
を
内定
しました。
We have tentatively decided on officer resources.
・継続する
継続する is more so literary than a spoken word, but it is quite commonly used adverbially in the gerund—as 継続して –to express a continuation of a certain situation. This comes from its transitive usage. Its intransitive usage is more or less a formal synonym of 続く.
10. 既存のドメインを
継続
して
使
えますか。
Kison/kizon no domein wo keizoku shite tsukaemasu ka?
Can I continue using my existing domain?
Reading Note: The traditional reading of 既存 is きそん, but きぞん is becoming more and more common. In the case of this word, pronouncing it as きぞん helps distinguish it from 毀損 (defamation), which is read as きそん.
11.
経済
の
進展
が
継続
している。
Economic development is continuing.
・持続する – To persist/last/sustain
Although similar to 継続する, 持続する is used to indicate that status is persisting and being sustained whereas 継続する only describes a condition that is continuing from before. An end point to the state in question is left far more uncertain with 持続する than with 継続する. Similarly, it too is largely used in the written language, but it is also commonly used in news reports. Both its intransitive and transitive usages are commonly used.
12.
平均
6
時間
ほど{
効
き
目
・
薬効
}が
持続
します。
The effects last for an average of approximately six hours.
13.
調和
のとれた
関係
を
持続
することが
第一
です。
Sustaining a balanced relationship is first and foremost.
・連続する – To occur in succession
連続する is commonly used in both the spoken and written language. Its transitive usage is not as common, but when the verb is used as a gerund in 連続して, it can come from either its intransitive or transitive usage.
14.
就職活動
は
失敗
が
連続
するのが
当
たり
前
だ。
It’s only natural to continuously fail in job hunting.
15.
高品質加工
を
連続
することが
可能
となった。
It has become possible to continually perform high quality manufacturing.
16.
連続
して
予約
を
取
ることはできますか。
Is it possible to continuously make reservations?
Nuance Note: If there is in fact brief intervals in repeatedly doing an action, 連続で rather than 連続して is appropriate.
・展開する – To develop/unfold/extend
As an intransitive verb, 展開する is essentially interchangeable with 広がる, but 広がる is far more common in both the spoken and written language. In the sense of "to develop/unfold,” however, it can be used in an intransitive and or transitive sense. In an intransitive sense, many speakers opt to change it to 展開される. This is likely because the agent of the development is implicitly felt to be relevant. Overall, the verb is more so used in the written language, but it isn’t all that rare in the spoken language.
17.
遙
かに
佐賀平野
が{
広
がっている・
展開
している}。
The Saga Plain extends in the distance.
18.
有意義
な
議論
が
展開
されました。
A meaningful discussion developed (by the participants).
19.
専門家
たちが
精力的
な
活動
を
展開
した。
The experts developed an energetic activity.
・移動する – To move/transfer/migrate
The verb 移動する is used as a slightly formal means to simply show the movement/transferring/migration from one place to another. You will see it used in all sorts of situations including in computer science settings when you move things around. This verb is slightly more common in the written language, but it wouldn’t be odd to use it in the spoken language.
Its transitive use is sometimes represented with 移動させる. However, this is not grammatically necessary. In fact, it can be grammatically confusing because it should only be the causative form as in “(X has) Y move Z…” like in Ex. 22.
20.
病院
の
指示
で
福祉避難所
に
移動
しました。
I moved to a welfare shelter under the direction of the hospital.
21. ファイルやフォルダを
移動
{させて・して}みましょう。
Try moving files and folders.
22.
生徒
たちを
高台
に
移動
させてください。
Please move the students to high ground.
・縮小する – To reduce/shrink/curtail
The intransitive usage is most often seen as 縮小される. Although this does imply some agent doing the action, the main reasoning for why 縮小する is not simply used is because many speakers don't register it as being both intransitive and intransitive. Its transitive usage, however, is extremely common.
23. ファイルサイズを
縮小
してください。
Please shrink the file size.
24.
金融資産
の
格差
が
縮小
した。
Financial asset disparity has shrunk.
25. ツールバーが
縮小
されてしまった。
The tool bar got minimized.
・拡大する – To magnify/enlarge/amplify/expand
The verb 拡大する is slightly formal but still common in both the spoken and written language. Some speakers inadvertently use 拡大される when used intransitively, but unless you wish to implicitly hint at an agent, then this is not grammatically necessary.
26.
資源価格上昇
で
輸出
が
拡大
している。
Exports are expanding due to rises in the price of resources.
27.
画面
が
自動的
に
拡大
されます。
The screen automatically enlarges.
28.
各国
が
現在
も
兵器生産
を
拡大
し、
海外
へ
軍隊
を
増派
している。
Even now, each nation is expanding its weapon production and is sending troop reinforcements overseas.
・完成する – To complete/accomplish
When something has been completely accomplished, and the result is visible for all to see, you can use the verb 完成する. It is used in both the spoken and written language, and its intransitive and transitive usages are both very common.
29.
津波避難
ビルが
完成
しました。
The tsunami refuge building has been completed.
30.
防災
マップを
完成
しました。
I’ve completed the disaster prevention map.
・完了する – To complete/conclude
When you conclude a task, you can use the verb 完了する. It is rather formal and both its intransitive and transitive usages are very common.
31.
修正
が
完了
しました。
Editing has been completed.
32.
登録
を
完了
しました。
I’ve completed the registration.
・終了する – To end/close/terminate
When something ends/terminates, you can use the verb 終了する. It's somewhat formal and more common in the written language. Its intransitive and transitive usages are both very common. It is important to note that this verb does not imply that a task has been thoroughly completed before ending.
33. ヘドロの
浚渫
は
1990
年
に
終了
し、
豊
かな
海
が
再生
した。
The sludge dredging was terminated in 1990, and the rich sea restored itself.
34.
募集
を
終了
しました。
We’ve ended recruiting/taking applications/raising (donations).
・実現する – To implement/materialize/realize
The intransitive use of 実現する is the primary usage of this verb. As a transitive verb, many speakers are compelled to use 実現させる instead. This doesn't always necessarily mean the causative nuance of "to make/let someone…" is literally intended, but it will always imply a more direct involvement of the agent to make something happen.
35.
勤勉
に
働
き、
辛抱
すれば
夢
は
実現
するでしょう。
If you work diligently and persevere, your dreams will surely be realized.
36.
持続的
な
経済成長
を
実現
するためには、
現在
よりも
大胆
な
為替
・
金融緩和政策
に
加
えて、
雇用
の
拡大
、
賃金
の
引
き
上
げなど
消費拡大
に
繋
がる
政策
を
進
める
必要
があります。
In order to implement sustainable economic growth, in addition to far more audacious exchange and finance easing policies than now, we must forward policies that are linked to consumption expansion by such means as expanding employment, raising wages, etc.
37.
居心地
の
良
さを
実現
{した・させた}モダンな
住宅
です。
This is a modern home that realizes coziness.
38. 息子が夢を実現{しました・させました}。
My son has realized his dreams.
・転換する – To convert/divert/changeover/switch-over
The verb 転換する is generally used to indicate changes into tendency/directives. So, even though the fundamentals of the matter may not change, the direction of said entity might. This word is appropriate in both the spoken and the written language. Its intransitive usage is most common. As an intransitive verb, the form 転換させる is preferred, especially when emphasis is placed on the agent.
39.
下降
トレンドが
上向
きに
転換
しました。
The downward trend has switched upward.
40.
日銀
は、
金融政策
を
転換
しました。
The Bank of Japan has shifted its finance policies.
41. ニクソン
大統領
は、それまでの
冷戦構造
を
転換
させました。
President Nixon had changed-over the structuring of the Cold War up to that time.
・変換する – To change/convert/transform
The verb 変換する is a somewhat technical verb that indicates switching out/converting something from one thing to another. However, it cannot refer to religious conversion. That would be handled by the verb 改宗する. Its intransitive usage is rare, so much so that most speakers replace it with 変換される. Although this grammatically implicitly hints at an agent, this is not usually meant by the speaker. Rather, using the “passive form” is a means of lexicalizing a transitive verb in an intransitive means.
42.
色々
と
操作
しているうちにワードの
文字
が
変換
{されました・しました}。
While doing all sorts of operations, the characters in Word (got) converted.
43.
動画
をPSP
用
に
変換
しました。
I converted the video to be for the PSP.
・集中する – To concentrate/converge/centralize
The intransitive usage of this verb is not so common and more so stilted for the written language; however, its transitive usage is very common in both the spoken and written languages.
43.
精神
を
集中
して
努力
すればどんなことでも
成
し
遂
げられないことはない。
If you concentrate your mind and exert yourself, there isn’t anything that you cannot accomplish.
44.
現在
アクセスが
集中
しているため、
投稿
ができません。
Unable to post due to a current heavy traffic spike.
45. ○○
会長
に
議員
らの
質問
が
集中
した。
Questions from the assemblymen converged on Chairman ##.
・減少する – To decrease/decline/reduce
This is a literary verb that is frequently also used in news reports. Its usually always used as an intransitive verb. In fact, even though its transitive usage is grammatically correct, it’s unnatural to the majority of speakers nowadays. If you’re compelled to use this verb in a transitive manner, the form 減少される is more natural, this is despite the fact that this could also mean “to make X decrease/reduce Y.”
46. メイン
湾
ではタラの
漁獲量
が
減少
している。
In the Gulf of Main, cod hauls are declining.
Spelling Note: タラ may alternatively be spelled as 鱈.
47.
体重
を{
減
らす・
減少
させる・△
減少
する}には、
限界
がある。
There is a limit to reducing weight.
・増加する – To increase
This verb is more common as an intransitive verb. When used as a transitive verb, some speakers opt to use 増加させる even though that can technically also be used as the verb’s causative form. It is literary and is frequently used in news reports. It is “to increase” as in making the quantity of something larger.
48.
血液検査
の
前
に
運動
することも
白血球
が
増加
する
原因
の
一
つです。
Exercising before blood work is also one reason for a rise in white blood cell count.
49. この
回路
の
電流供給量
を
増加
{する・させる}ことができます。
It is possible to increase the current supply of this circuit.
・増殖する – To increase/propagate
This verb is typically used to mean “to propagate” as in organic matter. This could be procreation or the proliferation of cells. It may also refer to the increase of resources, especially assets, but this is not near as common. Although both its intransitive and transitive usages are common, as a transitive verb, it is often seen as 増殖させる. Because it is largely used in the realm of biology, the causative sense of making cells propagate, for instance, is very natural.
50.
患者自身
の
細胞
を
増殖
{して・させて}
移植
するという「
再生医療
」が
進
んでいる。
“Regenerative medicine,” in which one propagates the cells of the patient himself and then transplant (said cells back into the patient), is advancing.
50.
癌細胞
は、
徐々
に
増殖
し、
他
の
組織
や
臓器
に
移転
してしまうのです。
Cancer cells gradually propagate and then end up moving to other tissues and organs.
Transitivity Note: 移転する is another example and grammatically functions just like 移動する. 移転する can refer moving of placement/location or the transfer of legal rights whereas 移動する simply refers to the movement from one place to another.
・増大する – To enlarge/increase
This is a literary verb largely used in an intransitive sense that refers to the increase in degree, not quantity. When used as a transitive verb, if the agent has direct involvement in the action, 増大させる is preferred.
51.
医薬品
の
支出
が
増大
している。
Medical supply expenditures are increasing.
52.
米国政府
はまたも
防衛予算
を
増大
させることを
発表
した。
The U.S. government has again announced that they are to increase the defense budget.
53.
多
くの
国
が
科学技術
(の)
予算
を
増大
している。
Many countries are increasing their science and technology budgets.
・固定する – fixate/fix
This verb is common in both the spoken and written language. Its transitive usage is more common. When used as an intransitive verb, it is frequently seen as 固定される. This is less likely when referring to a fixed state in which no exertion was used to make it so.
54. レベルが
上
がらず
元
のレベルに
固定
{して・されて}しまうことがあります。
There are times in which one level doesn’t go up and one is fixed to one’s original level.
55.
棚板
と
支柱
を
固定
しているネジを
外
します。
Remove the screws that fixate the shelf boards and props together.
Spelling Note: ネジ may alternatively be spelled as ねじ, 捩子, 螺子, 螺旋, or 捻子.
・再生する – To resuscitate/playback/etc.
As an intransitive verb, 再生する typically refers to something restoring back to life. This can be used in a figurative sense. It may also refer to reformation of a person as well. It may also be used to refer to regeneration. This usage can be both intransitive and transitive. As a transitive verb, it can also mean to “play (back)” as in video footage. When its meanings revolving regeneration, which includes playing back sound, is used in an intransitive fashion, it’s typically seen as 再生される. Lastly, this verb is used in both the spoken and the written language.
56. パワーポイントで
動画
を
再生
したいです。
I want to play a video on PowerPoint.
57. Wi-Fi
環境
が
不安定
な
場合
、
映像
が
再生
されないことがあります。
Whenever your Wi-Fi environment is unstable, footage may not play.
58.
再生遺伝子
を
起動
させる
因子
を
発見
し、それを
マウス
に
移植
されたところ、
マウス
の
組織
が
再生
されたそうです。
I hear that they’ve discovered the factor that activates the gene for regeneration, and upon having it transplanting in a mouse, the mouse’s tissue was regenerated.
59.
失
った
部位
を
再生
する
遺伝子
が
存在
する。
Genes for regeneration lost body parts exist.
60. カニの
足
は
何度
も
再生
するって
本当
ですか。
Is it really true that crab legs regenerate many times over?
Spelling Note: カニ may also be spelled as 蟹.
・開始する – To begin/start
This is the literary version of 始まる and 始める. It is more formal and used extensively in news reports. Some speakers use 開始される instead when used in the intransitive sense. Although this technically implicitly hints at the agent, this is not always the case.
61.
平成
28
年
1
月
から、マイナンバー
制度
が
開始
しました。
The “My Number” system started in January 2016.
62. これらは全て来月から開始されます。
These will all be started next month.
63.
5
月
より
皮膚科
の
診察
を
開始
します。
We will begin dermatology examinations starting in May.
・反転する – To Roll Over/Turn Around
This verb means “to roll over/turn around” and is appropriate in both the written and the spoken language. When used transitively, some people prefer to use 反転させる, but this is also the verb’s causative form. Sometimes, using this incidentally personifies non-living agents like in Ex. 64.
64.
強
い
台風
○
号
は
15
日
、
暴風域
を
伴
いながら、
沖縄
・
南大東島
の
南
で
進路
を
北東
に
反転
{した・させた}。
On the fifteenth, the strong Typhoon #? turned its course around northeast to the south of Minamidaito Island of Okinawa along with its storm area.
65. アメリカに
住
むアフリカ
系
アメリカ
人
50
人
と、
南
アフリカ
人
50
人
の
食生活
をそっくり
入
れ
替
えてみたところ、
2
週間
で
腸内
フローラが
反転
し、アメリカ
人
の
腸内
フローラは
南
アフリカ
人
と
同
じ
特徴
を
表
すようになり、
南
アフリカ
人
の
腸内
は
大腸癌
の
発症
リスクが
高
くなることが
分
かりました。
After precisely switching the dietary habits of 50 Americans of African descent living in America and 50 South Africans with each other, it was discovered that their intestinal florae (of the two groups) reversed in two weeks; the intestinal florae of the Americans expressed the same characteristics as the South Africans, and the risk of developing colorectal cancer in the intestines of the South Africans rose.
・停止する – To Suspend
This is a slightly more literary version of 止まる and 止める meaning "to halt/cease/suspend/interrupt/ban." The suspension/hang-up in question is not necessarily permanent.
66. 移動が停止してしまい、ミスに繋がることがありました。
Movement would halt, which sometimes led to mistakes.
67. 東京都は、卸売業者3社に対して、最大20日間、業務を停止するよう命じました。
Tokyo has ordered the suspension of operations for a maximum of twenty days to three wholesalers.
限り is a rather complicated noun. Although it means "limit" and understanding it is no problem for most students, similar looking structures with it cause problems.
~かぎり shows up in a lot of expressions, but what comes before it must be taken into account. Although particles may be a pain to get used to, you should still love them.
1. ~かぎり: This shows a parameter of a certain condition. Before ~かぎり, you may see nouns, adjectives, and verbs.
1.
保証
の限りではない。
It is not in the warranty.
2. 目の
届
く限り、晴れ
渡
っている。
The sky is clear as far as the eye can see.
3. 可能な限り、薬を飲まないようにしています。
I'm trying as best I can to not take the medicine.
4. できる限りのことをするのも無理なのだ。
Doing as much as possible is also no good.
5.
法律
の
及
ぶ限り
厳密
に
処
すべきだ。
It should be strictly dealt with to the full extent of the law.
6. 今年も能力の限り、お役に立てるよう働くことを
誓
います。
I vow to work to be of benefit [to X] to the best of my ability this year as well.
7. 外は
豪雪
でも、部屋のなかにいるかぎりは
真夏日
のようだ。
Even if there is heavy snowfall outside, for as long as you're inside the room, it's like a hot summer day.
読み物: A Passage from 心 by 夏目漱石
8. 次の日私は先生の 後 につづいて海へ飛び 込 んだ。そうして先生といっしょの 方角 に泳いで行った。二 丁 ほど 沖 へ出ると、先生は後ろを 振 り返って私に話し 掛 けた。広い 蒼 い海の表面に 浮 いているものは、その近所に私ら二人より 外 になかった。そうして強い太陽の光が、 眼 の届く限り水と山とを照らしていた。私は自由と 歓喜 に 充 ちた筋肉を動かして海の中で 躍 り 狂 った。先生はまたぱたりと手足の運動を 已 めて 仰向 けになったまま 浪 の上に寝た。私もその 真似 をした。青空の色がぎらぎらと眼を 射 るように 痛烈 な色を私の顔に 投 げ 付 けた。「 愉快 ですね」と私は大きな声を出した。
漢字 Notes:
1. 蒼い is a very literary spelling for blue. And, you may also encounter 碧い in similar contexts. 蒼い is a rather dull "blue", and it is often used in contexts where one "is blue in the face". 碧い is used when "blue" may have anywhere from a light to dark green hue to it.
2. ~掛ける is usually spelled as ~かける in everyday writing.
3. Rather than using 満ちる, 充ちる has the added nuance of inundation. 満ちる is over all the most important spelling due to the fact that 充 does not have the reading み(ちる) listed in the 常用漢字表.
4. 躍る differs from 踊る in the sense that the latter is "dance" in a rhythmic sense whereas the former is just jumping up and down.
5. 已む specifically describes a phenomenon, action, or condition that has continued for some time stopping completely. It is generally replaced with 止む except in literal situations like this when the writer wishes to make this nuance clear.
6. 浪 specifically refers to ripples in water or water rising up.
The next day, I followed Sensei into the ocean. I then swam in the same direction as him. After going over a hundred meters offshore, Sensei turned around to talk to me. It was only us floating atop the surface of the wide, blue sea. The strong sunlight made the water and mountains glow for as far as one could see. I madly danced around in the waves with my muscles full of joy and freedom. Sensei, again, suddenly froze his arms and legs and lay flat on his back asleep on the waves, and so I mimicked him. The blue sky cast a scathing light into my eyes as if to pierce them out. "How pleasant!", I yelled out.
Questions:
1. Find an example where a Japanese item is naturalized for the English translation.
2. Why might liberties in translation be needed with this passage?
~ない限り, which is an application of above, can be translated as "until" in contexts like below.
9. 君が考えを
改
めないかぎり、うまくいかない。
Until you rethink yourself, things won't go well.
10. あいつは、あまりにも疲れていないかぎり、夜遅くまでIMABIを
編集
するそうだ。
That guy seems to edit IMABI up into the night unless he's too tired.
11.
汚水
を飲まないかぎり大丈夫ですよ。
So long as you don't drink filthy water, you should be fine.
After adjectives at the end of a sentence, ~かぎりだ shows the speaker's emotions with what is being said not being simply about the nature of things, but the matter at hand doesn't extend beyond a certain limit.
12. 誰からも連絡がなく、
寂
しいかぎりだ。
It's just very lonely that I don't get contact from anyone.
Another thing that this form can do that the two below cannot is be followed with a volitional expression.
13. 生きている限り歌おう。
I'll sing until I die.
As a suffix after temporal phrases in the form of ~かぎりで, it express deadline.
14. 来月末限りで辞任するつもりだ。
I plan to resign at the end of next month.
2. ~を限りに, when used with time phrases, explicitly states when will be the last time that one does something. With non-temporal phrases, it shows some sort of physical limitation.
15. 彼は声の限りに
叫
んだ。
He screamed to the top of list lungs.
16. 今日を限りに酒は飲みません。
I will not drink alcohol from this day forward!
17. これを限りにお前とは
縁
を切る。
From here on I break my ties with you.
18. 今年の年末を限りに期限が切れる。
The term/period/deadline will expire at the end of this year.
3. ~限りでは: Verbs of cognition such as 知る, 見る, 聞く, 読む, etc. come before, and the following clause deals with a judgment. In totality, this construction means "as far as...".
19. 知られる限りでは
依然行方不明
。 (Headline)
[X] is/are still missing as far as is known.
20. 私の知っている限りでは、彼はそんなことをする人ではありません。
As far as I know, he is not the kind of person to do something like that.
4. ~に限って: This raises a time, person, or thing to mean "insofar/unless". This is used a lot with とき.
21. あたしが出かけるときにかぎって、雨が降るのよ。(女性語)
It doesn't rain unless I go out [somewhere].
22.
我
が
社
の社員に限って、そのような不正はするはずがない。
Insofar as our company's workers, we have no reason to do such illegality.
23. 読みたいときに限って、アクセスできない。
I can't access it insofar as to when I want to read it.
As one would expect, this phrase has a negative form, ~に限らない. This means that something is not yet decided. Of course, in formal/written situations, you can see it as ~に限らず.
24.
怠
けたがるのは、子供に限ったことじゃない。
Wanting to slack off is not limited to just kids.
25. 対象はアメリカ人に限りません。
Our target is not limited to Americans.
26. 韓国語を勉強している学生は、東アジア専攻に限りません。
Students who study Korean are not limited to East Asian majors.
5. ~とは限らない may resemble ~に限らない, and the best of students mix them up. However, because of the particle と, no part of speech limitations exists. ~とは限らない means "not necessarily". This phrase is frequently used to speak against stereotypes.
27. 日本人がみんな勉強ばかりしているとは限らない。
It's not necessarily the case that all Japanese people do nothing but study.
28. アメリカ人は、必ずしも日本人より背が高いとは限らない。
Americans are not necessarily taller than Japanese people.
29. テキサスの人がみんな必ずバーベキューばかり食べるとは限らない。
All Texans don't necessarily eat just barbecue.
30.
念
を入れたからっていい
仕上
がりになるとは限らない。
Because we paid attention to detail, it's (now) a good finish.
In this lesson we will learn about somewhat negative speech modals of end result.
加える means anything related to “to add”. So, ~に加えて means "in addition to". It is used a lot in enumerating negative situations.
1. 子供は指を
銜
える嫌いがある。
Children have the tendency to have their fingers in their mouth.
Orthography Note: 銜 is rare. If anything, it would be replaced by 咥, but it's highly unlikely that you will see the word written in 漢字.
2. 彼女は日本語に加えて、英語もあまり分からないみたいね。
In addition to Japanese, it looks like she barely understands English.
3. 料理に
胡椒
は一つまみも加える必要はない。
It's not necessary to add a pinch of pepper to a dish.
4. お茶に砂糖を加える。
To mix sugar in the tea.
5. イギリスに加えて、フランスもドイツも多文化主義の非を鳴らしています。
In addition to England, France and Germany are also denouncing multiculturalism.
7. 圧力を加える。
To put pressure on.
8. そのことに加えて、彼は自分の名前を忘れたよ!
In addition to that, he also forgot his own name!
9. 5日のニューヨーク
株式市場
は、東京市場で株価が
大幅
に値下がりしたことに加えて、アメリカが景気を
下支
えするために行っている
量的緩和
の
縮小
時期など、アメリカの
金融
政策に対する不安から幅広い
銘柄
に売り注文が広がりました。
As for the New York Stock Exchange on the fifth, selling orders have spread in a wide range of brands from worries towards American financial policies such as the quantitative easing curtailment period America is carrying out in order to backup the economy in addition to the large drop in prices due to the Tokyo Exchange.
From NHK.
This speech modal means that X does not stop in a certain parameter, but extends farther. This pattern can be seen after nouns and the 終止形 of verbs. It comes after a phrase that shows a phenomenon or extent that is limited in some way, and then it is followed by a phrase with a larger scale implied or explicitly stated. This phrase should not be used with static expressions.
10. マスメディアによる情報というものは、今や一国にとどまらず、世界中に伝わる。
Information by the media doesn't stay in one country now; it travels the world.
11. 農作物は、台風に襲われた直後にとどまらず、一年中その影響を受ける。
Crops don't just receive the effects directly after being hit by a typhoon; they feel the impact throughout the year.
12. 一人の人間の明るさは、場を明るくするにとどまらず、周囲の人々に心身の活力をも与える。
The brightness of a person not only brightens up the area, but also it gives energy to the hearts and minds of the surrounding people.
13. 彼女は成功にとどまらず、社会貢献に尽力した。
She not only stopped at success, but she also labored as a contribution to society.
14. 更に執刀した岡山大学病院の大藤剛宏医師は手術後の記者会見で「中葉を使った移植は男の子1人を助けるにとどまらず、これまで助けることができなかった子どもたちに光が当たるという意義がある」と話しました。
In addition, Dc. Oto Takahiro of Okayama University Hospital who did the surgery in a press conference afterwards said that "the transplant using the middle lobe [of the lung] doesn't just save this one boy, but it gives light to other children that have not been able to be helped till now".
From the NHK article 生体肺移植の男児 容体安定 by 2013年7月2日 4時15分.
~もさることながら gives a meaning that something is so, but in addition, something else needs to be emphasized. Thus, it is equivalent to, "it goes without saying that...". It is used after nouns.
15.
中華料理
は
味
もさることながら、
健康
にいいですよ。
It goes without saying that Chinese food is tasty, but it's also good for you.
16. 彼女は人柄もさることながら、その頭の働きの良さで周囲の人をぐいぐいと引っ張っていく。
Her personality goes with saying, and her great mind pulls those around her [towards her].
~はおろか・もちろん・もとより, mean "not to mention", "much less", or "let alone" and are placed after a sentence fragment.
17. 彼女は料理はもとより食器も洗う。
She not only cooks, but she also washes the dishes.
18. 一ドルはおろか一セントも持ってないよ。
I don't have a cent, let alone a dollar!
19. 彼は英語はもとより、スペイン語も韓国語もできます。
Not to mention English, he can also speak Spanish and Korean.
20. 彼は英語はもちろん、スペイン語も韓国語もできます。
Not to mention English, he can also speak Spanish and Korean.
21. 低賃金、劣悪な労働条件、一方的な首切りなどの経済・労働問題はもとより、各種の人道的問題までも引き起こしている。
They are not only suffering from low wages, cases of poor working condition, and economic and labor problems such as one-sided layoffs, they are also troubled to the extent of various forms of discrimination.
22. あの子は書くのはもちろん、読むこともできない。
That kid can't even read, let alone write.
23. 地方ごとに、味はもとより、料理の仕方も違ってきますね。
With each region, not to mention flavor, but even cooking methods differ, don't they?
25. 私はバイオリンはおろか、ギターも弾けない。
I can't even play the guitar, much less a violet.
26. 母語はもちろん、彼は七つの他の言語も話せます。
Not only his native language, but he can also speak seven other languages.
27. 彼女は話すのはおろか、足も動かせません。
She can't even move her legs, let alone speak.
28. 彼は修士を得るのはもちろん、入学さえできない。
He can't even enter college, let alone receive a master's degree.
Word Notes: もちろん may be translated as "not only...but also..." and may be an interjection meaning "of course" when by itself. もとより may be written as 元より, 固より, or 素より.
~ともあれ is an adverbial phrase that means "never mind/putting aside". It is also seen in 何はともあれ meaning "in any case".
29. 中国語はともあれ、問題は日本語の勉強だぞ。
Never mind Chinese, the problem is my Japanese studies!
30. 何はともあれ、後でしよう。
In any case, let's do it later.
We will look at yet another use of the case particle と. This one is quite different than all the other usages we've looked at as it behaves more like an adverb than any of the other case particles. So, keep this in mind.
と may strengthen negative expressions used with counter expressions and some other adverbs. It is especially common in the phrase 二度と. This usage stresses that things aren't going to be so. Although this usage is classified as a case particle usage, it's easy to view it as an adverbial particle as it is always paired with adverbial phrases (counters).
1. もう二度とあんなところへ行かない。
I'm not going to go to a place like that ever again.
2. 3
分
とかからない。
It won't take more than 3 minutes.
3.
命
は二つとない。
Life is but once.
4.
生
ものは3日ともたない。
Raw foods won't last three days.
5. 一分と待てない。
I can't even wait one minute.
6.
平穏
は3日ともたない。
Tranquility won't last but three days.
7. 色んな
治療
を受けても1週間ともたない。
No matter what various treatment (I) receive, it lasts but a week.
8. 時間は一秒とかからない。
Not even a second will go by.
9. この数学問題を解くのに5分とかからなかった。
It didn't take more than five minutes to solve this math problem.
10. この
食料
では1日ともたない。
We won't even make it a day with this food.
11. この食料は1日ともたない。
This food won't make it a day.
12. 同じものは二つとない。
There isn't a same thing twice.
13. これは世界に2個もないものですね。
There is only one in the world.
14. 雲一つとない青空を見上げる。
To look up at the blue sky with not a single cloud.
15. 二ヶ月5000円とかからなかった。
It didn't even cost more than ¥5000 for two months.
16.
下痢
が出るまで1分と
我慢
できない。
I can't even hold it one minute till diarrhea comes out.
17. こんな機会はまたとない。
Such an opportunity won't come again.
18. 大失敗は二度と繰り返しません。
Great failure won't repeat once more.
19. だめだ、何をやっても2日と続かない。
It's useless, I can't keep going at something for two days no matter what I do.
20. この問題は手計算だと10分かかるが、パソコンに解かせれば1秒とかからない。
This problem by hand takes 10 minutes, but if you get get it solved by computer, it doesn't even take a second.
も VS と
This is very similar to the particle も, but the particle も emphasizes the greatness of something and can either be used with positive or negative sentences. This is in stark difference with this usage of と which often emphasizes the smallness and often showing intolerance about things. For instance, in 22, the speaker, despite 1 hour being reasonably short for the situation, is not wanting to be patient anymore.
21. 一時間も待った。
I waited at least one hour.
22. もう一分と待たない。
I won't even wait a minute.
23. 税金を一円と払わない!
I won't pay even a yen in taxes!
24. 税金を10万円も払えない。
I can't even pay ¥100,000 in taxes.
25a. 誰ひとりと知らない。
25b. 誰ひとりも知らない。
Not a single person knows.
No one knows.
25a stresses the smallness of the quantity that one/someone either doesn't know more than essentially no one or that no one doesn't know something. 25b is the same but makes a big deal about the situation and is consequently more common than 25a. Say no one knows your new address, if you used 25a in the dialogue, you're just stating that no one knows, but if you say 25b, you're making an issue out of things and emphasizing the situation as a problem.
Just when you thought you were done, you now have to consider negative volition.
~まい shows negative volition. So, you have will for something not to happen. It may also be like ~ないだろう. The first meaning would be used in contexts like "I won't..." or "She vowed not to go". This can be distinguished from other contexts such as "it won't possibly rain".
~まい attaches to the 終止形 of 五段 verbs and auxiliary verbs, which includes ~ます. As for 一段 verbs and する and 来る, it attaches to the 未然形 or 終止形. However, the 未然形 is better.
一段 | 食べる + まい → | 食べまい 食べるまい (△) |
五段 | 書く + まい → | 書くまい |
~ます | 書きます + まい → | 書きますまい |
する | する + まい → | しまい (打ち消し意志) するまい (普通, 打ち消し推量) すまい (ちょっとかしこまった) |
来る | 来る + まい → | 来まい 来るまい |
Grammar Notes:
1. It's possible to see すまい when it is treated as a 五段 verb like with 愛す.
2. It is also common in casual speech and some dialects to see よ inserted between the 未然形 and ~まい. For example, いようがいよまいが.
Examples
1a. 雪が降るまい。
1b. おそらく雪は降らないだろう。(Natural)
It probably won't snow.
2a. 勝てまい。
2b. 勝てないだろう。(Natural)
I doubt you'll win.
3a. あの男は負けるまい。
3b. あの男は負けないだろう。(Natural)
That man will probably not lose.
4. それは
大
した金にはなるまい。
That probably won't be worth much money.
5a.
害
にはなりますまい。
5b. 害にはならないでしょう。(Natural)
It'll do you no harm.
6a. ペンギンは助かるまい。
6b. ペンギンは助からないだろう。(Natural)
The penguins probably won't be saved.
7. 誰も信じまい。
No one will probably believe it.
8a. そんな手段は認めますまい。
8b. そんな手段は認められませんよ。(Natural)
I will not approve of such a method.
9. もう二度とそんな
過
ちは
繰
り返すまい!
I will not make such a mistake a second time!
10. 明日、行くのをやめよう。
Let's not go tomorrow.
11. 絶対に
落第
するまいぞ!
I will absolutely not fail!
12. もう言うまい!
I'll say no more!
13. いくら肉親の妹だって、姉の骨まで見たことはあるまいから、分かるもんか。
Even if it was your own little sister, you'd never understand since you've surely never seen bones to that of your older sister.
From 死体紹介人 by 川端康成.
14. 「里子ちゃん、いらっしゃい。お雑煮のお餅を焼きましょうね。里子ちゃんも、お手つだいしてちょうだい。」などと言って、菊子は里子を台所へ呼び寄せ、信吾の寝部屋の廊下を走らせまいとするつもりらしいが、里子は聞く風もなく、ぺたぺた廊下を走りつづけた。
Kikuko said something like "Satoko-chan, come here. Let's make some zoni mochi. Won't you please help?" to call Satoko to the kitchen, and although it seemed she meant on not having her run through the hall by Shingo's bedroom, Satoko paid no heed to this and continued to run down loudly through the hall.
From 山の音 by 川端康成.
~まいとする means "to try not to". It is normally replaced by ~ないようにする. This paraphrase can also work for when する is not the verb phrase, but in this case, because using ~まい is a little more common in the spoken language, such a paraphrase is not necessary.
15. 笑うまいとする。
To try not to laugh.
16. 笑うまいとしてもつい笑ってしまうだろう。
Even if you try not to laugh, you'll eventually end up laughing.
17. 負けるまいとする。
To try not to lose.
18. 会うまいと決心した。
I decided that I wasn't going to meet (him).
19. その時までは決して彼に会うまいと心に決めていた。
Until that time, I decided in my heart not to meet him by all means.
20. 彼女は眠るまいと決心していたが、結局眠りにつけてしまった。
She was resolute not to sleep, but she finally ended up falling asleep.
~ではあるまい
~ではあるまい shows inadequacy. ~というわけではない is now common-place. ~ではあるまいし means "it's not as if...".
21. 知らなかったわけではあるまい。
It's not that they didn't know.
22. 馬鹿
じゃあるまいし、そんなことをするな。
It's not as if you're an idiot, so don't do that.
Volition+が・と+ Negative Volition + が・と
~(よ)うが~まいが and ~(よ)うと~まいと mean "whether...or...".
23. 真実であろうが真実であるまいが、まだ関係はない。
Whether it's true or it's not true, I still have no part in it.
24. 行こうと行くまいと僕の勝ちだ。
Even if you go or don't go, it's my victory.
25. 人が来ようと来るまいとまだパーティーを
開
く。
Whether people come or not, I'm still going to throw a party.
~まいぞ
~まいぞ shows prohibition. Although ~ますまい exists, ~ますまいぞ does not. This expression is quite old-fashioned, so you may only hear old men say this or find it in literature. Tone would distinguish it from a negative volitional statement like above.
26. 行くまいぞ。
You mustn't go.
~まじき
~まい comes from the Classical Japanese ending ~まじ (the negative equivalent of ~べし). ~まじ only attached to the 終止形, except when it was attached to the verb あり (ある). For あり, it followed its 連体形, ある.
あるまじき happens to be retained in Modern Japanese in more literary/formal situations to mean "not proper to". ~まじき can also be found in other set expressions.
27. あるまじき行為だ。
It is an improper act.
28. すまじきものは
宮仕
え。(Set Phrase)
It is better to work for oneself than to work for someone else.
~まじ had every base except the 命令形. This is in stark contrast with the Modern Japanese ~まい, which only has a 終止形 and a very rarely used 連体形 (~まい). However, two older 連体形 still hold on. The original ~まじき can still be seen in set phrases, but in the early 1900s, the form ~まじい was still frequently used in literature.
29. 「早くね、早くね。」と、言うなり後向いて走り出したのは
噓
みたいにあっけなかったが、遠ざかる後姿を見送っていると、なぜまたあの娘はいつもああ
真剣
な様子なのだろうと、この場にあるまじい
不審
が島村の心を
掠
めた。
Her running off as soon as she looked back saying "hurry, hurry!" seemed all too easy like a lie, but as he looked at her retreating figure go farther away, a suspicion unfit for the scene grazed Shimamura's mind as he thought on why again she was always seemed so serious like that.
From 雪国 by 川端康成。
30.
士官
の軍刀と、
半玉
の守り袋や
花簪
の鈴とが、
足拍子
につれて鳴った。兵士にあるまじい、
哀傷
の歌詞でありながら、二十五前後の青年と十五六の少女との
合唱
であるために、進軍の歌の響きがあった。
The officer's saber and the young geisha's little pouch and bells on her flowery hairpin rang along with the beating of their feet. While the lyrics were elegiac and unworthy for a soldier, there was a marching song sound for the lad around twenty five or six and the young fifteen or sixteen girl to sing in chorus to. From 童謡 by 川端康成.
31. 触れるほど顔を重ねて見るほど、能面にはあるまじい邪道だろう。
It was surely heresy unworthy of the Noh mask to even touch or try to put over one's face.
From 山の音 by 川端康成.
Tense Note: Sentences with ~まい are always in the non-past tense because ~まじ indicates that something should or won't happen due to some experience.
Though "as" itself is hard enough in Japanese, Japanese also has a lot of expressions that mean “as soon as”. This lesson will investigate how to use these expressions. Take close attention to what defines them as there are differences!
Placed after the 終止形 of a verb in ~や or ~や 否 や, it means "as soon as". With 否や, it is like the second action takes place before the first action can even be confirmed or done. The most used is や否や. In fact, や否や will be used 90% of the time.
1.
地震
が
発生
するやいなや、
気象庁
は
直
ちに
津波警報
を出しました。
As soon as the earthquake happened, the Meteorological Agency issued a tsunami warning.
2. 姉の顔を見るやいなや、泣き出した。
I began weeping as soon as I saw my sister's face.
3a. その選手はチャンスと見るや、一気に{攻め込んだ・攻撃をしかけた}。
3b. その選手はチャンスと見るやいなや、一気に{攻め込んだ・攻撃をしかけた}。 (あまり使わない言い方)
The player felt a chance open and attacked in one burst.
4.
出発
するやいなや雨が
降
り出した。
It started to rain as soon as I departed.
~やいなや cannot be used to show the speaker's wants or intentions. Also, don't use the past tense before ~やいなや. The action can be something that you can expect. It’s important to understand that the events of the second clause are actions/movements.
5. うちの猫は魚が大好きで、あげるやいなや、一気に全部食べてしまう。
My cat loves fish, and the instant you give it to it, it's gone in an instant.
After the 連体形 of a verb, ~なり shows that something is done as soon as something else is done. So right when someone does something, they do something next in sequence to the first action. The subject is normally third person, and the subject is the same in both clauses.
6a. 宿題を済ませるなり、彼らはインターネットを使った。
6b. 宿題を済ませるとすぐに、彼らはインターネットを使った。(More natural)
They used the Internet as soon as they finished their homework.
7. 彼は帰るなり、トイレに行った。
He went to the bathroom as soon as he got home.
8. 社長は入ってくるなり、大声で怒鳴りました。
As soon as the company president came in, he shouted in a big voice.
The word comes from the なり in words like 身なり (appearance). The event in the second clause is often one that describes an action/condition not wanted. Although it is used some in the spoken language, it is usually reserved to writing.
After the past tense, it shows a situation that is still in play as another action begins. It is unnatural when you move in any way to a different action.
9. 彼は靴を履いたなり、畳に上がってしまった。 △
彼は靴を履いたまま、畳に上がってしまった。 〇
He accidentally stepped onto the tatami mat with his shoes still.
10. 彼女は公園でベンチに座り込んだ{なり・まま}、眠ってしまった。
She fell asleep while sitting on a park bench.
When students learn of 途端に, they immediately think of ~ときに, especially when they learn that this phrase is used after the past tense. Understandable, ~たとき(に)and ~たとたん(に) vaguely resemble each other, especially when not written in 漢字.
~た 途端 (に) is, again, only used with the past tense. It marks the instant after one does something. This “something” that happens afterward is something that is unexpected and much of a surprise.
11. 彼がドアを開けた途端、車が爆発した。
The car exploded just as he opened the door.
12.
窓
を開けた途端に、犬が飛び出していった。
As soon as I opened the window, the dog jumped out.
13. 立ち
去
った途端に、その
建物
が
爆発
したよ!
As soon as he left, the building exploded!
14.
動画
を
観
た途端に、
眠
くなってしまった。
I accidentally fell asleep as soon as I saw the video.
15. 余所見をした途端、転んだ。
I fell down as soon as I turned away.
16. 酒を飲むと、(その)途端に人が変わる。
Once a person drinks, that person changes instantly.
Grammar Note: 途端 may also be used in the sense of instantly and can be seen with such statements.
As seen in the example sentences, though, ~た途端(に)can't be used when something volitional occurs. So, although a situation may be unexpected, you would need to use a phrase like ~たら、すぐに if you are using a verb of volition.
17. ベルが鳴ったら、すぐに外に出てください。
When the bell rings, immediately go outside.
Perhaps because it is rarely treated separately in grammar discussions, students have a hard time knowing how to use this phrase. This describes something happening that causes a sense of surprise, similar to ~た途端(に), which follows after an event described in the first clause. Transitivity, though, is clearly different as ~た途端(に)is used with transitive expressions, but this phrase does not have that requirement.
You cannot use this phrase for yourself. At times it may be best to use ~かと思ったら instead. Sentences of command, negation, or will appear afterwards. For some people, when the event is not of the future or going back and forth in a way that means the first action may happen again in the "future", then the use of ~かと思うと is somewhat unnatural and should be replaced with ~かと思ったら. So, for the sentences below regarding weather, you can paraphrase with the latter and have no problem.
Examples
18. 雨が降ってきたかと{思うと ?/〇・思ったら 〇}、もう止んだ。
Just when I thought it had started to rain, it stopped.
19. 空が曇ってきたと{思うと ?/〇・思ったら 〇}、突然大雨になった。
Just when I thought it got cloudy, it started to rain heavily.
20. 彼女はA君のことを好きだと言っていたかと思うと、次はB君が好きだと言い出し、何を考えているのかよく分からない。
Just as I had thought she said she liked A-kun, she then stated that she liked B-kun, and so I don't know what she's thinking.
22. うちの子供は帰ってきたかと{思うと ?/〇・思ったら 〇}、もう外に遊びに行った。
The kids had already gone to play outside just when I thought they had come home.
As a regular noun, 次第 means "course of events". It is seen after nouns a lot, especially Sino-Japanese words, but also after the 連用形 of verbs.
When it attaches to other nouns, it often means "depending on". As such, when after the 連用形 of a verb, it may show that something is dependent on an action in question.
23.
請求
があり次第だ。
It's on demand.
24. 物事は状況次第。
Circumstances alter cases.
25. こういう次第だ。
This is how it stands.
26. 万事は君の(この)取り扱い方次第だ。
It depends on the way you handle it.
27. 天気の様子次第で行くかどうか決めるんだ。
I'm going to decide on whether to go or not depending on the weather condition.
28. 大統領が決心するかどうかはそれ次第だ。
The president's resolution depends on this.
29. 豊作になるかどうか
は天気次第です。
An abundant harvest is dependent on the weather.
30. 結果は君次第だ。
The results depend on you.
31. 昇進できるかどうかは能力次第だ。
Promotion is dependent on one's ability.
連用形 + 次第
It may also be used with the 連用形 of a verb to show what happens "as soon as...". This is in the sense that right after something realizes, one does the next action. Thus, the second clause following must be a verb of volition in regards to the speaker. This separates it quite well from the other “as soon as” phrases in this lesson.
32. 着き次第、被災地に援助します。
As soon as we arrive, we will aid in the disaster area.
33. 手当たり次第に食べ物を買い
占
める。
To buy up food as it is made available.
34. 満員になり次第締め切ろう。
Let's close up as soon as we become a full house.
35. 我々は雪がやみ次第、作業を再び始めるつもりです。
We plan to resume operations as soon as it stops snowing.
Adverbial 次第に
Lastly, 次第に is an adverb meaning "gradually", "finally", or "in order".
36. 機械は{次第にだんだんと}
廃
れていくだろう。
Machines will gradually go out of date.
37.
騒音
が次第に消えてゆく。
Noise will gradually fade away.
While learning about the particle ところ, you'll be introduced to combination particles. We've seen many instances where 2(+) particles can be used together, but we haven't really dealt with instances where one or more used together make a new phrase.
Combination Particles: A particle phrase made up of either more than one particle or a particle(s) with another part of speech.
The noun 所 means "place". There are four usages of ところ. These usages can be used in many situations. It can be used to show place, moment of time, situation, or the substance of a matter. More specific things that it can show include the following.
When seen after a verb, tense is very important for correct interpretation. With the non-past tense, ところ means "just about to...". When used with the past tense of a verb, it shows what you "just did". This can only be used to indicate the time when a certain action has literally just been done. If you want to say that you just recently did something, you should use ~たばかりです.
When used with the progressive, it shows that you are now doing a certain action. The "just" may also be emphasized with adverbs such as ちょうど. This is simply an extension of translation of its usage to show time. The tense just shows the time factor.
1. 帰るところだ。
I'm about to go home.
2. 学校に行くところでした。
I was about to go to school.
3. 事故を起こすところだったよ。
I was about to cause an accident.
4. 忘れるところでした。
I almost forgot.
5. よく晴れるところもあります。
There are also places where it is quite clear.
6. 雨の降るところもありそうです。
There also seems to be places where it's raining.
7. 陽が沈むところです。
The sun is about to set.
8. 会社を出たところです。
I just left the company.
9. 彼の言ったところが分かりませんでした。
I didn't understand what he said.
10. この国の議会では、B党の占めるところが大きい。
In this/our country's parliament, B party is the majority.
11. 彼女の理論は、仲間の調査によるところが大きい。
Her theory mainly relies on the research by his friends.
12. 人は建物を余すところなく建てている。
People are building buildings exhaustively.
13. もう
一歩
といったところですが。
You're just one more step away, but...
14. 私たちは田舎に新築の家をちょうど買ったところです。
We have just bought a new house in the countryside.
Grammar Note: You can also see ところ after speech modals like ~ようとする ~てしまった. It works the same way.
The meaning of a combination will reflect that of its individual parts put together. However, for the conjunctive particles that are created with ところ, this may not be that obvious. These combinations below may also not be used as conjunctive particles and can be more literally interpreted in different situations. Don't let punctuation get the best of you.
Meaning | Usage | |
ところへ | Just when | Shows coincidence of events after -ている or -た. |
ところが | But/while | Shows unexpected bad outcome. |
ところで | Even if (X) were to... | Poses an undesirable hypothetical situation. |
ところを | Although usually | Shows something unexpected is happening |
Grammar Notes:
1. ところ may often be shortened to just とこ.
2. ところへ may also be ところに.
3. The particle ところ either shows a sequence or contradiction depending on context. The last usage is synonymous with ところが. These are conjunction usages of ところ.
Examples
15. 科学の宿題をし始めようとしているところへ、僕の友だちが遊びにきた。
Just when I was about to start doing my science homework, my friends came to play.
16.
俄
雨
がやんだところへ、
台風
が町を
襲
った。
Just when the shower quit, a typhoon hit the town.
17. 彼女は僕が好きらしいんだよね。ところが、彼女の方は僕が知ってるなんて全く気がついてないよ。
She (seems) to love me you know. But, she doesn't realize that I know it at all.
Grammar Note: As you can see, ところが may also be used as a conjunction at the beginning of a sentence to mean "even so/however/but".
18. 半分したところで、彼はもう済ませたよ。
I've finished half, but he's already finished!
19. いつもなら6時に起きるところを、今朝は
寝坊
して、学校に遅刻してしまった。
Although I always wake up at six, I overslept this morning and became late to school.
This lesson is about a handful of important phrases which start with the character 以. Adverbial nouns can follow other nouns without particles and can easily just be used as adverbs and after the て形.
以外 | 以内 | 以降 | 以後 |
以前 | 以来 | 以上 | 以下 |
以遠 | 以往 | 以東 | 以北 |
以南 | 以西 |
1. Attached to a nominal phrase meaning "except".
1. 九州と四国以外で地震が発生した。
With exception of Kyushu and Shikoku, earthquakes had occurred everywhere.
2. これ以外に方法はありませんよ。
There is no method other than this.
3. 従業員以外の方の入室は{お
断
りします・
禁
じられています}。
Entrance except for employees is prohibited.
2. 以外の 何 ものでもない means "... is entirely...".
4.
愚痴
以外の何ものでもない。
It is complete stupidity.
5.
好奇心
以外の何ものでもありませんね。
It's entirely curiosity isn't it?
3. ”Apart from".
6a.
城壁
以外の地へは
踏
み込めないなら、
大砲
を
撃
つがよい。(Bookish)
6b. 城壁以外から踏み込めないなら、大砲を撃つ(の)がよい。(More natural)
If you cannot break in apart from the wall, it would be good to fire the cannon.
The opposite of 以外, 以内 means "inside of/within".
7a.
境界線
以内に止まる。
7b. 境界線の中で止まる。(More natural)
To stop within the boundary line.
8. 二百字以内で
纏
められるのか。(Harsh)
Can you summarize it within 200 characters?
9. 6時間以内に着くはずです。
It is supposed to arrive within 6 hours.
以降 means "thereafter".
10. 20世紀以降、日本は新技術において進んでいます。
From the 20th century thereafter, Japan has been advancing in new technology.
11. 面会人は午後10時以降本病院に留まることはできません。
Visitors can not remain in the hospital on and after 10 p.m.
12. 8時以降は店を閉じています。
We will close the shop after 8 o' clock.
Following after nouns and the て形 of a verb, 以後 means "thereafter/since then". 以後 is quite objective while 以降 is not. 以後 may also mean "from now on".
13a. 以後、十分気をつけます。
13b. 以後はもっと注意します。
I'll be more careful from now on.
14. その店舗は7時{以後は・以降は・から}開店しています。
The shop will be open after 7 o' clock.
15. 彼女は
先々週
風邪を引いて、以後ずっと寝込んでいます。
She caught a cold two weeks ago and has been in bed ever since.
16. それ以後ずっと
Ever after
17a.
退職以後
は
悠々自適
。
17b. 退職後は悠々自適。(More natural)
After retirement is leisure with dignity.
The opposite of 以降, 以前 means "before" or "ago".
18. 以前どこかであなたに出会ったことがあります。
I believe I've seen you somewhere before.
19. 4人とも以前は旧「Enron」に勤めていた。
All four formerly worked at Enron.
20. 以前よりずっとよく見えます。
It looks much better than it was before.
21. 以前ほど魚を食べていない。
We're eating not as much fish.
22. 俺は以前にもまして勉強しようと決めたのだよ。
I decided to study harder still more than ever before.
以来 means "from/since". In a slightly old fashioned sense, it may mean "henceforth". It is used when the situation is continuing action or state since a certain point in time. Other situations are taken care of by ~てから. Also, this phrase is interchangeable with the even more less frequently used ~てこのかた.
23a. 以来君と旅行するのはご
免
だ。(Original from text; old-fashioned)
23b. 今後、君と旅行するのはご免だ。(More natural)
I decline from traveling with you henceforth.
From
漱石
.
24a. 以来、気をつけたまえ。(Old-fashioned)
24b. 以後、気をつけたまえ。(Slightly old-fashioned; Masculine)
From henceforth, be careful.
25. 彼は大学を出て以来会社に勤めています。
He has been working at the company since he left college.
26a. 子供の
頃
以来知っている。
26b. 子供の頃から知っている。(More natural)
To know since childhood.
27. 佐伯に関しては、このマンションに越して以来、何の音沙汰もなかったから、徐々に緊張が解け始めているが、拳銃のことは、日を追うに連れて祥子の心に重くのしかかってきていた。
In regards to Sahaku, there hadn't been any news since moving into this apartment, so Sachiko's tensions gradually began to wind down, but as for the handgun, as she pursued the days, it came to press heavily on her heart.
From 冷たい誘惑 by 乃南アサ.
Word Note: 音沙汰 literally has "sound" and "incident" in it. Although 沙汰 in this case is used to mean "update", the word is most likely used here to continue a not so favorable tone in regards to 佐伯. Here are some more phrases with 沙汰.
警察沙汰 | Police case | 取り沙汰 | Idle talk | 裁判沙汰 | Litigation |
表沙汰 | Creating publicity | 色恋沙汰 | Love affair | 狂気の沙汰 | Madness |
1. "More than".
28. このグループには12歳以上の子供が
含
まれている。
Children twelve and over are included in this group.
29. iPadは400ドル以上する。
The iPad costs 400 dollars and over.
30. 3ヶ月以上大阪に
滞在
するつもりだ。
I plan to stay in Osaka for over three months.
31. 予想以上
Beyond expectation
32. 期待以上でした。
It exceeded our hopes.
33. これ以上の
面倒
には
耐
えられない。
I can't take it anymore.
2. Above-mentioned; foregoing; herein-before.
34. 以上の説明でご理解を
頂
きたい。
I would like to receive some understanding with the above explanation.
35. 以上は方法を説明したものだ。
The above-mentioned explains how to do it.
3. That is the end; the end; this is all.
36. 以上で私の報告は終わります。
Let me finish my report with this.
37a. 死亡者3千名、行方不明者1万5千名、以上1万8千名。
37b. 死亡者3千名、行方不明者1万5千名、計1万8千名。
Fatalities 3000 people, missing people 15,000 people, and 18,000 people in total.
4. Following the 連体形 of a verb, it means "seeing that", "over", or "since".
38. 前回の売り上げ以上の成績を上げる。
To raise improvements over the previous sales.
39. 昨年以上に売り上げは
伸
ばせない。
We can't boost our sales above as they were last year.
40. (私を)信頼できない以上、犬の世話をさせるべきじゃない。
Since you don't trust me, you should not let me take care of your dog.
以下 means "below(-mentioned)/following".
41. 以下次号。
To be continued.
42. 結果は以下の通り。
The results are as follows.
43a. 氷点以下となったため、寒さで体温の下がる低体温症で亡くなった方もいました。(Rare)
43b. 氷点下となりましたから、寒さで体温の下がる低体温症で亡くなった方もいました。
Because it has become below freezing, there are those that have died from hypothermia due to loss of body temperature from the cold.
44. 小数点以下を切り捨てる。
To round off the figures below/after the decimal point.
45. 社長以下八名が出席しました。
With the president, eight people in total were present.
以遠 means "beyond" and 以往 means "hereafter/formerly".
46. この電車は大阪以遠は各駅停車となります。
This train stops at Osaka and all stations beyond.
47a. 終戦以往百年。(Literary; old-fashioned)
47b. 終戦後百年。(Natural)
47c. 終戦以来百年。(Natural)
100 years hereafter the war.
These words, 以東, 以北, 以南, and 以西 mean "east of", "north of", "south of", and "west of" respectively. However, the area is everything below. So, consider that when you use these words.
48. 東京以東
East of Tokyo
49. 東京の東は千葉県です。
To the east of Tokyo is Chiba Prefecture.
50. ミシシッピ川以西はグレート・プレーンズです。
West of the Mississippi River are the Great Plains.
51a. 東京以北には福島第一原発発電所があります。X
51b. 東京の北には福島第一原発発電所があります。〇
51c. 福島第一原発発電所は東京の北です。〇
North of Tokyo is the Fukushima Number One Nuclear Electric Power Plant.
52a. 仙台以南は東京です。X
52b. 仙台の南に東京はあります。〇
52c. 東京は仙台の南です。〇
South of Sendai is Tokyo.
"As is", with verbs it is primarily seen in the pattern ~たまま(で). It is used to show action "as is" in a certain state without any change in course or situation. However, it is not necessarily the case that the subject in question is still. However, there is a very similarly meaning particle, なり, that we will learn about later which requires the subject be still. So, this is something to keep in mind.
It is not to say that this word is only used with the past tense, although for this meaning it most certainly is. However, in other usages you may see it used with the negative or demonstratives to show how a state is still the same without there being any change, which is of the same vein as above.
Though not really different in meaning, there is also the pattern ままに which is used to show that one leaves something to the course of a situation or to show things are going as thought. In other words, it shows something being left to a natural course of action. You may see this after verbs in the non-past form and even in the passive. You may also see ~がままに, which is very formal and 書き言葉的. A common phrase utilizing this older grammar is 思うがままに. In more modern Japanese, this would become 思いのままに.
Examples
1. 昔
のままの
風景
だよね。
This scenery is just as it was in the old times, isn't it?
2. そのままにしておいた。
I left it alone the way it was.
3. 何
かを
生
のまま
食
べたことがありますか。
Have you ever eaten something raw?
4a. 意
のままに(
思
ったように)
歌
う
自由
があるよ。
4b. 意のままに(思ったように)歌っていいんだよ。(More common)
I have the freedom to sing at will.
5. 彼
は、
本能
のままに
行動
しただけです。
He only acted out of instinct.
6. 窓
を
開
けたままにしておいてください。
Please leave the window open.
7. このままでは
必
ず
死
んでしまう。
As it is now, we will surely die.
8. 彼女は電気
をつけたまま
寝
ちゃった。(砕けた)
She slept with the lights on.
9. このままお
待
ち
下
さい。(On the phone)
Please hold the line.
10. 会議
がありますから、
椅子
はこのままにしておいてください。
There's going to be a meeting, so please leave the chairs the way they are.
11.
着
の
身着
のままで
逃
げること
Running away with only one's clothes.
12. 自然のままで
素敵
ですわね。(Very feminine)
It's great keeping it natural.
漢字 Note: まま can be written in 漢字 as either 儘・侭.
Variant/Pronunciation Note: Depending on the speaker, with region being a significant factor, this may also be seen/pronounced as まんま.
ほしいまま, a very important phrase that uses mama that is written in 漢字 as either 恣, 縦, or 擅, means "selfish".
13. 権勢
を
恣
にする。
To exert one's power at will.
14. 世界最高
の
日本語
(の)
教授
としての
名声
をほしいままにしてるぞ!
I enjoy the reputation of being the greatest Japanese professor in the world!
~と思いきや is equivalent to either "despite having thought" or "contrary to expectations". Its literal translation is "just as I thought...". Tense is determined by the final verb.
15. あっさり
断
られると
思
いきや、
彼女
は
承諾
してくれました。
Despite having thought that she would just refuse, she consented to it.
16. このレストランは
安
いと
思
いきや、
会計
は5000
円以上
だったよ。
Contrary to thinking that this restaurant was cheap, the bill was over five thousand yen!
17. 彼
はもう
帰
ってきたと
思
いきや、
彼
にびっくりした。
Just as I thought he had gone home, I was scared by him.
18. 誰
もあの
講座
に
出席
しないと
思
いきや、
大
勢
出
席
しました。
Despite having thought that no one would attend that lecture, a lot of people attended.
19. 日本
はどこに
行
っても
渋滞
で
遅
くなると
思
いきや、
交通
はアメリカのように
普通
だった。
Despite having thought that you would be made to slow down by congestion wherever you go in Japan, the traffic was normal like America.
Definition Note: 思いきや is equivalent to 思っていたところが.
もと may be written in 漢字 in different ways depending on how it is interpreted. You will see this word again in regards to ~をもとにして.
下・許
When written as such, it means "under" in a physical sense. It can also refer to be under rules, forces, etc. のもとで and のもとに are both possible, but the former refers to action/movement whereas the latter refers to existence/static situation. Both expressions are rather literary, but the latter is even more so.
20.
行政
の
保護
の
下
で
税
を
徴収
している。
I'm collecting taxes under the protection of the administration.
21. 法
の
許
に
Under the law
22. 勇将の下に弱卒なし。
There are no weak soldiers under a strong/brave general.
23. 長男
は
親
の
下
を
離
れた。
The older brother left from under his parents.
24. 厳
しい
監視
の
許
に
置
かれるのは{
大変
な・
酷
い}ことでしょうね。
Being placed under harsh surveillance is awful, isn't it?
25. 販売予想
を
基
にして
我々
は
製品
の
生産
を
停止
することにしました。
On the basis of the sales forecast, we have decided to halt the manufacturing of the product.
26. 太陽のもとで子供たちが遊んでいる。
Kids are playing under the sun.
27. 街灯のもと{に・で}住民たちが集まっている。
Residents are gathering underneath the street light(s).
元・旧・故
When written as such, もと means "former/previous". Lastly, it may be used in two important expressions.
28. 元
に
戻
った
方
がいい。
It's best to return to the previous condition.
29a. 今日
、
元同僚
と
偶然出会
いましたよ。
29b. 今日
、かつての
同僚
と
偶然会
いましたよ。
I happened to meet my former colleague suddenly today.
30. 元
の
鞘
に
収
まる。(Idiom)
To bury the hatchet.
本・元
1. | Origin, source, root |
2. | The basis of things, foundation. This usage may also be written in Kanji as 基. |
3. | The cause. This usage may also be written in Kanji as 因. |
4. | Funds, capital; cost price. |
5. | Food stock, ingredients. This usage may also be written in Kanji as 素 |
6. | A counter that counts the number of stumps of plants. |
Usage Notes:
1. 本・元 may also be in 元も子もない which means "losing everything".
2. As you may have noticed, usage number 4 is the same as the third usage of 下・許.
Examples
32. 失敗
は
成功
の
元
だ。
Failure is the source of success.
33.
惨事
の
本
を
辿
ろう。(Literary Spelling)
I will pursue the origin of this horrible accident.
34. 木
の
元
を
見
つけたか。
Did you find the root of the tree?
35. 風邪は万病の元。
The cold is the source of all sorts of diseases.
36. 酒
とタバコが
因
で
健康
を{損・害}う。
You lose health due to alcohol and tobacco.
37. 元
のかかる
商売
は
高
い。
The transaction capital is high.
38. スープの
素
はあるの。
Do we have the soup stock?
39. 私は
柳一本
を
植
えた。
I planted a single willow tree.
Though these patterns show result, they have their own special nuances. So, even when there is interchangeability, that doesn't mean you are saying 100% the same thing.
~結果 utilizes the word for “result”. It is seen after nouns or the past tense of verbs. What follows is a result and what precedes is a cause. Whether it is in one sentence or two, this is how the pattern works. It is objective and 書き言葉的. It is preceded by verbs of thought/consideration and followed by verbs of result.
1. やるだけはやったのだから、静かに結果を待とう。
I’ve done just what to do, so I will quietly await the results.
2.
消防車
など13台が消火にあたった結果、火はおよそ1時間半後に消し止められましたが、部屋は全焼しまし た。
As a result of 13 fire trucks fighting the fire, the fire was extinguished after approximately an hour and a half, but the room was completely burned.
From the NHK article
県営
住宅焼け1人死亡1人
重体
on 2013年7月3日 2時11分.
3. 2日のロンドン外国
為替
市場は、ニューヨーク市場や東京市場で
株価
が
上昇
したことなどを
背景
に、世界経済の
先行
きに対する
懸念
がいくぶん
和
らぎ、ドルを買って円を売る動きが
次第
に強まりました。その結果、円
相場
は一時、先月
上旬
以来およそ1か月ぶりに1ドル=100円台
前半
まで
値下
がりしました。
The London Foreign Stock Exchange on the second, against the background of stocks having risen in the New York and Tokyo Exchanges, concerns towards the world economy’s future have somewhat eased, and the trend of buying dollars and selling yes has gradually strengthened.
As a result, the yen exchange rate for a moment dropped down to the low 1$ = 100\ mark after about a month since the first part of last month.
From the NHK article ロンドン市場 1か月ぶり100円台 on 2013年7月2日 21時36分.
4. この問題は、東日本大震災の
復興予算
が、
自治体
などが管理する基金を通じて、
被災地
以外の事業にも使われているという
指摘
が出ていたもので、政府は、財務省や復興庁など関係
省庁
を通じて
実態調査
を進めてきました。その結果、調査の対象となった各自治体などが管理する16の基金には、およそ1兆1500億円の復興予算が配分され、その大半はすでに執行されていましたが、およそ1400億円がまだ使われていないことが分かりました。
As for this problem, with the indication having come out that the East Japan Great Earthquake Disaster Recovery Budget, through funds the municipalities manages are being used even in projects outside the devastated areas, the government has forwarded investigations into the actual circumstances through the ministries and offices concerned such as the Ministry of Office and the Recovery Agency.
As a result, in the 16 funds that each of the municipalities that have become the object of investigation manage, approximately 1 trillion 150 billion yen recovery budget has been allocated, and the great majority of which has already been administered, but it has been found out that approximately 140 billion yen has yet to be used.
From the NHK article未使用の復興予算
返還要請
へ on 2013年7月2日 12時48分.
~うえで works grammaticality just like ~結果. It too is seen after nouns or the past tense of a verb. ~うえで shows a willful aspect in taking the next action based on the results of the present/clause or context. This makes it quite different for all of the other patterns in this lesson. It is preceded by verbs of thought/consideration, and then it is followed by verbs of conclusion. Adverbs frequently used in the first clause include よく and 十分(に).
5. 十分に事件を
勘案
したうえで返事します。
I will reply after having sufficiently considered the matter.
6. 上司と
詳
しく相談したうえで、お返事いたします。
I will reply after having consulted in detail with my boss.
7. ASEAN=東南アジア
諸国連合
と、日本やアメリカ、それに北朝鮮も含む、27の国と国際機関の
外相
などが参加して、2日にブルネイで開かれたARFは、会議の
締
めくくりとして議長声明を
採択
しました。
議長声明では、ほとんどの参加国の
共通認識
として、北朝鮮に
核実験
の
停止
などを求めた過去の国連
安保理
決議と、北朝鮮による
既存
の核計画の
放棄
などを
盛
り
込
んだ、6か国協議の共同声明の義務を
果
たすよう、北朝鮮に求めています。
そのうえで、「参加国のほとんどは朝鮮半島の非核化に向けた努力を支持する」としています。
ARF, which was opened in Brunei on the second with foreign ministers from 27 international organizations including ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Nations), Japan, America, as well as North Korea participating, adopted the chairman’s proclamation as the meeting’s close. With the chairman’s proclamation, as almost all of the participating nations’ common understanding, it is calling for North Korea to carry out its duties of the six nation conference joint statement, including things such as U.N Security Council Resolution of the past which sought the halt of nuclear tests in North Korea and the abandonment of current nuclear plans by North Korea.
Moreover, it is asserting that “almost all of the participating nations support the efforts towards the denuclearization of the Korean Peninsula”.
From the NHK Article ARF議長声明 朝鮮半島の
非核化支持
on 2013年7月3日 0時9分.
8. 新潟県 知事「地元 軽視 だ」
新潟県の
泉田知事
は「事前に連絡はなく、こんな地元軽視はない」と強い
不快感
を示しました。
そのうえで、「東京電力は福島第一原発の事故の際のTV会議の状況をすべて公開していないなど、
検証
が不十分で事故の
責任
もとっていない。運転再開について議論を行う段階ではない」と東京電力の姿勢を改めて批判しました。
国も理解得る努力を
茂木
経済産業大臣
は、
訪問中
のベトナムで「
申請
が出された段階で原子力
規制委員会
には
厳正
で
速
やかな
審査
を行っていただきたい。そのうえで安全性が確認されたら東京電力任せではなくて国としても
前面
に出て自治体などの理解を得るよう
努力
をしていきたい」と述べました。
Niigata Prefecture Governor "It’s local neglect"
Niigata Prefecture Governor Izumida demonstrated strong displeasure saying that "there isn't local neglect like this without contact beforehand".
Moreover, he again criticized the position of Tokyo Electric saying, “Tokyo Electric aren't even taking responsibility for the accident, not completely making public the conditions of the TV meeting at the time of the Fukushima No. 1 Reactor accident and with the inspections being insufficient. This is not the stage to debates about the restart of operations”.
The Nation Too to Strive for Receiving Understanding
Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry Motegi, stated while in Vietnam “I would like for a strict and speedy hearing in the Nuclear Energy Regulations Committee on the phase of having sent an application. Moreover, once safety is confirmed, not being left up to Tokyo Electric, but as a nation, I want us to come to the front and strive to seek the understanding of the municipalities.
From the NHK article
柏崎刈羽原発
安全審査の申請決定 on 2013年7月2日 15時12分.
9.
菅官房長官
は、東京都内で
講演
し、
参議院選挙
では自民・
公明両党
で
非改選
も含め過半数を確保することが最低限の目標だとしたうえで、経済の再生を
最優先
に
掲
げて選挙戦に臨みたいという考えを示しました。
そのうえで、菅官房長官は、参議院選挙で
訴
える
政策
について、「
憲法
改正は、自民党の党是であり今回の選挙戦でも訴えることになる。しかし、今の状況での優先
順位
は、国民やいろいろな人から話を聞いても、経済だ」と述べ、経済の再生を最優先に掲げて選挙戦に臨みたいという考えを示しました。
Chief Cabinet Secretary Suga held a lecture in Tokyo and suggested that they look forward to the election battle carrying the economy’s recover as their top priority, with both the Liberal Democratic Party and the Justice Party securing the majority including those not up for reelection in the House of Councilors election as a minimal goal.
Moreover, Chief Cabinet Secretary Suga, in regards to the policies they're calling for in the election stated, "As for Constitution revision, it is the LDP’s party platform, and we are to call for it in this election battle as well. However, our current priority is on the economy no matte what we hear from citizens or others", suggesting that carrying the economy’s recover is their top priority.
From the NHK article 菅氏「過半数目標 経済前面に」on 2013年7月2日 15時12分.
挙句 , normally negative, is used with a noun or the past tense of a verb to show that one spends a lot of effort on something but something else comes out of it with the outcome often being a last resort. 挙句 is close to "after a great deal of" and is often used with the adverb 散々 meaning "repeatedly". Verbs that precede it entail thought/consideration, but they are mainly verbs with negative outcomes such as 悩む, 迷う, 議論する, 文句 をいう, etc. Passive and causative expressions are also common.
Expressions found in the latter clause involve result just like ~結果. However, again, it is usually negative, and even if the result isn't totally bad, it definitely gives the sense that it’s not worth much. With that said, you are not likely to see it much in the news as the news is typically written in an objective fashion.
Orthography Note: 挙(げ)句 can also be spelled as 揚(げ)句.
Examples
10. 散々文句を言った挙句、出たばかりだよ。
After a great deal of repeatedly arguing, she just left!
11. 三人が
酔
っ
払
った挙句の果てに
高圧線
に
襲
いかけて
感電死
したという。
It's said that after three men had gotten drunk that they crashed into a high-voltage line and were electrocuted to death.
12.
色々
勉強の揚句、地元の大学に入学することにしました。
After a great deal of various studies, I decided to enter a local college (although I tried for more).
13. 頑張った挙句の果てに
諦
めただけさ。(Casual)
After trying my best, I just gave up.
すえ is noun that literally refers to the “end/tip”. You see it in temporal phrases such as 7月の末. However, it also shares something in common with the speech modals of this lesson. Used in the same fashion as them, it shows a temporal conclusion in which “after a certain course of events has run its way, in the end it becomes as such”.
14. 夜を
徹
して議論した{△ 結果・〇 挙句・Xうえで・〇すえに}、
白紙
に
戻
してやり直すことになった。
After having debated all night, it became decided that we should redo and go back to the drawing board.
From 中級日本語文法と教え方のポイント by 市川保子.
From this sentence it resembles 挙句, but it is actually more objective. It also doesn't have to seem negative. What they do share, though, is that they demonstrate a long trial of sorts.
15. 「コマキさん、楽器は何か演奏できる」
固い布団に横たわりながら、モウリさんが聞いた。長く逃げてきたすえ、よく知らない西の町の海辺に、部屋を借りているのだった。モウリさんは町のはずれにあるゴムの工場に勤めていた。三日に一回ある夜勤から帰った日だったかもしれない。窓の外が明るみはじめていた。
"Komaki, can you play any instrument?", Mouri asked as she lay on the hard futon. After having ran away a long ways, we were renting a room on the shore in a town to the west we didn't quite know. Mouri was working at a rubber factory at the edge of the town. It might have been the day she returned from a certain night shift once every three days. The outside from the window was beginning to brighten up.
From 溺レる by 川上弘美.
16. あの国は
長年
の
紛争
を
経
た{〇 結果・△ 挙句・Xうえで・〇 すえに}、ようやく反対デモもなく
自主選挙
を行なうことができた。
That nation after having gone through years of conflict was able to finally carry out voluntary elections without even any opposition demonstrations.
Finally: やっと, ようやく, ついに, Etc.
There are many adverbs that are translated as "finally". If there are so many words, there must be differences between them. The sentence above shows a very typical instance of ようやく, but the sentence would sound unnatural to various degrees if you were to replace it with another synonymous phrase.
やっと: After one's effort over a long period of time, something finally/narrowly realizes. やっと is a positive and shows considerable satisfaction. Whether it is a place, time, or money, after a narrow situation, there is a final realization/conclusion. If the speaker has gone through much trial/struggle in achieving a result that is positive yet contrary to original expectation, やっと can't be used.
17. やっと安心して眠れる。
I'm finally able to sleep with ease.
18. やっとこさ全部片づいたよ。
I've finally finished it all.
Slang Note: In slang it can be seen as やっとこさ.
ついに・遂に: At the final stage of something, X either realizes or it doesn't. The situation one has been in has lasted a long time (like やっと), and there is the potential that what you wanted ends up not happening at all (not like やっと). ついに can rather coldly state non-realization. If it is a positive outcome, it may have a light sense of happiness or relief. However, although やっと doesn't foster an indifferent attitude, it usually implies that the speaker wished the good outcome would have come earlier.
19. 警察はついに犯人を逮捕した。
The police finally arrested the criminal.
ようやく・漸く: やっと and ついに capture the moment of realization, but ようやく places stress on the process. ようやく shows a positive, objective evaluation of planned change, and it expressed an effort that one has waited on. This is in relation to time and not something like money or physical labor. ようやく is inappropriate in showing one's 本音 due to its objectivity.
20. ようやく分かった気がする。
I think I finally understand.
21. ようやく秋が来た。
Fall has finally come.
22. 寮での集団生活にようやく慣れました。
I have finally gotten used to group living in the dormitory.
23. 私は漸くほっとした心もちになって、
巻煙草
に火をつけながら、始めて
懶
い
睚
をあげて、前の席に腰を下していた小娘の顔を
一瞥
した。
I finally became relieved, and while I lit my cigar, I first started to raise my languid eyes and glanced at the little girl's face, who was sitting in the seat in front of me.
From 蜜柑 by 芥川龍之介.
Form Note: It can be seen as ようよう・漸う in older language. ようやっと, the fusion of やっと and ようやく, also exists and is essentially the same as やっと with the time nuance of ようやく.
とうとう・到頭: This is similar to ようやく in that it places stress on the process rather than instant of realization. It is either used in positive or negative situations to show that after repeated efforts and over the course of a long time, an expected change either does or doesn't happen. This is subjective rather than objective. If you were to use it or ついに instead of やっと in something like あっ、やっと電車が来た!, your statement would be quite hyperbolic.
24. 彼らはとうとう行っちゃったよ。
They finally left.
25. すると間もなく
凄
まじい音をはためかせて、汽車が
隧道
へなだれこむと同時に、小娘の開けようとした
硝子戸
は、とうとうばたりと下へ落ちた。
Then, in no time at all, the girl caused a fierce noise to flutter about, and at the same time the train plunged into the tunnel, the glass door that she had tried to open finally fell and plopped down below.
From 蜜柑 by 芥川龍之介.
辛うじて: This is a literary word that shows an extremely close-call situation in one's favor. So, it is often translated as "barely", but it is much like やっと. But, it doesn't have the same requirement that it have the prerequisite of something going as planned. かろうじて can easily be used to refer to future event. If it is an nonfactual probability, it can't be replaced with やっと or ようやく. It can be if it is a factual probability, but in this case ついに and とうとう aren't good because they aren't used with future expressions.
26. 辛うじて生きてろ!
Narrowly live!
27. 辛うじて手に入った。
I narrowly got a hold of it.
いよいよ・愈(々)・ 弥弥: This can be very similar to the above when it shows that after some time, an event reaches an important situation. In this sense it is very similar to ついに. It is not emotionally cold like ついに. However, it is more objective than the other options like やっと. It also has other meanings such as "more and more" in which it implies increase in momentum.
28. あの
皸
だらけの頬は
愈
赤くなって、時々
鼻洟
をすすりこむ音が、小さな息の切れる声と一しょに、せわしなく耳へはいって来る。
Her wrinkle covered cheeks at last became red, and the occasional sound of her sniffling her nose along with the sound of her breath running out restlessly entered my ears.
From 蜜柑 by 芥川龍之介.
There are four simple meanings of 始末. The first is to mean "beginning and end". It may mean "end result" in a negative fashion. As a noun or a verb with する, it means "clean up/get rid of". Lastly, it can mean "thrifty" as a noun or as a verb with する.
29. 事の始末を語った。
He gave the story of it (an event) from beginning to end.
30. 彼はしまいに、逃げ出す始末だった。
He, in the end, had to run away (from there).
31. 不法滞在して国外追放になる始末だ。
Illegal overstaying in a country results in deportation.
32.
酔
うと始末に終えない。
Obstreperous.
33. 始末屋
A thrifty person
The patterns in this lesson deal with compare and contrast. Although not near as similar to each other as topics in other lessons, you still need to pay attention to detail so that you don't confuse them with each other.
Also ~と比べて, ~に比べると, ~に比べ, ~と比べ, and ~と比べると, ~に比べて means "compared to". It is a simple comparison. Without ~て, of course, the pattern becomes more literary.
1. 外は暑いが、それに比べて中は寒い。
It's hot outside, but, moreover, in contrast, it's cold inside.
2. この本は昨日読んだのと比べると全くつまらない。
This book compared to the one I read yesterday is completely boring.
3. 彼は妹と比べて若く見えました。
He looked younger beside his younger sister.
5. 男子学生と女子学生の比率は、2対1だ。
The ratio of male and female students is 2 to 1.
Word Note: The last example is shown to give other similar words with the character 比.
~に引き換え is used to show a sharp contrast in which something is greatly better or worse than something else. This can only go after nominal phrases, so you have to nominalize verbs and adjectives if you want to use them together.
6. 健太の住んでいるマンションは新しくて、広い。それに引き換え、僕のところは古くて狭いし、駅からも遠いよ。
The apartment that Kenta is living at is new and wide. By contrast, my place is old, small, and also far from the train station.
7. 同じ年の人に引き換え、彼はとても頭がよくて、たくさんの素晴らしい
偉業
を成し
遂
げました。
In sharp contrast to people of his same age, he is very smart and has made a lot of wonderful achievements.
8.
惑星
の大きさに引き換え、
冥王星
はとても小さい。
In sharp contrast to the size of a planet, Pluto is very small.
反する means "contrary" and に反して means "contrary to/against".
9.
予想
に反して成功するのはいつもいいことでしょう。
Succeeding against one's expectations is always a good thing isn't it?
10. 神の意に反して人間は
互
いに殺害している。
Against the will of God, humans are slaying each other.
11. 我々の期待に反していた。
It was contrast to our expectations.
12.
国防長官
は事実に反する報告をしました。
The Secretary of Defense made a report contradictory to the facts.
まして is an adverbial phrase that shows something is beyond the degree of the norm, past, other things, or the present situation. If the sentence is negative, of course, you say the opposite. ~にもまして takes this back to a verbal phrase with the same purpose.
You may also see 況 や, which is a contraction of the verb 言う, the auxiliary verb ~む, and や, which equate to something on the lines of いうまでもなく. This phrase is typically seen in negative sentences to mean “let alone”.
Examples
12. あいつは日本語を読むことすらできない。まして書くのと話すなどできるものではない。
He can't even read Japanese. Much less write it or speak it.
13. 彼女は小走りもろくにできない。
況
して走れるわけがない。
She can hardly jog, much less being able to run.
14. 今年は去年にもまして暑さが厳しい。
The heat is far more severe than even last year.
15. 彼はほとんど目が見えない。ましてや、読めるわけがないよ。
He can't really see, much less being able to read.
16.
敵
でも困っていたら助けます。ましてや
味方
なら当然です。
I would help an enemy if her were to be in distress, much more a friend.
17. いわんや子供には無理だね。
It’s useless much less with kids.
18. 最近は以前にもまして物覚えが悪くなった。
Recently, my memory has gotten worse than it was even before.
This shows that something has not reaching past a certain level, but it is a little below.
19. 毎週とはいわないまでも、せめて月に1回は映画館に行きたい。
Not that it'd have to be every week, but I'd like to at least go to the movies once a month.
20.
快晴
とはいかないまでも、雨は降らないでほしい。
Not that I won't go if it doesn't turn out to be clear weather, but I'd like it to not rain.
~につれて, ~に従って, ~に伴って, and ~とともに all have meanings of showing the transition/change of one situation as another transition/change is under way. We will also see how ~に応じて・応えてrelate to them.
~につれて is either after a noun or a verb in the 連体形 to express "as one thing changes, another thing changes as well". These changes are simultaneous. Although it can be after nouns or verbs, it is after verbs more often. ~につれて is often used in situations where there is a proportional relationship with the two events in the respective clauses.
As such, the first clause acts as the trigger, proportionately raising the degree of the change/transition of the latter clause. Common translations include "as", "together with", and "in accordance to/with".
Variant Note: It can be seen in more formal/written language as ~につれ.
Examples
1. 歌は世につれ世は歌につれ。
Song changes by generation, and generations change by song.
2. 昭和から平成へと時代が変わるにつれて
軍歌
は歌われなくなりました。
With the changing of periods from the Showa to the Heisei, military songs became unsung.
3. 時間が経つにつれて忘れっぽくなる。
As time passes, I become forgetful.
4. 都心化(が進む)につれて自分の地域への関心が
薄
れる。
As urbanization progresses, the concern towards one's region fades.
5. 夜が
更
けるにつれて
嵐
は激しくなった。
The storm became fierce as the night grew late.
6. 季節の変化につれて気温が
変わる。
The temperatures change in accordance to the seasons.
8. イナゴは稲に付く害虫なので駆除しなくてはなりません。昔の人はそこからイナゴを食べることを思いつきました。当時は、食べることを前提に捕まえていたので、殺虫剤は使っていませんでした。しかし戦後、 農薬が
普及し、それにつ
れてイナゴは
激減
してしまいました。現在では、殺虫剤を使ったイナゴの駆除も行われていますが、安全な無農薬栽培やオーガニック栽培をしている農家では一匹ずつ捕まえているそうです。大変な作業ですね。
Locusts are harmful insects which stick to rice plants and have to be exterminated. People in the past thought of eating locusts from this. At the time, they wouldn't use pesticides with eating them as a premise. However, after the war, agrochemicals spread, and with this locusts were decreased in number. Presently, there is extermination involving pesticides, but at farms which use safe non-agriculture chemical and organic cultivation, locusts are caught by hand one by one. That's definitely a tough job.
~に従って can be used in a hierarchical sense to mean "according to". As should be expected, ~に従い is more formal and indicative of the written language. Both に従っての and に従った are appropriate attribute forms.
9. 命令に従って、行動しろ。
Act according to the command.
10. 私の合図に従って行動してください。
Please act in according to my signals.
It may also be used like ~につれて. In the first usage above, it attaches to nouns. As for this usage, it attaches primarily to verbs. It, however, simply states that the two actions described in the respective clauses are happening in parallel.
11. 南に行くに従い、気温がどんどん高くなる。(Somewhat literary)
The temperature gets higher as you go south.
12. 人口が増えるにしたがって、住宅問題が起こってくる。
As the population increases, housing problems will come to occur.
13. 人口が増えるにしたがって、犯罪が多発する。
As the population increases, crime will frequently occur.
The contrast in nuance between ~につれて and ~にしたがって can definitely be seen in the following example.
14. スタジアムで場内の歓声が高まる{につれて・にしたがって}。実況アナウンサーの声も大きくなっていった。
As the cheers in the stadium intensified, the commentator’s voice got ever louder.
With ~につれて, the suspense is captured with the first clause being the trigger for the events of the second. With ~にしたがって, the sentence doesn't become ungrammatical, but it loses the emotive drive and merely states that the two events described in the respective clauses are happening in parallel.
伴う means "to accompany" and ~に伴って means "associated/accompanied with" or "as". Just like ~につれて, it may show that something is happening together with a change/transition of a certain situation. There is a temporal context of “taking A as the opportunity, therefore…B”. It is also often the case that it infers that the thing in the second clause continues.
What precedes it is either a noun or verb. In the case of a verb, unlike the other options, the particle の may be optionally used after the verb for nominalization. To be clear, this is not required and is not done in the first place for the other options. Lastly, ~に伴って is more literary.
Variant Note: It may also be seen in writing as ~に伴い.
15.
汚染
に伴う問題について話しましょう。
Let's talk about the problems accompanied with pollution.
16. 人口の増加に伴って、たくさんの住宅が建てられる。
Many houses are constructed in association to the increase in population.
Particle Note: 伴う is used with を when used transitively.
~とともに also behaves like ~につれて to show that something happens together with a change/transition of a certain situation. However, unlike ~につれて, the entire sentence doesn’t necessarily have to show a state of progress. In other cases it can have meanings equivalent to 同時に and 一緒に. As for its usage similar to ~につれて, it’s also the case that the words it follows must show change in situation. It cannot be words pertaining to action, which ~につれ and ~にしたがって can be.
17. 人口の増加とともに、犯罪が多発する。
Along with the increase in population, crimes will frequently occur.
18. 子供が卒業するとともに、
父母会
も
解散
しました。
The parents' association also dissolved at the same time the kids graduated.
19. 皆さんとともに
快適
な道づくりを進めます。
With everyone we will go forward with a pleasant road construction.
漢字 Note: This pattern may also be written in 漢字 as ~と共に.
~に応じて means "accordingly" or "as to". The first meaning is important in this lesson as it ties with the other patterns. When it is used with a verb that shows change, it describes the corresponding/dealing with a certain change. In this instance, it is possible to switch it out with ~につれて, ~にしたがって, ~にともなって, and ~とともに.
In its other meaning, it is equivalent to ~に応えて (as to/to satisfy). Although this, too, sounds like it is of the vein of the other phrases, it’s not. Although in such situations it may seem that ~に従って is possible, it would be considerably more negative.
20a. 住民の要求に応じて、説明会を開くことになりました。〇
20b. 住民の要求に従って、説明会を開くことになりました。△
20c. 住民の要求{にともなって・とともに}、説明会を開くことになりました。?
20d. 住民の要求につれて、説明会を開くことになりました。X
In meeting the wants of the citizens, it has been decided that we open an information seminar.
It has the attribute forms ~に応じての and ~に応じた. When に応じて comes before a noun, の is necessary after 応じて. Or, you can use に応じた. The 一段 conjugating verb 応じる either means "reply" or "to comply".
21. 質問に応じて、彼女は問題の解答を
詳
しく説明しました。
As to answer the question, she explained the answer to the problem well.
22. 命令に応じた服従。
Obedience in accordance to command.
23. 料金が
距離
と時間に応じて決まります。
The fee is determined according to distance and time.
24. 「うん」と応じる。
To respond with a "yes".
25. 相手の
依頼
に応じましたか。
Have you responded to your partner's request?
26. 車の速さに応じてガソリンの消費量が変わる。
Fuel use will change depending upon the car's speed.
The 一段 verb 応える may be used to mean "to come through/satisfy/answer" or "to tell/go to one's heart". The latter usage shows some sort of burden.
27. 要求に
応
えて、社員の給料が上がりました。
To meet demand, the employee's salaries went up.
28. 国民に応えて、法律は
廃止
されました。
The law was repealed in response to the citizens.
29. 期待に応える。
To come through with expectations.
30.
深酒
は身体に応えるのです。
Hard drinking takes its toll on the body.
31. その当時供給は需要に{応えて・満たして}いなかった。
In those days, the supply didn't meet the demand.