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第253課: Combination Particles with もの
第254課: Combination Particles with ばかり
第255課: The Particles って, たって, & だって
第256課: The Particle から II: ~からある, ~からの, & ~からする
第257課: Intransitive & Transitive: Part 6
第258課: Intransitive & Transitive: Part 7
第259課: Intransitive & Transitive: Part 8
第261課: Reduplication: Adjectives
第262課: Reduplication: Adjectival Nouns
第265課: Honorifics:{に・と}なります/なっております
第270課: と Combination Particles I
第271課: と Combination Particles II
第272課: ”When it Comes to..." I:というと, といえば, & といったら
第273課: “When it Comes to…” II: となると, となったら, & となれば
第275課: Whether it be…or…:といい & といわず
第276課: ”When it Comes to..." III: と{きたら・きては・くると・きた日には・きている(ものだ)・とくれば}
第277課: と Combination Particles IV
第278課: Potential IV: ~かねる・かねない VS ~きれる・きれない VS ~える・うる/~えない
第279課: Considering...: わりに(は) & にしては
第280課: Disregard I: にもかかわらず,にかかわらず, & を問わず
第281課: Disregard II: によらず & (の)いかん{にかかわらず・を問わず・によらず}
第282課: Disregard III: をものともせず(に), {を・も}顧みず(に), & を押して・押し切って
第283課: Disregard IV: {に・も}構わず, をよそに, & にもめげず(に)
第284課: Occasion: ~うえで, ~際に, ~折に, ~に際して, ~に当たって, ~に先立って, ~を前に(して), ~を控えて, ~に臨んで, & ~に面して
第285課: Worth and Extent: ~に足る, ~に依存, ~に値する, & ~に及ぶ
第286課: Nominal Phrases I: 中心, 上, & 分
第287課: Nominal Phrases II: 相応, 由, 代り, & 経由
第288課: Nominal Phrases III: 至極, 極み, 万一, 至り, & ゆかり
第289課: Simultaneous Action II: The Particle つつ (VS ながら)
第290課: 抜く: ~ぬきで(は), ~ぬきに(は), ~ぬきで, ~ぬきにして(は), & ~ぬきの
第292課: Defining Parameter: ~を始め(として), ~皮切りに(して), ~に至るまで, ~をもって, & ~といったところだ
第295課: Advanced ~べき Phrases: ~べくもない、~べからず・ざる, ~べく, ~べくして, & ~べし
第297課: むしろ, かねて, さもないと, 況して・況や, たとえ, 強いて, 敢えて, さすが, 一旦, & 殊更
第298課: Tendency: 嫌いがある, が早いか, が最後, & そばから
This small lesson will be about difficult usages of the particle まで. Half of this lesson will focus on grammar points that are still quite important to know but are more difficult to use. The rest of the lesson involves grammar that is either outdated or restricted to the written language. However, because these usages have not died out entirely, they are worth mentioning. As we are now well into our advanced studies, it's more important for you to know what all is out there so that you are not confused by small things.
Some people get utterly confused when they see this pattern. Nothing has really changed, but the implication of using this is slightly different than a phrase with just "Non-past+まで". This shows that one goes all the way to doing action X. This is often used with the particle のに, which means "although".
1.
県民大会
を
開
いてまで
反対
を
訴
えたのに、オスプレイは
配備
されてしまった。
Although we voiced our protest by going as far as to open a meeting of the prefecture citizens, the Ospreys ended up being deployed.
From NHK on January 22, 2012.
2. 10万ドル
払
ってまでテキサス大学に入りたくないよ。
I don't want to go to the University of Texas to the point of paying 100,000 dollars.
3. 体を壊してまで、仕事を続ける。
To continue the/a job until one hurts one's health (literally: until one breaks one's body).
4. 「苦肉の策」は自分の身を傷めてまでも敵を欺くことを指す言葉です。
"Kuniku no saku" is a phrase that refers to deceiving an enemy even to the point of hurting oneself.
~まで(のこと)だ shows that nothing else extends out of the action in question. This can be used with the past tense because the particle is literally only being used in the sense of "extent". So, just as you can "to the extent I have done" in English, you can say in Japanese したまでだ. This, though, does not negate the fact that there are still situations just like earlier in which using the past tense with まで would be unnatural. The のこと that is optional in the phrase is essentially just a filler phrase.
5.
考
え
事
をしていたまでです。
I was just thinking (and nothing more).
Used with the negative, まで shows a meaning of "no need to do so". With this, there are two important situations. ~まで(のこと)もない means "there's no need to..." and ~ないまでも means "even though it's not necessary to...at least...". ~たまで is impossible.
6. それをするまでもない。
There's no need to do that.
7.
手紙
に書くまでもないことだから、
電話
で
伝
える。
Because it's not necessary to write a letter, I'll tell you on the telephone.
8.
確
かめるまでもなく
明
らかだった。
It was clear without even having to make sure.
9. それは言うまでもないよ。
That goes without saying.
Particles like が and を can follow まで even though まで is a case particle. This, though, has to deal with the fact that this particle was once a noun. In which, this wouldn't be that exceptional. This pattern is somewhat uncommon. After all, this quote comes from a book that is somewhat old. It's simply fun to know that such phrasing is still possible every now and then.
10.足の下の
畳
までが
冷
えて来るので、一人で
湯
に行こうとすると、
「待って下さい。私も行きます。」と、今度は女が
素直
について来た。
While I was about to go bathe alone since even the tatami mat underneath my feet was getting
cold, she finally came by this time and meekly said, "Wait for me. I'm going too".
From 雪国 by 川端康成.
7. 足の下の
畳
までが
冷
えて来るので、一人で
湯
に行こうとすると、
「待って下さい。私も行きます。」と、今度は女が
素直
について来た。
While I was about to go bathe alone since even the tatami mat underneath my feet was getting
cold, she finally came by this time and meekly said, "Wait for me. I'm going too".
From 雪国 by 川端康成.
Grammar Notes:
1. When reading things from actual books, you are going to inevitably encounter grammar you've not seen before. In this sentence, ~までが shows us that particles like が and を can follow まで even though まで is a case particle. This, though, has to deal with the fact that this particle was once a noun. In which, this wouldn't be that exceptional. This pattern is somewhat uncommon. After all, this quote comes from a book that is somewhat old. It's simply fun to know that such phrasing is still possible every now and then.
2. ので shows reason in this sentence.
3. 行こうとすると is a combination of several things, but the phrase as a whole shows that when the speaker starts to try to go, the following thing happens.
7. 足の下の
畳
までが
冷
えて来るので、一人で
湯
に行こうとすると、
「待って下さい。私も行きます。」と、今度は女が
素直
について来た。
While I was about to go bathe alone since even the tatami mat underneath my feet was getting
cold, she finally came by this time and meekly said, "Wait for me. I'm going too".
From 雪国 by 川端康成.
Grammar Notes:
1. When reading things from actual books, you are going to inevitably encounter grammar you've not seen before. In this sentence, ~までが shows us that particles like が and を can follow まで even though まで is a case particle. This, though, has to deal with the fact that this particle was once a noun. In which, this wouldn't be that exceptional. This pattern is somewhat uncommon. After all, this quote comes from a book that is somewhat old. It's simply fun to know that such phrasing is still possible every now and then.
2. ので shows reason in this sentence.
3. 行こうとすると is a combination of several things, but the phrase as a whole shows that when the speaker starts to try to go, the following thing happens.
7. 足の下の
畳
までが
冷
えて来るので、一人で
湯
に行こうとすると、
「待って下さい。私も行きます。」と、今度は女が
素直
について来た。
While I was about to go bathe alone since even the tatami mat underneath my feet was getting
cold, she finally came by this time and meekly said, "Wait for me. I'm going too".
From 雪国 by 川端康成.
Grammar Notes:
1. When reading things from actual books, you are going to inevitably encounter grammar you've not seen before. In this sentence, ~までが shows us that particles like が and を can follow まで even though まで is a case particle. This, though, has to deal with the fact that this particle was once a noun. In which, this wouldn't be that exceptional. This pattern is somewhat uncommon. After all, this quote comes from a book that is somewhat old. It's simply fun to know that such phrasing is still possible every now and then.
2. ので shows reason in this sentence.
3. 行こうとすると is a combination of several things, but the phrase as a whole shows that when the speaker starts to try to go, the following thing happens.
When it is after the 連体形 of a verb or in (ほど)までに, it shows to what extent something has reached. Unlike the case までに, what it is after isn't necessarily the actual end point. For instance, the speaker in the example obviously didn't actually die. Having ほど there, which is a particle from a noun meaning "extent", helps. However, the sentence could easily not have it.
11. わたしは死ぬほど(までに)
苦
しんだ。
I suffered to the death.
~までも, of course, is quite emphatic, but you may be surprised to find out that ~までをも and ~までもを also exist, and if your teachers deny it, they need to face reality the same way people need to recognize that "ain't" is indeed a word in the English speaking world.
Remember that we are using the adverbial particle まで. When being very formal in one's speech, the particle を surfaces in this pattern. Why? With the change in category, no matter how arbitrary it may seem, it is a logical trigger for を to appear.
Some speakers don't like either patterns, which is fine. If speakers just don't like one of them, it'll be ~までもを that they don't like. Compounds like までに are fine, but other combinations like はを or もに are just wrong. These facts lead to speakers' opinions of liking ~までをも but not ~までもを.
Nevertheless, both are and have been used, and even the egregious ~までもを appears in the famous novel 海辺のカフカ by the renowned author 村上春樹. This man is no idiot, and although this doesn't mean he never messes up his grammar, it's highly likely that he thinks it's quite OK and probably used it on purpose.
12. 日本人までをも
魅了
した
異文化
の
習慣
A tradition of another culture that has even fascinated Japanese people
13. あの
戦争
で愛する
夫
と父をなくし、
終戦後
の
混乱
の中で母までもをなくし、あわただしい結婚生活の中で子どもをもうけるいとまなく、
以来天涯孤独
の
身
をかかえて生きて
参
りました。(Humble, written speech)
I lost my beloved husband and father in that war, and I even lost my mother in the turmoil after the end of the war, and with there being no time to bear a child in my busy married life, I have since picked myself up and lived on alone with no relatives.
From 海辺のカフカ 上 by 村上春樹.
Translation Note: If you go word for word in the original Japanese, you’ll see that it doesn’t match literally with the English translation. However, if you were to give a literal English translation, you’d end up with a bad translation. Sometimes you have to take liberties in translating, and that’s completely fine so long as you still captivate the meaning of the original text as best as can be done.
~までをも・~までもを
~までも, of course, is quite emphatic, but you may be surprised to find out that ~までをも and ~までもを also exist, and if your teachers deny it, they need to face reality the same way people need to recognize that "ain't" is indeed a word in the English speaking world.
Remember that we are using the adverbial particle まで. When being very formal in one's speech, the particle を surfaces in this pattern. Why? With the change in category, no matter how arbitrary it may seem, it is a logical trigger for を to appear.
Some speakers don't like either patterns, which is fine. If speakers just don't like one of them, it'll be ~までもを that they don't like. Compounds like までに are fine, but other combinations like はを or もに are just wrong. These facts lead to speakers' opinions of liking ~までをも but not ~までもを.
Nevertheless, both are and have been used, and even the egregious ~までもを appears in the famous novel 海辺のカフカ by the renowned author 村上春樹. This man is no idiot, and although this doesn't mean he never messes up his grammar, it's highly likely that he thinks it's quite OK and probably used it on purpose.
21. 日本人までをも
魅了
した
異文化
の
習慣
A tradition of another culture that has even fascinated Japanese people
22. あの
戦争
で愛する
夫
と父をなくし、
終戦後
の
混乱
の中で母までもをなくし、あわただしい結婚生活の中で子どもをもうけるいとまなく、
以来天涯孤独
の
身
をかかえて生きて
参
りました。(Humble, written speech)
I lost my beloved husband and father in that war, and I even lost my mother in the turmoil after the end of the war, and with there being no time to bear a child in my busy married life, I have since picked myself up and lived on alone with no relatives.
From 海辺のカフカ 上 by 村上春樹.
Translation Note: If you go word for word in the original Japanese, you’ll see that it doesn’t match literally with the English translation. However, if you were to give a literal English translation, you’d end up with a bad translation. Sometimes you have to take liberties in translating, and that’s completely fine so long as you still captivate the meaning of the original text as best as can be done.
~てまで
~までをも・~までもを
~までも, of course, is quite emphatic, but you may be surprised to find out that ~までをも and ~までもを also exist, and if your teachers deny it, they need to face reality the same way people need to recognize that "ain't" is indeed a word in the English speaking world.
Remember that we are using the adverbial particle まで. When being very formal in one's speech, the particle を surfaces in this pattern. Why? With the change in category, no matter how arbitrary it may seem, it is a logical trigger for を to appear.
Some speakers don't like either patterns, which is fine. If speakers just don't like one of them, it'll be ~までもを that they don't like. Compounds like までに are fine, but other combinations like はを or もに are just wrong. These facts lead to speakers' opinions of liking ~までをも but not ~までもを.
Nevertheless, both are and have been used, and even the egregious ~までもを appears in the famous novel 海辺のカフカ by the renowned author 村上春樹. This man is no idiot, and although this doesn't mean he never messes up his grammar, it's highly likely that he thinks it's quite OK and probably used it on purpose.
21. 日本人までをも
魅了
した
異文化
の
習慣
A tradition of another culture that has even fascinated Japanese people
22. あの
戦争
で愛する
夫
と父をなくし、
終戦後
の
混乱
の中で母までもをなくし、あわただしい結婚生活の中で子どもをもうけるいとまなく、
以来天涯孤独
の
身
をかかえて生きて
参
りました。(Humble, written speech)
I lost my beloved husband and father in that war, and I even lost my mother in the turmoil after the end of the war, and with there being no time to bear a child in my busy married life, I have since picked myself up and lived on alone with no relatives.
From 海辺のカフカ 上 by 村上春樹.
Translation Note: If you go word for word in the original Japanese, you’ll see that it doesn’t match literally with the English translation. However, if you were to give a literal English translation, you’d end up with a bad translation. Sometimes you have to take liberties in translating, and that’s completely fine so long as you still captivate the meaning of the original text as best as can be done.
~てまで
Although it would seem that such a relatively small phrase would be easy, ~ての is far from simple.
What is so complicated about this expression? As you know, て follows the 連用形 as a conjunctive particle to show continuation or parallelism. It has become so important that it is deemed an essential conjugation in Japanese, the て形, or more correctly called the 並列形 in this instance. Essentially how it works is that it attaches to the 連用形 and stops the continuation of the current clause, and you as the listener or reader expect something related to that clause to be said next.
What about ~ての? の makes an attribute. You may have seen ~についての (about) before.
1a. 日本について話す。To talk about Japan.
1b. 日本についての話。 A talk about Japan.
In the second it's used as an attribute of 話. There are several such phrases and they're often deemed as fixed postpositions. This, though, doesn't account for everything. In reality there are four broad usages of ~ての.
1. The attribute form for stopping the 連用形 (連用中止法の連体形).
2. As a postposition (the opposite of a preposition)
3. In fixed attribute expressions.
4. After て phrases used adverbially like 初めて.
However, the hard one is 1. Expressions under the third category are just deemed suffixes. An example is ~きっての (The most...of all).
2. 国内きっての敏腕家
The most capable person in the country
We also understand expressions under 4 like 初めての.
3. 生まれて初めての海外旅行はメキシコでした。
My first overseas trip ever was to Mexico.
The problem is how の really functions and the relationship between the 連用形 and 連体形. Say you have the verb 使う. 使う’s 連体形 is still just 使う. So, why can you say something like さいころを使っての遊び (a game played with dice)? One would assume that this could work with anything. However, there are indeed instances where this is unnatural. Now we have to find out what these restrictions are. The previous example could have easily been stated as さいころを使った遊び.
~ての has a deep tie to the 連体形. After all, it too is an attributive expression. Considering the ways to make an attributive expression in Japanese, you have the following options.
Let us not forget about the underlining properties of an attribute and case particles themselves as we examine this pattern further.
4a. 韓国へ旅行する。To travel to Korea.
4b. 韓国への旅行。 Travel to Korea.
4c. 韓国にの旅行。X
As you can see, you have to use の for the attribute, and the case particle in this case stays. However, you couldn't have said にの. Consider how the following expressions below change when you change it to an attribute.
5. 高校を卒業する → 高校の卒業
To graduate high school → High school graduation
6. 彼に死刑を宣告する → 彼への死刑の宣告
To give him the death penalty → The death sentence given to him
7. 武器が恐ろしい → 武器への恐ろしさ
Weapons are dreadful → The dreadfulness of weapons
What about when it seems that both the 連用形 and the 連体形 are logical choices. These are exceptional circumstances, and the noun in question is one that has adjectival qualities. Consider the following.
8a. 彼女はすごく美人だ。
8b. 彼女はすごい美人だ。(元は間違い)
The first focuses on the quality of beauty while the second modifies the thing. So, it's like the difference between "she's really beautiful" and "she's a real beauty". In other cases such as the ones we've seen, there is a clear back-and-forth change between the 連用形 and 連体形. However, sometimes changing one phrase to fit the other results in an unnatural sentence. This is due to semantic restraints, not the 'grammaticality' of the phrase.
9. うれしい話 〇 → うれしく話す X
What about adverbs? What if they're used like an attribute? はじめて is a prime example of の following. しばらく (in a while) is also a good example. Yet, there is a group of adverbs that never take の even when they are with a noun. These nouns are relative and have to do with an indeterminate quantity. So, one says something like ちょっと前. However, ちょっとの前 is unacceptable. There are still other adverbs that are never used with の like 必ず.
You have now gotten a glimpse of why ~ての may be so difficult given the complexity of the 連体形 itself and how it relates to the 連用形. However, that's not the only thing that makes it complex. What about the many usages of て?
1. Shows sequence.
10. 家に帰って、晩ご飯を食べる。
To go home and eat dinner.
2. Indicates reason or cause.
11. 猫に引っ掻かれて、泣いた。
I got scratched by a cat and cried.
3. Indicates method or means.
12. 肘をついて、眺める。
To use one's elbows to view.
4. Comparison or contrast.
13. 赤くて大きなリンゴ
A red and large apple
5. Contradictory condition.
14. あいつは知っていて教えてくれなかった。
He knew but didn't tell (me).
6. Shows some sort of condition. This is so in phrases like について.
Ignoring #6, #1-3 can be used with ~ての. This definitely makes things still difficult. #4 and #5 are illogical with it. Now, let's see what happens when it's used with #1.
~ての: Sequential
When ~ての is used to show sequence, it compensates the particle から. So, it could be replaced by ~てからの or ~たあとの.
14. 2年間休んでの予定通りの復活でした。
It was a come-back as planned after a rest for two years
15. 水族館を見学しての帰り
Coming back from visiting an aquarium
16. 行脚を果たしての帰途
Homeward after completing a pilgrimage
17a. あの日は、遊園地に遊びに行っての緊急事態だったため、現場に行くのに時間がかかってしまった。〇
17b. あの日は、遊園地に遊びに行った緊急事態だったため、現場に行くのに時間がかかってしまった。X
That day, because there was an emergency situation after having already gone to have fun at an amusement park, it took some time to get to the scene.
All of these can be rephrased with the 連体形. This phrase can lead to something being incidental.
18. 番組は見てのお楽しみだ。
The fun in the show comes from watching it.
Phrase Note: This phrase indicates that one wouldn't understand the fun had you not seen it. This phrase, incidentally, no pun intended, can lead to very strong statements.
19. それは10日たってのことだ。
That is something that lapsed over 10 days.
20. 許しを得{ての・た}上で
Upon receiving permission
21. 知っ{ての・た}上で
Upon knowing/realizing
However, when the transition shown by て is a simple sequence, it's very hard to use ~ての. This is because as these examples have shown, it presents some sort of premise, and then something strong is supposed to come after it.
~ての: Reasoning
When て indicates reasoning or cause, the relation is general. Since X is so, Y happens. Phrases like 心配しての言葉 can be rephrased to 心配して言った言葉. However, this is not as simple as it looks. Rather, there are three possible consequences.
This is very context driven, but it isn't a totally random assignment. Sometimes context must be there for ~ての to be understood. If words seem to be missing if you translate back into English, the Japanese is probably bad.
22. 借金返済に追われ{ての・た}無理心中
A suicide forced by being pressed into repaying one's debts
23. アメリカ生活に疲れ{ての・た}情緒的な日本回帰
An emotional return to Japan from being tired of American life.
You can also see ~てのことだ. In similar examples, you can't just replace it with ~た. That's because you lose any sense of reasoning with something else. The の replaces a verb that can be ascertained from the context. The same goes for ~てのものだ.
24. いつも食料や水を貯めておくのは、{自然災害・地震・緊急事態}に備えてのことだ。
Why I always store food and water is in case of a [natural disaster/earthquake/emergency situation].
25. 明日からのことを考えての準備だ。
That's in preparation for things tomorrow.
26. アベノミクスの政策が失敗に終わったら、日本の経済はすぐに復活できないかもしれない。景気が戻るには50年はかかる可能性があるだろう。なので、私が現在のアベノミクスに対して警鐘を唱えるのは、30年先の生活を心配してのことだ。
If the Abenomics policy were to end in failure, the Japanese economy would possibly not be able to quickly recover. There is also the possibility that it could take even 50 years for the economy to recover. So, as for me personally, what raises an alarm at the current Abenomics is worrying about my life thirty years down.
~あっての
~あっての is a very important application that states that without X, there is no Y. が is usually dropped.
27. 苦労あっての喜び。
Joy only from having gone through hardship.
28. 海あっての漁業なんだから、海を汚してはいけないぞ。
As this is a fishing industry since there is the ocean, we mustn't pollute it.
29. 両親あってのことです。
It's all thanks to my parents.
30. 命あっての物種 (Proverb)
Where there is life, there is hope.
31. 企業あっての組合
A union in existence thanks to the company
~ての: Means and Condition
This is actually the most prevalent usage and the easiest to understand. It is often interchangeable with ~ながらの.
32. たくさんの人を案内しての登山は大変だった。
Hiking while guiding a lot of people was hard.
33. 恥をさらしての暴露
A revolution while disgracing oneself
Just as was the case before, there are instances where you can replace it with the 連体形, cases you can but there is a change in meaning, and cases where they're not interchangeable.
When Interchangeable:
34. 仕事を離れ{ての・た}個人的な関係
A personal relation aside from work
35. 予想を踏まえ{ての・た}決定
A decision based on forecast
36. 大統領にちなん{での・だ}恐竜の名前
A dinosaur name after the president
37a. 試験に向けての勉強
37b. 試験に向けた勉強
Study directed for exam
This lesson is about the particle もの and the combination particles associated with it, not about the nouns 物 and 者, although all three words share the same origin.
The particle もの, colloquially as もん, may mean "because". This usage is used extensively by women and small children as an alternative to から and may be used conjunction or as a final particle.
1. この
景色
は
懐
かしいですね。私たちが若い時に出会ったところですもの。
This scenery is nostalgic isn't it? It's because this is the place we met when we young.
Sentence Note: Scenes like above would be commonly heard among old people.
2. ねぇ、ねぇ、あのビデオゲーム買ってよ。どうしてもあたしほしいんだもの。
Hey, hey, can you buy that video game? Cause I've got to have it.
The particle もの has several other usages.
1. | Similar to "will", it nominalizes a verb. |
2. | Used with -たい showing wish, it means "would like to do". |
3. | Ought to. |
4. | "よくしたものだ" means "used to". |
3. よく泳いだもんだ。
I used to swim.
4.
丸木
は水に
浮
くものだ。
A log will float in water.
5.
鯨
になりたいものです。
I wish I were a whale.
6. もっとご両親は
敬
うものですよ。
You should be more respectful to your parents.
7. 私、
成人
になったんだもの、少しぐらいお酒を飲んでもいいでしょう。
I'm an adult now, so isn't it alright for me to have a little liquor to drink?
Below is a chart of combination particles with the conjunctive particle もの.
~もので | Shows reason of action for what happened |
~ものか |
Extremely emphatic negation |
~ものなら | Should there be, if...then (volitional) |
~ものの | Even though |
~ものを | Although, if only |
Usage Notes:
1. ~ものを signifies the unsatisfactory feeling of the speaker.
2. ~ないものか shows a feeling of expectation for the realization of an idea and ~たものか shows a sense of confusion.
3. ~からいいようなものの and ~ば・といいようなものの express "though it's OK because" and "although it would be for the better if" respectively.
Examples
8. いくつかの
欠点
はあるものの、彼は天才です。
Even though he has a few flaws, he's a genius.
9 あんなやつに負けるもんかい。
Like I'd lose to that kind of guy!
10.
掴
めるものなら、掴んでごらん。
If you think you can grab it, go right ahead.
Word Note: ごらん is just like みせてもらう.
11. 負ければ
済
むものの、そこまで自分をおとしめることができなかった。
Although it would have ended better if he would have lost, he could not lower himself to such a degree.
12. あんまり
嬉
しかったもんで、何をしてるのかは忘れちまった。(Really casual)
I was so happy that I forgot what I was doing.
13. 一言だけ話せばよかったものを、しゃべりすぎたので、事件に
巻
き込まれてしまった。
Although it would have been alright to speak just a word, I accidentally got involved into the matter because I chattered too much.
14. 聞いてくれればよかったものを。
If only he would have listened.
15 さっさと警察に届けりゃいいものを。
If only I had given it to the police promptly.
From 冷たい誘惑 by 乃南アサ.
Contraction Note: りゃ is the contraction of れば.
16. もっとうまくできないものか?
Can't you do better?
17. この仕事は誰に
頼
んだものか。
To whom was this work entrusted?
18. できるもんなら、
代
わってやりたい。
If it's possible, then I'd like to switch out (for you).
19. 気づいたからいいようなものの、他の人がいたらどうしただろうか。
Though it is all right that I noticed, what would I do if there were other people?
20. 先生に
厚
かましくも
口答
えをしようものなら、
大目玉
を
食
らうでしょう。
Should you even have the nerve to talk back to the teacher, you'll surely get scolded severely.
28. 火事になろうもんなら、大変だぞ。
It would be grave should there be a fire.
29. 借金で困っていた友人を、助けようと思えば助けられたものを、見捨ててしまった。
If only I had thought to help my friend who was struggling with debt, I could have helped her, but I accidentally ran out on her.
30. 休めばよかったものを、無理をして働きすぎたので、病気になってしまったよ。
Although I would have been fine if I took a rest, I unreasonably worked too much, so I ended up getting ill.
31. あたしの気持ち、君にわかってたまるものか!
How could you ever know how I'm feeling!?
ばかり is a very important particle and is in many combination particles.
ばかり is used in several important usages and may be ばっかり, ばかし, or ばっか in colloquial settings.
1. Shows degree.
1. リンゴを二つばかりください。
Please give me (approximately) two apples.
2. 旅行の
費用
は全部で50万円ばかりかかりました。
The total cost of the trip came to around 500,000 yen.
3. 運動選手さんは10キロばかり
競走
に走りました。
The athlete ran about 10 kilometers in the race.
2. Shows limitation.
1. | Used with nominals to show everything is just a certain thing. |
2. | After a noun or in between て and いる meaning "just doing". |
3. | ばかりだ expresses what's yielded in a one-sided situation. |
4. 見渡
す限り一面雪ばかりでした。
There was nothing but snow as far as I could see.
5. 弟は外で遊んでばかりいます。
My younger brother does nothing but play outside.
6. 兄はコンピューターを使ってばかりいる。でも、毎度クラッシュしてしまうから、お返しされるんだ。
My older brother is always just using the computer. But, since every time he uses it it crashes, I get payback.
7. 国際問題は悪くなるばかりだ。
The international problem is just getting worse.
8. その子犬はいつも眠ってばかりいる。
That puppy is always just sleeping.
9. 家にばかりいないで、たまには外出しよう。
Don't just stay home. Let's go out once in a while.
10.
突然
の
停電
で人々は逃げ場を求めながら
右往左往
するばかりだった。
People could only move in confusion while looking for a place to escape by the sudden blackout.
3. Either after ~ん, which must follow the original 未然形 for all verbs, or the 連体形, ばかり may also show that "something is as if it is going to happen". It does not have to literally be the case. This pattern may also be used to show an excessive/extreme degree.
11. 雨が降り出さんばかりの空
模様
だ。
The sky is as if it's about to rain.
12.
袋
ははち切れるんばかりにつまっていた。
The bag was filled as if it was about to burst.
13. ボールは爆発せんばかりに、
膨
らんでいた。
The ball expanded as if it were about to explode.
14. 彼は爆発せんばかりに、
頬
を膨らませていた。
He was about to explode (in anger).
Historical Note: The ~ん comes from the old negative ending ~ぬ, and the pattern ~ぬばかりだ was equivalent to しないだけで・・・したかと思うほど. It eventually got confused with the old volitional form ~ん・む, which brought about the sense that it looks like it's about to happen.
Reading Note: 頬 can also be read as ほほ.
4. After ~た it shows what is yielded right after something. It is of a moment. In other words, the event in question can't have a long duration. So, things like 徹夜したばかり are wrong.
15. 20歳になったばかりだ。
I just turned 20.
16. 僕はたった今着いたばかりだ。
I only just arrived.
17. 寝たばかりのようだ。
It looks like he just fell asleep.
18. 寝たばかり。X
I just slept.
19. はい、昨日覚えたばかりですから。
Yes, it's because I just learned it yesterday.
20. 起きたばかりです。
I just woke up.
21. 私は習ったばかりの日本語を使ってみました。
I tried using Japanese I had just learned.
22. 学期が始まったばかりなので、まだあんまり忙しくない。
Since the semester started, I'm still not that busy.
23. さっき食べたばかりなのに、またすぐお
腹
が空いてしまった。
Although I had just eaten a little while ago, I got hungry again right away.
24. この本は出版されたばかりだ。
This book has just been printed.
25. 昼ご飯を食べたばっかりなのに、もうお腹がすきました。
Although I just ate lunch, I'm already hungry.
読み物: アイヌ語を守ろう!
アイヌ語は、単語のひとつひとつにも物語のような 概念 があるらしいですね。アイヌ語が消えて行くのはもったいないです。アイヌ語は 絶滅 の 危機 にある言語ですが、まだ 一筋 の希望の光があると思います。言語は人間のごとく生きているものです。アイヌ語の命が 絶 たれたならば、それは世界は人間性を形成する大事な部分も失ってしまうほどのことなのです。それぞれの言語は 独自性 を保っていて、代々受け 継 がれた情報のかたまりであり、それが記号化されたものです。アイヌ語が絶滅する可能性は高いですが、きっと 蘇 らせられるでしょう。アイヌ語のネイティブは 高齢者 ばかりになってしまっているので、テープなどで保存していると以前聞いたことがありますが、どうでしょうかね…。
1. What is the overall gist?
2. Find and explain the usage of ばかり.
3. What is the Ainu language described as?
4. What has been done according to the reading to preserve it?
Reading Note: 代々 = だいだい・よよ. The last reading is less common.
The chart below illustrates the usages and meanings of the combination particles of ばかり. Then, the chart will be followed by examples.
Meaning | Description | |
~ばかりに | Only Because | Shows what happens solely due to... |
~ばかりか | Not only, but | Shows a negative extreme and then another. |
~ばかり[で・じゃ]なく | Not only, but also | Shows an extreme and then presents another. |
Grammar Note: ~ばかりに is only seen after a dependent clause. All other ばかり are simply the two separate particles used right next to each other.
Examples
26. あの終電車に乗ったばかりに、事故に
遭
った。
I was in the wreck only because I road on the last train.
27.
犯罪
の場にたまたま居合わせたばかりに、事件に巻き込まれてしまうということはよくあります。
Getting dragged into a case solely due to the fact that you just happen to be at the crime scene happens a lot.
28. 彼はお金がないばかりに友だちも少ない。
His friends are even few solely because he has no money.
29. 頭ばかりか胸も痛いです。
Not only my head but my chest hurts, too.
30. 彼は
教授
にゴマをするばかりか、カンニングまでしていい点を取ろうとするそうです。友人ではあるけど、信じられないよ。
I hear that not only butters up his professors, but even goes so far as to cheat to try to get a good grade. Although he's a friend, I can't believe it.
31. 日本語ばかりでなく韓国語も勉強したいです。
Not only do I want to study Japanese, but I also want to study Korean.
32.
喉
が
渇
いたばかりじゃなく、お腹も
空
いた。
Not only am I thirsty, I'm also hungry.
In this lesson we will learn about the particles って, たって, and だって which are necessary in improving your colloquial Japanese skills.
This is a very important feature of casual Japanese. The particle と is very frequently seen as って in spoken Japanese. Although it originally came from the contraction of という, it has since taken on と's function as a citation particle.
1. 難
しいって
思
った。
I thought it was difficult.
2. 負
けたよって
言
われてもなあ。
Even if you would have said you lost.
3. お
母
さんにどうぞよろしくって伝えてくださいね。
Please say nice to meet you to her mother.
4. 田中
さんって
知
ってる?
Do you know Mr. Tanaka?
気
にしなくてもいいってことだ。
It's nothing you may need to be worried about.
"...の...の(と)" is used to list things in contrast or emphatically and "...の...ないの(って)" shows excess. As is noted, sometimes using it may be uncommon or even old-fashioned.
5.
何
のかんのと
文句
をつける。
To complain of what and that.
6. 死ぬの生きるのと
大騒
ぎだ。
Dying and living is all turmoil.
7. うるさいのなんのって、
耳
が聞こえなくなったほどだ。
It's so loud to the point I've lost my hearing.
8.
無職
になるの、
離婚
するの、
散々
な目にあったな。(Not so common)
Becoming unemployed and divorced, I've met a lot of terrible things hasn't it!
9. 寒いの暑いのと
言
っていないで、ジョギングは
毎朝
しなさい。
Don't complain about it being hot or cold, you must go jogging every day.
10.
痛
いの
痛
くないのと、
飛
び
上
がってしまったよ。(古い言い方)
It hurt so bad I accidentally jumped up.
The Adverbial Particle って: Emphatic
It takes up the subject with slight exclamation and is equivalent to というのは. It's also used in repeating what someone said.
11. オレって、なんてバカなんだ。
I'm such an idiot.
12. 誰
かに
出会
える
時
っていつもこうだ。
Meeting someone is always the same way.
13. したくないって、どういう
意
味
だ。
You don't want to do it, what do you mean?
14. 誰
が{殺人・
殺人者・人殺し・犯人}
かって、あいつに
決
まってるよ。
It's settled that who the, um, murderer is that guy over there.
Word Note: 殺人者 is a rather formal word and not used much in actual conversation, although it is common in books. 人殺 し is a graphic word that bring images of the bloody crime scene. So, it is considered a sensitive word and often avoided. 犯人 , although it only means "criminal", it is the most likely word to use in this situation, and most people would realize automatically that the sentence is about murder anyways.
The Final Particle って: All of the Above
15. すぐ
帰
れってさ。
He said like to hurry home.
16. 間
に
合
うだろうって。
They said they would probably make it on time.
With a high intonation, it shows confirmation.
17. 離婚
するんですって。
You're getting divorced?
18. 病気
だったんですってねー。
It was sickness, right?
In a downward intonation, it passes down an assertion strongly. It is often used to (re)assure someone like in Ex. 19.
19. 大丈夫
だって。
It's OK.
20. きっと
合格
するって。
I'll surely pass.
The Conjunctive Particle って
1. When used with ~た.
21a. どう
叫
んだって、
聞
こえない。(Less common)
21b. どれほど
叫
んだって
聞
こえない。
Even if you somehow shout, he can't hear.
22. どう
見
えたって、
校長
は
校長
だ。
No matter how you look at it, the principal is the principal.
23. やったっていいじゃん。
Isn't it OK to do it?
Grammar Note: When used with ん, って is often changed to て. It's also common as ってー.
For the most part, たって is ~た + って. However, there is one usage of たって that makes it unique.
The Conjunctive Particle たって
Often with a 促音 , it is used as a colloquial variant of the phrase といっても meaning "even if you say that". There are several set expressions that accompany this.
Tense | Meaning |
Non-past | Even though (pronoun)... |
Past | Even if you (past tense verb)... |
Volitional | Even if (pronoun) going to... |
Adjectives | Even if you... |
24. ハワイに行こうったって、どこも
満員
だよ。
Even if we're going to Hawaii, everywhere is full.
25. 無
くったって、
生
きてはゆけるだろう?
Even if you don't have it, wouldn't you still go on living?
26. そうだと
思
ったとしても、そうと
決
まったわけじゃないだろ。
Even if you thought that, that doesn't mean that it's supposed to still occur that way you know.
Grammar Note: Of course, there are some situations in which たって would be unnatural.
At times だって is merely a combination of だ and って or the voiced version of the particle だって. However, だって is also seen in unique situations.
The Adverbial Particle だって
1. It presents something with an added feeling of rebuttal in response to an assumption and is equivalent to もまた--"even (does)".
27. 犬
だってそれくらい
分
かるだろう!?
Even a dog should understand that!?
28. 僕
だって
辛
いのだ。
Even I'm bitter (about it).
29.
乞食
にだって
言
い
分
はある。
Even a beggar has one's say.
2. "AだってBだって" arranges like things with the hint that other things are applicable as well.
30. 学校だって、
大学
だって、
同
じところじゃないか。
Isn't it the same place, whether it's school or college?
31. ペットを飼うなら犬だって猫だって同じようなもんじゃないか。
If you're going to raise a pet, isn't a dog or cat the same?
32. イルカだってクジラだって哺乳類なんだよ。
Whether a dolphin or a whale, it's still a mammal.
33. 子どもだって大人だって遊びたいときは思いっきり遊ぶんだよ。
Whether a kid or an adult, when people want to play, they play with all their heart.
34. 宝石
だって
着物
だって
買
う。
To buy things whether it is jewelry or clothing.
3. With a feeling of rebuttal and attached to a phrase showing high value, it strengthens the meaning of a sentence and is equivalent to さえも meaning "even also".
35. うそ(だ)、
決定的
な
証拠
だってあるぞ。
Lie, there's even definitive evidence.
36. クラスにはピアニストだっているよ。
There's even a pianist in the classroom.
4. Attached to a phrase showing the "smallest" of something and followed by a negative expression, it is used to show complete negation.
37. いとこにとってはこんな
大学
は
一日
だって
我慢
できないだろう。
My cousin wouldn't last in this kind of a college for even a day.
38.
僅
かだって
許
されない。
Not even a little bit will be forgiven.
5. Attached to an interrogative, it is used to mean "all without exception", and is equivalent to "interrogative + でも".
39. いつだっていいさ。
Anytime is good.
40. 誰
だってそんなこと{は・を}したく(は)ないね。
Nobody wants to do a thing like that.
6. 何 だって asks for a reason with a feeling of criticism--why".
41. 何
だってそんなことをしたんだ。
Why did you do even such a thing as that?
The Final Particle だって
1. Directly quotes the words of someone of which one thought to be unsuitable and is equivalent to だと.
42. 彼
は、
金
を
貸
さなかったんだって。
He said, I didn't lend any money.
43. 知
らなかったんだって。
You didn't know?
44. 遊
びたくないだって?
You don't want to play?
Phrase Note: This usage is a contraction of だとて.
2. のだって quotes what someone said.
45. あの
田中
さん、
行
きたくないんだって。
Mr. Tanaka says he don't want to go.
46. あいつは
来
るんだって。
He's coming?
3. Asks about the information of something passed down when attached to a phrase of question or doubt.
47. 何
だって?
What was it?
48. 食費
はいくらって?
How much was the food expenses?
Variant Note: だって may be changed to ですって in polite context.
These phrases are all quite similar, but it's important to understand how they don't overlap.
からある basically shows that a something is a certain amount, but in other contexts it may imply that the quantity is large or even more than the number phrase being used. It is used with phrase involving length, width, wideness, depth, weight, size, and quantity.
However, because it is generally not used as much and is very 書き言葉的, it may be best to avoid it in the spoken language in order to not sound unnatural. For instance, 1a is completely grammatically correct, but many speakers would prefer you say 1b.
1a. 2000からある漢字 〇/△
1b. 2000もの漢字 〇
As much as 2000 Kanji
One application that has not been affected much is when からある is preceded by some time phrase.
2.{古く・昔}からある物語
A story from a long time ago
3. この神社は鎌倉時代からあります。
This temple is from the Kamakura Period.
Before seeing more examples, it’s important to know about the similar ~からの and ~からする which find themselves used more than ~からある. ~からの has some overlap with ~からある at times, but its main purpose to be used with cost and expenses as well as basic number statements in which ある would be inappropriate like in Ex. 13. ~からする is used to show prices as in purchases.
4. 17兆6000億ドルからの国債
National debt of over 17 trillion, 600 billion dollars
5. 年間一万ドルからする特別教室
Special classroom costing ten thousand dollars annually
6. この地方では毎年100㎝からある積雪のため、スキーが盛んだ。
Due to snow accumulation of 100 cm or more each year in this region, skiing has flourished.
7. 夜の間に、10トンからある大量のバイオ
廃棄物
がゴミ捨て場に捨てられていた。
During the night, more than 10 tons of biological waste was dumped in the dump site.
8. 今年は大雪で、ダラスでも30㎝からある積雪が観測された
This year has had heavy snow, and 30 cm has been recorded even in Dallas.
9. その男の人は50キロからある荷物をひょいと肩に
担
いで、大型トラックに載せた。
The man hoisted luggage of more than 50 kilos with ease on his shoulders and loaded it into the semi-trailer.
10. インドネシア諸島は1万3000からある島で構成されている。
The Indonesian Isles is composed of more than 13,000 islands.
11. 安くても大体1頭3、4万円からする。
Even if it’s cheap, a head will basically cost 3-4000 yen.
12. 数時間前に、40キロからある荷物をいくつも運んだので、体中が痛くて動けない。
Several hours ago, I was lifting a lot of luggage over 40 kills, and so my whole body aches, and I can't move.
13.
千人
からの
観光客
が、
毎日水族館
を
訪
れます。
As many as a thousand tourists visit the aquarium every day.
14. 木の
重
さは2百トンからある。
The tree's weight is as much as 200 tons
15. 身長6メートルからあるキリンが、突然、目の前に現れた。
A giraffe of over 6 meters in height suddenly appeared in front of my/our eyes.
16. 10メートルからある
大木
が集落の家のある方向へ倒れてきた。
A large tree of 10 meters came crashing down in the direction where a village house was.
17a. 50
台
からのトラックが
並
んでいる。
17b. 50
台以上
のトラックが並んでいる。(もっと
自然
)
There are as many as fifty trucks lined up.
Warning Note: Do not confuse this からある with the particle から being followed by ある meaning a certain distance.
18. 至るとは、始点からある
経路
を
辿
って終点に到達するという意味です。
“Itaru” means following a certain route from the start point and reaching the end point.
In this sixth lesson on verbs that can either be used intransitively or transitively, we will focus on verbs that have unique strings attached to them. There are three broad categories that we’ll be looking at.
1. Either the intransitive or the transitive usage is relatively new in the language. Meaning, some speakers will think it’s wrong to use it a certain way but many speakers still do.
2. The use of the verb in a transitive sense is done so to implicitly show a connection between an agent and an action.
3. The use of the verb in a transitive sense is done so to emphasize the agent’s volition in said action.
Each verb to be looked as must be done so on an individual basis. Although they can all more or less be classified into one of these three points, they’re special for reasons that must be carefully considered.
The verb 間違う has the basic meaning of “to be mistaken/incorrect.” Essentially, a certain situation and or certain results are different (than what they should be). Its transitive form is 間違える. 間違える incidentally either means “to fail/make a mistake (in)” or “to mistake something for something else.” The latter meaning greatly influences how it is used to refer to mistakes. When the mistake in question was made by confusing how it should have played out, 間違える is the verb you should use.
Now, the issue at hand is the severity of 間違える and how it affects the use of 間違う. To many speakers, 間違える is very direct. After all, it intrinsically implies that another means was actually right and what was done was wrong. Consequently, some speakers use 間違う instead to lessen the emphasis of the mistake at hand. Incidentally, speakers also tend to use 間違う more often in contexts that involve abstract issues. The more physically ascertainable the mistake is, the more likely 間違える will be used instead of 間違う.
1.
君
が
間違
っている。
You’re mistaken.
2.
人
は
何故人生
を
間違
うのか。
Why do people mess up life?
3.
息子
の
育
て
方
を
間違
ったんじゃないかと
悩
んでいます。
I'm worried that I might have messed up raising my son.
4. 粘着テープを貼る場所を{間違った・間違えた}けど、貼り直せますか。
I messed up where I should stick the adhesive tape, but can I re-stick it (where it should have been)?
5.
振込
の
内容
を{
間違
った・
間違
えた}が、
取
り
消
せますか。
I messed up something in a wire transfer, but can I cancel it?
6. ワープの
場所
を{
間違
った・
間違
えた}!
We’ve messed up where we were supposed to warp to!
7.
戸籍届書
の
記入
を{
間違
った・
間違
えた}のですが、どうしたらいいでしょうか。
I made a mistake in filling out a family registry notification form, but what should I do?
8.
分岐
を{
間違
った・
間違
えた}
車
が
急
に
車線
(を)
変更
して
事故
を
起
こしてしまった。
A car which had made a mistake at a fork in the road suddenly switched lanes and caused an accident.
Although 終わる and 終える are intrinsically the intransitive and transitive verbs for “to end/finish” respectively, the difference between them is actually not this simplistic. There are in fact three primary patterns with them that you must learn.
The forceful nature of the verb 終える is amplified by the use of the particle を.
10.
訓練
が
終
わりました。
Practice ended.
11.
訓練
を
終
わりました。
I finished practice.
12.
訓練
を
終
えました。
I ended/finished practice.
13.
仕事
が
終
わりました。
Work (has) ended.
14.
仕事
を
終
わりました。
I finished work.
15.
仕事
を
終
えました。
I ended/finished (the) work.
16.
聞
き
取
り
練習
を
終
わりました。
I finished my listening comprehension practice.
17. うちの
子供
は
今年
、
義務教育
を
終
わりました。
My child(ren) finished their compulsory education this year.
終える is very similar in meaning to 終わらせる. Both indicate stopping something, but 終わらせる implies that you are purposely stopping something once it has been completed. It’s not always the case, however, that 終える represents a reckless ends to a means. When it is used, though, it does give a more poignant, crisp end. This makes it satisfactory for when you express finishing something and you want to relish the moment that you got through the situation.
18.
最後
の
稽古
を
終
えました。
I finished my last practice.
19.
無事
に
結婚式
を
終
えました。
I’ve safely finished the wedding.
20. この
鳥
は
巣立
ちを
終
えたばかりみたいですね。
This bird seems to have just completed leaving the nest, huh.
21.
宿題
を
早
く
終
わらせたい。
I want to quickly finish my homework.
22.
科学
は
戦争
を
終
わらせることができるのでしょうか。
Could science bring an end to war?
23.
愛
を
終
わらせない
方法
はひとつしかない。
There is but one way of not bringing an end to love.
24. この
仕事
は
明日
の
朝
までに
終
えないと、まずいですよ。
If we don’t finish this work by tomorrow morning, things won’t be good.
終えさせる means “to make…end.” The haphazard nature of ending something before it is complete is often implied. It may also simply give the “let” nuance of the causative. These two different nuances are contrasted in the two examples below.
25.
静
かに
近親者
の
死
を
受
け
入
れ、
自然
に(かつ)
穏
やかに
生
を
終
えさせることが、
近親者
としての
最後
の
務
めです。
The final duty of a close relative is to calmly accept a close relative’s death and to naturally and gently let the individual end life.
26. ただ
刑期
を
終
えさせるだけなら、
何
の
反省
もなくまた
犯罪
を
犯
すと
思
う。
I think that if you simply just end (the person's) sentence, (that person) will commit crime again without any self-reflection.
The verb for to change, as you’ve known it to be, is かわる and かえる for the intransitive and transitive sense respectively. Although this is true, をかわる is also possible. Before we investigate that aspect further, however, it’s important to understand the various nuances of かわる and かえる, especially because they have unique spellings.
・変わる・変える: For general change; the character 変 is used for showing changes in state/appearance/etc. As “state” is the broadest means of describing situation, it is what you should use if you are not sure if any of the following spellings are more appropriate.
・代わる・代える: For indicating substitution; the character 代 is used to show that some role/situation/standing/position is switched/being substituted for something else.
・替わる・替える: For indicating switching to something new; the character 替 also indicates switching, but the switching is permanent and it’s to something deemed new(er).
・換わる・換える: For exchanging; the character 換 is used to show exchanging one thing for another of the same value. It is especially common in reference to currency exchange.
27.
途中
で
予定
が
変
わりましたので
納期
を
早
めてください。
Plans have changed midway, so please hasten the delivery day.
28.
今
までの
方法
を
変
えました。
We’ve changed our method that we’ve used up until now.
29.
現地
で
日本円
の
現金
をユーロに{換・替}えるのは、
為替
レートが
悪
いので、
出来
るだけ
避
けたほうが
良
いです。
When you exchange Japanese yen for euro locally, the exchange rate is bad, and so it’d be better that you avoid that as much as possible.
30.
山手線
に
乗
り
換
えました。
I transferred trains to the Yamanote Line.
31.
商品券
をお
金
に
換
える。
To exchange a gift certificate into money.
32. あの
老舗
は
代替
わりして
息子
さんが
後
を
継
いだらしいです。
It appears that that old shop has been taken over by the son.
33.
4
月
になって
年度
が{替・変}わった。
Now that it’s April, the fiscal year has changed.
34.
順番
を{変・替}えました。
I changed the ordering.
35. Tシャツを
着替
えました。
I changed T-shirts.
36.
先
ずは、
社長
に
代
わってご
挨拶申
し
上
げます。
First of all, I would like to say a few words on behalf of the (company) president.
37.
自分
を
人質
の
身代
わりとして
差
し
出
す。
To present oneself as a sacrifice for hostage(s).
38.
今
から
石油
に
代
わる
資源
に
切
り
替
えていくことが
必要
です。
It is necessary that we switch to a resource in place of oil starting now.
39. これを以って
挨拶
{に・と}
代
えさせていただきます。
With this, I’d like to give my salutations.
Sentence Note: 挨拶{に・と}代えさせていただきます literally implies that you are using whatever you said prior as the thing it attaches to. It is yet another way to add a layer of politeness in addresses and the like.
The use of を変わる instead of を変える is meant to lessen the direct volition of the agent in the change/switch.
40. 早く職を変わりたい。
I want to change jobs soon.
41. ○○さんに
電話
を
代
わっていただけますか。
May I speak to Mr. ##?
42.
健太郎
が
座席
を
代
わった。
Kentaro switched seats.
Spelling Note: As you can see, when かわる indicates a meaning closer to “to switch,” then the spelling 代わる becomes more appropriate. In Ex. 42, Kentaro simply switched seats with someone, likely with someone sitting directly next to him.
43.
健太郎
が
座席
を
変
えた。
Kentaro changed (the) seats.
Nuance Note: This sentence has two possible interpretations. Kentaro may have changed seating arrangements that may or may not include his own seat, or he simply switched seats but solely following his own volition to do so. For instance, this would be appropriate if he were sitting next to someone talking loudly on his cellphone and got up to sit in a seat far away from that individual.
44.
先生
が
生徒
たちの
座席
を{
変
わった X・
変
えた}。
The teacher changed the students’ seats.
45.{
転校
しました・
学校
を
変
わりました}。
I changed schools.
Phrase Note: 転校する is more common.
46.
今
の
仕事
がつまらないんなら、
仕事
を
変
えたらどうでしょうか。
If your current job is so boring, how about changing jobs?
47. アメリカでは、
高校卒業
から
40
歳
くらいまでの
間
に
5
回
くらい
仕事
を
変
わることも
例外
ではありません。
In America, it is not exceptional even for someone to switch jobs five or so times from the time one graduates high school to the time one turns 40.
48.
4
月
から
仕事
が
変
わって
広島
から
名古屋
に
転居
しています。
My job changed starting April, and so I’ve changed residence from Hiroshima to Nagoya.
49.
出産後
、
仕事
が
変
わりました。
My job changed after giving birth.
Nuance Note: In Ex. 49, it’s not necessarily the case that the speaker switched jobs. It could just be that her duties at her existing job changed due to having become a mother.
50.
楽器
を
変
わりたかったら、
変
わればいいんです。
If you want to switch instruments, switch.
In this seventh installment about verbs that are both intransitive and transitive, we’ll look at another handful of verbs that deserve special attention. In this lesson, all verbs discussed are typically taught as being primarily used with に, but their usages with を mustn’t be overlooked. As was the case last lesson, these usages with を typically fall under the three categories below:
1. Either the intransitive or the transitive usage is relatively new in the language. Meaning, some speakers will think it’s wrong to use it a certain way but many speakers still do.
2. The use of the verb in a transitive sense is done so to implicitly show a connection between an agent and an action.
3. The use of the verb in a transitive sense is done so to emphasize the agent’s volition in said action.
The verb 負ける is generally an intransitive verb meaning “to lose (to).” It can even mean "to break out in a rash (due to shaving, etc.). However, it has one transitive meaning that is equivalent to 安くする. In other words, in addition to meaning to succumb to defeat, it can also be mean reducing the price of something.
1.
試合
に
負
けました。
I lost (in) the match.
2.
肌
が
弱
いので、どうしてもかみそりに
負
けて
出血
してしまいます。
My skin is tender, and so no matter what, I break out from razors and end up bleeding.
Spelling Note: かみそり may also be spelled as 剃刀.
3.
値段
を
負
けて
売
ることの
不合理
に、
全
く
我慢
できません!
I absolutely can't stand the irrationality behind lowering the price and selling it!
4.
日本
やアメリカなどでは、
値段
を
負
けてもらうということが
少
ない。
There are few instances in Japan and America where you get the price down on something.
5.
仲介手数料
を
負
けてくれない
不動産会社
が
多
い。
There are many real estate companies that won’t lower brokerage fees.
当たる creates an intransitive-transitive verb pair with 当てる. Unfortunately, things get complicated due to the fact that they both have several nuances and because 当たる also happens to have transitive uses that cannot be replaced by 当てる.
当たる (intrs.): To be hit; to be equivalent to; to win (a lottery); to be stricken (by heat, food poisoning, etc.); to hit well (baseball); to feel a bite (in fishing); to be bruised (fruit); to be called upon (by a teacher); to be assigned to; to be right on the money; to lash out at.
6.
石
がガラスに
当
たっても
割
れ
辛
く、もし
割
れたとしても
石
がガラスを
貫通
しない。
Even if rocks hit the glass, it’s hard to crack. Even if it were to crack, the rock won’t penetrate the glass.
7.
長期間
日が
当
たらないと、うまく
育
ちません。
If it isn't exposed to the sun for a long period of time, it won’t grow well.
8. スーツの
前
ボタンを
締
めないのは、
失礼
に
当
たりますか。
Would it be rude not to fasten the front button of a suit?
9.
親
を
悪
く
思
うだけでも
罰
が
当
たります。
Even by merely thinking bad about your parents, you’ll incur punishment.
10.
雨
の
天気予報
が
当
たってよかった。
I’m glad that the rain forecast was right on.
11.
通常
、
要人
の
身辺警護
に
当
たっている。
Normally, (the individual) is assigned to the personal protection of important persons.
12. フグに{当たったら・中ったら}、首から
下
を
土
に
埋
めろ。
If you get poisoned by a puffer-fish, bury yourself from the neck down in dirt.
Spelling Notes: フグ can alternatively be spelled as 河豚. When used to mean “to be stricken,” 当たる can seldom be seen spelled as 中る.
13. それは{あたってる・
傷
んでる}だけでしょう。
That’s just bruised, you know.
Nuance Note: A lot of speakers do not understand what is meant by あたる when used in the context of indicating that food produce is bruised. This is because although it is in dictionaries, it is dialectical in nature. Some people will be confused because of how に当たる can indicate food poisoning. After all, one way of saying “food poisoning” itself is 食中り. When using 当たる to indicate bruising, there is a nuance of the bruising being caused by the produce hitting each other, likely during transport. To avoid confusion, using the verb 傷む is your best bet.
当たる (trans.): To check (by comparison); to probe into; to shave.
This usage typically takes に as well; however, when used to mean “to check (establishments),”を is typically used.
14. イライラして
旦那
や
息子
や
犬
にまで
当
たってしまいました。
I got irritated and lashed out at my husband, son, and even my dog.
15.
原本
に
当
たって
校正
してほしいです。
I’d like you to proofread by checking with the original script.
16.
詳細
は
本人
に
当
たってください。
For details, please see the person himself.
17. 小さな個人経営のお店を当たっています。
I’m checking small businesses.
18.
他
を
当
たってください。
Please check (another store).
19.
顔
を
当
たりますか。
Shall I shave your face?
Word Note: In certain lines of industry, instances of 剃る (to shave), 擂る (to grind), and other things resembling the two in pronunciation such as 鯣・スルメ (dried squid/cuttlefish) have そる・する replaced by 当たる. As for スルメ, it turns into 当たりめ.
当てる (trans.): To hit; expose; to put (on/against); to allot; to make a hit (in a lottery); to guess (an answer); to call on; to sit (on a cushion); to address.
20.
座布団
を
当
ててください。
Please sit on the floor cushion.
21.
和語
に
漢字
を
当
てる。
To attach Kanji to native Japanese words.
22.
観葉植物
を
昼間
に
屋外
で
日
に
当
てていたら、
枯
れてしまった。
When I had left my decorative plant exposed to the sun outdoors in the afternoon, it died.
23. ポイントが
貯
まると、このポイントを
利用
して
航空費
や
旅費
に
充
てることができるようになったりします。
When points build up, by using them you become able to do things like allot them to air fares and travel expenses.
Spelling Note: When used to mean “to allot,” あてる is spelled as 充てる.
24.
今度
は
母
に
宛
てて
手紙
を
書
きました。
I wrote a letter addressed to my mother.
Spelling Note: When used to mean “to address” as in a document of some sort, あてる is spelled as 宛てる.
25.
授業中
、
当
たりたくないと
思
って、
先生
と
目
を
合
わせないようにしていたら、
当
てられてしまった。
During class while I was trying not to lock eyes with the teacher so that I wouldn’t get called on, I got called upon.
26. うまく
当
てた。
I guessed right.
The verb 喜ぶ can incidentally be used with either に or を. The nuance is slightly different and so it is often the case that you can switch up the particles in most instances without making a grammatical error. に喜ぶ means “to be delighted/pleased with” and を喜ぶ means “to rejoice at/congratulate.”
27.
相手
の
幸
せを
一緒
に
喜
ぶと、
好感
が
持
てる。
When you celebrate another person’s happiness together, you give a positive vibe.
28.
私達
は
何故他人
の
不幸
を
喜
ぶのか。
Why is it that we rejoice at other people’s misfortune?
29.
震災
を
喜
ぶようなブログなどがネット
上
に
流
れているのも
事実
である。
It is also true that there are blogs and such circulating on the internet that seem to rejoice at natural disasters.
30.
美味
しいデザートに
喜
ばない
女性
はいません。
There isn’t a woman who isn’t pleased with a delicious desert.
31.
大
きな
成果
に
喜
ぶこともあれば、うまくいかず
落胆
し、
葛藤
を
繰
り
返
した
経験
も
多
くあるでしょう。
If you're ever delighted at great results, then you will surely also have experienced things not going well, getting discouraged, and then having repeated those troubles.
32.
選手
たちは
久々
の
勝利
に
喜
んでいる。
The athletes are delighted about their long overdue victory.
When used with the particle に as an intransitive verb, 怒る means “to get mad at…” As a transitive verb with the particle を, it means “to scold.” There is also the verb 叱る which also means “to scold,” but 叱る is thought to be constructive whereas 怒る is usually not constructive.
33.
子供
に
怒
って、
怒鳴
ってしまいました。
I got mad at my kid and accidentally shouted at him/her.
34.
飛行機
の
遅
れに
怒
った
女性客
が
客室乗務員
に
暴行
を
加
える
様子
を
撮影
した
動画
が
炎上
している。
A video is receiving a flood of criticisms which captures a female passenger who got angry at the plane’s delay assaulting a flight attendant.
35.
実際
の
自分
に
怒
っているのに、
妻
の
浪費癖
に
怒
っていると
信
じ
込
んでいる
夫
は
多
い。
There are many husbands who are convinced that they are mad at their wives’ reckless spending habits even though they are mad at their actual selves.
36.
部下
を
怒
った
感情
はどれくらい
継続
するのか。
How long do your feelings continue from having scolded an underling?
37.
生徒
を
怒
ったあと、あなたはどうしますか。
What do you do after scolding a student?
38.
犬
を{
叱
る・
怒
る}ときは
鼻
を
叩
けばいいですか。
When scolding a dog, should you hit its nose?
39.
自分
のために
怒
る、
相手
のために
叱
る。
You tell someone off for oneself; you reprimand someone for that person’s sake.
40.
子供
を
感情的
に
怒
ってしまった。
I accidentally emotionally scolded my child(ren).
In this eighth and final installment on verbs that are both intransitive and transitive, we will master five more verbs that deserve special attention. As has been the case for the last two lessons, their usages with the particle を can more or less be categorized in the three categories below:
1. Either the intransitive or the transitive usage is relatively new in the language. Meaning, some speakers will think it’s wrong to use it a certain way but many speakers still do.
2. The use of the verb in a transitive sense is done so to implicitly show a connection between an agent and an action.
3. The use of the verb in a transitive sense is done so to emphasize the agent’s volition in said action.
The verb 垂れる is an intransitive verb with the basic meanings of “to hang/droop/drip” and its transitive pair is 垂らす, whose basic meanings are “to suspend/hang down/dribble.” However, the two happen to overlap each other in the sense of “to hang/droop.” When the act of suspension is involuntary to a reasonable degree but there is an agent for said suspension, 垂れる is used over 垂らす. This is because 垂らす shows an active effort to suspend something.
When you use 垂れる, there is a general nuance that the object is not totally detached from the agent. In a sense, it’s as if it is an extension of said agent. For instance, when you’re dangling a fishing lure into a lake, it and the rod that’s undoubtedly in your hand can be viewed as an extension of your hand.
Ironically, however, there are some things that even if they are somehow appended to you, you can't use 垂れる because there’s no way you aren’t purposely hanging said thing down. One example of this is “bangs” (前髪). Men and women alike who have bangs consciously let their bangs down. Even if they aren’t, idiomatically speaking, only 前髪を垂らす is used.
When, then, can only 垂れる be used? In addition to the basic meanings described already, it can also be used as a condescending variant of the verb 言う (to say).
1.
彼
は
両腕
を
垂
れて
静
かに
立
っていた。
He stood silently with both arms drooping.
2.
両腕
を
前
に
垂
らします。
Dangle both arms in front of you.
Nuance Note: This would be something that you would hear in an exercise program.
3.
彼
は
口
をだらりと
開
けたまま
涎
を
垂
らしている。
He is slobbering all over with his mouth languidly open.
4.
文句
を{
垂
れる・
言
う}な。
Don’t complain.
5.
無意識
のうちに
涎
が
垂
れているのは
何
かの
疾患
でしょうか。
Is unconsciously having slobber drool a sign of some ailment?
6.
日本
では、
女性
が
前髪
を
垂
らして
額
を
出
さずに
横
に
流
すのが
流行
っている。
In Japan, for women who have bangs, putting them sideways without covering the forehead is a fashion trend.
7.
何
かにつけて
ウンチク
を
垂
れまくるやつって
本当
にうるさいよね。
People who just have to say anything and everything they know are really annoying, huh.
Spelling Notes: ウンチク can seldom be spelled as 薀蓄 or 蘊蓄. Also, うるさい may seldom be spelled as 五月蝿い or 煩い.
8.
醤油
を
垂
らしてしっかり
火
を
通
してください。
Drip soy sauce on it and heat it thoroughly.
9.
子犬
がしっぽを{
垂
れて・
垂
らして}
歩
いている。
The puppy has his tail down while walking.
The verb 気付く means “to notice/recognize/become aware of” and historically only takes the particle に. However, some people use the particle を instead. There are a few grammatical situations, though, that must be put into consideration.
Orthography Note: 気づく may alternatively be spelled as 気付く.
1. When using the causative, there is a direct object and an indirect object. The direct object is who you’re making realize what. The “what” is the indirect object. However, there is no requirement that the indirect object always be in the sentence. This will make it seem as if 気づく is just used with を.
10.
彼氏
を
口臭
に
気
づかせるためにどうしたらいいですか。
What should I do in order to get my boyfriend to notice his bad breathe?
11.
口臭
{に・を??}
気
づかせるためにどうしたらいいですか。
What should I do in order to get him/her to notice his/her bad breathe?
Sentence Note: In Ex. 10, you could imagine the sentence making sense without 口臭 if it were already mentioned and it was clear in context that that is the indirect object. In Ex. 11, the lack of the direct object causes confusion to some speakers as there is a tendency for を to be used to emphasize the agent’s role in an action. However, in this case, Ex. 11 would literally mean that it’s the breathe odor you’re trying to convince of something, which doesn’t make sense.
12.
写真
は
気
づいていないこと{に・を?}
気
づかせる。
Pictures make you notice things you hadn’t noticed before.
Sentence Note: Ex. 12 has the same issue as Ex. 11 when wo を is used. The one being made to notice is “you” and not the “things one hadn’t noticed before.”
2. The use of を instead of に is often used when using the passive. However, even in this situation, the particle に is still the ‘correct’ one to use. The use of を highlights the seriousness of the situation. Although who you're noticed by and what is being noticed end up both being marked by に, this poses no real problem to the naturalness of a sentence.
13.
女性
は
髪
を
切
ったこと{に・を ?}
気
づかれると
嬉
しいものですか。
Are women happy when their haircuts are noticed?
14.
男性
でも
髪
を
切
ったこと{に・を ?}
気
づかれたら
嬉
しいもんですよ。
Even men are happy when their haircuts are noticed.
15. 何かを探っていること{に・を ?}気づかれたら、夫婦喧嘩になることはもとより、浮気調査を行うことさえ危うくなってしまう場合があります。
There are instance in which being found out about searching for something results even with performing an infidelity investigation becomes dangerous, let alone the marital disputes.
16.
男性
は、
自分
が
嫉妬
していること{に・を?}
気
づかれるのが
恥
ずかしいと
思
っている。
Men think it’s embarrassing when they’re noticed being jealous.
3. Sometimes 気づく is part of an adverbial phrase, which makes it seem it’s with を but it isn’t.
17.
多
くの
人
が、「
女
らしさ」「
男
らしさ」を
気
づかないうちに信じ
込
んでいるのです。
Many people believe implicitly in “femininity” and “masculinity” without even realizing it.
4. Another instance of を being used with 気づく is in 気づいてもらう. This is done to avoid two に in the same sentence, but as mentioned in the second point, this isn’t a valid grammatical issue.
18. どうしても
元
カレに
復縁
したいこと{に・を?}
気
づいてもらいたいんです。
No matter what it takes, I want my ex-boyfriend to realize that I want to reconcile things with him.
19.
鈍感
な
相手
に
自分
の
好意
{に・を ?}
気
づいてもらいたい。
I want this dull person to notice my affection to him/her.
20.
陰口
を
言
う
人
は
バレ
てるの{に・
△
を・Ø}
気
づいてないの?
Do people that gossip not even realize that the cat’s out of the bag?
The intransitive verb “to live” is used to mean so in several ways. It can be taken literally, be used to mean “to be live” as in baseball, indicate what you dedicate your life to, etc. When used with the particle を, 生きる indicates a more dynamic outlook on living out one’s life on a certain stage.
21. ウナギは
各地
の
湖
や
河川
に
住
む
淡水魚
ですが、
淡水
だけでなく
海水
でも
生
きることができます。
The eel is a freshwater fish that lives in lakes and rivers everywhere, but it it doesn’t live in just fresh water. It can even life in seawater.
Spelling Note: ウナギ may also be spelled as 鰻.
22.
趣味
に
生
きる
若者
はダメ!
Young people who subsist on their hobbies are no good!
23.
過去
を
捨
てて
今
を
生
きてください。
Throw away the past and live the now.
24.
悔
いのない
青春
を
生
きてほしい。
I want you to live out a regret-free youth.
25.
他人
の
人生
を
生
きないと
決
めましょう。
Decide not to live another’s life.
26.
仕事
でただ
定時
を
待
つ
人生
を
生
きたくない。
I don’t want to live a life where I’m just waiting for the end of the day at work.
Word Note: 定時 refers to the set time one gets off at in Ex. 26.
27.
子供
のような
探求心
を
持
って
人生
を
生
きれば、
世界
があなたを
楽
しませてくれるでしょう。
If you live your life with the heart of exploration like that of a child, the world will surely delight you.
The verbs 触る and 触れる both mean “to touch, “and they can both incidentally be used with either に or を, but that doesn’t mean these four combinations are freely interchangeable.
1. に触る: 触る specifically refers to purposely touching/feeling something, usually using one’s hand(s). In a non-literal sense, it can also mean “to be involved with.” Additionally, when spelled as 障る, it refers to hurting someone’s feelings. In these senses, the typical particle used is に.
28.
暗
い
中
で
手
が
何
かに
触
った。
Something touched my hand in the dark.
29. コタツの
中
で
誰
かの
足
が
私
の
足
に
触
った。
Someone’s leg touched my leg inside the kotatsu.
Spelling Note: コタツ may also be spelled as 炬燵 or 火燵.
30.
授業中
に
机
の
下
で
足
を
前
に
伸
ばして
座
っていたら、
何
か
冷
たい
物
が
足
に
触
った。
As I was sitting with my legs extended in front of me under the desk during class, something cold touched my legs.
31.
神経
に
障
ることを
言
う
相手
にはどう
対応
したらいいのか。
How should you handle people who say things that get on your nerves?
32. その
文
の
何
があなたの
癪
に
障
ったの?
What about that sentence offended you?
33.
展示物
には
触
らないでください。
Please do not touch the display.
34.
怪
しいものには
触
らないほうがいいよ。
It’s best not to touch/get involved with suspicious things.
Sentence Note: If this were spoken out-loud, one could interpret this as referring to people because もの can also be 者.
35.
米
ドルには
触
らないほうがいいかな。
It’s maybe best not to touch the American dollar.
2. を触る: The use of を is meant to emphasize the purposeful touching/feeling of something. It is frequently used when expressing touching in which the thing/person touched is not a fan of being touched.
36.
彼氏
が
胸
を
触
ってきてとても
嫌
です。
I really hate it when my boyfriend comes and touches my chest.
37.
唐辛子
に
触
った
手
で
鼻
を
触
ってしまいました。
I accidentally touched my noise with the hand that had touched cayenne pepper.
38.
男性
が
女性
の
鼻
を
触
りたがるのはなぜでしょうか。
Why is that men want to touch women’s noses?
39. この
剣
の
刃先
を
触
ってみて。
Try feeling the edge of this sword.
40. ウサギを
触
ろうとしたら、
触
らせてくれなかった。
When I tried to touch the bunny, it wouldn’t let me touch it.
Spelling Note: ウサギ may alternatively be spelled as 兎.
3. に触れる: In a literal sense, 触れる means “to lightly touch.” In a less literal sense, it encompasses other sense of “touch” such as “to touch on.” You may see it in plenty of set phrases like 目に触れる (to cross one’s eyes). Another important application is when it means “to violate” as in a law or regulation of some sort.
41.
肌
が
珊瑚
に
触
れたら
痒
みとかぶれで
眠
れなくなった。
When my skin touched the coral reef, I ended up not being able to sleep because of itchiness and a rash.
Spelling Note: かぶれ may also be spelled as 気触れ.
42. それ
以後
も
折
に
触
れて
3
人
で
活動
している。
Even since then, the three of us campaign/do activities occasionally.
Phrase Note: 折に触れて is a rather literary set phrase meaning “occasionally.”
43.
研究室
で
働
いている
限
りは
臨床
の
問題
に
触
れる
機会
はほとんどありません。
So long as you are working in the research lab, there are hardly any opportunities to personally touch on clinical issues.
44. 「
自分
は
神
より
優
れている」と
口
に
出
せば、
神
の
怒
りに
触
れる
事
になる。
If you verbalize that oneself is superior to gods, you will offend the gods.
45.
賄賂防止条例
に
触
れる
可能性
がある。
There is the possibility that it violates the bribe prevention ordinance.
41.
法律
に
触
れる
行為
をしても、
犯罪者
にならない
法律
は
驚
くことにわんさかあります。
Surprisingly, there are a lot of laws that you won’t become a criminal for even if you do something that violates the law.
4. を触れる: The basic pattern of using 触れる can be viewed as being “object + に + body part +が・を・で.” The use of が implies zero volition in a body part breezing against something. As for Ex. 42, you might wonder why で isn’t used. If で were used, then the listener could just interpret the request as simply banning touching with one’s hands but touching with one’s feet is fair game. By using を, this is not the first that would come to mind. It simply recognizes a willful act of lightly touching something and that act of touching happens to be carried out by one’s hands.
42.
手
を
触
れないでください。
Please don’t touch with your hands.
43.
路上
にあったアライグマの
死骸
を
棒
で
触
ってみた。
I tried touching the carcass of a raccoon that was on the side of the road with a stick.
44. はやり目は、その名の通り、非常に感染力が強く、感染者が手を目に触れて、テーブルに手を置いて、そこが乾燥し切る前に別の人が手を触れて、その人が手を目に触れたら、感染してしまう可能性もあります。
Pink eye, literally 'endemic eye' (in Japanese, has an extremely great infectious capacity; by an infect person touching his/her hand on the eyes and then placing said hand on a table, if another person touches the table by the hand before it can fully dry out and then touches his/her eye, there is even the potential of that person getting infected.
5: が触れる: In the phrase 脈が触れる, the verb 触れる is used to mean “to feel a pulse.” In this context, there is no に or を used with it.
45.
手首以外
で
脈
が
触
れるのはこめかみ、
喉仏
の
両脇
、
肘
の
内側
、
大腿
の
付
け
根
、
膝
の
裏
、
足
の
甲
などが
代表的
な部分です。
Aside from the wrists, representative places where you can feel your pulse include the temple, both sides of one’s Adam’s apple, the root of one’s thigh, the back of the knee, and the top of the feet.
Spelling Note: こめかみ may seldom be alternatively spelled as 顳顬.
The reduplication of words (jōgo 畳語) is a phenomenon found in Japanese in which the same morpheme (unit of meaning) is doubled to create a new yet related word. This is seen virtually across all parts of speech in Japanese to varying degrees. Before you think this is only limited to some form of slang, it must be noted that most words created by doubling something are actually quite important.
When a noun is doubled, the resultant phrase is a plural phrase denoting a large variety of said noun. Essentially, only nouns that have been conceptualized by the Japanese as something that is both numerous and highly varied may be pluralized in this way.
i.
山
Yama
Mountain
ii.
山々
Yamayama
Many mountains
As simple as this may seem, it is important to note that only a handful of these phrases are frequently used, and it isn’t even the case that all related words of a particular variety can be pluralized in this way. For instance, although yamayama 山々 is used, kawagawa 川々 (rivers) hardly ever used, and okaoka 岡々 (hills) is basically unheard of.
One thing to take especial note of regarding doubling nouns is that a phonological phenomenon called rendaku 連濁 affects the pronunciation of the repeated element. Rendaku 連濁 is when the second part of a compound has its initial consonant voiced if it isn’t already.
iii.
国
Kuni
Country
iv.
国々
Kuniguni
Many countries
As far as spelling is concerned, rather than repeating the same character, the ditto character 々 is used instead. However, when a word of more than one character is repeated, the whole word is usually repeated instead of using the ditto mark.
v.
島々
Shimajima
Many islands
vi.
交代交代
Kōtaigōtai
Shift after shift
Unfortunately, instances of these phrases must be learned on a case by case basis, and because these phrases are so closely intertwined into the very conceptualization of core vocabulary, a good handful of the phrases that do exist have quirks that must also be addressed. For starters, we will look at the most common, straightforward instances of noun duplication.
1.
30
ヶ
国以上
の
人々
に
意見
を
調査
しました。
Sanjukkakoku ijō no hitobito ni iken wo chōsa shimashita.
(I/we) have investigated the opinions of (many) people from over thirty nations.
2.
日本
の
山々
を
楽
しみましょう。
Nihon no yamayama wo tanoshimimashō.
Enjoy the many mountains of Japan.
3. アフリカの
国々
までもが
中国
に
依存
している。
Afurika no kuniguni made mo ga chūgoku ni ison shite iru.
As far as the nations of Africa are dependent on China.
Reading Note: 依存 may alternatively be pronounced as izon.
4.
古代
のギリシャ
人
は、ゼウスをはじめ、
多
くの
神々
を
崇
めていたといわれている。
Kodai no girishajin wa, zeusu wo hajime, ōku no kamigami wo agamete ita to iwarete iru.
It is said that the ancient Greeks, not only worshiped Zeus, but they also worshiped many other gods.
5.
広大
な
宇宙
に
散
らばる、
数
え
切
れないほどの
星々
へ
旅立
ちましょう。
Kōdai na uchū ni chirabaru, kazoekirenai hodo no hoshiboshi e tabidachimashō.
Let’s embark on exploring the countless stars scattered in our grand universe.
6. ここ
数日
、
交代交代
で
休
みなく
作業
を
続
けていました。
Koko sūjitsu, kōtaigōtai de yasumi naku sagyō wo tsuzukete imashita.
For these past few day, I have been doing work without break shift after shift.
7.
南太平洋
の
島々
に
旅行
してみたいと
思
います。
Minami Taiheiyō no shimajima ni ryokō shite mitai to omoimasu.
I’d like to travel the many islands of the South Pacific.
8.
我々
はどこから
来
たのか、
我々
は
何者
か、
我々
はどこへ
行
くのか。
Wareware wa doko kara kita no ka, wareware wa nanimono ka, wareware wa doko e iku no ka.
Where did we come from, what are we, and where are we going?
9.
足
を
運
んでくださった
方々
、
誠
にありがとうございました。
Ashi wo hakonde kudasatta katagata, makoto ni arigatō gozaimashita.
To all those who turned out, (I/we) sincerely thank you.
11. トルコ
各地
の
町々
を
訪
ねました。
Toruko kakuchi no machimachi wo tazunemashita.
I visited the many towns across Turkey.
12.
換気口
が
所々
に
設置
されている。
Kankikō ga tokorodokoro ni setchi sarete iru.
Vents are installed here and there.
13.
街路樹
の
木々
が
色
づいて
綺麗
ですね。
Gairoju no kigi ga irozuite kirei desu ne.
The many roadside trees have turned colors and are lovely.
14.
世界
の
隅々
まで
貨物
を
運
ぶ。
Sekai no sumizumi made kamotsu wo hakobu.
To transport cargo to the corners of the world.
15.
一年
を
通
して
季節
の
花々
を
栽培
しています。
Ichinen wo tōshite kisetsu no hanabana wo saibai shite imasu.
(I/we) cultivate the various flowers of the seasons throughout the year.
16.
彼
らは
皆
それぞれの
意見
を
持
っています。
Karera wa mina sorezore no iken wo motte imasu.
They all each have their own opinions.
17.
学生各々
が
楽
しみながら
日本語
の
会話力
を
高
めている。
Gakusei ono’ono ga tanoshiminagara Nihongo no kaiwaryoku wo takamete iru.
Each and every student is increasing their conversation skills in Japanese while having fun.
Word Note: Ono actually comes from an old word meaning “oneself” which is still seen in the word onore 己, which is either used to mean “oneself/itself” or as a derogatory “you,” of all things.
18.
銘々
が
弁当
を
持参
してください。
Meimei ga bento wo jisan shite kudasai.
May each please bring his own bento.
Word Note: Ono’ono 各々 and meimei 銘々 are both very similar to sorezore それぞれ. Neither, unlike sorezore それぞれ, are particularly used in the spoken language anymore, but they both only refer to people.
19. アイドルグループの○○の
面々
重傷
!
Aidoru gurūpu no marumaru no memmen jūshō!
Each Member of Pop Group ## Severely Injured!
Word Note: Memmen 面々 is yet another word meaning “each one.” It is occasionally used in the written language; however, it is not suited for polite/honorific speech as the tone it gives is rather indifferent at a respectful level. It also literally means "every direction," but this meaning is obsolete and would be replaced with phrases like kaku hōmen 各方面.
20.
手作
りの
品々
が
揃
っている。
Tezukuri no shinajina ga sorotte iru.
Various handmade goods are lined up.
21.
風邪
で
節々
が
痛
むのはなぜでしょうか。
Kaze de fushibushi ga itamu no wa naze deshō ka?
Why do all one’s joints ache with a cold?
22.
蓼
食
う
虫
も
好
き
好
き。
Tade kū mushi mo sukizuki.
Some prefer nettles/every man has his taste.
Phrase Note: This is a set expression which literally means, “There is also a matter of taste even for bugs that eat knotweed.”
23.
次
は
誰々
です。
Tsugi wa daredare desu.
Next is so-and-so.
Word Note: In addition to meaning "so-and-so," this word traditionally has also been used to mean “who” but in the sense of two or more people. This usage, however, has waned and hardly anyone uses it this way anymore.
Peculiar Examples
As you can see, all the examples thus far utilize simple yet fundamental nouns in the language. The examples to follow are also very simple and important nouns, but their duplicated forms are either not as common or have something odd about them.
24.
皮肉
なことに、
群馬県
の
村々
には、
四六時中
ムラムラしている
村民
が
多
いらしい。
Hiniku na koto ni, Gumma-ken no muramura ni wa, shirokujichū muramura shite iru sommin ga ōi rashii.
Ironically, it seems that there are many villagers that are horny around the clock in the villages of Gunma Prefecture.
Word Note: Muramura 村々 would only be used in the written language because it is homophonous with the very common onomatopoeic expression muramura suru ムラムラする, which means “to be horny.” Onomatopoeic expressions, as demonstrated with this mere example, also frequently exhibit duplication.
25.
蝶々
が
虫
なのに
嫌
われないのはなぜでしょうか。
Chōchō ga mushi na noni kirawarenai no wa naze deshō ka?
Why is it that butterflies aren’t hated although they’re bugs?
Word Note: Chōchō 蝶々 should just mean “(many) butterflies,” but it has ironically become detached from its literal meanings and can also just mean “butterfly.”
26.
行
ったことのない
寺々
に
参拝
に
出
かける。
Itta koto no nai teradera ni sampai ni dekakeru.
To go out to pay homage to the many temples one has never gone to.
27. お
手手
、
頂戴
。
Otete, chōdai.
Give me your hand(s)/paw(s).
Word Note: Otete お手手 is a euphemism for “hand(s)/paw(s)” that is used towards children and pets.
The following examples are indicative of when noun duplication would normally not be permissible; however, it is noteworthy that a far larger diversity of nouns can be duplicated in specialized contexts like those seen below.
28.
雪
が
来
た。
谷々
は
三月
の
余
も
深
く
埋
もれた。
Yuki ga kita. Tanitani wa sangatsu no yo mo fukaku umoreta.
The snow came. The valleys were deeply buried in it past March.
From 岩石の間 by 島崎藤村.
29.
私
はほかの
穴
を
注意
して
見
た。そしてそれらの
穴々
が、いつの
間
にか
次々
に
塗
り
固
められて
行
っているのを
見
た。
Watakushi wa hoka no ana wo chūi shite mita. Soshite sorera no ana’ana ga, itsu no ma ni ka tsugitsugi ni nurikatamerarete itte iru no wo mita.
I looked cautiously at the other holes, and then I watched as one after another of those holes coated over before I knew it.
From ジガ蜂 by 島木健作.
Word Note: Tsugitsugi 次々 is an adverbial phrase meaning “one by one/one after another” by duplicating the noun tsugi 次 meaning “next.”
30.
私
を
信
じる
者
は、
聖書
が
言
っているように、その
人
から
生
ける
水
の
川々
が
流
れ
出
るであろう。
Watashi wo shinjiru mono wa, seisho ga itte iru yō ni, sono hito kara ikeru mizu no kawagawa ga deru de arō.
Whoever believes in me, as Scripture has said, rivers of living water will flow from him.
From John 7:38
Temporal Nouns: Nominal & Adverbial
Although we are focusing on instances of noun duplication, it is important to note that the majority of nouns that are temporal are often used as both nouns and adverbs, and this is no different when they’re duplicated.
31.
幸
せな
日々
を
過
ごす。
Shiawase na hibi wo sugosu.
To live out happy days.
32.
展望台
から
四季折々
の
美
しさを
堪能
できます。
Tembōdai kara shiki oriori no utsukishisa wo tan’nō dekimasu.
You can enjoy the beauty of the seasons from season to season from the observation deck.
33.
鹿
も
折々
見
かけるが、カモシカは
珍
しい。
Shika mo oriori mikakeru ga, kamoshika wa mezurashii.
Although I occasionally spot deer as well, wild goats are rare.
34.
時々
、コンロの
火
がつかない。
Tokidoki, konro no hi ga tsukanai.
Sometimes, the gas burner doesn’t light.
35.
頭金
ゼロで
月々
3
万円台
の
支払
いで
購入
できます。
Atamakin zero de tsukizuki samman’en-dai no shiharai de kōnyū dekimasu.
You can purchase with monthly payments in the 30,000 yen range with zero down payment.
36.
年々
、
需要
が
増加
している。
Nen’nen, juyō ga zōka shite iru.
Demand is increasing yearly.
37.
共同
で
買
った
土地
を
売
ったお
金
を
半々
に
分
けたことを
後々
揉
めないように
書面
に
残
したいと
思
っています。
Kyōdō de katta tochi wo utta okane wo hanhan ni waketa koto wo nochinochi momenai yō ni shomen ni nokoshitai to omotte imasu.
I would like to leave in writing that the money from selling land I hand jointly bought (with someone) was split in half so that we don’t have a dispute in the distant future.
38. その
町
の
人達
は
先祖
代々
受
け
継
がれてきた
方言
を
自
ら
葬
り
去
ったのだ。
Sono machi no hitotachi wa senzo daidai uketsugarete kita hōgen wo mizukara hōmurisatta no da.
The people of that town had buried their dialect, which had been passed down from the ancestors generation to generation, on their own.
Word Note: 代々 may also be read as “yoyo” in far more literary fashion, utilizing the native word for “generation.”
39.
前々
から
主張
しているように
明
らかに
間違
っているんです。
Maemae kara shuchō shite iru yō ni akiraka ni machigatte iru n desu.
Just as I have asserted from way before, it’s clearly mistaken/wrong.
40.
先々
のことを考えると
不安
になります。
Sakizaki no koto wo kangaeru to fuan ni narimasu.
Whenever I think about what will be way down the line, I get anxious.
As we have learned, reduplication is an important means of creating new words in Japanese. In this lesson, we will focus on how this affects the construction of adjectival phrases.
Many new adjectives are created by doubling a word and following it with –shii しい. All sorts of things can be morphed into new adjectives in this way. Everything from nouns to adjectives, adjectival nouns, verbs, prefixes, and things that would otherwise not be used as words in isolation may be doubled and followed by –shii しい to make new adjectives.
The words that are created in this manner are all adjectives with heightened descriptive power capable of capturing the speaker’s feelings and the meaning itself will always be specialized.
Spelling Note: As we learned when studying repetition in nouns, the second element of a reduplicated phrase is usually written as 々 when it is only one character long and written out fully if longer than one character.
i.
刺々
しい
Togetogeshii
To be thorny/snappy
ii.
冴
え
冴
えしい
Saezaeshii
To be beyond vivid and refreshing
Pronunciation Note: The phonological phenomenon rendaku 連濁 still applies for reduplication in adjectives. As i. demonstrates, however, if the second syllable of the second element is voiced, even if the initial consonant of said second element is devoiced, it will not become voiced.
iii.
白々
しい
Shirajirashii
Barefaced/pure white
iv. くどくどしい
Kudokudoshii
Verbose
From Nouns
1.
会場
に
物々
しい
雰囲気
が
漂
った。
Kaijō ni monomonoshii fun’iki ga tadayotta.
An imposing atmosphere floated in the grounds.
2. お
嬢
さんは
以前
にも
増
して
顔立
ちが
福々
しくなっていました。
Ojō-san wa izen ni mo mashite kaodachi ga fukubukushiku natte imashita.
Her looks were more plump and happy-looking than ever before.
3. よく、
図々
しい
人
のことを「
面
の
皮
が
厚
い」と
言
います。
Yoku, zūzūshii hito no koto wo “tsura no kawa ga atsui” to iimasu.
We often call shameless people “brazen-faced.”
4.
甲斐甲斐
しく
立
ち
働
いている
外国人
が
大勢
いました。
Kaigaishiku tachihataraite iru gaikokujin ga ōzei imashita.
There were many foreigners diligently at work.
5.
幼虫
は毒々しい
色彩
を
持
つ。
Yōchū wa dokudokushii shikisai wo motsu.
The larvae have a poisonous-looking color scheme.
6.
店員
さんの
応対
も
角々
しいところはない。
Ten’in-san no ōtai mo kadokadoshii tokoro wa nai.
There isn’t anything angular about the clerk’s reception either.
7. そんな
空々
しい
嘘
をつかなくてもいいんだよ。
Son’na sorazorashii uso wo tsukanakute mo ii n da yo.
There's no need for you to make such a false lie.
8.
女々
しい
男
ってどんな
人
でしょうか。
Memeshii otoko tte don’na hito deshō ka?
What kind of person is a feminine man?
9.
離婚
したくないなら、あなた
自身
が
雄々
しい
男
になる
必要
があります。
Rikon shitakunai nara, anata jishin ga ōshii otoko ni naru hitsuyō ga arimasu.
If you don’t wish to divorce, you yourself must become manly.
10. この
世
には、
禍々
しいオーラを
纏
った
人
が
多
くいます。
Kono yo ni wa, magamagashii ōra wo matotta hito ga ōku imasu.
There are many people in this world that put on an ominous aura.
Word Note: Maga is an ancient word meaning “disaster.”
11.
本当
に
神々
しい
神社
です。
Hontō ni kōgōshii jinja desu.
It is a very sublime temple.
Word Note: Kōgōshii 神々しい derives from a sound change of kamigami. This then became kamugamu which became kaugau, which finally resulted in kōgō.
12.
事々
しく
言
い
訳
をする。
Kotogoshiku iiwake wo suru.
To pretentiously make an excuse.
Usage Note: Kotogotoshii 事々しいis particularly rare and is usually rephrased with something else.
13.
彼
はいつも
白々
しい
嘘
ばかりで
腹
が
立
ちます。
Kare wa itsu mo shirajirashii uso bakari de hara ga tachimasu.
I'm mad at how he always makes just the most glaring lies.
Word Note: Shira is a form of the noun shiro 白 (white) used specifically in compounds.
14.
彼女
はけばけばしく
化粧
をしていた。
Kanojo wa kebakebashiku keshō wo shite ita.
She gaudily wore her makeup.
Spelling Note: Kebakebashii may also be spelled as 毳々しい.
Word Note: The word keba is actually a noun meaning fuzz, which can be spelled as 毛羽 or 毳.
15.
艶々
しい
髪
をまっすぐに
垂
らす。
Tsuyatsuyashii kami wo massugu ni tarasu.
To hang down one’s glossy hair straight.
Word Note: Tsuya 艶 is a noun meaning “gloss/charm.”
16.
賑々
しい
繁華街
で
夕食
する。
Niginigishii hankagai de yūshoku suru.
To have dinner in a lively shopping district.
Word Note: The word nigi is an ancient noun for “bustle” which has not been used in isolation in a very long time.
17.
成果
は
捗々
しくなかった。
Seika wa hakabakashikunakatta.
The results were not satisfactory.
Word Note: The haka comes from an old noun referring to work load/progress found in other words like hakaru 計る・測る・図る・量る・諮る・謀る (the nuances and spellings revolve around different senses of devising/measuring/deliberating something) and hakadoru 捗る (to make progress).
18. ドバイの
2017
年
は
街全体
を
照
らす
花火
とともに
華々
しく
幕
を
開
けた。
Dobai no nisenjūnananen wa machi zentai wo terasu hanabi to tomo ni hanabanashiku maku wo aketa.
2017 in Dubai kicked off splendidly with fireworks which lit up the whole city.
Word Note: 華 is another form of 花 (flower).
19. ここは
採
れたての
瑞々
しい
野菜
を
毎日食
べるという
気楽
さを
楽
しめる
町
です。
Koko wa toretate no mizumizushii yasai wo mainichi taberu to iu kirakusa wo tanoshimeru machi desu.
This town here is a place where you can enjoy the ease of eating fresh, picked vegetables every day.
Word Note: Mizu 瑞 is an ancient noun meaning “purity/luster.”
From Adjectives/Adjectival Nouns
20.
痛々
しいニュースが
相次
いでいる。
Itaitashii nyūsu ga aitsuide iru.
Painful news keeps coming in one after another.
21.
最近
は、
見
た
目年齢
が
若々
しい
女性
が
増
えている。
Saikin wa, mita me nenrei ga wakawakashii josei ga fuete iru.
Recently, the amount of women whose apparent age is youthful is increasing.
22.
馬鹿馬鹿
しい
話
はよしましょう。
Bakabakashii hanashi wa yoshimashō.
Let’s stop it with the ludicrous talks.
23.
啓祐
は
数秒
の
沈黙
を
破
って
弱々
しい
声
を
出
した。
Keisuke wa sūbyō no chimmoku wo yabutte yowayowashii koe wo dashita.
Keisuke broke the several seconds of silence, speaking frailly.
24. とある
細々
しい
物
が
纏
まっている
商品
を
購入
しました。
To aru komagomashii mono ga matomatte iru shōhin wo kōnyū shimashita.
I purchased merchandise with certain very fine parts bunched up.
25.
母
はいつも
苦々
しい
顔
をしていた。
Haha wa itsu mo niganigashii kao wo shite ita.
My mother always had an unpleasant look on her face.
26. スタジアムは
重々
しい
雰囲気
に
包
まれていた。
Sutajiamu wa omo’omoshii fun’iki ni tsutsumarete ita.
A serious atmosphere enveloped the stadium.
27.
織田信長
は
短気
で
荒々
しい
性格
を
持
っていたといわれる。
Oda Nobunaga wa tanki de ara’arashii seikaku wo motte ita to iwareru.
It is said that Oda Nobunaga had a quick temper and rough personality.
28.
軽々
しい
行動
を
取
っていると、
監視対象
になり、アカウントの
凍結
などの
厳
しい
処置
になる
可能性
があります。
Karugarushii kōdō wo totte iru to, kanshi taishō ni nari, akaunto no tōketsu nado no kibishii shochi ni naru kanōsei ga arimasu.
If you are making careless actions, you may become the target of surveillance, and there is the possibility of harsh measures such as the freezing of one’s account.
29. まめまめしく
働
いているのは
彼
だけだ。
Mamemameshiku hataraite iru no wa kare dake da.
The only one who is painstakingly working is him.
Spelling Note: Mamemameshii may also be written as 忠実忠実しい.
30. ○○
政権
は、
自
らの
政策
を「○○ノミクス」だとかいって
仰々
しく
宣伝
していますが、
新
しい
中身
はあるんでしょうか。
Marumaru Seiken wa, mizukara no seisaku wo “marumaru-nomikusu” da toka itte gyōgyōshiku senden shite imasu ga, atarashii nakami wa aru n deshō ka?
The ## Administration bombastically propagandizes its own policies as “##nomics,” but is there new substance to be had?
Word Note: Gyōgyōshii 仰々しい actually derives from the adjectival noun keu 希有 (rare/uncommon) being reduplicated and having its pronunciation and spelling altered.
31.
星
が
淡々
しかった。
Hoshi ga awa’awashikatta.
The stars were faint.
Usage Note: Awa’awashii 淡々しい is particularly rare and is usually rephrased with something else.
32.
騒々
しい
場所
ではなかなか
会話
が
聞
き
取
れない。
Sōzōshii basho de wa nakanaka kaiwa ga kikitorenai.
I can't really make out conversations in noisy places.
Word Note: Although not used in isolation in Japanese, 騒 is being used here as an adjective for being “noisy.”
33.
凛々
しい
人
に
憧
れていました。
Ririshii hito ni akogarete imashita.
I was attracted by gallant people.
Word Note: Ririshii 凛々しい derives from rinrin 凛々 (awe-inspiring/bitter cold).
From Verbs
34.
賑
やかで
晴
れ
晴
れしい
空気
が
溢
れている。
Nigiyaka de harebareshii kūki ga afurete iru.
A lively and splendid atmosphere is abounding.
35.
周
りに
馴
れ
馴
れしい
人
はいますか。
Mawari ni narenareshii hito wa imasu ka?
Is there anyone around who is being over-familiar?
36. ふてぶてしい
態度
を
取
る
人
は
悪
い
印象
を
持
たれてしまう。
Futebuteshii taido wo toru hito wa warui inshō wo motarete shimau.
People who take a brazen attitude give out bad impressions.
Word Note: Futebuteshii ふてぶてしい derives from the verb futeru ふてる, which is a dialect variation of the verb futekusareru ふて腐れる (to become sulky), which it also gave rise to. Futebuteshii may alternatively be written as 太々しい, 不貞不貞しい, or 不敵不敵しい.
37.
若
いころの
忌々
しい
記憶
を
思
い
出
したくない。
Wakai koro no imaimashii kioku wo omoidashitakunai.
I don't want to remember the provoking memories from when I was young.
Word Note: The ima comes from the verb imu 忌む (to detest/shun).
38.
盗人猛々
しい。
Nusubito takedakeshii.
The guilty are audacious.
Word Note: Takedakeshii 猛々しい derives from the verb takeru 猛る (to rage). However, this verb form is now quite rare.
39.
清々
しい
表情
で
記者会見
に
臨
む。
Sugasugashii hyōjō de kisha kaiken ni nozomu.
To appear in a press conference with a brisk expression.
Word Note: The suga comes from the verb sugiru 過ぎる (to pass by).
None of the Above
40. お
二人
とも
20
代前半
の
初々
しいカップルです。
Ofutari tomo nijūdai zenhan no uiuishii kappuru desu.
They are an unspoiled couple both in their early twenties.
Word Note: Uiuishii 初々しい derives from the prefix ui- 初, which means “first” and is seen in a handful of words such as uizan 初産 (first childbirth).
Reduplication in adjectival nouns is somewhat more complicated than for nouns or adjectives. The reason for this is that as we’ve learned before, whether to use na な or no の is a bit all over the place, and in addition to that, many of the phrases shown here may also have alternate uses as adverbs.
Just as before, some examples of reduplication in adjectival nouns derive from nouns, adjectives, adjectival nouns, verbs, and even onomatopoeic expressions. However, you will be disappointed that the number of reduplicated adjectival nouns is dwindling in Modern Japanese.
・From Nouns: Kazukazu [no] 数々(の)- Numerous
・From Adjectives: Atsuatsu [no] 熱々(の) - Piping hot
・From Adjectival Nouns: Boroboro [na/no] ぼろぼろ(な・の) - Run-down
・ From Verbs: Tobitobi [na] 飛び飛び(な) - Scattered here and there
・From Onomatopoeia: Pikapika [no/na] ぴかぴか(の・な)- Sparkling
Grammatical restraints are just as all over the place as the etymologies of these instances of reduplication. Most instances can be used as adverbs by using ni に, which is no different than the majority of adjectival nouns. However, some may only be used to the extent of ni naru になる, and so playing with each one to see how much it can be used in is necessary.
From Nouns
1.
社会
に
出
ると
数々
の
問題
に
直面
する。
Shakai ni deru to kazukazu no mondai ni chokumen suru.
When you enter society, you encounter numerous problems.
2.
種々
の
対策
を
講
じる。
Shuju no taisaku wo kōjiru.
To take all sorts of measures.
3.
色々
な
場所
にポケモンが
生息
しています。
Iroiro na basho ni pokemon ga seisoku shite imasu.
Pokemon inhabit various places.
4. お
肉
は
程々
の
味
で
値段
も
割高
です。
Oniku wa hodohodo no aji de nedam mo waridaka desu.
As for the meat, the price is also fairly expensive with a moderate taste.
5.
彼
は
元々
、
結婚願望
がなかった。
Kare wa motomoto, kekkon gambō ga nakatta.
He had no desire to marry from the start.
Usage Note: Motomoto 元々 may be used as an adverb without the need of any particle.
6.
元々
の
意味
はご
存
じですか。
Motomoto no imi wa gozonji desu ka?
Do you know what the original meaning is?
7.
帰宅
が
遅
くなったりしますが、
営業職
としては
並々
の
残業
かと
思
います。
Kitaku ga osoku nattari shimasu ga, eigyōshoku to shite wa naminami no zangyō ka to omoimasu.
Coming home is sometimes late or what not, but I think that’s ordinary overtime for a business job.
From Adjectives
8. ピリ
辛
で
熱々
のキムチをご
飯
と
一緒
に
食
べました。
Pirikara de atsuatsu no kimuchi wo gohan to issho ni tabemashita.
I ate my meal/cooked rice with spicy and piping hot kimchi.
9.
久々
にカレーを
作
った。
Hisabisa ni karē wo tsukutta.
I made curry after a long while.
From Adjectival Nouns
10.
夫
は
結婚
するまでぼろぼろの
服
を
着
ていました。
Otto wa kekkon suru made boroboro no fuku wo kite imashita.
My husband worse ragged clothes up until we got married.
From Verbs
11.
亮太君
は
彼女
に
息
が
絶
え
絶
えになるほど
熱
いキスをした。
Ryōta-kun wa kanojo ni iki ga taedae ni naru hodo atsui kisu wo shita.
Ryota gave her such a warm kiss so strong it left her gasping.
12.
色
とりどりに
花
が
咲
いています。
Iro toridori ni hana ga saite imasu.
Multi-colored flowers are blooming.
13.
空白
が
飛
び
飛
びになっている。
Kūhaku ga tobitobi ni natte iru.
Empty spaces are scattered everywhere.
From Four Character Idioms
14.
奇々怪々
な
事件
を
鮮
やかに
解
き
明
かしていく。
Kikikaikai na jiken wo azayaka ni tokiakashite iku.
I will vividly dispel bizarre cases.
Word Note: 奇々怪々 is rare and would usually be replaced with the simpler kikai 奇怪 from which it derives.
From Onomatopoeia
15. ぴかぴかの
歯
を
取
り
戻
しましょう。
Pikapika no ha wo torimodoshimashō.
Restore one’s sparkling teeth!
From Prefixes
16.
周辺諸国
にもその
影響
が
伝播
し、
諸々
の
事情
によって
崩壊
していったとのことでした。
Shūhen shokoku ni mo sono eikyō ga dempa shi, moromoro no jijō ni yotte hōkai shite itta to no koto deshita.
That effect propagated to all the neighboring countries as well, which led to them collapsing under all kinds of circumstances.
17.
諸々
、
了解
しました。
Moromoro, ryōkai shimashita.
Rodger that to everything.
Usage Note: Moromoro 諸々 may be used as an adverb without the need of any particle.
As has been the case for reduplication thus far, reduplication in adverbs is reliant upon diverse means of construction spanning several parts of speech. Some commonalities do exist, and it is these commonalities that will also emphasize the need to truly take each phrase for what it is worth on an individual basis. You will find that your control of vocabulary will be much more solid and intricate.
From Nouns
Some reduplication in adverbs results from the doubling of particular nouns. The grammatical ramifications tend to be quite unique. Some may have the particle to と follow them, but this is never obligatory. Others need no particle at all and aid in the creation of more complex adverbial phrases.
1. それは、色々(と)事情があったんでしょう。
Sore wa, iroiro (to) jijō ga atta n deshō.
As far as that (is concerned), surely there were all sorts of circumstances.
2. 夫婦共々、より一層精進していますので、よろしくお願いします。
Fūfu tomodomo, yori issō shōjin shite imasu node, yoroshiku onegai shimasu.
We, together as husband and wife, we will be even more diligent, and so we look forward to working with you.
Word Note: Tomo 共 is a noun meaning “both.”
From Adverbial Nouns
A very small number of reduplication in adverbs comes from adverbial nouns. The most common example is as follows.
3. 嫌々仕事をやるのなら、やらないほうがましです。
Iyaiya shigoto wo yaru no nara, yaranai hō ga mashi desu.
If you’re going to grudgingly work, it’s better that you not work.
From Adverbs
A small number of reduplication in adverbs involves the doubling of adverbs. The number of such phrases in existence is quite low if one excludes those from onomatopoeia, which we’ll look at separately later in this lesson. Similarly to most examples of reduplication thus far, the nuance of the resultant phrase will always have a specialized meaning that will not be the same as its singular counterpart.
4. 一人で旅をしていると、いよいよ孤独感に落ち込んでしまう。
Hitori de tabi wo shite iru to, iyoiyo kodokukan ni ochikonde shimau.
As I’m traveling alone, I feel more and more down in a sense of isolation.
Word Note: Iyoiyo いよいよ derives from the adverb iya 弥, which is known in the set phrase iya ga ue ni mo 弥が上にも (all the more).
5. ついつい言いそびれてしまいました。
Tsuitsui iisobirete shimaimashita.
I unintentionally forgot to speak of it.
6. わざわざ来てくれてありがとうございます。
Wazawaza kite kurete arigatō gozaimasu.
Thank you for taking the trouble to come.
Word Note: Wazawaza わざわざ derives from the adverb waza to わざと (intentionally). It may alternatively be spelled as 態々.
From Adjectives
Reduplicated adverbial phrases resulting from the doubling of adjectival roots are frequently accompanied with the particle to と, but whether it is obligatory or not is determined on a case-by-case basis. Sometimes, no particle intervention ever happens, while sometimes you will see the occasional ni に as if the phrase in question is being treated as an adjectival noun in the adverbial form. These particle discrepancies are clearly defined in the examples below.
7. 近々(に)車検があります。
Chikajika (ni) shaken ga arimasu.
I have a car inspection in the near future.
8. この先半年くらいで近々(に)閉めるのが確定している。
Kono saki hantoshi kurai de chikajika (ni) shimeru no ga kakutei shite iru.
It's finalized that they will close business shortly about half a year from now.
9. よくよく考えてみれば当たり前の話です。
Yokuyoku kangaete mireba atarimae no hanashi desu.
If you think very carefully, it’s quite obvious.
Word Note: Yokuyoku よくよく may be used as an adverbial noun which takes either na な or no の when before nouns to mean “large extent,” but this is usually expressed with yohodo よほど, which has the same grammatical limitations minus that it never takes na な.
10. 深々と頭を下げるのは誠実さの表れ。
Fukabuka to atama wo sageru no wa seijitsusa no araware.
Deeply bowing one’s head is an embodiment of sincerity.
11. 私は田舎で狭い畑を耕しながら細々と暮らしています。
Watashi wa inaka de semai hatake wo tagayashinagara hosoboso to kurashite imasu.
I’m scraping by while cultivating a narrow field in the country.
12. 道端の土手に草花が青々と茂っている。
Michibata no dote ni kusabana ga aoao to shigette iru.
Flowers are lushly growing thick in the embankments on the side of the road.
13. 暖炉の火が赤々と燃えている。
Danro no hi ga aka’aka to moete iru.
The hearth fire is burning bright red.
14. 黒々と墨で書かれている。
Kuroguro to sumi de kakarete iru.
It’s written deep black in India ink.
15. 間もなく夜が白々と明けてきた。
Ma mo naku yoru ga shirojiro to akete kita.
The dawn grew bright in a short time.
16. 彼は自分の気持ちに薄々(と)気がついているようだ。
Kare wa jibun no kimochi ni ususu (to) ki ga tsuite iru yō da.
He seems vaguely aware of his own emotions.
From Onomatopoeia
A lot of onomatopoeic expressions are made via reduplication. In fact, an entire dictionary could be made with all the examples that could be found used in every day speech. These phrases give depth in nuance which will allow your speech to become ever more native like if used correctly. If there were ever a reason to study reduplication in detail for purposes of bettering your Japanese, placing heavy emphasis on learning and using as many of these phrases as possible will take you a long way.
Grammatically speaking, they all have one thing in common: they may optionally take the particle to と. The deciding factor as to when to use it or not is usually based on the cadence of the entire utterance. Essentially, whatever flows out of the mouth is right.
17. 雷がゴロゴロと鳴いている。
Kaminari ga gorogoro to naite iru.
The thunder is roaring.
18. 田んぼに水が入ってカエルはゲロゲロと鳴いていました。
Tambo ni mizu ga haitte kaeru wa gerogero to naite imashita.
Water got in the fields and then frogs ribbited.
Spelling Note: Tambo may alternatively be spelled as 田圃. Kaeru may alternatively be spelled as 蛙.
19. 僕はその破片をまじまじと見つめた。
Boku wa sono hahen wo majimaji to mitsumeta.
I took a long hard look at the fragments.
20. 表面が少しぶつぶつ(と)泡だってきたら醤油と味醂を加えてください。
Hyōmen ga sukoshi butsubutsu (to) awadatte kitara shōyu to mirin wo kuwaete kudasai.
Once the surface starts to bubble and summer a little, add soy sauce and mirin. 7. 鶏肉500gを、適度の塩と少々のコショウを振って、こんがりとした焼き色が付くまで強火で焼いてください。
Toriniku gohyaku-guramu wo tekido no shio to shōshō no koshō wo futte kongari to shita yaki’iro ga tsuku made tsuyobi de yaite kudasai.
Cook 500 grams of poultry by sprinkling a moderate amount of salt and a small amount of pepper and then cooking on high heat until it is beautifully browned.
From Chinese Loans
Those from Chinese loans may or may not always be stand-alone words, but what is reduplicated could be from nominal, adjectival, or adverbial phrases. For some, the addition of to と may be optional or obligatory. This will be made visibly obvious in the examples below.
21. 少々お待ちください。
Shōshō omachi kudasai.
Please wait a short while.
22. その状況については重々承知しております。
Sono jōkyō ni tsuite wa jūjū shōchi shite orimasu.
We are fully aware of the situation.
23. 段々(と)成長していく姿を見られて幸せです。
Dandan (to) seichō shite iku sugata wo mirarete shiawase desu.
I'm so happy to be able to see (x) gradually grow.
24. せいぜいがんばるさ。
Seizei gambaru sa.
I’ll keep at it as much as I can.
Word Note: Seizei せいぜい is the reduplication of the noun sei 精 (energy/vigor). It originally has always held a positive meaning, but it now sometimes has an ironic/cynical nuance to it. This word may alternatively be spelled as 精々.
26. 清水さんは、ここで悠々と暮らしていたらしかった。
Shimizu-san wa, koko de yūyū to kurashite ita rashikatta.
It appears that Mr. Shimizu lived here leisurely.
From Number Phrases
A small number of reduplicated phrases can be seen in number expressions such as those seen below.
27. 今のところ、五分五分かもしれません。
Ima no tokoro, gobu gobu kamoshiremasen.
At present, it may be fifty-fifty.
28. 駅で降りた観光客は三々五々に散っていきました。
Eki de orita kankōkyaku wa sansangogo ni chitte ikimashita.
The tourists that got off at the station scattered away in small groups.
29. いちいち指摘しなくてもいいでしょう。
Ichi’ichi shiteki shinakute mo ii deshō.
Surely you don’t need to critique every single thing.
Word Note: If not already visually obvious, ichi’ichi is reduplication of the number one, and thus, it may be alternatively written as 一々.
Miscellaneous
If all this diversity weren't enough, there are also some examples that are truly unique. Take for example the word somosomo そもそも below. It is the duplication of an ancient variant of sore mo それも (that also).
30. この発想がそもそも間違っているのです。
Kono hassō ga somosomo machigatte iru no desu.
This conception is what’s wrong in the first place.
In this lesson we'll learn all about 込む. It's interesting to know that the character 込 is a Japanese-made 漢字. This verb and how it's used often throws people off, especially when trying to translate stuff.
THE 4 USAGES: 1: Going inside 2: Put inside 3: Keep as is 4: Doing enough
(1) To plunge | 飛び込む | とびこむ | (2) To corner into | 追い込む | おいこむ |
(3) To mope | 塞ぎ込む | ふさぎこむ | (4) To drill (teaching) | 教え込む | おしえこむ |
(4) To boil well | 煮込む | にこむ | (3) To age | 老け込む | ふけこむ |
(2) To cram | 詰め込む | つめこむ | (1) To invade | 攻め込む | せめこむ |
(1) To run in yelling | 怒鳴り込む | どなりこむ | (2) To entice | 誘い込む | さそいこむ |
(1) To march in | 繰り込む | くりこむ | (1) To roll in | 転がり込む | ころがりこむ |
(3) To sit down | 座り込む | すわりこむ | (2) To count on | 見込む | みこむ |
Examples
1.
崖
から海に飛び込むのは危ない。
Plunging into the sea from a cliff is dangerous.
2.
敵
を
窮地
に追い込むのは重要な
戦略
です。
Cornering the enemy is an important war strategy.
3. 冷たい空気が流れ込んでいます。
Cold air is flowing in.
4. 我々の大学が
徹底的
に全教科課程を学生の頭に教え込むためには、そういった教授を雇用する
必要があります。
It is necessary that our university employ professors that exhaustively drill the curriculum into the minds of their students.
Ending Note: More compound verbs are based off of the solely transitive form ~こめる.
5. 部屋に閉じ込められた。
I was locked in a room.
6.
策動
を
封
じ込める。(Rare)
To contain a scheme.
1. To load bullets.
8. 実弾を込める。
To hold live fire.
2. To pour emotion into. This is where を込めて mostly applies.
9. 彼は満身の力を込めて大石を投げた。
He threw a great stone with all his strength.
10. 心をこめて持て成す。
To make welcome with (all) one's heart.
3. To include another item. Using 含める is more common.
11. 消費税を込めた料金
Fee with sales tax included.
4. As an intransitive verb, it means "enshroud (clouds, mist, etc.)".
12a. 霧が町に込めた。(Old-fashioned)
12b. 霧が町に立ち込めた。(Natural)
Mist enshrouded the village.
~込める
~込める may mean to "put into" or "to do away with". Examples include the following.
To imprison | 閉じ込める |
To seal up | 塗り込める |
To argue down | 言い込める |
To envelop | 立ち込める |
To confine | 封じ込める |
To shut up | 押し込める |
13. 雲の立ち込めた山を見よ。
Look at the cloud enveloped mountains!
14. 相手を言いこめた。
I argued down my opponent.
15. 強盗は人質を物置に押し込めた。
The burglar pushed the hostages down into a closet.
16. 強盗は人質を物置きに押し込んだ。
The burglar pushed the hostages into the closet.
17. 神社には、壁に塗り込められた経文がある。
There are sutras painted over in walls at shrines.
Honorifics is a very intricate and complicated system. Although it is without a doubt that a native Japanese speaker naturally has a decent control of honorifics, nearly half of all speakers complain of lacking confidence in using honorifics. The other half complains about how others ‘incorrectly’ use honorifics. Several patterns warrant special attention because they are new and or questionable. It is important to be things that are frequently used, even if those things are unorthodox in anyway.
Having said this, in this lesson we will study the intriguing phrase ni narimasu になります・[ni/to] natte orimasu に・となっております.
We should know by now that the verb naru 成る is used in a wide variety of situations.
1.
氷
が
水
になります。
Kōri ga mizu ni narimasu.
Ice turns into water.
2.
漢方薬
は
体
のためになります。
Kampōyaku wa karada no tame ni narimasu.
Chinese herbal medicine benefits the body.
3.
結婚
して
10
年
になります。
Kekkon shite jūnen ni narimasu.
It will be ten years since I got married.
4. お
世話
になります。
Osewa ni narimasu.
I will be in your aid.
Phrase Note: This is a set phrase used in formal situations when one is corresponding and or addressing someone to whom will be in your aid in some endeavor.
5. エオリア
諸島
は
7
つの
火山島
からなります。
Eoria shotō wa nanatsu no kazantō kara narimasu.
The Aeolian Islands are made up of seven volcanic islands.
6. お
客様
がお
着
きになりました。
Okyaku-sama ga otsuki ni narimashita.
The customer has arrived.
Grammar Note: O- お+Verb Stem + ni naru になる, as we have learned, is one of the fundamental means of making most verbs honorific.
7.
全部
で
10
万円
になります。
Zembu de jūman’en ni narimasu.
It will reach 100,000 yen in total.
The usages thus far are well-established in Japanese, but we have yet to explore its unorthodox usage that is now used extensively in customer service honorific speech.
'Convenience Store' Honorifics: ni narimasu になります
So what is it about ni narimasu になります that is problematic? The issue at hand is that ni narimasu になります is a hallmark phrase of what is called baito keigo バイト敬語. Although the name suggests that it is only used at part time jobs, baito keigo is actually used by people in all walks of professions, especially if the job has anything to do with customer service.
The issue at hand here is when ni narimasu になります is used in the sense of desuです or de gozaimasu でございます.
8a. こちらが
領収書
になります。△
Kochira ga ryōshūsho ni narimasu.
8b. こちらが
領収書
{です・でございます}。○
Kochira ga ryōshūsho [desu/de gozaimasu].
Both sentences mean, “This is the receipt.” However, because naru なる’s primary meaning expresses change of state, many speakers find it ungrammatical for means of simply avoiding a declarative statement. Nothing is becoming the receipt. The receipt is the receipt.
There are important counterarguments to consider. Pretend that you are a waiter. Your customer orders iced coffee. You go to the back and fetch what your customer ordered, and then you return to the customer’s table and present it. In a psychological sense, one could say that the cup of iced coffee you have in your hand is simply a cup with a cold, dark liquid in it from the customer’s viewpoint.
9. こちら、ご
注文
のアイスコーヒーになります。
Kochira, gochūmon no aisukōhii ni narimasu.
This is the iced coffee you ordered.
Instead of outright stating that it IS iced coffee, you present the iced coffee as something that has potentially gone from being an unknown entity to being the iced coffee the customer had asked for. In this sense, ni narimasu になります becomes a conduit for presenting things without it sounding like you’re stating the obvious. Additionally, this serves as a means of avoiding responsibility if you messed up somehow.
10. お
会計
、
6000
円
{になります △・です ○・でございます ○}。
Okaikei, rokusen’en [ni narimasu/desu/de gozaimasu].
Your total is 6000 yen.
Example Note: The total of the bill is not inherently the worker’s fault. If the consumer is spending that much at said establishment, then it is the consumer’s responsibility to pay for the goods and or services the stated value. Therefore, it is strange at best why an employee would wish to shift blame away from himself for the cost of the consumer’s bill. However, there is a principle in customer service that the customer is always right.
The pursuit of addressing all customers with the utmost respect and care also places pressure on the worker to also cover for his and the establishment’s own misgivings if any exist. For all one knows, the 6000-yen purchase may actually only be 5600 because a discount wasn’t properly taken into account. Since the possibilities of what could go wrong at the cash register are endless, one could say that the reason why ni narimasu になります is here to stay is that it is the best means of the workers to cover face and yet be polite to the consumer at the same time.
Terminology Note: Customer service honorifics may also go by the names baitogo バイト語, kombini keigo コンビニ敬語, famiresu keigo ファミレス敬語, famikon kotoba ファミコン言葉, etc.
To narimasu となります & [ni/to] natte orimasu{に・と}なっております
In addition to ni narimasu になります, there is also to narimasu となります, and [ni/to] natte orimasu に・となっております to consider. The usage of the particle to と is meant to enhance formality. The use of に・となっております is meant to indicate that a situation is and has been so but in a manner that shifts responsibility away from the speaker. One can also say that the use of this form simply follows the general rule of thumb that the longer the phrase, the politer it is. However, with each time it’s used, the “but why?” response from the listener becomes ever more justified.
11.
本日
のランチは、
冷
やし
中華定食
{となっております △・でございます ○}。
Honjitsu no ranchi wa, hiyashi chūka teishoku [to natte orimasu/de gozaimasu].
As for today’s lunch, the special of the day is chilled Chinese days.
Example Note: When it is a waiter that is saying this, one can easily see how he or she is trying to avoid responsibility for the management’s decision for having the special of the day be as such. Yet, the worker is by default a spokesperson of the establishment when telling customers about the day’s special. The use of to natte orimasu となっております conversely emphasizes the value in what the special is to many speakers, which is unnecessary.
12. こちらが
麻婆豆腐定食
{となっております △・です ○・でございます ○}。
Kochira ga mābō-dōfu teishoku [to natte orimasu/desu/de gozaimasu].
This the mapo doufu special.
Example Note: Just as with the previous example, too much emphasis is conversely attached to the value of the special, making this statement verging on boasting, an ironic conclusion to avoiding responsibility for what it is.
13.
明日
が
期限
{に/と・なっております △・です ○}。
Asu ga kigen [ni/to natte orimasu/desu].
The deadline is tomorrow.
Example Note: This example sentence is indicative of a worker telling a coworker, perhaps someone of higher status at the place of employment, that the deadline is tomorrow. As such, the relationship between the speaker and listener is not as inherently distant as is the case between unacquainted customer and server. This is why the particle ni に may manifest here. However, because the phrase ni/to natte orimasu に・となっております, overall, implies shifting responsibility, that in and of itself is unpleasant in the workplace. As such, this worker will most likely be corrected to simply use desu です instead.
14.
当店
は、
女性専用
{となっております △・とさせて
頂
いています ○・ でございます ○}。
Tōten wa, josei sen’yō [to natte orimasu/to sasete itadaite imasu/de gozaimasu].
This store is exclusive to women.
Example Note: In this example, the use of to natte orimasu となっております shifts the blame away from the establishment for being women-exclusive, which at face value is ludicrous. As such, most speakers prefer that to sasete itadaite imasu とさせていただいています be used because this pattern expresses a willful decision that was taken out of discretion toward those affected.
Listener Discomfort
Another thing to consider is to why ni/to narimasu に・となります and ni/to natte orimasu に・となっております cause the listener discomfort is because naru なる not only shows change, but the change it describes is not one caused by someone. Purposely using it in a situation where the situation (which may change) is most certainly caused by someone is yet another reason for why these phrases are interpreted as avoiding responsibility/blame. Using desu です or de gozaimasu でございます avoids this situation, and if the statement may still be perceived as being rude to the listener(s), then cushion words like kyōshuku desu ga 恐縮ですが (I’m terribly sorry to trouble you, but…), osoreimasu ga 恐れ入りますが (Pardon me for troubling you, but…), mōshiwake gozaimasen ga 申し訳ございませんが (I am terribly sorry, but…) may be used to enhance politeness, thus making the phrases in question unnecessary.
15. お
支払
いは
銀行振込
のみ{となります △・です ○・ でございます ○}。
Oshiharai wa ginkō furikomi [to narimasu/desu/de gozaimasu].
Payment is only by bank transfer.
Example Note: Consumers, hearing this with to narimasu となります, have every reason to retort, “But why? Is there not any other form of payment, and why is this the only one you offer?”
16.
駅構内
は
禁煙
{となります △・です ○・でございます ○}。
Eki kōnai wa kin’en [to narimasu/desu/de gozaimasu].
The inside of the train station is nonsmoking.
Example Note: Smokers, hearing this statement with to narimasu となります, may retort, “Well why can't we smoke?”
When ni/to narimasu に・となります & ni/to natte orimasu に・となっております are Correct
As was demonstrated at the beginning of this lesson, there are indeed instances when these phrases are correct, which is when the verb naru なる is used in its traditional means. In the following examples, naru なる is used in the sense of showing some natural state, perhaps a change, benefit, or reaching some status. Also, as usually, the use of te imasu/orimasu ています・おります is determined by normal grammar. If it is a state that has been the case, you use them. If you are stating said situation with any degree of formality orimasu おります is used instead of imasu います.
17.
玉
ねぎを
炒
めて
10
分間火
を
通
したものが、こちらになります。
Tamanegi wo itamete juppunkan hi wo tōshita mono ga, kochira ni narimasu.
This is what becomes of sautéing and cooking onions for ten minutes.
Spelling Note: Tamanegi may alternatively be spelled as 玉葱.
Reading Note: 10分間 may also be read as jippunkan.
18. ヴルカーノ
島
は「
火山
」を
意味
する「Volcano」という
英単語
そのものの
語源
となっています。
Burukāno-tō wa “kazan” wo imi suru “volcano” to iu eitango sono mono no gogen to natte imasu.
Vulcano Island is the very origin of the English word “volcano” meaning “kazan.”
19. この
漢和辞典
では、
常用漢字
の
読
みは
赤文字
となっております。
Kono kanwa jiten de wa, jōyō kanji no yomi wa akamoji to natte orimasu.
In this Chinese-Japanese character dictionary, Joyo Kanji readings are in red.
The Validity of ni narimasu になります and Others
The use of these phrases in honorifics to replace the copula is here to stay. Language is always evolving along with culture. Because this usage is here to stay, it is important to become familiar with them and understand what people mean when they use them. It is no longer the case that a large majority even views this usage as incorrect anymore; thus, labeling it as incorrect and ignoring it is no longer an option. As a Japanese learner, you must understand that if you ever absorb Japanese media or go to Japanese establishments, this will be used and used extensively. It is also a part of the regular honorific speech of people outside of the workplace, too.
20. お
手洗
いはあちらになります。
Otearai wa achira ni narimasu.
The bathroom is over there.
21. こちらが
会議室
になります。
Kochira ga kaigishitsu ni narimasu.
This is the meeting room
22.
350
円
のお
釣
りになります。
Sambyakugojūen no otsuri ni narimasu.
Your change is 350 yen.
23.
毎週月曜日
は
定休日
となっております。
Maishū getsuyobi wa teikyūbi to natte orimasu.
Our fixed day off is Monday of every week.
24.
本日
、
雨
の
予報
となっておりますので、お
気
をつけて、お
越
しください。
Honjitsu, ame no yohō to natte orimasu node, oki wo tsukete, okoshi kudasai.
Today, the forecast is rain, and so please be careful when you come.
25. ポイントの
一部
をご
利用
になりますか。
Pointo no ichibu wo goriyō ni narimasu ka?
Would you like to use your points?
Example Note: This last example is an instance of the correct use of the pattern o/go- お・ご + Verb Stem + ni narimasu になります.
At its basic understanding, the word 方 means “direction” or “method.” It is used in both a physical and a temporal sense. This word exists as ほう, a borrowing from Chinese, and as かた, the native equivalent. Both forms have survived to the present and their basic meanings are the same. To understand either, one has to also know the other.
The original word for direction in Japanese is かた. Although no longer used in daily conversation, it is the basic meaning from which every other meaning derives. There are two broad ways humans conceptualize direction. We either talk about where we’re going or about the flow of time. Our lives are on both a timeline and a path.
i. 来し方
The past
Reading Note: This phrase is read as either こしかた or きしかた.
This phrase literally means “the direction one has come,” but it was used both in the sense of time and direction. To this day, かた exists in temporal phrases indicating general time frame, but in the form がた.
Dawn | 明け方(あけがた) | Evening | 夕方(ゆうがた) | Dusk | 暮れ方(くれがた) |
Direction words in Japanese tend to duly refer to people, and かた is no different. You can see it used as a polite means of saying hito 人 (person), as well as a respectful plural phrase as がた.
iii.
男性
の
方
のみ
Only men
iv.
奥様方
の
井戸端会議
Idle gossip among wives
かた can also stand for the counter ~人. However, this only works for numbers 1, 2, and 3, and the prefix お~ must precede the number.
v. お一方 (one person), お二方 (two people), お三方 (three people).
Naturally, かた may also be used to mean “side” in reference to people. Have you ever wondered how to say “my grandfather on my mom’s side”? Luckily for you, かた lets you do that. In this case, it can either be read as /kata/ or /gata/.
vi.
母
方の
祖父
One’s grandfather on one’s mother’s side
がた may be used in letters when trying to address someone that isn’t the owner of the residence. For instance, say Mayuko Suzuki lives with someone by the surname of Izumi, but it is Mr. Izumi that owns the residence, yet you wish to send something to her.
vii.
東京都渋谷区神宮前
○-○-○
泉様方
鈴木真悠子様
#-#-# Jingūmae, Shibuya Ward, Tokyo Metropolis
To Mayuko Suzuki in the care of Mr. Izumi
If a word for “direction” can also refer to the people—which go places—and methods that those people do something, it’s logical to conclude that this word might also mean “how to (do something)” and by extension, doing it altogether.
viii.
使
い
方
How to use
ix.
詮方
ない
It can't be helped
Phrase Note: Although viii. is a usage we're familiar with, ix. is difficult because of its confusing spelling and older grammar. The せん comes from する (to do) in a form that is equivalent to today’s しよう, which shows volition to do something. Essentially, this is an older phrase for expressing there’s nothing that can be done, or at least in a willful sense. Although the せん is from a verb, 詮 is used because it means “method.”
x.
撃
ち
方
やめ
Cease fire!
Phrase Note: This phrase is a remnant of older grammar used to indicate doing. Nowadays, we use nominalizers like の or こと to help us do this, but at one time, かた was another viable option. Today, it’s relegated to old-time expressions and bureaucratic honorifics like in xi.
xi.i ご
承知方
お
願
いします。
xi.ii ご
承知置
き
下
さい。
Please be aware.
Phrase Note: In xi.i, the sentence in question would likely be written in a document of some form, perhaps an e-mail, sent among bureaucrats. xi.ii would be what a normal person would write, but the addressee cannot be someone above one’s own status.
In addition to the usages above, がた also developed the ability to refer to general amount. After all, it indicates relative time in words like 明け方 (dawn). This usage, however, is no longer in general use.
xii.
相場
は、
3
割
{
方
・ほど}
下落
した。
The market value dropped approximately three-tenths.
Phrase Note: Nowadays, phrases like ほど are used for this sort of situation.
Words are often borrowed into languages simply because the other language one is borrowing from is more prestigious. Chinese has been to Japanese what Latin has been to English. Gradually, ほう replaced かた in many of its usages for this very reason.
Spelling Note: Before we dive into the usages of ほう, it’s important to note that many Japanese learners are taught that it is improper to write it out in Hiragana as ほう and to always write it out as 方. However, especially when both かた and ほう make sense, writers will write ほう in Hiragana to differentiate between the two.
General Direction
If you want to say which general direction you’re going, you can add の方 to your destination. You can use a general direction word or an actual place. Therefore, something like 北の方 would be the same as “northward” and 大阪の方 would be the same as saying “the Ōsaka area.” To literally say “direction,” though, you would need to use the word 方向, which not surprisingly has 方 in it.
1.
急
きょ、
大阪
から
九州
の
方
へ
行
くことになりました。
It’s been decided in haste that I go from Ōsaka to the Kyushu area.
Spelling Note: 急きょ may also be spelled as 急遽.
2.
駅
の
方
へ
向
かいました。
I went towards the train station.
3.
東京
の
方
に
仕事
に行っています。
I go to work in the Tokyo area.
"Which" Part of a Comparison
When trying to describe someone as one type or another (comparison), we use hō 方. We also use it to tell “which” one we’re talking about.
4.
僕
は
元
から
胃
が
弱
いほうだ。
I’ve always had a weak stomach.
Sentence Note: This sentence literally means “As for me, I’m the one who always has had a weak stomach.”
5.
英語
より
韓国語
の
方
が
得意
です。
I’m better at Korean than English.
6.
誤用
のほうが
広
く
伝
わっている。
The misuse is what’s most widely circulating.
7. こちらのほうが
悪
かったよ。
I’m the one who was wrong.
8. バーガーキングのほうが、マクドナルドより
好
きです。
I like Burger King more than McDonald's.
9.
赤
ワインのほうが、ビールより
体
にいいですよ。
Red wine is better for you than beer.
10.
部屋
は
広
いほうがいいじゃないですか。
Isn’t it better that the room be wide?
11.
逃
げるより
戦
うほうがいいぞ。
It’s better to fight than run away!
12. どちらの
方
が
好
きですか。
Which do you like (better)?
General Occupation
If ほう can show general direction and “which” thing you’re talking about, it’s not that much of a stretch for it to be used to vaguely indicate what you do for a living. After all, your livelihood is carried out somewhere, and by using ほう, you are telling the person in what general field you’re working in.
13.うちの父は財務省の方に勤めています。
My father works at the Ministry of Finance.
14. 「お仕事は?」「
金融
のほうです。」
“What do you do for work? “I’m in financing.”
Use in Honorifics: Avoiding Directness
There is a general pattern that 方 is used in generalizations. Some speakers assert that its use in indicating occupation is incorrect and unfounded, but that’s not the case. This usage has existed for a long time, and although it isn't grammatically necessary, that’s not why people use it. If you live to the west , why would you need to use 方? It would be just as easy for you to only use 西? That’s not, though, what often goes through the mind of a Japanese speaker. Whenever a speaker feels it’s important to emphasis the general direction of someplace, that person will use 方.
The same logic works for when 方 refers to general occupation. Using it makes the statement less direct, and by doing so, also making it politer. Many speakers are taught to use 方 in this manner profusely, especially when they work at fast food restaurants and part time jobs where employees are taught how to address customers/clients via a manual.
In the sentences below, every instance of 方 is grammatically unnecessary. When it’s used with a place, it may cause confusion as to whether the speaker is pointing out a general location or is just trying to politer. Even if this ‘can’ be the case, someone would have to be purposely rude or incompetent not to know how the word is intended.
15. お
荷物
のほう、お
預
かりします。
I will hold onto your luggage.
16. 私のほうでやらせていただきます。
I will be doing it.
17. メニューのほう、お
下
げします。
Allow me to take your menu.
18. お
体
のほうはどうですか。
How is your body feeling?
19. カットのほう、させていただきます。
I’ll be cutting your hair.
20. ムースのほう、お
付
けします。
I’m going to now apply muse.
21. デザートのほう、お
出
ししてよろしいですか。
Shall I bring out desert?
22. 私のほうから
説明
させていただきます。
I will be the one explaining.
23. 私のほうで
担当
いたします。
I will be the one leading.
24.
契約書
のほうをお
持
ちいたします。
I will bring the contract.
25. コーヒーのほう、お
持
ちしました。
I’ve brought your coffee.
26. お
食事
のほうをお
持
ちいたしました。
I’ve brought your meal.
27. お
会計
のほう、
1500
円
になりました。
Your bill has come out to 1500 yen.
28. こちらのほう、ご
利用
ください。
Please use this (one ???).
Sentence Note: This instance could legitimately instead mean “please use this one.” This means that it conversely indicates which should be used rather than being vague. This is because こちらのほう and the like can be seen as set phrases, and seeing them triggers the interpretation of “which” for 方.
29. ご
注文
のほうは、お
決
まりですか。
Have you decided on your order?
30.
売
り
場
のほうをご
案内
します。
I’ll show you the sales floor.
Sentence Note: This sentence could potentially mean “I will guide you in and around the sales area, but that is only due to the grammatical possibility of it meaning that. The chance that a speaker is actually using this phrase to mean such is slim to none.
These examples demonstrate the wide variety of instances in which ほう is used in honorifics. As for you, the Japanese learner, get a feel for your surroundings and how the people you interact with use this word to guide your own linguistic choices.
Spontaneity is a cool usage of the endings ~られる and ~れる. The grammar resembles the passive, but they are semantically different. There are also unique spontaneity verbs. We'll touch on how spontaneity relates to potential phrases.
~られる and ~れる may show spontaneous action or situation. A spontaneous action or situation is one that occurs without the intention of the subject which is often one’s self. There is no will involved. This ending is typically restricted to verbs of thought, cognition, and or feeling. If mentioned, the experiencer is marked by に. The object is marked by が just like with passivization.
1. 人
の
気配
が
感
じられた。
The presence of (the) people (there) was felt.
2.
行
く
先
が
案
じられた。
The course was considered.
3. 波
の
音
に
驚
かれた。
I found myself surprised by the sound of the waves.
4. 昔
のことがふと
思
い
出
された。
I found myself remembering about the old days all of a sudden.
5. 意気込みが感じられた。
I felt ardor.
6. 空気がおいしいと感じられました。
The air came to be delicious.
7. 入院した祖母の容体が案じられる。
To get concerned about the condition of one's hospitalized grandmother.
8. 秋の気配が感じられる。
To find oneself sensing (the coming of) autumn.
9. 僕にはどうしてもそう思われる。
No matter what, all I think of is that.
10. いかにも不思議に思われた。
It seemed really mysterious.
聞こえる & 見える
The verbs 聞こえる, 見える, as well as other similar looking verbs such as 燃える and 消える also express 自発. So, we'll call these verbs 自発動詞. 聞 こえる and 見 える predate the potential forms 聞 ける and 見 られる, and because they don't actually show potential, though potential phrases do ultimately derive from spontaneity phrases due to the fact that having the potential to do something is a characteristic of you that you cannot control, we did not discuss them in the potential lesson.
So, if 聞こえる and 見える do not mean 聞ける and 見られる respectively, we need to see how they differ. Essentially, they show inherent ability whereas 聞 ける and 見 られる show that you can (if you want), indicating one's intentions can be realized.
聞 こえる describes a naturally hearing sensation. It can be defined as "to be able to hear", "to sound", "to be audible", and even "to be famous". 見 える may mean "to be able to see". It can also mean "to come into view/to appear". With ように, 見 える may show what something looks like. It may also be a very respectful form of the verb 来る.
Examples
11. 雨
(の)
音
の
中
でも
彼
らの
声
が
聞
こえた。
I could hear their voices even in the middle of the rain.
12. 彼
は
興奮
しているように
見
えます。
He looks like he's excited.
13. 魚
は
音
が
聞
こえると
思
う?
Do you think that fish can hear?
14. 私
は
彼
の
講演
が
聞
こえません。
I can't hear his lecture.
15.
年齢相応
に
見
える。
To look one's age.
16.
映画館
で
今黒沢
の
映画
が
見
られます。
You can now see Kurosawa's movies in the theater.
17. iPhoneで
天気予報
が
聞
けます。
You can hear the weather forecast on your iPhone.
18. 昨日
は
香具山
が
見
えたが、
今日
は見えない。
I could see Mt. Kaguyama yesterday, but I can't see it today.
19.
降
り
出
しそうに
見
える。
It appears that it's going to rain.
20.
隣
のテレビの
音
が
聞
こえる。
I can hear the neighbor's television('s sound).
21. 新
しい
眼鏡
をかけるとずっとよく
見
えます。
I see so much better when I wear my new glasses.
22. 彼
は
右目
があまりよく
見
えない。
He can't see very well with his right eye.
Literally: As for him, his right eye can't see very well.
Historical Note: Long ago ~ゆ was used just like ~られる and ~れる and remains part of many verbs like 燃 える and 消 える. So, these example verbs come from 燃ゆ and 消ゆ. You may even see these old forms purposely used in songs and poetry. Their roots still end in "y" and they're intransitive and spontaneous in nature.
Bridging Contexts between Spontaneity and Potential
Another verb to note is 思 える. It can show spontaneous thought. It can also show the ability of thought which can be seen as coming from 思 ゆ or 思 われる. 思える and 思われる are almost identical, but the only true difference between the two is that the former is felt to be more objective and the latter is felt to be more subjective.
Before going to examples, note the mentioning of "potential". There are clear instances in which verbs can be interpreted as both a 自発動詞 and a 可能動詞. However, the use of a speech modal such ~てしまう or ~てくる are very important to get both meanings.
Examples
23. A生徒がいつのまにか書けてしまった。
Student A managed to be able to write it before I knew it.
24. びっくりするくらい泣けてきたわ。 (Feminine)
I was surprised at how many tears (I was able to) shed.
24. 自然に笑える映画を作ってみてください。
Try making a movie one would naturally laugh to.
25. 良い作品とは思えません。
I cannot/could not think of it as a good work.
26. 地名の由来はアイヌ語から来ていると思われます。
The place name's origin is thought to come from Ainu.
This lesson will focus on more difficult potential phrases in Japanese. Pay close attention to even the most minute differences.
可能 is a 形容動詞 meaning "possible". Impossible is 不可能 .
1. 可能ですが、本当に難しいです。
It's possible, but it's really difficult.
2.
実行可能
だ。
It's feasible.
3.
一瞬
のうちに
統計学
の
問題
を
解
くのは不可能だよ。
Solving a statistics problem in an instant is what's impossible!
4. それはほとんど不可能だ。
That is all but impossible.
Word Note: 可 is in some words to mean "-able". Ex. 可燃 ごみ = combustible refuse.
5. 可否を論{ずる・じる}.
To dispute propriety.
6. 可視光線
Visible ray
7. 不可視光線
Unvisible ray
Although now quite old-fashioned, you may still come across this potential word. It's normally limited to 連体形+{(こと)・に}あたわず. The affirmative potential form of verbs became used in Japanese from Western influence when the first translations of Western works were attempted. So, starting from then, あたう became used as well.
Pronunciation Note: あたう is often written as あとう because it's pronounced as あとー.
8. 行くことあたわず。(Very old-fashioned)
I can't go.
9. 称賛おくあたわず。(Very old-fashioned)
I can't help but admire you.
10. あたう限り努力します。(Old-fashioned)
I will try to the best of my abilities.
Usage Note: あたうる限り is a common misuse by natives.
The potential form of ある is あり得(え・う)る. However, ありうる should be used only as the 連体形 . This is a remnant feature of the original verb 得(う) in Classical Japanese.
11.
有
り
得
ないことだよ。
That’s impossible!
12. 彼がまだ生きているなどありえないことだ。
It is impossible that he is alive.
13. うそ!信じられない!そんなの、ありえないよ。あんないい人が、人を殺すだなんて。
Lie! I can't believe it! That's impossible. Such a nice person killing someone...
14. {
有
り
得
る・
起
こり
得
る}
災害
A possible disaster
15. そのような
事故
は
理屈
ではあり
得
るが、
実際
にはまず
起
こらない。
That kind of accident is possible in reason, but above all, it won't really happen.
~得る
Following from above, it is also a common practice in semi-classical format to use 得 る after the 連用形 of a verb. It can be read as うる in the 連体形, but in very old-fashioned speech, you can also see it used at the end of a sentence. With a transitive verb, we see that even this option allows を to mark the direct object.
With a verb of non-volition, this shows possibility. When added to a verb of volition, it expresses rating or degree of ability to do something. Remember that non-volitional verbs don't have a 可能形.
16. このように取り得る。
It can take it like this.
17.
微笑
は
禁
じえない。
Smiling is irresistible.
18. この時期、
黄砂
が
飛来
しうるのか。
Loess flying in is possible in this time?
Word Note: 黄砂 is dust from the Yellow River region of China.
19. タバコは
健康
を
害
し
得
る。
Tobacco can hurt your health.
20. 彼は死の
危険
が
脱
し
得
ぬ。(Old-fashioned)
He can't escape death.
21. 私がいることによって、彼らは裸のゲリラとしての彼らたり得ているのだ。
It was because of me being there that they were able to stay being their bare guerrilla fighter
selves.
From 光の雨 by 立松和平.
Grammar Note: The ~たり in たり得る is a classical copular auxiliary verb.
22. {できうる △・なしうる}限り
To the best of one's ability
Notation Note: The triangle indicates that this is acceptable to some but not all speakers. The meaning is doubled, which should make it ungrammatical. However, you still see it used.
Verb Note: なす is the transitive verb pair for なる and is used just like する. It is only used in the spoken language in expressions like 財をなす(to build a fortune), 色をなす (to change one's complexion when angry), 成し遂げる (to accomplish), etc.
In speaking of なす, なせる can't be used as the potential form. This is because it would be a look alike to the actual interpretation of "done". In Classical Japanese, there was an auxiliary equivalent to English's perfect tenses: り. This attached to the 已然形. So, you would get なせり. When used before a noun, it becomes なせる. This grammar point is only found in set phrases.
23. 神のなせる業
An act of God
24. ようやく
敵
の目を
逃
れることを得た。
I was finally able to get away from the watch of the enemy.
25. 事情を聞かざるを得ない。
We will have no choice but to question.
As you can see, the verb 得る can also function as a potential verb, which makes sense if it can do so as a supplementary verb. Here, in these rare cases it is always after を and usually after a nominalized form of a verb. In the case of ~ざる, the 連体形 of the classical negative auxiliary ~ず, case particles after the 連体形 was sufficient in Classical Japanese to use a verb phrase as a noun. So, the same principles still apply.
History Note: The sound change that lead to independent potential verbs for 五段 verbs is uncertain. One idea is that it is a contraction of the 連用形 of 五段 verbs plus ~得る.
Ex. 書き得る → 書ける
A more plausible account, however, is that a subset of intransitive verbs that showed spontaneity (phenomena that occur naturally) promoted the generalization to all 五段 verbs. Also, historically, the endings ~られる and ~れる, though different in appearance, have stood for and continue to be used for not only potential but also passivization, spontaneity, and light honorifics. It's believed, though, that the root usage is to show spontaneity. For a potential pattern to evolve from another line of spontaneity phrases shouldn't be a surprise in light of this.
This lesson is all about the easy particle どころ, but don't confuse it with the noun ところ.
どころではない means "not possible to do..." or "out of the question" and is seen after the 連体形 or a noun. 騒ぎ and 話 are often added after どころ.
1. 電気が止まれば、寒いどころの話ではないよ。
If the electricity will stop, then it won't be possible to be cold.
2. 休暇どころの騒ぎではないよ。
There's no way I could take the trouble of a vacation.
3. 忙しくて食事どころではなかったんだ。
I was too busy to even take a meal.
4. 忙しくて買い物に行くどころじゃなかった。
I was so busy that I couldn't go shopping.
5. 事故で休暇どころの話じゃないよ。
Due to the accident, talk of vacation is out of the question.
6. 受験を前にして花見どころの騒ぎではないです。
Going cherry blossom viewing is out of the question before taking the exam.
7. まじめどころの騒ぎじゃないさ。
Serious is out of the question.
8. 寒いどころじゃないぜ。凍え死ぬぞ!
Cold is out of the question! I'll freeze to death!
9. 政治家は正直どころの騒ぎではありません。
Politicians being honest is out of the question.
10. 試験を受けないといけないから旅行どころの騒ぎではない。
Because I have to take an exam, traveling is out of the question.
11. 天気が悪くては海で泳ぐどころの騒ぎじゃない。
The weather is bad, so swimming in the ocean is out of the question.
12. あいつは紳士どころじゃないよ!
He's far from a gentleman!
The Conjunctive Particle どころか
The conjunctive combination particle どころか means "let alone", "far from", etc. It may also be seen as どころではなく.
13. それどころか、ひどいやつだ。
Rather, he's a terrible guy.
14. 教科書には満足どころか全く不満だ。
The textbook is far from being satisfactory.
15. いや、それどころか喜んでいます。
No, rather, I'm glad.
16. 弟は全然勉強しない。それどころか、1日中ゲームばかりしてる。
My little brother never studies. Instead, he plays games all day.
17. 一万円どころか一円も持っていない。
I don't have a single yen, much less 10,000.
18. 雨はやむどころではなくいよいよ酷くなった。
The rain got worse rather than stopping.
19. それどころか、かなり裕福だそうです。
On the contrary, that say that they are quite affluent.
20. 口腔手術を受けて、食べるどころか何も飲めないんだ。
I had oral surgery, so I can't drink anything and I'm far from eating.
1. どことなく似ている。
They somehow look alike.
2. なんとなく覚えてる。
I vaguely remember.
3.
幾度
となく試みる。
To try out countless times.
4. 何度か試みる。
To try it several times.
Word Note: 幾度 is just like 何度も(何度も), しばしば, 何度も繰り返して, and 再三(再四).
5a. 何人となく辞めた。Countless people quit.
5b. 何人か(が)辞めた。Several people quit.
6. 何百{となく・も}
By the hundreds
7. あいつは何回となくチャンスがあったよ。
That guy's had who knows how many times a chance.
8a.
取扱説明書
はそれとなくコンピューターに対する静電気の危険性を警告している。
8b. 取扱説明書は、遠回しにコンピューターの静電気について注意している。
Guide books warn of the danger to computers by static electricity.
"...となく...となく" shows a sense of extent to all of a certain thing.
9a. 彼らは昼となく夜となく働いた。
9b. 彼らは昼夜となく働いた。
9c. 彼らは昼夜関係なく働いた。
They worked without day or night.
10a. 老人となく
若人
となく男となく女となくあらゆる人が泣いた。
10b. 老人だけでなく若人、男と女が泣き出した。
Not only the old, not only the young, not only men and women, but all kinds of people cried.
Somehow
There are other expressions like なんとなく. However, like with everything in Japanese, there are going to be differences. The expressions in question are なんか, なんだか, and なんとか(して).
11. 宿題なんか要らないよ。
I don't need something like homework.
12. 何だか変だね。
Isn't it strange for some reason?
13. 何だか妙だ。
It's odd for some reason.
14. 何かの
拍子
で
By some chance
15. なんかキモい。(Slang)
I feel bad.
16. なんとかしてそこへ
辿
り着きます。
I'll get there somehow.
17. なんとかしてくれ!
Do something about it!
18. なんとかなるさ。
Things'll work out.
19. 僕はなんとなく悲しい。
I'm sad somehow or another.
とは may show surprise meaning "to think that..." as a final particle. It may also be used to in defining a word.
20. ブラックホールとは、
一体
どんなものなのでしょうか。
What kind of thing is a black hole exactly?
21. 方言
とは
何
でしょうか。
What is a dialect?
22. 小川
さんとは、
小学校
の
時
からの
友だち
です。
I've been friends with Ogawa since elementary school.
23. もう
今年
も12
月
とは。
To think that it's already December this year too!
24. 標準語
とは20
世紀初頭
に
誰
でも
分
かる
標準的
な
日本語
を
定
めるために、
当時
の
東京下町弁
に
基
づいて
文法的
によく
通
じる
新方言
として
人工的
に
生
み
出さ
れてしまったものなんです。
Hyojungo is a grammatically sound "new dialect" artificially created in the beginning of the 20th century to make Standard Japanese for everyone to understand based on Tokyo Shitamachi Dialect of the time
In the next two lessons we will learn about more combination particles with と.
とも | とあって | とあれば | といっ{た・て} |
とも is an emphatic version of the case particle と. Do not confuse with the conjunctive/final particle とも.
1. 君
とも
逢
えなくなるだろう。
I probably won't be able to see you.
とあって means "because under the circumstances that/due to the fact that".
2. 三連休
とあって、すごい
人出
だ。
There is a turnout due to the fact that it is a three-day weekend.
3. 先生
の
頼
みとあっては、お
断
りできません。
Because it is at your request, I cannot decline.
4. 素晴
らしいホテルとあって、サービスは
素晴
らしい。
Since it is a wonderful hotel, the service is wonderful.
5. 休日
とあって
人出
が
多
い。
It is also that there is a lot of people out on the holidays.
{と・そう}いった is placed after a list of nouns that are listed with particles like や, と, and とか to mean "such as". といって means "however". When not at the beginning of the sentence, it is often translated as "because" or "that...”. Though these phrases are from 言う, they are normally written in かな.
8. うちの息子は、科学や世界史といった科目が得意です。(From a mother)
Our son is good at subjects such as chemistry and world history.
9. 日本は、確かに経済大国となりました。{と言って・しかし}、国民一人一人の暮らしが豊かになったわけではあ りません。
Japan has certainly become an "economic giant". However, that doesn't mean that the way of life for each individual citizen has become wealthy.
Sentence Note: といって would not suitable for writing, but it would be fine in speech.
10a. 私は同意しました。だからといって、(私が)
満足
しているわけではありません。
10b. 私は同意しましたが、満足しているわけではありません。
I agreed, but that doesn't mean I am satisfied.
11a. そのように感じたからといって、誰も彼らを非難できませんよ。(Less natural ordering)
11b. 彼らがそのように感じたからといって、誰も非難できませんよ。
Nobody can blame them that they felt that way.
12. 今はこれといってすることがない。
I have nothing particular to do now.
13. 試験が終ったからといって努力を
怠
ってはいけない。
You mustn't give up your efforts because the exam is over.
14. 彼女はケーキとかそういったものを焼いた。
She baked cakes and stuff like that.
15. 「真理」とか「
美
」といった
抽象的
な言葉
Abstract words such as "truth" and "beauty
~からといって means "while it's true that/even though/just because". It normally sends a message of warning. The clause that follows should be negative in some way, either grammatically or in perspective. Don't let translation confuse you.
A similar phrase is からに, which means "just by/from" and is used with the non-past. からには, on the other hand, expresses determination and is equivalent "now that".
16.
天才
だからといって
威張
るなよ。
Don't brag just because you're a genius.
17.
皆
そういうからには
怖
い話だよ。
Just by everyone saying it, it's a scary story!
18. 彼は
約束
したからには
必
ずやる(男だ)。
He will surely do it just from promising.
Variant Notes:
1. からといって may be からって(ー) in colloquial speech or からとて in formal texts.
2. からには may be からは in literary language.
Also as とあらば, which is more poetic/nostalgic and old-fashioned, it shows a case established in a latter event(s) and is best translated as "if it is the case that".
19. お
望
みとあらば、
今
すぐ。(Slightly archaic)
(Go) right now if it is your wish.
20. 必要
とあればすぐに
伺
います。(A little old-fashioned)
I will come immediately if it is necessary.
In this lesson, we will begin coverage on expressions that can roughly all translate to “when it comes to…” to some capacity. The expressions in this lesson all involve the verb 言う in its respective conditional forms. If you have a firm grasp of these forms, the nuance differences that you are to soon be introduced to will not be news to you.
~というと is used to indicate what is representative or deeply associated with something, and it can even describe an inevitable correlation between something (as seen in Ex. 3). This pattern is quite objective in nature and is seen most frequently in the written language. In a literal sense, you can translate it as “if one were to speak…of,” but its translation can be flexible to more easily translated as “when/in/if speaking of…”
1.
日本
の
古都
というと、
平安京
、
奈良
でしょう。
In speaking of the former capitals of Japan, they’re Heian-kyō and Nara.
2. イギリスと
言
うと、いつも
曇
っているというイメージがあるかと
思
います。
In speaking of England, I think you might have an image of it always being cloudy.
3. ずっと
晴天
が
続
いていたのにお
祭
りだと
言
うと
天気
が
悪
くなるのは
気
のせいかな?
Is it just my imagination that the weather certainly gets bad whenever there’s a festival despite it being clear skies the whole time?
4.
5
大新聞
と
言
うと、
読売
・
朝日
・
毎日
・
産経
・
東京
を
指
すことが
多
い。
When speaking of the five major newspapers, the Yomiuri, Asahi, Mainichi, Sankei, and Tokyo are often referred to.
5. アメリカに
根付
いた
日本文化
というと、
寿司
・
生
け
花
・アニメ・
漫画
・
禅
などがあります。
In speaking of Japanese culture that has taken root in America, there is sushi, ikebana, anime, manga, Zen, etc.
6.
天候
というと「
晴
れ」「
雨
」など
思
い
浮
かべますが、「
波
」「
風
」も
天候
なんですね。
We’re reminded of “clear weather” and “rain” in speaking of the weather, but “waves” and “the wind” are also part of the weather, you know.
7.
政治
というと、
不審
なものの
代名詞
のように
思
えます。
When speaking of politics, it would certainly seem to be a classic example of something suspicious.
8.
微生物
というと、
不潔
なばい
菌
や
病気
を
引
き
起
こす
悪者
を
連想
する
人
が
多
いかもしれない。
When speaking of microbes, there may be many people who associate them with filthy germs or bad guys that cause illness.
9.
肉眼
で
確認
できる
太陽系
の
惑星
というと、
水星
、
金星
、
火星
、
木星
、
土星
までであり、それに
地球
を
加
えて
6
つです。
When speaking of the planets in the solar system that can be verified with the naked eye, there is Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn, and when you add Earth to the mix, there are six.
10.
従来
、
企業
の
社会的責任
というと、
企業倫理
や
法令順守
などが
中心
だった。
Conventionally, when speaking of societal responsibility to the company, company ethics, compliance, and such were at the center.
11. ワシントン州の有名な州立大学というと、ワシントン大学ですね。
In speaking of famous state universities in the State of Washington, there is Washington University.
12.
韓国
ドラマというと、
不治
の
病
や
交通事故
、
有
り
得
ない
擦
れ
違
いなどが
頻出
する
恋愛
ドラマを
想像
するという
人
が
多
いだろう。
When speaking of Korean dramas, there are probably many people who associate them with romance dramas which frequently feature incurable diseases, traffic accidents, impossible crossing of paths, and what not.
13.
西田
さんは
魚料理
が
好
きで
何
でも
食
べますが、
肉料理
はというとかなり
好
き
嫌
いがあるらしいです。
Mr. Nishida loves fish-based dishes and will eat anything, but as far as meat dishes go, he seems to have considerable likes and dislikes.
14.
私
は
理科系
の
科目
は
得意
なんですが、
文科系
の
科目
はというと、
全
く
苦手
なんです。
I am good at science courses, but as far as liberal arts go, I’m absolutely bad at them.
15.
父
も
母
ものんびり
過
ごしていますが、
私
はというと、
毎日
ただ
忙
しくて
働
いています。
My father and my bother live leisurely, but I on the other hand am just busy at working every day.
16.
草食動物
はというと、
基本
は
植物
しか
食
べません。
As far as herbivores go, they basically only eat plants.
17.
地球上
で
最大
の
動物
はというと、
南氷洋
のシロナガスクジラです。
As far as the largest animal on Earth goes, that would be the blue whale from the Antarctic Ocean.
18.
日本
のように、
蕎麦
を
麺
に
加工
して
食
べる
国
はというと、
隣
の
中国
や
朝鮮
およびブータンぐらいしかない。
As far as countries that manufacture buckwheat into noodles to eat like Japan go, there are only say neighboring China and Korea as well as Bhutan.
19.
世界
で
最
も
幅
のある
海峡
はというと、カナダのバフィン
島
とグリーンランドに
挟
まれたデービス
海峡
です。
As far as the widest straight in the world goes, it would be the Davis Strait, which is sandwiched between Baffin Island and Greenland.
20.
日本政府
はというと、
菅官房長官
は
調査
に
否定的
な
見解
を
示
している。
In speaking of the Japanese government, Chief Secretary Suga has expressed negative views on investigation (of the matter).
21. アメリカ
同時多発
テロ
事件
と
言
うと、あの
頃
の
中東
アジアの
情勢悪化
を
思
い
出
します。
In speaking of the American Simultaneous Sequential Terrorist Event (9/11), I think of the worsening state of affairs in the Middle East at the time.
22.
私
は
兄
が
大嫌
いです。
何故
かというと、とても
自己中心的
だからです。
I hate my older brother. The reason why is because he is extremely self-centered.
When using ~といえば, a lot of enthusiasm is felt when bringing up something into conversation. It is seen a lot in conversation and can be very definitive as far as the emotional context of one’s statement is concerned.
23. 日本代表の漫画といえばナルトですよね。
Speaking of a manga that represents Japan, that would be Naruto, huh.
24. サンフランシスコで、
一番有名
な
観光名所
といえば、ゴールデン・ゲート・ブリッジでしょう。
Speaking of the most famous tourist spot in San Francisco, that would be the Golden Gate Bridge.
25.
夏
の
食
べ
物
といえば、スイカ、アイス、
素麺
でしょう。
Speaking of summer foods, there’s watermelons, ice cream, and somen.
26. タイ
料理
といえば、
駅前
に
新
しいレストランが
出来
たの
知
ってる?
Speaking of Thai cuisine, did you know there’s a new restaurant in front of the station?
27.
A
氏
:
市川
さん、
先日交通事故
に
遭
って
入院
したらしいですよ。
B
氏
: え、そうなんですか。あ、
入院
したといえば、
三上
さんが
来週退院
だそうですよ。
Person A: It seems that Mr. Ichikawa became hospitalized the other day due to getting in a traffic accident.
Person B: Wow, really? Oh, speaking of being put in the hospital, I hear that Mr. Mikami is to be released from the hospital next week.
28.
古典芸能
といえば、
歌舞伎
でしょう。
Speaking of classical theatre, there’s kabuki.
29.
車
と
言
えば、
君
はトヨタ
車
を
買
ったそうだね。
Speaking of cars, I hear you've bought yourself a Toyota?
30. リンカーンと
言
えば
奴隷制度
を
思
い
出
します。
In speaking of Lincoln, we think of the slavery system.
31.
動物
と
言
えば、
僕
の
犬
は
話
せるんだ。
Speaking of animals, my dog can talk.
32. レオナルドダヴィンチといえば、
世界的
な
芸術家
だ。
In speaking of Leonard da Vinci, he is as world-famous artist.
33. イギリスといえば、{
紅茶
・ロンドン・
二階建
てバス・ビードルズ・イギリス
王室
・ハリーポッター}など
思
い
浮
かべる
人
が
多
いでしょう。
In speaking of England, there are surely many people who think of [tea/London/two-story buses/the Beatles/the British Royal Family/Harry Potter].
Spelling Note: ひげ in 漢字 may either be 髭, 髯, or 鬚. However, the first refers to beards around the mouth, the second refers to beards on the cheeks, and the third refers to beards on the chin. These respectively may be said/written as 口髭・髭, 頬髭・頬髯・髯, and 顎髭・顎鬚・鬚. You are not required to remember this.
34. メキシコの
代表的
な
食
べ
物
といえば、タコスです。
In speaking of Mexico’s signature food, there's the taco.
35.
今
の
若者
の
流行
といえば、
男性
の
間
ではひげが
流行
っていて、
女性
の
間
では
涙袋
メイクが
流行
っている。
In speaking of trends among young people today, beards are trending among men and namidabukuro is trending among women.
Word Note: 涙袋メイク makes it look like you have the impression of tears under your eyes.
In a literal sense, ~といったら means “were to say.”
36.
怖
くないと
言
ったら
嘘
になる。
If I said I wasn’t scared, that’d be a lie.
37. フランス
人
に「アミは
友達
です」と
言
ったら
混乱
しそうですね。
If were to say “Ami is my friend” to a French person, they might get confused.
In similar contexts seen with ~といえば, however, it is used in much the same way to give example of something intrinsically tied to whatever is the focus of conversation. It is arguably the most common form in conversation. It’s not so ecstatic, but it’s just as assertive.
38. シアトルの
景色
といったら、
口
で
言
い
表
せない
程
です。
When it comes to the scenery of Seattle, it’s beyond expression.
39.
山田
さんの
中国語能力
といったら、
中国人
がびっくりするほどだそうです。
Speaking of Mr. Yamada’s Chinese proficiency, I hear it even surprises Chinese people.
40. アメリカの
元大統領
といったら、オバマですね。
Speaking of the former president of America, that’d be Obama, right?
41.
一昔前
はお
寿司
といったら
高級
な
食
べ
物
の
代表
でした。
Long ago when speaking of sushi, it was representative of high class cuisine.
42.
東北
で
熊
といったらツキノワグマです。
Speaking of bears in Tohoku, there’s the Asian black bear.
43.
冬
といったら
鍋料理
ですね。
When it comes to winter, it’s time for hot pot cooking.
44.
果物王国
といったらどこでしょうか。
Speaking of the king of fruit, where would that be?
45.
家具
といったらやっぱりイケアですね。
When it comes to furniture, you definitely go with IKEA.
All three of these phrases share certain commonalities. When the speaker knows/hears of a certain situation, the speaker feels, as an effect of that circumstance, that something important has to be noted. What is duly noted typically involves some sort of idea, decision, or reference to common knowledge.
~となると is used to make assertions involving the speaker’s notion, idea, decision, or reference to common knowledge regarding a certain situation. This situation involves some form of change, whether it be literal or simply one’s change in perception. There is always some sort of contrast implied. The use of the particle と versus the other conditional particles provides a rather objective tone and definitive quality to the statement. It also makes it more appropriate in formal writing than the other variations of this pattern we’ll see later in this lesson.
As far as utility is concerned, this pattern can follow nouns, verbs (non-past and past tense form), and adjectives (non-past and past tense form).
1.
大学院
に
進
むとなると、
一生懸命勉強
しなければならない。
When it comes to proceeding to graduate school, you must study very hard.
Sentence Note: Here, the contrast implied is that if you were not to proceed to graduate school or pursue something else, you may not have to study near as hard, but because the change at hand is going to graduate school, the speaker feels impelled to tell the user what the natural consequence of that decision will be.
2.
解散
となると、
総選挙
の
争点
は
消費税
になってしまう。
If it were to come to the dissolution (of the government assembly), the consumer tax would end up becoming the issue at hand in the general election.
3.
今日
はかなり
寒
い。。。となるとラーメンかうどんが
食
べたくなります。
Today is quite cold…with that being the case, I’ll want to eat ramen or udon.
Sentence Note: As demonstrated by Ex. 3, this pattern may be used at the initial position of a sentence. This is the case for the other variants of this grammatical pattern we have yet to study closely, which are to be detailed later in this lesson.
4.
英語
を
話
せない
親
が
来
るとなると、
入国審査
が
心配
です。
If my parents, who can't speak English, were to come, I’d worry about their immigration checks.
5.
車選
び、ましてや
中古車
となると、マーケットは
幅広
く
選択肢
がいっぱいです!
As for choosing cars, especially more so when it comes to used cars, the market is extensive and full of options!
Spelling Note: ましてや may seldom be spelled as 況してや.
6. ギャンブルにおける
税金
となると、あまりピンと
来
ない
人
も
多
いとは
思
いますが、
獲得
した
賞金次第
によっては
税金
を
支払
う
必要
が
出
てきます。
As far as taxes in gambling are concerned, I think this doesn’t come intuitively to a lot of people, but depending on the prize money you earn, it becomes necessary to pay taxes.
7.
香川
さんはあまり
飲
まない
人
なんですが、
飲
むとなると、
徹底的
に
飲
む
人
ですよ。
Mr. Kagawa doesn’t drink that much, but when he does drink, he’s the kind of person who hits the bottle.
Sentence Note: This pattern is perfect to establish generalizations that involve some change in circumstance. Ex. 7 is a perfect example of this. The change in circumstance is Mr. Kagawa being in the position of imbibing. The generalization is that when he does hit the bottle, he goes all out.
8. え、
本当
に?
暑
いとなると、
持
ってく
服
を
考
え
直
さなくちゃなあ。
What, really? If it’s going to be hot (there), I’ll have to rethink what clothes to bring…
Sentence Note: It’s important to note that it is not implied that the place the speaker is going to has become hot. Rather, the speaker’s perception of what the temperature is like has changed.
9.
個人
への
影響
となると、また
少
し
違
ってきます。
Where effects on the individual are concerned, it is once again a little different.
You mustn’t blindly associate every instance of ~となると with this grammatical pattern. The reason for this is that sometimes, like in Ex. 10, the final と is the citationと.
10. この
財政問題
は
日本経済
に
大
きなマイナス
影響
となると
言
えよう。
One could say that this economic problem will be a great, negative impact to the Japanese economy.
~ともなると: Especially when it comes to…
~ともなると is a more emphatic version of above. It enhances the implied sense of certainty that the speaker wishes to convey. As a result from the change in tone, this form is used a lot more in speech than the above.
11.
夏
ともなると、
蒸
し
暑
い
九州
よりは
北海道
に
行
きたくなる。
Especially when it comes to summer, one feels like going to Hokkaido rather than humid Kyushu.
12.
数
ヶ
月
の
海外旅行
ともなると、
計画
を
立
てなければならないですね。
Especially when it comes to vacationing abroad for several months, you must make a plan, you know.
13.
平日
は
人
が
少
ないですが、
休日
ともなると、
朝
っぱらから
観光客
で
道路
が
渋滞
してしまいます。
On weekdays there are few people out, but especially on holidays, the streets become congested starting early in the morning.
14.
12
月
ともなると、
町
にはジングルベルのメロディーが
溢
れる。
Definitely when it comes to December, the town is flooded with the melody of jingle bells.
15.
憲法改正
ともなると、
色々
なアイデアが
出
てきて、とても
面白
く
議論
(が)
出来
るようになるでしょう。
Definitely when it comes to revising the constitution, all sorts of ideas would come forth, and we’d surely be able to have very interesting debates.
~となったら is used more frequently in the spoken language than ~となると, but it still finds itself used most frequently in the written language. The sentences that result with this variation are typically more hypothetical in nature than those with ~となると. This is due to the use of the particle たら. In a sense, it is far more deeply tied to the translation “if it were…”
As far as the utility of ~となったら is concerned, it too can follow nouns, verbs, or adjectives. You’ll see that it can be paired with both the non-past and past tense forms of a verb, which is the same as for ~となると. Choosing the past tense form, as is demonstrated in Ex. 19 and Ex. 20, causes the statement to be based on a point in time in the past and the speaker is choosing to refer back to that instance.
16.
彼女
が
日本初
の
女性首相
となったら、それは
国際舞台
における
欧米
トレンドの
更
なる
勝利
となるだろう。
If she were to become Japan's first female prime minister, that would likely be a further win to Western trends on the international stage.
17. これが
関東圏
への
直接被害
や
津波
となったら、パニックになっていたかもしれない。
If this were concerned with direct damage or tsunami to the Kanto region, (the public) may have been in a panic.
18.
津波
となったら
危
ないところで、
今日
も
避難勧告
が
出
ていた。
With it being dangerous if it really were to come to a tsunami, an evacuation advisory had been called today as well.
19.
相手
が
怪我
をしたとなったら、
話
は
別
になってしまいます。
If the/your opponent had become injured, that’d be a different story.
20.
土偶
が
出土
したとなったら、それだけで
開拓
の
手
は
止
められます。
If dogū were to have been excavated, that alone would stop the means for development.
Word Note: Dogū are small humanoid/animal figures of prehistoric Japan.
21. LINEのグループとかで、″
退室
しました″となったら
気
になるものですか?
Are you bothered when you see “left group” in groups on LINE and what not?
22.
現在検出
されている
放射能
は、
地下水汚染
となったら、その
土壌
で
育
つ
農作物
はすべて
放射性物質
を
取
り
込
むことになるのだろう。
If the radiation currently being detected were to contaminate ground water, all the crops nourished by the soil would surely take in the radioactive material.
23.
退職
するとなったら、
誰
しも(が)
円満退社
したいと
思
っています。
When it comes to resigning, I think everyone wants to resign from one’s free will.
24. プロ
野球
の
試合
でも
雨天中止
となったら、
別
の
日程
でするんでしょうか。
If even a professional baseball match were to be canceled due to rain, would it be played on a different date?
25. イギリスがEU
離脱
となったらどうなるか。
What will become of England if it leaves the EU?
26.
専業主婦
は
離婚
するとなったら、その
後
の
生活
はどうなるんですか。
If a housewife were to get divorced, what becomes of her livelihood afterward?
27.
満席
が
続
くとなったら、それは
凄
いなあと
思
うんですが。
I think it’d be pretty awesome if it were to continue being full. (Occupancy)
28.
日本政府
が
破綻
もしくは
破綻
の
危機
となったら、
生
き
残
る
企業
や
業種
は
何
でしょうか?
If the Japanese government were to go into bankruptcy, or if there were a bankruptcy crisis, what would be the companies and industries that would survive?
29. いざアメリカに
移住
するとなったら、
手続
きが
大変
だよ。
If one were to (suddenly) now immigrate to America, the procedures would be difficult.
30. こうなったら、もうやるっきゃない。
If it comes to this, I’ll have no choice but to do it.
~ともなったら: Especially when it comes to...
Although not as common as adding も to the other variants of this grammatical pattern, ~ともなったら is more emphatic than its counterpart without も.
31.
一晩
の
駐車料金
に
加
えてタクシー
代
ともなったら、
大変
な
金額
になってしまう。
Especially when it comes to taxi fees in addition to a night’s worth of parking fees, that’d end up being a terrible amount of money.
32.
一向
に
進
まず
立
ちっぱなしともなったら、ストレスが
溜
まってしまう。
Especially if it came to just standing on one’s feet for a long time and not moving forward at all, stress would build up.
33.
裁判
ともなったら
財産
が
押
さえられるというイメージもあるかと
思
います。
Especially when it comes to court, you might have an image of your assets being seized.
34.
昭和時代
では、
18
歳
にもなったら
許婚
がいるのが
当
たり
前
で、
決
まっていないともなったら、
笑
いものになったらしい。
In the Showa Period, it was only natural to have a fiancé even at 18, and it seems that you were laughed at if it was the case that you hadn’t been committed to someone yet.
35. お
泊
り
旅行
ともなったら、
絶対
にエッチするはずだと
思
う。
Especially when it comes to traveling to stay overnight together, I think that you’d undoubtedly have sex.
You may have wondered how the use of the particle と is tied to these expressions. You should know at this point that the particle に is typically the particle of choice for なる. However, it is important to understand that the use of the particle に can only demonstrate literal change from one state to another.
The nuances that we have seen thus far involving comparison to other possible situations cannot be expressed with the particle に. The particle と helps establish the “when it comes to…” interpretation. In other words, we are focusing on the situation with these speech patterns. In Ex. 31, the speaker uses に to simply illustrate a change in president and what that president might do once in office.
36. ムン
氏
が
大統領
になれば、どんな
政策
を
出
すんだろう。
When Moon (Jae-in) becomes president, I wonder what sort of policies he’ll issue.
The use of ~となれば over the other variants seen thus far is done so to add more of an emotional flair to the sentence. It, like ~となったら, is more likely to be used in the spoken language than ~となると, but because the focus on change in circumstance and relating it to other outcomes is not always something that people employ in conversation, you will not hear this used every day. However, these patterns are still used quite a bit.
37.
東京
オリンピックが
中止
となれば
様々
な
影響
が
出
てくるかと
思
います。
If the Tokyo Olympics became suspended, I think there would be various effects.
38. この
10
人
を
打
ち
倒
し
優勝
となれば、すごい
事
ですね。
It would be amazing if (he) defeated these ten people and claimed victory.
39.
自
ら
不倫
したとなれば、
不利
な
離婚
は
仕方
がないんでしょうか。
If you yourself committed adultery, would an unfavorable divorce be inevitable?
40. あんなに
苦
しんだことも、
今
となれば
大
したことではなかったと
感
じます。
When it comes to now, I feel that having suffered all that much wasn’t such a big deal.
41.
都知事
が
失脚
したとなれば、
政界
の
人材不足
が
懸念
されるのは
当然
だ。
If it comes to the governor of Tokyo falls from the position, it’s certain that the lack of talented people in the political world will be of concern.
42.
中検
1
級
を
取得
したとなれば、もう
中国語
をマスターしたといってもいいでしょう。
If (he) is to achieve Level 1 of the Chinese Proficiency Test, it’d be safe to say that he’s mastered Chinese.
43.
一気
に
4
本
も
抜歯
したとなれば、
普段
と
違
う
顔
になってしまうこともあるだろう。
If you get four teeth removed in one go, you’ll definitely end up having a different face than normal.
44. となれば、もう
諦
めるしかないだろう。
If it comes to that, there’d be no other choice but to just give up.
45. アメリカが
北朝鮮
を
武力攻撃
するとなれば
日本政府
の
最大
の
関心事
は
拉致被害者
の
救出
についてでしょう。
If it comes to America launched an armed attack on North Korea, the greatest concern of the Japanese government would likely be about the rescue of abductees.
~ともなれば: Especially when/if it comes to…
The use of the particle も adds an extra layer of assertiveness to the statement. It also goes well with the emotional flair that the use of the particle ば provides.
46. マイホームを
購入
するともなれば、あれこれと
考
えることは
多
くなりそうですね。
Especially when it comes to buying one’s own home, it seems a lot of people would ponder about this and that, huh.
47.
真夏日
ともなれば
室温
も
普段
より
上
がります。
Especially when it comes to midsummer days, indoor temperatures also rise higher than normal.
48.
正月
ともなれば
田畑
は
雪
に
埋
もれて
新鮮
な
野菜
はほとんどありません。
Especially when it comes to New Year, the fields are buried in snow and there are hardly any fresh vegetables.
49.
解散
・
総選挙
ともなれば、
野党
は
必死
にあらを
探
す。
Especially when it comes to (parliamentary) dismissal and general elections, the opposition party searches desperately for faults.
50.
高級
なお
寿司屋
さんに
行
くともなれば、
少
しいつもとは
違
うお
洒落
をして
気合
いを
入
れたいと
思
うかもしれません。
Especially when it comes to going to a high grade sushi place, you probably might think to dress a little more stylish than usual and get psyched for it.
~ったら and ~ってば are technically the colloquial contractions of ~といったら and ~といえば respectively. Although they can be used solely as colloquial contractions of these patterns, they have also each evolved their own unique usages that we will primarily be learning about in this lesson.
As stated above, ~ったら can simply be used as a very colloquial contraction of ~といったら, as demonstrated in the following example sentences.
1.
俺
が
来
いったら、来い!
When I say come, come!
2. カレーったらカレーだ!
Now this is curry!
3. うるさいったらうるさい!
God, you’re so annoying!
As can be deduced from these three examples, a lot of emotion is packed into this contraction, and it can be used in both positive and negative connotations. Ex. 1 even demonstrates how it can be used in a commanding manner.
~ったらない
The tone that can be seen in Ex. 2 can be expanded upon in the pattern ~ったらない. This can be viewed as a simplification of ~と言ったら他にない. Essentially, “there isn’t anything as…as” whatever is being discussed. Or, “it is impossible” for whatever you’re discussing to be “any more” like how you’re describing it because it is already so very “x.” Lastly, as far as its usage is concerned, it can go after nouns, adjectives, or verbs.
4. この
子犬
、
可愛
いったらない。
This puppy couldn’t be any cuter!
5. テキサス
州
の
暑
さといったらない。
The heat in Texas couldn’t get any hotter than this.
6. お
袋
の
心配
ったらなかった。
You can imagine how worried my mother was.
7.
日本語
の
曖昧
さったらない。
Japanese couldn’t be vaguer.
8. このイワシ、
臭
さったらない
These sardines, they couldn’t smell any worse!
Spelling Note: イワシ is seldom spelled as 鰯. For those of you who notice 鰮 as an option when typing, this character is essentially not used in Japanese, but it does incidentally mean “small fish” in Chinese.
9.
今
の
時代
、
携帯
やパソコンなどがないなら、
不自由
といったらない。
One couldn’t possibly be any more inconvenienced without having cellphones, PCs, etc. in this day in age.
10. みんなの
前
で
転
んで、
恥
ずかしいったらない。
There couldn’t be anything more embarrassing than tripping in front of everyone.
11. このところ、
残業続
きで
疲
れると
言
ったらない。
You can imagine how tired I’ve been from continued overtime recently.
12.
成人女性
の
着物姿
の
美
しさったらない。
There’s nothing as beautiful as an adult woman in kimono.
~ったらありゃしない
An even more emphatic variation of this is ~ったらありゃしない. This is essentially only used with adjectives. As seen below, some variation in its appearance can be found. You can see the ったら part uncontracted as といったら, see ったら as ったりゃ, or see the りゃ part elongated as りゃあ.
13.
1
ヶ
月
もお
風呂
に
入
らないのは
汚
いといったらありゃしない。
One couldn’t possibly be any filthier than when one hasn’t bathed in over a month.
14.
寒
いったりゃありゃしない!
It couldn’t be possibly colder than this!
15.
羨
ましいったりゃありゃしない。
I couldn’t possibly be more jealous.
Expressing Annoyance
As you can imagine, if it can be used in such a positive manner, it can be used in the exact opposite way. Whenever ったら is seen after proper nouns, you can express exasperating frustration.
16.
兄貴
ったらまだ
寝
てるぞ。
Ugh, my big brother…he’s still sleeping.
17.
神田
さんったら、よく
言
うよね。
Oh, Kanda-san, you say that a lot, don’t you.
18.
雅美
ったら、
無茶言
わないで。
Ugh, Masami, don’t say something so absurd.
19. もう
彼氏
ったら・・・
Ugh, my boyfriend…
20.トランプ
大統領
ったら、
就任
1
ヶ
月
で、じゃんじゃん
大統領令
をサインしているけど、その速さが怖い!
Gah, President Trump has been signing executive orders like crazy in his first month since being inaugurated, but it’s the speed of that which is scary!
21.
自衛隊
ったら、
本当
にお
堅
いんだなあ。
The Self Defense Force is so uptight.
As stated in the introduction, at its basic understanding, ~ってば can be viewed as a very colloquial contraction of ~といえば.
22.
暇
ってば
暇
でしょう。
When talking about free time, it (should be) free time, you know.
23. ブドウってばフランス
産
がいいなぁ。
Speaking of grapes, ones made-in-France are really good.
24. この
和菓子
ってば、ぴったりだね。
Speaking of this wagashi, it’s perfect, huh.
25.
海
ってば、
昨日
までずいぶん
荒
れてたね。
Speaking of the sea, it was pretty rough until yesterday, huh.
Similarly to ~ったら but with far more anger behind it, ~ってば can be used to sharply criticize. It is a great way to indicate annoyance or giving a sharp command by expressing your annoyance.
26.
辰己
ってば!
Gah, Tatsumi!!!
27.
違
うってば!
I said it’s wrong!
28.
早
く
持
ってきなさいってば!
I told you to hurry and bring it!
29.
要
らないってば、
要
らない!
When I say it’s not needed, it’s not needed!
30. ヤダったらヤダってば!
When I say no, I mean no!
This lesson is about two very similar expressions that translate as “whether it be…or…” Though the differences between the two are subtle, understanding the finer differences between the two will be all you’ll have to worry about.
・AといいBといいC: In addition to A and B, there are other things that become C.
At a basic understanding, the expression ~といい can be described in the above manner. Although everything else in question may not be 100% like “C,” several other related things will be implied by using this pattern. This can be used in positive and negative connotations. Typically, this expression is used primarily in the written language, but it would not be totally odd to use in the spoken language as well.
1.
香
りといい、
味
といい、
県内一
の
美味
しさだと
思
う。
Whether it be its fragrance or its taste, I think that it is No. 1 in deliciousness in the prefecture.
2.
日本
は、
総理
をはじめ、
政治家
といい
官僚
といいどうしようもないものばかりだ。
As for Japan, not only the Prime Minister, but also whether it be politicians or bureaucrats, it is full of just helpless individuals.
3.
吹雪
の
様子
を
見
に
戻
ってきた
夫
は、
頭
といい、
肩
といい、
雪
まみれで、まるで
雪達磨
のような
格好
でした。
My husband, who returned from checking out the status of the blizzard, is covered in snow, whether it be his head or shoulders; it’s as if he’s a snowman.
4.
頭
といい、
性格
といい、
先生
のご
主人
は
素晴
らしいです。
Whether it be his brains or his personality, your husband, Sensei, is a wonderful person.
5.
寿司
といい、うどんといい、
和食
のなんでも
好
きです。
Whether it be sushi or udon, I like anything in Japanese cuisine.
Orthography Note: うどん may seldom be spelled as 饂飩.
6.
性能
といい、デザインといい、このコーヒーメーカーが
一番好
きです。
Whether it be its performance or its design, I like this coffee maker the best.
7.
長谷川
さんは、
勉強
といい、スポーツといい、いつでもトップなのよ。(Feminine)
Hasegawa, whether it be his studies or spots, is always at the top.
8. この
街
は、
駅
からのアクセスといい、
便利
さといい、
住
むにはちょうどいいところなんですね。
This town is the perfect place to live, whether it be because of its (ease of) access via
9.
言
わずもがな、その
部屋
は
家具
といい、カーテンといい、
絨毯
といい、
素敵
すぎるもので
溢
れていた。
It goes without saying, the room was filled with absolutely amazing things, whether it was the future, the curtains, or the carpet.
10.
顔
の
色艶
といい、
声
の
張
りといい、
嶋村
さん、
本当
にお
元気
になられましたね。
From your complexion to the spring in your voice, you’ve really gotten better, haven’t you, Shimamura-san?
11.
品質
といい、
値段
といい、アメリカ
産
の
豚肉
に
勝
るものはない。
Whether it be its quality or its price, there isn’t anything that beats American pork.
12.
料理
は、
味
といい
量
といい
満足
でした。
The cooking, whether it be the taste or the quantity, was satisfactory.
・AといわずBといわずC: Starting with A and B (and others), they all become C.
This pattern is almost identical to ~といい. The only difference is that it indicates that “A” and “B” are C 100%. If this absolute doesn’t hold in reality, then ~といわず becomes ungrammatical and you should use ~といい instead. This may be used in positive or negative contexts. However, it is markedly more subjective than ~といい.
13.
吹雪
の
様子
を
見
に
戻
ってきた
夫
は、
頭
といわず、
肩
といわず、
体全身
が
雪達磨
のようでした。
My husband, who returned from checking out the status of the blizzard, whether it was his head or his shoulders, he looked like a snowman all over.
14. 彼は
入浴中
といわず、
就寝中
といわず、
片時
もスマホを
手放
さない。
Whether while bathing or sleeping, there is not even a moment he lets go over his smart phone.
15.
日本人
は、
子供
といわず
大人
といわず、
漫画
やライトノベルなどをよく
読
む。
Japanese people, whether they be children or adults, frequently read stuff like manga and light novels.
16.
私
はアライグマに
手
といわず
足
といわず
矢鱈
に
噛
まれて、
病院
に
運
ばれました。
I was indiscriminately bitten all over, my hands, feet, etc. by a raccoon and was taken to the hospital.
17.
私
が
通
っていた
中学校
には、
校長
といわず、
教頭
といわず、まともに
生徒
のことを
考
えて
仕事
に
取
り
組
んでいる
人
は、ひとりもいなかった。
There wasn’t a single person at the middle school I went to, whether it was the principal or the vice principal, who got the job done by earnestly considered students.
18.
私
は、
牛肉
といわず、
豚肉
といわず、お
肉
は
全然食
べません。
I, whether it be beef or pork, do not eat meat whatsoever.
19.
幸田
さんは
日本酒
といわずビールといわず、
酒
であれば、
何
にでも
目
がない。
Whether it be sake or beer, if it’s alcohol, he has a weakness for it.
20.
目
といい
口元
といい
服装
といい、
本当
にハンサムだと
思
わない?
Whether it be his eyes, his mouth, or his clothes, do you think he’s really handsome?
21.
髪
といわず
服
といわず、とても
煙草臭
くなってしまい、
自分
は
全然吸
わないのに、
纏
わり
付
いた
臭
いで
気持
ち
悪
くなることもあります。
Whether it be my hair or clothes, I end up reeking of tobacco, and even though I don’t smoke at all, the odor that follows me is often revolting.
22.
子供
たちは
顔
といわず
髪
といわず
服
といわず
泥
だらけで、
白
い
歯
を
見
せてにやにや
笑
っていた。
The children were covered in mud, whether it be their faces, hair, or clothes, and were snickering as they showed their white teeth.
23. {
昼
といわず
夜
といわず・
昼夜
を
問
わず}、
為替相場
は
時々刻々
と{
動
いている・
変
わっている}。
The exchange rate moves/changes all day and all night and at every moment.
24.
手
といわず
足
といわず、
体
じゅう
蚊
に
刺
された。
Not just my hands and feet, but I was bitten by mosquitoes all over my body.
25.
彼
は、
朝
といわず、
夜
といわず、
暇
さえあればマンガを
読
んでばかりいるみたいだ。
Not just in the morning and in the evening, but he reads comics whenever he has time.
This lesson is a continuation of the last lesson but with a twist. It just so happens that the verb 来る is not as easy as it has been made out to be. At this point, we know that it is not always used in the literal sense of “coming” to a location. For instance, we know it can be used in idiomatic expressions such as 頭にくる (to get mad).
One usage that the verb has had for a very long time in Japanese history but which has been in decline in recent decades is using it to mean いう. This has been done so in Japanese to bring about extremely emphatic commentary about things that are deemed sensitive/of importance to the speaker.
So far, this sounds like random commentary out of context, but remember how といったら・いえば were used in the last lesson. These phrases are both used to conjure up some topic to emphatically make a statement about it. The phrases in this lesson are more or less synonymous to this degree, but the nuances implied, of course, are not 100% the same.
ときたら
The purpose of ときたら is to bring up into conversation a very specific circumstance/event/matter/topic of some significance to the speaker in an emphatic manner, which is then followed by commentary true in the eyes of the speaker for the situation mentioned. This commentary is usually negative in connotation; however, regardless of whether the sentence is positive or negative in nuance, it always brings about some sense of astonishment/amazement. After all, you can be astounded by how awesome or how horrible something is.
Basic Translation: “When it comes to…”; “Regarding…”
As the basic translations suggest, you can view this phrase to be a very emphatic variation of phrases like といえば and に関しては.
1.
中国
での
生活
ときたら、
本当
に
散々
だった。
As far as my livelihood in China went, it was truly miserable.
2. あの
回
らない
寿司屋
ときたら、
利益率
が
高
そうだな。
When it comes to sushi restaurants that aren’t conveyor ones, it seems that the profit ratio is high, you know.
3. この
車
ときたら、
夏
はエンジンの
熱気
で
外気
より
暑
いくせに
冬
は
隙間風
で
外
より
寒
い。
Regarding this car, despite it being hotter than the outside due to the heat of the engine in the summer, it’s colder than the outside due to draft in the winter.
4. メキシコの
天気
ときたら、
酷
い
暑
さだ。
When it comes to the weather in Mexico, the heat is awful.
5.
世界
では
酷
い
事件
が
頻発
してるのに、
日本
の
警察
ときたらこんなことを・・・
Even though horrible incidents are frequently happening in the world, to think that the Japanese police of all things would…
6. あの
先生
ときたら、
授業中
も
冗談
ばかりで、
困
るなあ。
When it comes to that teacher, he’s always joking in class, which is really bothersome.
7. このパソコンときたら、
買
ったばかりなのに、もう
壊
れ
始
めてて、
困
ってるよ。
When it comes to this PC, even though I’ve just bought it, it’s already beginning to break, which is causing me a great bit of trouble.
8. まったく、
最近
の
若者
ときたら、なっとらん!
Ugh, young people these days, they just won’t cut it.
9. このチェーン
居酒屋
ときたら、
従業員
は
最低
だよ。
When it comes to this chain izakaya, the employees are the worst.
10.
夫
ときたら、
私
を
片時
とも
一人
にしてくれないのです。
When it comes to my husband, he won’t even let me have a moment alone by myself.
11. あいつときたら、いっつも
嘘
を
突
くんだ。
When it comes to that guy, he always lies.
12. あいつときたら、
毎朝
30
分以上遅刻
してくるんだよ。
When it comes to that guy, he always shows up 30 minutes or more late every morning.
13.
隣
の
家
の
犬
ときたら、いつも
吠
えてばかりで
困
ってます。
When it comes to my neighbor’s dog, it’s always barking, and it’s bothering me.
14. うちの
妻
ときたら、またもや
出張中
だ。
Concerning my wife, she’s on a business trip again.
と言ったら is used in two kinds of situations. It either calls out/talks to a listener, or it talks about a certain situation. In both situations, commentary follows. The entire situation implies familiarity with the person/situation at hand. The commentary/critique/outburst can have a variety of emotions packed into it: anxiety, worry, rebuke, jealousy, pride, resignation, etc. Regardless of the emotion, all this holds together.
ときたら, on the other hand, brings up some topic as a prerequisite for a comment that follows. The comment that follows is deemed to be obvious/natural/absolutely certain. This ‘opinion’ is deeply felt by the speaker, demonstrating that the topic is of some significance to the speaker. Although と言ったら can be used to give positive or negative feedback in a familial tone, the same cannot be said of ときたら. The difference is that ときたら does not guarantee a tone of familiarity. In fact, the more negative the statement, the more visceral, cold line of sight you feel from the speaker. It is very easy to belittle someone by using ときたら whereas と言ったら doesn’t go beyond jokingly chastising someone.
ときては
ときては is a variation of ときたら which only differs in the fact that it brings into mind a cause-effect relationship. We know that the basic understand of ときたら is “With A being a prerequisite, B is only natural.” With ときては, you more explicitly state this on the lines of “Since A is so, B is only natural (as an effect).” Although very subjective, there is a very “as a matter of fact” tone to this pattern.
15.
見
た
目
も
同
じ、
使
われ
方
も
同
じ、
薬効
まで
同
じときては
混同
するのも
無理
はないでしょう。
When it comes down to their appearance, how they’re used, and even to their efficacy being the same, it would not be reasonable to also confuse them.
16.
残業代
は
満額
でないときては、
納得
できない
人
が
多
い。
There are many people who cannot accept it when their overtime pay is not the full amount.
17. この
雑誌
ときては、
半分以上
が
宣伝広告
だよ。
Regarding this magazine, over half of it is advertisements.
18. おまけに
殺人
ときては
笑
うに
笑
えぬ
話
だ。
What’s more is that this story is one that not even murders are able to laugh at.
19. しかも
商売
にならないほどの
安値
ときてはどうにも
消費
しきれないだろう。
Moreover, especially when it’s at such a low price it won’t even turn into business, you can't possibly go through all of it.
20. おまけにハンサムときては
皆
の
妬
みを
買
っている。
What’s more, his handsomeness makes everyone envious.
21. 自らで
朝
から
晩
まで
苦労
して
食事
の
用意
をしても「
天
にましますお父さま、
今日
の
食事
を
感謝
します」ときては、
神様
も
困
ってしまうだろう。
When you still pray, "Father who art in heaven, we thank you for this meal,” despite having worked on your own from morning to night and prepare the meal, God will be surely troubled as well.
とくると
This variation is the most objective form, and this is because of the use of と rather than the other conditional particles. As an effect, it doesn’t get used at scolding statements directed at others. It is essentially the same as と言うと with the only difference being that it is not near as common. This is simply due to the fact that the use of くる to stand for いう is in decline overall.
22.
酒
とくると、からっきし
駄目
だ。
When it comes to alcohol, I’m absolutely hopeless.
23.
音楽
とくると、やはりモーツァルトですね。
When it comes to music, Mozart is definitely where it’s at, you know.
ときた日にゃ(あ)
The compound particle には, in either dialectical and/or old-fashioned speech, can be contracted as にゃ(あ). Putting this aside, ときた日{には・にゃ(あ)} is simply a somewhat old-fashioned variant of ときたら. The 日 in this phrase is equivalent to 場合. Many speakers do not even know what this phrase is anymore, but it does appear in literature as well as in Early Modern Japanese. Meaning, if you like reading things from Natsume Sōseki (夏目漱石), you will find it.
24. うちの人と
来
た
日
にゃ、
大変
なヤキモチやきでね。
When it comes to my partner, he/she is extremely jealous, you see.
25. うちの
息子
と
来
た
日
には、
先
が
思
いやられる。
When it comes to my son, I have no idea what is going to happen.
26.
松尾芭蕉
と
来
た
日
にゃあ、
大馬鹿
じゃ。
When it comes to Basho Matsuo, he is an utter fool.
27.
会
ったのは
男性
の
高校生
、ついでに
美少年
ときた
日
にゃあ、
夜
も
眠
れない。
Who I met is a guy in high school, and incidentally he’s a handsome guy; I can't even sleep at night.
28.
大人
になるときた
日
にゃ、まったくしょうがない。
When it comes to becoming an adult, it absolutely can't be helped.
ときている(もんだ)
When ときたら is paraphrased to come at the end of a sentence, you get ときている(ものだ). The use of {もの・もん}だ is there to simply imply that the statement is common sense, but the principles in understanding the phrase at large mentioned above still apply. Typically, the phrase is partnered with phrases that equate to “in addition to,” “what’s more,” etc. These phrases include ~うえに, ~に加えて, おまけに~, etc. The best way to translate this, although translation is not always necessary to reflect its meaning, is “to boot.”
31.
彼氏
は
金遣
いが
荒
いのに
加
えて、
我
が
儘
ときている。
In addition to his use of money being wasteful, my boyfriend is selfish to boot.
Sentence Note: The prerequisite for the boyfriend’s selfishness would be the person’s inherent nature which not only doesn't stop at wasting money but which also leads to being selfish as a natural effect.
32.
賢
い
上
に、
性格
もいいときてるもんだから、
困
ってます。
On top of being wise, since (his/her) personality is also nice to boot, which is what I’m grappling with.
33. サラリーマンは
気楽
な
家業
ときたもんだ。
Salary-men have a carefree line of work to boot.
Sentence Note: The prerequisite of the “carefree nature” indicative of a salary-man have would be based on the nature of their work. In today’s Japan, this statement would not be true, but in the past, this was a very prominent critique of the leisure many saw in their lifestyles.
34. とんだタイミングときたもんだ。
What unthinkable timing.
Sentence Note: Although the prerequisite is not mentioned, one can imagine that the situation with the “horribly unthinkable timing” was a domino effect of bad circumstances.
35. 水も滴るいい男ときたもんだわ。
What a breathtakingly beautiful, nice guy he is!
36. この
浴衣
と
言
ったら
綺麗
な
上
に
安
いときている。
Talking about this yukata, on top of it being so pretty, it’s cheap to boot.
37.
全然美味
しくないときたもんだ。
It’s absolutely disgusting to boot. (taste)
38. どちらもしっかり
1
人前
で、おまけに
900
円
ときたもんだ。
Both are full portions, and what’s more is that they’re 900 yen!
39. あの
人
は、
何
をするか
分
からない
上
に、
物覚
えが
悪
い。おまけにコーヒーの
味
でさえ
毎日違
うときたもんです。
On top of not knowing what he’s doing, that person has a terrible memory. To make matters worse, the taste of the coffee (he makes) is different each day.
40. あいつは、いつも
自分
のことしか
考
えてないのに
困
ったときだけ
助
けてくれときたもんだ。
Even though this guy is always thinking just about himself, what’s more is that he only cries for help only when he’s in trouble.
41.
女王蜂
は
過酷
な
家業
ときたものだ。
Queen bees have a cruel occupation to boot.
42. おまけに
勉強
も
出来
て
運動
もそこそこときてるもんだ。
What’s more, I’ve been able to study as well as reasonably exercise.
とくれば
We know that with the use of the particle ば, you can create a conditional phrase that is subjective, relating to present/future situation, and that also leads to a desire of the speaker. As such, this is never used in a negative connotation. This, as you can imagine, is a more emphatic version of と言えば.
44.
海
とくれば、
海水浴
だ。
When it comes to the ocean, you think of sea bathing.
45.
大阪
とくれば、やっぱりたこ
焼
きが
一番
に
思
い
浮
かびますね。
When it comes to Ōsaka, takoyaki definitely first comes to mind.
46. 前回は99点とくれば、次は100点が取れそうだね。
With it being that I got a 99 last time, it seems that I will get a 100 next time, huh.
47. クエン酸とくれば疲労回復!
When it comes to citric acid, think recovery from fatigue!
というのに | という{の・こと}は | とは{いえ・いいながら・いうもの} |
というのに means "(al)though (that)".
1. 彼女、何日も
食
ってないっていうのに、健康そうに見えたな。(ちょっと乱暴)
While she hadn't eaten in days, she looked healthy.
Word Note: Remember that 食う is the vulgar form of 食べる.
2.
砂漠
はほとんど雨が降らないというのに、少数の植物は何とか生き永らえられるようだ。
While deserts receive almost no rain, it looks like a few plants are somehow able to manage to live there.
足
が
痛
いくせに
競走
して
勝
ったんだ。
Even though his legs hurt, he ran and won!
彼女
はもう
大人
のくせに、
母親
にまだ
洗濯
してもらってるそうだぞ。(Masculine)
Even though she's already an adult, she still has her mother do the laundry!
やめろ。この
間
も
傷
ついたくせに。
Stop it! You got hurt just the other day, remember?
くせに VS ながら VS つつ
Question: It appears that these three expressions are interchangeable? If they aren't, what is different about them?
Answer: There is one usage of ながら and つつ that is very similar to くせに and にもかかわらず.
As we learned in Lesson 55, the particle ながら can be used to show two opposing things happening simultaneously. For example, “despite hardship he achieved great things”. The two clauses should be similar in this matter. This is based on situations. For the most part, つつ is the same as ながら. It is not constructive as ながら is in expressions, but it is also used in patterns like つつある.
However, くせに・にもかかわらず simply shows that one moreover takes a contrary move. So, this usage is not grounds to use these expressions interchangeable. As mentioned, there is much more to ながら and つつ, and even in contrasting they’re not exactly the same.
~ということは means "that means" and ~というのは means "the reason that". Both are placed at the beginning of a sentence. In slang ~ということは may contract to ~ってことは. In extreme slang the entire phrase can be shortened to ~つうか.
10. ということは、まだ出張から帰ってないのだろう。
That means he probably hasn't returned home from his business trip yet.
11. というのは、友達に
騙
されたことがあるからです。
The reason for that is that he has been deceived by his friends before.
12. というのも、新しい事業を始めたから。
The reason for that was that he started a new business.
~とはいえ/いいながら/いうものの means "even though". The exact meanings are slightly different. The first emphasizes contrast with what "can be said", the second is like "while though", and the last is like "although...say". They can more or less be translated as "even though" in English.
13.
梅雨
とはいえ、晴れる日もある。
Even though one may call it the rainy season, there are still also clear days.
Culture Note: The 梅雨 lasts from June to July. ばいう is a 書き言葉 reading.
14. 美味しいとはいいながら、まずいものも結構含まれている。
Though (this) may be delicious, there are bad things included as well.
15. まだ若いとはいうものの彼女はかなりの経験がある。
Even though she is young, she is quite experienced.
Now that you have learned more Japanese, it is now time to delve into differences with phrases related to "can" or "can't” that are more advanced and somewhat difficult to get straight. Be careful with the role of ~ない in this lesson.
Certainly, when a student realizes that 理解しきれない, 理解しえない, and 理解しかねる are possible on top of 理解できない, to the student, it seems at first glance that they must be interchangeable because they all translate as “can't understand”. However, as with any similar phrases in Japanese, there will always be differences. Let’s get started at figuring out what these differences are.
Although there are clear nuance differences and writing style differences between them, as the example with 理解する demonstrates, ~きれない, ~えない, and ~かねる have the basic meaning of “can't”. It's now time to look at them individually and then compare.
The 一段 verb かねる means " to serve/combine two or more functions or roles simultaneously". Other verbs that could be used instead for this include 組み合わせる and 兼ね備える.
1. 彼は教師と教育理事長を兼ねています。
He is both a teacher and the education chair.
2. 彼はその二つの部の部長を兼ねています。
He is in charge of the two departments.
3. 総理が外相を兼ねた。
The Prime Minister concurrently held the Foreign Minister position.
4. 朝ごはんと昼ごはんをかねて遅めに食べることが多い。
I eat breakfast with lunch late a lot.
5. 応接間と
書斎
を兼ねた部屋です。
This is a room that serves as a parlor and a library.
6. 趣味を兼ねた仕事
Job combined with hobbies
7. 観光と取材をかねて旅行していた。
We were traveling to both sight-see and cover an event.
Meaning Note: News' crews go places all the time not to just cover the story, but also to enjoy the place they're at.
~かねる shows that something is impossible. This is more so impossibility of doing something in a certain situation. Say you really hate someone, and you are asked if you're going to agree with him, you might say "I can't agree with such a person". So, it expresses the inability, reluctance, or refusal to do something. It can be translated as "cannot" or "(am) not able."
8. 彼は、「表明には
承服
しかねる」と怒りの
面持
ちで言ったそうだ。
I hear that he said that he could not consent with the assertion with an angry face.
9. そんな
悪徳
業者には賛成しかねる。
I cannot agree with such an unscrupulous businessman.
10. そんな方法には賛成しかねる。
I can't approve of such methods.
11. 動機を図りかねる。
To not be able to fathom the motive.
12. この場では決めかねますので、また
別途
会議を設けましょう。
Since it is impossible to decide at this place, let's set up a separate meeting again.
13. 彼女は彼氏が来るのを待ちかねていた。
She couldn't wait for her boyfriend to come.
14. 申しかねますが。
I hesitate to say but...
~かねない is the negative form of -かねる. Since -かねる shows the impossibility, -かねない shows that something very well "can" happen. This ending is especially used when the situation is bad. So, it means that there is a danger/possibility that the bad thing might occur.
15. 彼は嘘をつきかねない男だ。
He is a man capable of telling a lie.
16. 彼なら嘘をつきかねないと思う。
I wouldn't put it past him to lie.
17. このまま進めば、人間の絶滅をも引き起こしかねない。
If it continues at this rate, it may lead to human extinction.
18. このままでは、個人情報が
漏洩
しかねない。
At this rate, personal information might be leaked.
19. このレフェリーは規則にうるさいので試合を台無しにしかねない。
This referee is fussy about the rules, so he could ruin the match.
20. 彼はせっかくのチャンスを
棒
に振ってしまいかねない。
He might end up making a complete waste of an opportune moment.
This is the potential form of ~切る. It is used to show that you can completely do something, of which a lot is to be done. So, it’s negative form, ~きれない shows that you can't do this.
So, as for 理解しきれない, you can still understand somewhat, but you can't understand entirely. It is often used with expressions that show quantity and degree. It is often written in 漢字 as ~切れない.
21. 学校でいくら注意しても子供を守りきれないんだよ。
No matter how much we warn them at school, we cannot completely protect the kids.
22. 彼の
行為
は言葉で
褒
め切れないほど立派ですよ。
His actions are beyond praise.
23. 言い切れます。
I can completely say (that…).
24. 1日で食べきれないほどのバナナを買いました。
I bought more bananas than can be eaten all in a day.
25. 待ちきれなかった。
We couldn’t wait (completely).
Though this has already been taught in Potential II, remember that this pattern is old-fashioned and used in the written language. It doesn't show that something is literally impossible, but that since the conditions don’t match up, the possibility is slim to none. With non-volitional verbs the interpretation changes slightly to more of “it shouldn’t/can't be that…”.
26. 期待しえないことだ。
It’s something that you can't anticipate.
27. 忘れ得ぬ日
A day I can never forget
28.
過酷事故
は
原理上
起こりえない。
Severe accidents in theory can't occur.
All of these endings show impossibility in the forms ~かねる, ~きれない, and ~えない, but let’s see how well they can be used in a situation of stating one’s actual abilities.
29.
A: 韓国に来てどのくらいですか。
B: 半年です。
A: 韓国語はどの程度話せますか。
B: まだ十分話{〇 せません・△ しきれません・X しえません・X しかねます}。
A: How long has it been since you came to Korea?
B: It's been half a year.
A: How much Korean can you speak?
B: I still can't speak well enough.
From this data we can see that these endings cannot simply be used to show capacity.
The situation is not saying that you can't speak a certain quantity of something completely. The situation is asking for your competency of the language itself. So, ~きれない is not correct.
Now, consider the following.
30. 田中が犯人だと断定できましたか。
Could you conclude that Tanaka is the criminal?
31.
Response 1: いえ、彼が犯人だとは断定できません。
Response 2: いえ、彼が犯人だとは断定しきれません。
Response 3: いえ、彼が犯人だとは断定しえません。
Response 4: いえ、彼が犯人だとは断定しかねます。
Translation: No, I cannot conclude that he is the criminal.
In this case, all four responses are correct, but they are all slightly different. In the first response, you are objective stating that it is impossible to decide. In the second situation, you state that you can't 100% call him the criminal because there is still some doubt. In the third response, you can't say that he is the criminal given the surrounding circumstances. It is also very uncommon to use this in 話し言葉. The fourth response implies that you refrain from stating definitively that he is the criminal.
With the last comment, you can see how ~かねる can be used in polite contexts in denying/rejecting things.
32. いろいろ考慮しましたが、お引き受けしかねます。
I've thought hard on this, but I cannot undertake it.
So, even in situations where all are possible, there will be differences as defined thus far. They are all used in showing that one can't decide one way or another, as demonstrated by the criminal example.
33. 生徒が本当に分かっているのかどうか判断し{きれない・えない・かねる}。
I can't determine whether or not the students really understand.
They can also be used in situations where because of a certain reason or cause, you can't do something or it is extremely difficult to do something. The fine details, of course, are predicated on the pattern you choose.
34. 大きすぎて、
把握
し{きれない・えない ・かねる}問題だ。
It's a problem too big that I cannot fully grasp.
Remember that ~かねる implies that the speaker has a feeling of reluctance, which is part of the reason why they “can't”. Again, as for ~えない, a consensus of the various circumstances can't be made. So, in this example that means that the speaker can't grasp certain parts due to conflicting issues.
Words Used
It is now time to examine what kinds of words these items are frequently used with to even further distinguish them.
X~きれない: Used with verbs concerning with degree, quantity. It is also used with volitional verbs in regards to recognition and decision. Ex. 数える, 押さえる, 対処する, 理解する, 等.
35. 彼のアリバイ説明で納得しきれないところがあります。
There are parts I’m not completely convinced in his alibi’s explanation.
X~えない: Used with volitional verbs in concern with recognition, progress, and remarking. It is not used with simple action verbs like 見る, 食べる, 飲む, 等. Verbs it is used with include 予期する, 期待する, 達成する, 等. It can also be used with non-volitional verbs such as ある, 存在する, 起こる, 等.
36. そんなことはありえないでしょう。
Isn’t something like that impossible?
37. 理解し得ない感情
Feelings that one cannot understand
38. 金にならないものは評価され得ない。
Something that won't make money is cannot be assessed.
39. 客観的中立メディアなど存在し得ない。
An objective, neutral media cannot exist.
X~かねる: It too is used with volitional verbs of decision but also agreement, and it is also used in a lot of other expressions given its sense of reluctance. Ex. 理解する、決める, 耐える, 等.
40. すぐには決めかねます。
I can't decide immediately.
41.
激痛
に
耐
えかねて
呻
く。
To not be able to bear the great pain and moan.
42. 先週、夫の
虐待
に耐えかねて、花子は実家に帰った。
Last week, unable to stand her husband’s abuse, Hanako returned to her parent’s house.
In this lesson, we will learn about two related expressions used when you’re encountered with unexpected situations.
In the expression “A + わりに(は)+ B,” B is an unexpected outcome/judgment of A. The addition or omission of は is based on how much emphasis you wish to place on the contrast to one’s preconception.
[Formation]
This expression is used with nouns, adjectives, adjectival nouns, and verbs. This includes past tense and negative forms of said parts of speech that can conjugate.
Noun | Noun + {の・である}わりに(は) |
Adjectives | Adj. + わりに(は) |
Adjectival Nouns | Adj. Noun + わりに(は) |
Verbs | Plain Form + わりに(は) |
Grammar Note: The use of である instead of の with nouns is only seen in old-fashioned speech largely limited to the written language.
[Usage]
This pattern is frequently used in both positive and negative connotations, but it is best used with generalizations rather than with exact details. However, it is grammatical so long as the phrase it attaches to does not involve individual things/people.
Below are example sentences with the various formation patterns from the table above.
1. カルビは、
安
いわりには
美味
しい。
Considering how cheap it is, galbi is delicious.
Word Note: Galbi is a loanword from Korean meaning 肋骨 (rib). In context of cooking, it refers to meat around the rib, which if in a non-Korean cuisine context is called ばら 肉 .
2.
勉強
しなかったわりには、よくできたなあ。
Considering how you didn’t study, you did pretty well.
3.
私
は、
太
ってるわりにはあんまり
食
べません。
Considering how much I weigh, I hardly eat.
4.
井
ノ
川
さんは、
歳
のわりにはとても
若
く
見
えますね。
Considering his age, Mr. Inokawa sure looks young, huh.
5. うちの
彼氏
なんですが、
何回
も
結婚
したくないと
言
っているわりには、
他愛無
い
話
の
中
で、いつも
子供
や
結婚式
の
話
をしたりします。
Considering how many times my boyfriend says he doesn’t want to get married, he always talks about kids and having a wedding in silly talk.
6.
料金
が
安
かったわりには
完璧
でしたよ。
Considering how cheap the fee/rate was, it was perfect.
7.
10
年以上中国語
を
勉強
したわりには、あまり
上手
になってない
気
がします。
Considering how I’ve studied Chinese for over ten years, I feel like I haven’t become all that good at it.
8.
世評
が
高
かったわりには、すごくつまらなすぎて
2
度
と
観
たくもない。
Considering how high its review was, it was so boring I don’t even want to watch it again.
9.
個人的
には
比較的外食
の
回数
が
多
いわりには、
体重
が
増
えてない。
Considering how relatively frequent my eating out personally is, my weight isn’t going up.
10. この
子
、
小型犬
のわりには、落ち
着
いているほうです。
Considering how it’s a small-sized dog, it’s laid-back.
11. よく
食
べるわりにあまり
太
ってない。
I'm not that fat considering how often I eat.
12.
農業
は、
大変
なわりにあまり
儲
からない。
Agriculture doesn’t profit much considering how tough it is.
13. お
金
が
無
いわりに、よく
買
い
物
するね。
You sure shop often considering how you don’t have money.
14. ここは、
知名度
のわりにあまり
観光地化
されていない。
This place hasn’t really become a tourist area considering its name recognition.
15.
橘
さんは、
四国出身
のわりに、あんまり
訛
りを
感
じませんね。
Mr. Tachibana doesn’t have much of an accident considering he’s from Shikoku, no?
16.
簡単
なわりに美味しかったね。
That was delicious considering how easy it was, no?
17.
免税店
のわりに、
為替
レートがいいよね。
The exchange rate is good considering it’s a duty-free shop, no?
The Noun 割(り)
わり comes from the noun 割(り). This literally means “ratio/percentage.” It can also mean 10% and other specialized meanings.
18.
3
割引
きです。
It’s 30% off.
19. もっと
割
りのいい
仕事
をしてほしい。
I’d like you to do a more lucrative job.
20. おおむね
1
週間
に
1
回
の
割
りで
通院
しています。
I’m generally commuting to the hospital once a week.
21.
私
は
焼酎
をお
湯割
りで
飲
んでいます。
I drink shochu mixed with hot water.
Word Note: Shochu is a Japanese alcoholic beverage distilled from rice, barley, sweet potatoes, buckwheat, or brown sugar.
22. 本割りとは
大相撲
おおずもうで
発表
された
取組表
とりくみひょうによって
行
われる
正規
の
取組
である。
”Honwari" are official matches in professional sumo wrestling held according to the matches table.
割 (り){に・と}
As an adverb, 割(り)に, alternatively seen as 割(り)と, is used to mean “relatively/comparatively.”
23.
私
は
花粉症
です。
症状
は
割
りと
重
い
方
だと
思
います。
I have allergies. My symptoms are relatively severe.
24.
仕事
は
大分慣
れたので、
割
と
楽
になってきました。
I’ve gotten used to my job a lot, so it’s become relatively comfortable.
25.
作
って
売
るだけなら、
割
と
簡単
ですよ。
If you’re just making and selling it, then it’s relatively easy.
26.
聖書学者
といわれる
人
は、
割
に
古
い
家柄
の
人
が
多
いようです。
It seems that a lot of people who are called Bible scholars are of relatively old pedigree.
わりにゃ(あ)
In very casual speech, わりには may be contracted to わりにゃ(あ).
27.
上品
そうな
顔
のわりにゃ(あ)、やる
事
がえげつないなあ。
Considering how elegant (her) face is, what she does is pretty vulgar.
28.
店全体
のスペースのわりにゃ(あ)、
席
が
少
ない
気
がします。
It feels like there are few seats considering the store’s space as a whole.
29.
期待
したわりにゃ(あ)、
大
したことでもなかったな。
It really wasn’t all that much considering how much I was expecting it to be.
30. あいつはアホなわりにゃ(あ)、よく
能書
き
垂
れるよな。
That guy sure likes to boast considering he’s an idiot.
[Formation]
This pattern cannot be used with adjectives or adjectival nouns. This is due to the fact that adjectives/adjectival nouns by nature don’t have to refer to exact standards. Even when it's used with verbs, the situation it follows is always well-defined.
Nouns | Noun + にしては |
Verbs | Plain Form + にしては |
Translation Note: This pattern is usually translated as “for…” or “considering…”
[Usage]
With concrete concepts, especially those concerning quality, degree, age, price, etc., にしては is interchangeable with わりに(は). However, one defining difference is that にしては can be used when the situation is hypothetical. However, whether the situation is concrete or hypothetical, the standard of comparison needs to be made clear. For instance, “considering…age” can be translated as 年齢 のわりに(は), but you can only use にしては if you replace 年齢 with something more specific like 60 歳 (sixty years old).
As such, にしては isn’t used with generalizations. The situation itself may be concrete or hypothetical in nature, but there is a standard of some sort that must be established in order for it to be grammatical. It’s also important to note that the phrase before it can be an individual person/thing, which is not the case with わりに(は).
Examples
31. マックのハンバーガーの
値段
にしては
割
に
合
ってるお
肉
だと
思
いますが、
違
うんでしょうか。
For the price of a McDonald’s hamburger, the meat is considerably fitting, am I wrong?
32. この
辺
りの
鰻屋
にしては
割
とうまいと
思
います。
For an eel restaurant in this area, I think it’s relatively good.
33.
報酬
にしては
割
に
合
わない。
For a reward, it’s not used much.
34.
夏
にしては、よく
雨
が
降
りましたね。
It rained a lot for summer, huh.
35.
健太君
は
小学生
にしてはよく
漢字
を
知
ってるね。
Kentaro sure knows Kanji well for an elementary school student, no?
36.
泉
さんって、
70
歳
にしては
若
く
見
えますね。
Mr. Izumi sure looks young for 70, doesn’t he?
37.
外国人
にしては
日本語
が
上手
すぎてまるで
日本人
のようですね。
Considering he’s a foreigner, (his) Japanese is so good it’s as if he’s Japanese, no?
38.
中国
にしては
高価格
にもかかわらず、ほとんどの
読者
が
定期購読
をしている。
Considering it’s China, despite the high price, most readers are subscribers.
39.
中古品
にしては
保存状態
が
良
いですね。
Its condition is good for a secondhand good, no?
40. アライグマにしては
素早
い!
It’s fast for a raccoon!
41. アイスクリームにしては、
全然甘
くないよ。
This isn’t sweet at all for ice cream.
42. 「あんたが
作
ったにしては、
美味
しいよ。」「え、どういうこと?
酷
い
言
い
方
だなあ。」
“It’s delicious considering you made it.” “Huh, what? What an awful thing to say.”
43.
掃除
したにしては、
部屋
がまだまだ
汚
いなあ。
The room is still dirty considering you cleaned it.
44.
外国人
にしてはいけないことというと、
外国人
の
訛
りを
真似
すること、
外国人
が
一緒
にいるのに
日本人
とばかり話したりすることなどが
思
い
付
きます。
When talking about things that you mustn’t do to foreigners, mimicking a foreigners accident and only speaking to people who are Japanese when you’re with a foreigner come to mind.
45.
僕
にしてはスペイン
語
の
勉強頑張
ってますよ。
Considering how I am, I’m doing my best in my Spanish studies.
46. ちょっと
春
にしては
暑
いんじゃないですか。
Isn’t it a little hot for spring?
47.
千円
にしては
質
がいいですよ。
For a thousand yen, the quality is good.
48. ダイエットしてるにしては、よく
食
べるね。
You sure eat a lot considering you’re on a diet.
49. 「英検はうまくいった?」「んん、どうだろう。4級にしては問題が難しかったよ。」
“Did you do okay on the English proficiency test?” “Mm, I’m not sure. The problems were pretty difficult for Level 4.”
50.
初
めてにしては
上手
だな。
You’re pretty good for it being your first time.
にしちゃ
In casual contexts, にしては can be contracted to にしちゃ.
51.
2
年
しか
勉強
してないにしちゃ、
英語
うまいっすな。
Considering you’ve only studied for two years, your English is pretty good.
52. あの
値段
にしちゃ
美味
しかったしね。
It was also delicious for that price.
53.
君
にしちゃ、
珍
しいな。
That’s pretty rare for you.
54.
人生
を
無駄
にしちゃいけないよ。
You mustn’t waste your life.
Grammar Note: Do not confuse this にしちゃ with the にしちゃ seen as a contraction in the phrase にしてはいけない (mustn’t do…)
にして = であって
In semi-archaic speech, にして can be seen used with the meaning of であって.
55.
荘厳
にして
華麗
な
逸品
です。
It is a sublime, gorgeous article of rare beauty.
In this lesson, we will begin coverage on phrases that all translate as “despite” and “regardless.” However, they each have their own nuances and restrictions. They are testaments to synonyms not being the same. Pay close attention to the kinds of words that these phrases are used with. This doesn’t simply mean noticing that they’re used with nouns, particles, etc. but more so what kinds of nouns, what sort of particles, etc. are they used with. Semantic categorization of the things that come before these phrases ultimately determine the grammaticality of the sentences they’re found in.
The phrase にもかかわらず derives from the verb 関(わ)る・拘(わ)る. The first spelling indicates as a meaning of “to be concerned with” and the second spelling indicates as a meaning of “to be held back by…” Inherently, the latter spelling denotes a negative connotation. When used in the form, にもかかわらず, we get an expression that means “although/despite X…” This can be used to indicate that an action/state Y is done/happens despite “X.” Or, the speaker is not constrained by “X” and Y, thus, can take place. Let’s look at a few examples.
Particle Note: The use of the particle も adds an emphatic tone that may express surprise, frustration, criticism, unpredictability, and various other emotions depending on the context.
1.
妊娠
しているにもかかわらず、
検査結果
が
陰性
となることがあります。
There are times when has a negative test result despite being pregnant.
In this example, the issue at hand is that pregnancy tests are not always accurate. Even when a woman gets a negative test result, she may still be pregnant. Therefore, despite “X” being the case, in which case the respected result is that the woman receives a positive reading, “Y” happens: she gets a negative reading.
As far as spelling is concerned, にもかかわらず is almost always not written in 漢字. If, however, it were in this situation 拘わらず would not be the appropriate spelling as it isn’t the case that situation Y involves a subject purposefully defying a restraining “X” circumstance. Thus, 関わる would be the more sensible spelling; however, in reality, this spelling is not used much in everyday writing. This is because かかわらず, in particular, was not given an authorized 漢字 spelling during language reform when the 常用漢字 list was made. Although this list’s influence is diminishing, its effects are still felt in the typical spelling of many phrases such as this one.
2.
雨
が
降
っているにもかかわらず、
皇居前
にはたくさんの
人々
が
集
まりました。
Many people gathered in front of the Imperial Palace despite it raining.
In this example, にもかかわらず demonstrates that “despite” the rain not stopping, in other words, despite situation X not changing, situation Y—people gathering in front of the Imperial Palace—remained constant. As far as we can glance from this single sentence, the people gathered didn’t just disperse because of the rain. Both situations, X and Y, didn’t change yet. This is the relationship that にもかかわらず verbalizes. It also demonstrates that the people gathered don’t view the rain as an issue to be grappled with or a something that’s even in consideration for them to appear at the Imperial Palace. Whatever is happening there is what’s truly important to these people.
3.
弟
は
深夜
にもかかわらず、ゲームに
夢中
です。
My little brother is engrossed in his games regardless if it’s late at night.
Another means of interpreting にもかかわらず is that situation Y is contrary to what one would otherwise anticipate. The ‘natural prediction’ is situation Z, which isn’t the case. In lieu of Ex. 3, situation X would be the fact that it is late at night. Situation Y is the speaker’s little brother being engrossed in a game. Situation Z is the little brother sleeping instead, like a presumably younger child should be doing at that time of night. The observation here is that “despite X (being late in the night) otherwise leading to Z (sleeping at night like a young child should), Y (being engrossed in a game) happens instead.”
4.
結構有名
なのにもかかわらず、まだ
流行
っていないのが
不思議
なくらいです。
It’s odd that it still hasn’t become popular despite being quite famous.
Most instances of にもかかわらず involve an active agent in situation Y. Even when one isn’t explicitly obvious, one is always implied. For instance, in Ex. 4, it takes people to determine the popularity of something. Similarly, in Ex. 5, it takes people to buy an expensive item for it be a hot seller.
5.
結構値段
が
高
いにもかかわらず、
大変
なヒット
商品
になりました。
It’s become an incredible hot seller despite it being quite expensive.
Although にもかかわらず isn't used as much in the spoken language as it is in the written language, it is still easily incorporated into everyday conversation.
6.
電車
に
乗
っててちゃんと
起
きてるにもかかわらず
降
りる
駅
を
通
り
過
ぎてしまうことしょっちゅうですよ。
I frequently pass the station I get off at when I’m riding the train regardless if I’m properly awake.
にもかかわらず doesn’t need to always fall a dependent clause. “X” can simply be それ. In fact, especially in the written language, you may see a sentence start off with にもかかわらず, in which situation X will have been expressed immediately before the sentence.
7.
彼
には
欠点
が
多
いが、それにもかかわらず、
彼
と
恋
に
落
ちてしまった。
He has a lot of faults, but regardless of them, I ended up falling in love with him.
8. こんな
霧
にもかかわらずライトもつけずに
走
ってる
車
いるなんてちょっと
信
じられない。
It’s a little hard to believe that there are cars racing by without their lights on regardless of this kind of fog.
9.
昨日
は
悪天候
にもかかわらずご
来店
ありがとうございました。
Thank you for visiting our store yesterday despite the bad weather.
10. サービス
産業
で
人手
が
不足
しているにもかかわらず、
賃金
の
増加
は
見
られていない。
There are no wage increases being seen despite labor shortages in the service industry.
11.
自分
で
言
ったにもかかわらず、
覚
えてないなんて、
馬鹿
かよ。
How stupid can you be, not remembering despite the fact that you were the one who said it?
12. ここは
禁煙
なのにもかかわらず
平気
で
煙草
を
吸
っている
人
が
多
い。
There are many people who smoke without batting an eyelid here despite it being nonsmoking.
13. ペット
禁止
なのにもかかわらず、お
隣
が
猫
を
数匹飼
ってて、しかも
家
の
中
を
綺麗
にしてないので、
暖
かくなると、ノミが
大量
に
発生
してしまうんです。
Despite pets being banned, my neighbor(s) have several cats, and since (he/she/they) don’t keep the house clean, whenever it gets warm, there is a major flee outbreak.
Spelling Note: ノミ may seldom be spelled as 蚤.
14.
週末
にもかかわらず、
迅速
かつ
丁寧
なお
返事
をありがとうございました。
Thank you for the quick and polite response despite it being the weekend.
Grammatically, かかわらず is first and foremost derived from the verb かかわる combined with the negative auxiliary verb ず. In older forms of Japanese, ず stood for ない. At the end of sentences, it would take the form ず. As a participle, it would take the form ぬ. In the sense of ないで, it would take the form ず(に). In Modern Japanese, it survives in many set phrases, proverbs, and the written language, especially in literature. It largely survives, though, in grammar points such as this where it is very much still alive.
One thing that must be understood, however, is that not all phrases that have ず possess the same degree of grammatical capability. For instance, you can't end a sentence with かかわらず. This is because the phrase has been grammaticalized to only appear mid-sentence in both にもかかわらず and にかかわらず (discussed below).
にもかかわらず, when written as に関わらず, shows how its literal meaning is to indicate that “X” is not connected to the situation at hand. Therefore, “irrespective of X, Y still stands.” This expression is rather formal and stiff. There is a definitive tone that clearly states that “X” has nothing to do with the situation and that “Y” is the situation at hand.
This expression is frequently used after patterns such as など, かどうか, あるなし, words that indicate multiple values or elements such age, race, etc. as well as words that are composed of antonyms such as 好き嫌い (likes and dislikes) or 有無 (existence or nonexistence/presence or absence). It's even possible for it to be seen after the doubling of adjectives and verbs without particle intervention (Exs. いい悪いにかかわらず・するしないにかかわらず, etc.).
Due to the lack of the particle も, にかかわらず is far more objective and formal.
15.
電車
の
中
で、
年齢
にかかわらず、モンストをやってる
人
って
見
たことありますか。
Do you see people on the train irrespective of age playing Monster Strike?
16.
性別
や
年齢
、
性的嗜好
などにかかわらず、
自分
らしく
暮
らすことができる
社会
を
目指
しましょう。
Let us aim for a society where people can live as themselves irrespective of gender, age, sexual orientation, etc.
17. この
企業
は、
国籍
にかかわらず、
人材
を
採用
する
意向
を
示
している。
This company shows intention to recruit human resources irrespective of nationality.
18. ここは、
学歴
にかかわらず
高卒
、
大学院卒者
も、
実質的
に
同
じ
内容
の
仕事
でキャリアを
始
めるホワイトカラー職場だ。
This place is a white-collar workplace to start a career where, irrespective of education, high school graduates as well as graduate school graduates can start a job with effectively the same content.
19.
親
が
反対
かどうかにかかわらず、
僕
は
必
ず
彼
と
結婚
する!
Regardless if my parents are against it, I will marry my boyfriend!
20.
経験
のあるなしにかかわらず、
誰
でも
参加
することができます。
Anyone can participate irrespective of whether or not one has experience.
21. アメリカでも、
繊細
で
弱
い
男性
は、
性的嗜好
にかかわらず、
同性愛者
だとのレッテルを
貼
られてしまうことがよくあるのです。
Even in America, slender, weak men are often labeled as homosexuals irrespective of their sexual orientation.
22.
我々人間
は、
好
き
嫌
いにかかわらず
目立
つものを
優先的
に
脳
で
認識
してしまいます。
We as humans preferentially recognize things that stand out in the brain irrespective of our likes and dislikes.
23.
宿泊
の
有無
にかかわらず、
楽
しめます。
You can have a good time regardless whether or not you lodge.
24.
症状
の
有無
にかかわらず、
虫除
け
剤
を
使用
するなど
蚊
に
刺
されない
対策
を
少
なくとも
2
週間
は
継続
して
行
ってください。
Irrespective of the presence or absence of symptoms, please continue undergoing preventive measures from getting bitten by mosquitoes such as using bug spray for at least two weeks.
25.
気温
にかかわらず
土中温度
はほぼ
一定
です。
The temperature in the ground is constant irrespective of air temperature.
26.
猛暑
にかかわらず、エアコンの
除湿機能
とシーリングファンで
十分
でした。
The dehumidifier function of the air-conditioner and the ceiling fan were sufficient irrespective of the fierce heat.
27.
古新
や
古雑誌
などございましたら、
多少
にかかわらずお
声
をおかけください。
If you have any old newspapers or old magazines, please give a shout regardless of the quantity.
28. この
路線
バスの
料金
は、
乗
った
距離
にかかわらず、
一律
5
ドルです。
This bus line fare is a flat rate of five dollars regardless of the distance one rides.
29.
症状
にかかわらず
避
けたい
食品添加物
について
一番下
に
記載
してあります。
Food additives that you want to avoid regardless of symptoms are detailed at the very bottom.
30.
親
の
経済状況
にかかわらず、
子供
の
生活
や
教育機会
が
保障
される
必要
がある。
The livelihood and chance of education for children needs to be assured regardless of the economic state of the parents.
を問わず is always used with a noun that has multiple values, elements, etc. attributed to it. For instance, 四季 means “the four seasons,” and as is obvious from the word itself, there are four individual elements it refers to: spring, summer, fall, and winter. The purpose of を問わず is to demonstrate that the different elements/values at hand are not being considered and/or made into issues. In other words, situation Y is not limited to situation (restraint) X.
This pattern is not used with other grammatical items like にかかわらず is. In other words, you won’t see it with など, doubling of adjectives like in 高い安いにかかわらず, or the doubling of verbs like in するしないにかかわらず. Some speakers will use it with かどうか, but the noun before かどうか must be one that implies two or more elements for it to be grammatically passible.
31. この
公園
は
四季
を
問
わず、
綺麗
な
花
を
咲
かせ、
大勢
の
観光客
を
楽
しませてくれます。
This park, regardless of the seasons, blooms beautiful flowers and delights a great number of tourists.
32. そういった政治決断は、党派を問わず米国ではマイナスとなります。
Such a political decision regardless of partisanship is a negative in America.
33.
男女
を
問
わず、
家事
や
育児
を
平等
に
分担
すべきだ。
Housework and child-rearing ought to be equally shared regardless of sex.
34.
現代
の
若者
は、
性別
を
問
わず
自分
で
調理
できることが
大切
だと
思
う。
I think it is important that modern young people are able to prepare food by themselves regardless of gender.
35.
老若男女
を
問
わずに
楽
しめる
海外旅行先
といったらカナダのバンクーバーでしょう。
Speaking of an overseas destination where anyone regardless of age or sex can have fun at, that’d definitely be Vancouver in Canada.
36.
生死
を
問
わず、
湖
にコイを
遺棄
してはならない。
Whether dead or alive, you must not dispose of coy fish in the lake.
Spelling Note: コイ may also be spelled as 鯉.
37.
鉱物油
や
動植物油
の
種類
を
問
わず、
吸収力
に
優
れています。
Regardless of the kind of mineral oil or animal/vegetable oil, its absorption power is superior.
38. ゲシュタルト
崩壊
は、
言語
を
問
わず
起
こる
心理的
な
現象
である。
Gestaltzerfall is a psychological phenomenon that occurs regardless of language.
39.
次第
に
人種
を
問
わず
国外
でも
使用
されるようになってきました。
It has gradually become used outside the country irrespective of race.
40.
海外
では
途上国
、
先進国
を
問
わず
入院期間
が
短
いのが
特徴
だ。
Short hospitalization time is a characteristic of overseas nations regardless of whether it is a developed or developing country.
41.
経験
の
有無
は
問
わず、
誰
でも
応募
できます。
Anyone can apply irrespective of having or lacking experience.
42.
場所
を
問
わずに
会議
ができる。
You can have a meeting regardless of your location.
43.
政府軍
は、
軍人
・
難民
を
問
わず
残虐行為
、
虐殺
を
行
っている。
The government forces are committing atrocities and slaughters of people irrespective of whether they were militants or refugees.
44.
東京文京区
は
職員採用
に
国籍
を
問
わない。
Bunkyo Ward of Tokyo does not inquire about nationality in personnel recruiting.
45.
金額
は
問
いません。
Money is no object.
によらず comes from the verb 依る in conjunction with the auxiliary verb ず. It is inherently the negative form of によって, which is used most often to show the agent of a sentence—“by” which/whom something is done, or to show means. As によらず, it may either show that something is “not by…” or that “X” isn't concerned with the situation at hand. Ultimately, its main purpose is to reject dependency. In other words, the Y circumstance is not dependent on an X circumstance.
Nouns that によらず is most likely to follow include those that deal with kind, standards, hope, efforts, goals, etc.
1.
人間
の
救
いは、
人間
の
資質
や
性格
、
努力
、
経験
などにはよらず、
神様
の
愛
と
福音
を
信
じることによって、
神
の
救
いに
至
ることが出来るというものです。
Man’s salvation does not come by a person’s endowments, nature, efforts, or experiences, but by believing in God’s love and His Gospel, one may be able to attain God’s saving grace.
Sentence Note: によらず is very common with religious expressions. This is partly because many religious texts are translated works; however, they do provide perfect context for this expression.
2.
見
かけによらず
食
べるんですね。
You sure eat a lot despite your appearance, huh.
3.
仕事
の
内容
によらず、
給料
は
一定
している。
Salaries are fixed regardless of the substance of one’s work.
4.
武力
によらず、
権力
によらず、ただ
我
が
霊
によって、
立
ちはだかる
山
は
平地
となる。
Neither by force of arms nor by authority but by my spirit alone, this mountain which looms forth shall become flat land.
5.
見
えるところによらず、
信仰
によって
歩
む。
I walk not by where I can see but by faith.
6.
北極星
は
季節
や
時間
によらず、いつも
同
じ
真北
の
方角
に
見
えます。
Polaris is always seen in the same due north direction regardless of time or season.
7.
許可
によらず
農地等
が
取得
できる
場合
があります。
There are circumstances in which one can obtain agriculture land and such irrespective of license.
8.
生体
サンプルによらず
血液
を
使
ってリアルタイムでガンの
検査
が
出来
るようになりました。
It has become possible to do cancer screening in real time by using blood and not by using a biological sample.
Spelling Note: ガン may also be spelled as 癌.
9.
法律
によらず
顔認証装置
を
使用
することは
明
らかに
違法
なのです。
The use of face recognition apparatuses irrespective of the law is clearly unlawful.
10.
何人
も、
法
の
適正
な
手続
きによらずに、
生命
、
自由
、または
財産
を
奪
われることはない。
All people will never be robbed of one’s life, freedom, or property without due process of the law.
Typically, whenever the noun in question is an interrogative phrase such as 誰, 何, 何事, etc. it can be interpreted as meaning “regardless of/no matter…”
11.
何事
によらず、いつでも
相談
してください。
Regardless of whatever it is, please consult with me at any time.
12.
弟
は
何
によらず
臆病
なところがとても
心配
です。
I am very worried about how my little brother is timid regardless of what it is.
によらず can be seen as によらない at the end of a sentence. This grammatical situation is very indicative of the written language. The grammatical pattern itself is already quite stiff and formal. This was also the case with にかかわらない, but because that pattern is not used at the end of a sentence, によらない makes up for this.
13.
参加
の
可否
は
年齢
によらない。
Consideration of participation is irrespective of age.
There are quite a few common set phrases that utilize the meaning of “irrespective of…” For instance, the translation of “You can't judge a book by its cover” uses this meaning of によらず. These phrases utilize this pattern at the end of the sentence.
14.
人
は
見
た
目
によらず。
You can't judge a book by its cover/a man can't be judged by his appearance.
15.
吉凶
は
人
によりて
日
によらず。
Fortune comes by one’s action, not by the day.
Sentence Note: Ex. 15 shows how the meanings of “by” and indicating relation can blend together and are one of the same thing. Ex. 15 shows that there is always agency involved with によらず, or more specifically, the lack thereof.
(の)いかん can be inserted before either にかかわらず, を問わず, によらず with hardly any change in meaning these patterns. いかん, written as 如何 in 漢字, means “circumstance” as in “how” situation X is. Interestingly enough, いかん can directly attach to nouns, making the particle の completely optional.
~(の)いかんにかかわらず
With にもかかわらず, (の)いかん typically follows words that involve multiple parts or selections. (の)いかん can only be added to nouns. These nouns, naturally, deal with circumstance. The nouns that are best with にかかわらず can be standalone nouns that refer to a single entity (ex. 契約 = Contract). It's also common with nouns created by pairing two things together like 有無 (existence or nonexistence). It is also great with nouns with indeterminate amount of outcomes such as 結果 (results) and 内容 (content). It isn’t, however, used with lists of three or more nouns.
16.
採否
(の)いかんにかかわらず、
結果
は
郵便
でお
知
らせ
致
します。
We will notify you of the results via mail whether you are recruited or not.
17.
法律内容
(の)いかんにかかわらず、
売春
は
種々
の
接客業
と
結
び
付
いて
多様
な
形態
を
取
りつつ
存在
している。
Regardless of the legal circumstances, prostitution is connected to various service trades and exists in diverse forms.
18.
検査
の
結果
いかんにかかわらず、
早急
にご
報告差
し
上
げます。
Regardless of the examination results, we will report them to you immediately.
19.
国籍
(の)いかんにかかわらず、
優秀
な
人材
を
求
めております。
We are seeking excellent talented people irrespective of nationality.
20.
調査
の
結果
いかんにかかわらず、ご
連絡
ください。
Regardless of the results of the investigation, please contact me/us.
21. 履歴書等の応募書類は、結果いかんにかかわらず、ご返却いたしませんので、ご了承ください。
We do not return application documents such as one’s resume regardless of one’s results, so please understand this.
22.
検査
の
結果
いかんにかかわらず、インフルエンザのような
症状
があれば、
周囲
の
人
にうつす
可能性
があります。
Regardless of the results of your examination, if you have symptoms like that of the flu, there is the possibility that you may spread (the illness) to those around you.
23. 乳牛及び肉用牛農家の全てに立入検査を実施し、疑いのある症状を発見した場合は、検査を行うとともに検査の結果いかんにかかわらず、全て焼却処分され、食肉や肉骨粉の形で流通することがないようにします。
Site inspections of the entirety of farmhouses, both milk cows and beef cattle, are to be implemented; in the case that it is suspected that symptoms have been detected, all (cows) are to be incinerated along with examination regardless of the examination’s results, and efforts will be made to make sure that none of it is circulated in the form of meat and/or meat-and-bone meal.
24.
国民投票
の
結果
いかんにかかわらず、
財政赤字
と
成長停滞
という
経済問題
は
変
わらない。
Regardless of the results of a national referendum, the economic problems involving the budget deficit and slowdown in economic growth won’t change.
~(の)いかんを問わず
を問わず itself is used most with nouns that refer to two or more elements. Unlike with にかかわらず, を問わず can be used with three or more nouns. This can be seen in Ex 25.
25.
学歴
・
年齢
・
性別
・
過去
の
実績
のいかんを
問
わず、
初任給
は
一律
です。
Regardless of one’s education, age, sex, or past accomplishments, initial salary is at a flat rate.
26.
国籍
のいかんを
問
わず、どなたでも
参加
できます。
Anyone can participate regardless of nationality.
27.
理由
のいかんを
問
わず、
無断欠席
は
許
されません。
Whatever the reason, truancy is impermissible.
28.
事業所
が
使用材料
のいかんを
問
わず
分類
される。
Enterprises are categorized irrespective of materials used.
29.
損害発生
の
原因
いかんを
問
わず、
責任
を
一切負
わない。
Regardless of the cause of the breakage, we are not responsible whatsoever.
30.
国家
に
必要
な
事業
は
利益
のいかんを
問
わず、
実際
に
利益
を
上
げるようにす(る)べきだ。
We ought to make sure to actually increase the profits of industries that are necessary for the nation regardless of their (current) profit.
31.
事実
いかんを
問
わず
名誉毀損
で
訴
えられる。
To be sued for libel irrespective of the facts.
32.
会員
は、
理由
のいかんを
問
わず、
本規定
に
基
づく
一切
の
権利及
び
義務
について、これを
第三者
に
譲渡
し、
担保
の
用
に
供
することはできません。
A member transfers all rights and obligations founded in these provisions to the third-party beneficiary and cannot use them as collateral for whatever reason.
~(の)いかんによらず
によらず’s main function is to deny dependence. The words that are associated with things that people depend on, whether it be means by which they do things or whether it be things that people rely on, the purpose of によらず is to state that situation Y is not dependent on them. によらず is actually more commonly used with (の)いかん than it is without it. The use of いかん helps facilitate rejecting that a Y circumstance is dependent on an X circumstance.
33.
理由
のいかんによらず、
殺害
は
許
されないことである。
Murder is not permissible for any reason whatsoever.
34.
理由
のいかんによらず、
試験開始後
の
入室
は
認
めません。
Entry once the exam has begun will not be approved for any reason whatsoever.
35.
理由
のいかんによらず、
10
分以上遅刻
した
場合
は
試験
を
受
けられません。
You will not be able to take the exam in the event you are late ten minutes or longer whatever the reason may be.
36.
理由
のいかんによらず、
欠勤
は
欠勤
であります。
An absence from work is an absence whatever the reason.
37. ジュバ
市
を
除
く
南
スーダンへの
渡航
は、
目的
のいかんによらず
延期
して
下
さい。
Please postpone voyage to South Sudan, excluding the city of Juba, whatever your objective may be.
38.
一旦受理
した
書類
はいかんによらず
返還
いたしません。
We will not return documentation that has been accepted whatever the reason may be.
39.
理由
のいかんによらず、
良品
の
返品
はお
受
け
取
りできません。
We cannot accept the return of non-defective products whatever the reason may be.
40.
出席欠席
のいかんによらず、
必
ずメールで
返事
をするようお
願
い
致
します。
Whether you attend or are absent, we ask that you please reply via e-mail regardless.
This lesson revolves around expressions regarding "disregard" in the sense of not heeding adversity, risk, danger, or any negative influences and/or consequences to the speaker.
をものともせず(に) follows a noun for which the subject at hand faces some adversity to state that the subject doesn’t fear or even put to mind that adversity in his or her actions. If it were to be paraphrased in Japanese, it would equate to ~を全く恐れないで・~を気にもとめないで.
1.
今年
80
歳
になる
森田
さんは、
足腰
の
痛
みをものともせず、
若
い
人
の
指導
に
励
んでいる。
Mr. Morita, who turns eighty years old this year, strives to instruct young people despite his leg and loin pain.
2.
両親
の
猛反対
をものともせず、
彼女
は
外国人
の
男性
と
結婚
した。
She married a male foreigner in the face of fierce opposition from her parents.
3.
祖母
は
強
かった。
癌
の
宣告
をものともせず、
最期
まで
明
るく
振舞
った。
My grandmother was strong. In the face of a cancer sentence, she was cheerful to the end.
4. この
会社
は
不況
をものともせずに、
順調
に
売
り
上
げを
伸
ばしている。
This company is steadily increasing sales in the face of a recession.
5.
馬車
は、
坂道
をものともせず
登
って
城門
の
前
で
一旦止
まった。
The carriage climbed up the hill road as if it were nothing and stopped for a moment in front of the castle gate.
6.
子供
たちは
緊張
をものともせず
歌
いきりました。
The children sang in full despite nervousness.
7.
近所
の
外猫
たちは
相
(も)
変
わらず、
大雪
をものともせずに
餌
を
貰
いに
来
ている。
The outdoor cats of the neighborhood have come for food despite the heavy snow as usual.
8. その
少年
は、
身体
の
障害
をものともせずに、
人生
に
立
ち
向
かった。
The young lad fought against life despite his physical handicap.
9.
兵士
は、
竜
の
吐
く
炎
をものともせず、
攻撃
を
仕掛
けていた。
The soldier was launching attacks in face of the dragon spewing fire.
10.
大荒
れの
海
をものともせずに
航海
を
続
けた。
(We) continued the voyage despite the stormy sea.
11. その
企業
は
逆境
をものともせずに、
好業績
を
叩
き
出
している。
That company is hammering out good results despite adversity.
12. その
兵士
たちは
群
がる
敵軍
をものともせず、
次々
と
戦艦
を
撃破
していった。
Those soldiers went on crushing enemy vessels one after another despite the swarming enemy forces.
13.
刑事
たちは、
危険
をものともせず、
容疑者
の
捜索
を
続
けた。
The detectives continued searching for the suspect despite the danger.
14.
彼
は
難病
をものともせず、
自分
の
好
きなことに打ち
込
んでいる。
He devoted to what he himself likes today despite his incurable illness.
15.
住民
は、
竜巻
の
被害
をものともせず、
逞
しく
生
きている。
The inhabitants live on robustly despite the damage from the tornado.
The pattern {を・も}顧みず(に) indicates that the subject does something without any heed to risk and/or danger. The use of the particle も over を is simply for emphatic purposes.
16.
自分
の
命
(を
失
うこと)も
顧
みず、
戦場
へ
向
かった。
(He) headed for the battlefield without regard to losing his own life.
17.
彼
は
危険
を
顧
みず、
見事
に
職務
を
遂行
した。
He brilliantly executed his duties heedless of danger.
18.
彼女
は
医者
の
忠告
を
顧
みず、
煙草
を
吹
かし
続
けた。
She continued smoking heedless of her doctor’s advice.
19.
今後
の
生活
を
顧
みず、
新井
は
会社
を
辞
めた。
Arai quit the company heedless of his life afterward.
20.
身
の
安全
も
顧
みず
報道
の
自由
を
訴
える
世界各地
の
新聞記者
たちを
尊敬
しています。
I respect newspaper journalists all around the world who advocate for freedom of the press heedless of one’s safety.
21.
本学
の
学生
が、
授業
を
受
ける
他
の
学生
やそこで
働
く
教職員
の
迷惑
も
顧
みず、
到底一般社会
では
許
されない
犯罪行為
に
関与
したことは、
誠
に
遺憾
です。
We sincerely suggest that a student at our school was involved in a criminal act that is not possibly permissible in the general public, heedless of the trouble it would cause to other students who take courses or the teaching staff members who work on the campus.
22. 彼は
重傷
の
身
も
顧
みず、
船客
の
世話
をしていたそうだ。
It sounds that he was taking care of the passengers heedless of his own severe injuries.
23.
御主人
はわたしがいるので
家
の
中
の
何
をも
顧
みず、その
持
ち
物
をみなわたしの
手
に
委
ねられました。
My master does not concern himself with anything in the house; everything he owns he has entrusted to my care.
24.
彼
は
自分
の
非力
も
顧
みず、
会長
という
重責
を
引
き
受
けた。
Heedless of his own incompetence, he took over the heavy responsibility of chairman.
25.
自
らの
価値低下
を
顧
みぬ
行為
も、
実質的
な
成果
なし。
Despite Disregarding Lowering His Own Value, No Substantial Results Gained.
26. カメラマンは
自
らの
命
も
顧
みず
激
しい
戦場
に
立
ち
向
かった。
The cameraman faced the fierce battlefield without regard to his own life.
27.
失礼
を
顧
みずにこのようにお
願
いしている
次第
でございます。
I am taking the liberty of asking you as such.
28.
仕事
で
家庭
を
顧
みない
男性
は
優先順位
が
間違
っているのではないか。
Doesn’t a man who doesn’t blink an eye at the home due to work have his priorities messed up?
29.
私
たちは、アイダホ
州
の
田舎道
を
運転
していた
際
に、
危険
を
顧
みずに
道路
の
真
ん
中
に
鎮座
しているアライグマたちに
遭遇
した。
We encountered raccoons sitting in the middle of the road heedless of danger when we were driving on a country road in Idaho.
30.
自分
を
省
みずに、
他人
を
変
えようなんて
傲慢
なのではないか。
Isn't it arrogant to change others while you don’t reflect on yourself?
Spelling Note: Although not entirely related to this grammatical pattern, かえりみる also coincides with 省みる, which means “to reflect on” and it can also be used with ず(に).
Putting the literal meaning of 押す—to push—aside and other literal uses, を押して can be used to mean “facing down something”, which it shares with 押し切る. Both expressions are limited to set phrases. を押して is paired with words like 熱 (fever) and 病気 (illness), but not much else. を押し切って, on the other hand, is paired with words like 反対(意見) opposition (opinion), 〇〇党 (## political party), etc.
The examples below illustrate the various usages of both 押す and 押し切る. They are not exclusively about the patterns を押して and を押し切って.
31.
38
℃
の
熱
を
押
してでも
仕事
を全うしようとしている
部下
に
早退
を
命
じる
上司
は
正
しいと
思
います。
I think that the boss ordering his subordinate who was trying to carry out his job despite a 100℉ fever to leave early was right.
32. ホームボタンを
押
してロック
解除
。
Press home to unlock.
33.
総理
(
大臣
)は
病気
を
押
して
記者会見
に
現
れた。
The prime minister appeared at the press conference despite his illness.
34.
周囲
の
反対
を
押
し
切
って
単身
で
海外生活
を
始
めた。
I faced down the opposition around me and began living abroad by myself.
35.
国
は
長年
の
反対意見
を
押
し
切
って、
干拓事業
を
始
めるために
諫早湾
を
堰
き
止
めた。
The country faced down the opposing views of many years and dammed up Isahaya Bay to begin land reclamation.
36.
彼女
は、
彼
(の)
両親
の
反対
を
押
し
切
って、
同棲
している
彼氏
と
入籍
した。
She entered the family registry of her boyfriend who she has lived together with whilst facing down his parents’ opposition.
37.
公明党
を
押
し
切
る
形
で
政府
・
自民党
が
成立
を
急
いでいる。
The government—the Liberal Democratic Party—are rushing to (have the law) come into existence by facing down the New Komeito Party.
38. お
客
さんに
値引
きを
押
し
切
られました。
I was out-negotiated by the customer.
Meaning Note: 押し切る may also mean “to out-negotiate” as seen here.
39.
忘
れないように
念
を
押
してください。
Please remind me not to forget.
40.
背中
を
押
してくれてありがとう。
Thank you for always supporting me.
41. ここに
判子
を
押
してください。
Please stamp your seal here.
42.
国民
の
反対
と
非難
を
押
し(
切
っ)て
戦争
を
始
めるなんて
許
されないのだ!
Starting a war whilst facing down opposition and criticism of the people is impermissible!
43. 「
違憲
」
批判
を
押
し
切
って、
安倍政権
は
安全保障関連法
を
成立
させた。
The Abe Administration established the national security bill whilst facing down critiques that doing so was “unconstitutional.”
44.
熱中症
の
危険
を
押
して
出
かけてきました。
I went out despite the danger of heatstroke.
45. そこを
押
してお
願
いします。
I know I’m stressing that request, but please consider it.
In this fourth and final installation of expressions concerning disregard, we will cover expressions that revolve around the subject not caring about "X" when doing "Y."
The verb 構う means “to mind/be concerned with.” Typically, it is used as an intransitive verb, which is why it takes に in most of the following examples.
1.
私
は
全然構
いません。
I don’t mind at all.
2.
私
に
構
わないでください。
Don’t bother me.
3.
他人
のことに
構
っていられない。
I have too many of my own problems to deal with the problems of others.
In the expression {に・も}構わず, it is used to show that one doesn’t care about “X” as one goes about doing “Y.” The use of も makes the verb transitive, and it is also makes the expression more emphatic overall.
4.
母親
は
合鍵
を
持
っているので、
時間
に
構
わず
押
しかけてくることもあります。
My mother has a duplicate key, so she often comes intruding on me regardless of the time.
5.
彼
は
雨
に
濡
れるのもかまわずお
店
へ
歩
き
続
けた。
He continued walking to the store whilst not caring about getting wet.
6. あの
男性
は、
近所
の
人
の
迷惑
も
構
わず、
毎晩遅
くまで
騒
いでいる。
That man makes racket late into the night every evening without caring about the trouble it causes his neighbors.
7.
彼女
は
人目
もかまわず
泣
き
出
した。
She burst into tears without caring about attention from others.
8. ぎっくり
腰
は
場所
も
時間
もかまわず
襲
ってくるものです。
A strained back attacks irrespective of place and time.
9. あの
店
の
常連客
のほとんどは、
値段
も
構
わず
高価
な
商品
を
買
い
求
める
老婦人
だ。
Most of the regular customers of that shop are old women who buy expensive products without caring about price.
10.
彼
は
家族
の
心配
もかまわず、
実家
を
出
て
上京
した。
He left his parents’ home and went to Tokyo without caring about his family’s worries.
11.
彼女
は
給料
もかまわずに
好
きな
仕事
をやることにした。
She decided to work that she liked without carrying about the salary.
12.
何
にも
構
わずに、ありのままで
自分
になるんだ。
I will be my true self without carrying about anything.
13.
所構
わずゴミを
捨
てる
人
が
気
になります。
People who throw trash away indiscriminately of place bother me.
14.
私
にかまわず、お
先
にどうぞ。
Please don’t mind me. Go on ahead.
15.
彼
らは
周囲
{に・も}かまわずキスしたりイチャイチャしたりしていた。
They were kissing and making out without regard to their surroundings.
The expression をよそに is used to show that one completely disregards and shoves “X” as one goes ahead and does “Y.” It is often used with words like 批判 (criticism), 反対 (opposition), 心配 (worry), etc.
16.
国民
の
反対
の
声
をよそに、
改正案
が
可決
された。
Despite voices of opposition from the people, the reform bill was passed.
17.
県民
の
抗議
をよそに、
軍事基地
の
建設計画
が
進
められている。
Despite protest from the people of the prefecture, construction plans for the military base are underway.
18.
親
の
心配
をよそに、
腕
が
折
れてギプスをしている
憲太郎
はまたも
友達
と
遊
びに
出
かけてしまった。
Kentaro, who broke his arm which is in a cast, went out again to have fun with friends despite his parents’ worries.
19.
共和党
は、
国民
の
批判
をよそに、
今年
も
増税法案
を
提出
した。
The Republican Party has submitted a tax increase bill this year as well despite criticism from the people.
20.
先生
に
怒鳴
られて
皆
が
緊張
しているのをよそに、
彼氏
だけぼんやりと
馬鹿
みたいに
天井
を
向
いていた。
Only my boyfriend is the one looking up at the ceiling aimlessly like an idiot despite everyone being nervous from being shouted at by the teacher.
21.
彼
は
両親
の
心配
をよそに、ゲームに
没頭
している。
He has lost himself in gaming despite his parents’ worries.
22.
雨
の
予報
をよそに、
傘
を
持
たずにタイミングよく
素晴
らしい
晴天
で、
彼氏
と
一緒
に
湖
のほとりを
散歩
することができた。
I was able to walk along the lake together with my boyfriend without bringing umbrellas under wonderful clear skies thanks to good timing despite the forecast for rain.
23.
住民
の
不安
をよそに、
知事
が
原発
の
再稼働
を
認
めた。
Despite uneasiness that the residents have, the governor has approved the resuming operations of nuclear power.
24.
家族
の
期待
をよそに、
弟
は
結局大学
には
入
らずにアルバイト
生活
を
続
けている。
My little brother, despite the family’s expectations, ended up not getting into college and continues being a part-time worker.
25. お祭りの渋滞をよそに、素通りして帰宅した。
I passed by the congestion from the festival when I returned home.
26. 彼は医者の忠告をよそに、毎日お酒を飲んでいる。
Despite his doctor’s warning, he drinks every day.
27.
核兵器禁止条約
をよそに、
北朝鮮
やイランなどといった
国
は
核実験
を
行
い
続
けている。
There are nations such as North Korea and Iran that continue performing nuclear tests despite the Nuclear Weapons Convention.
28.
国民
の
非難
をよそに、その
汚職政治家
はまたしても
議席
に
返
り
咲
いた。
The corrupt politician made yet another comeback to his seat despite reproach from the people.
The word よそ, especially when written as 他所・余所, may also mean “elsewhere.”
29.
他所
の
店
に
行
きな!
Go to another store!
30.
今夜
は
他所
に
泊
まらなきゃ。
I have to stay somewhere else tonight.
The pattern にもめげず(に) is used after nouns that relate to personal adversity that the speaker then overcomes somehow in situation Y. This phrase is typically literary, but the subject of the action is painted in a very positive light.
31. 彼は
度重
なる
不幸
にもめげず、いつも
前向
きだった。
He was always positive in the face of repeated sorrows.
32. この
町
の
梨
は、
悪条件
にもめげず、
立派
に美味しいです。
This town’s peaches are splendidly delicious even with unfavorable conditions.
33.
彼
はどんな
困難
にもめげずに
夢
を
諦
めなかった。
He didn’t give up on his dreams despite whatever hardship.
34. その
選手
は、
苦境
にもめげず、
試合
に
向
かってメダルを
勝
ち
取
った。
The athlete thought nothing of his predicament, faced the match, and won the medal.
35.
田中
はどんな
不幸
や
不運
にもめげず、いつも
笑顔
を
絶
やさない。
Tanaka never stops smiling, not discouraged by whatever sorrow or misfortune.
36.
数々
の
試練
にもめげず、
ヒロイン
が
未来
を
切
り
開
いていく。
Not discouraged by numerous trials, the heroine opens up the future.
37.
大地震
にもめげずに
元気
で
健気
な
島
の
人々
にほっとした。
I was relieved with how the people of the island were gallant and vigorous, and not discouraged by the great quake.
38.
台風
にもめげずに
沖縄
から
行
ってきました。
I’ve returned from Okinawa despite the typhoon.
39. 彼は
病気
にもめげず、
多忙
な
毎日
にもへこたれずに
楽
しく
生
きている。
He lives happily and not discouraged even as each day is busy despite his illness.
40.
日本
のモノづくり
企業
は、どんな
逆風
にもめげず、
知恵
と
忍耐力
で
克服
してきた。
Japan’s manufacturers have overcome all sorts of adversity with wit and perseverance.
There are several phrases in Japanese that relate to "on the occasion of", but never are so many phrases in Japanese completely interchangeable. They do look similar. Writing style and nuances aid in distinguishing them. Don't worry, though. Even if you get a lot of red after reading this lesson, at least your paper will be decorated.
~(の)うえで attaches to the 連体形 of verbs or to nouns to give a meaning of “on the occasion of”. Following it, a discussion concerning a point of concern is expected. Giving an explanation of a circumstance, it shows opinion/thought on an issue. When giving a meaning of ~ときに, ~際に and ~に際して become possible as well.
1. 研究を続けるうえで、中国に留学したほうがいいと判断した。
I have concluded that it is best for me to study abroad in China on the basis of continuing my studies.
2. 時間を守るということは、仕事{をする}うえで
最低限
のマナーである。
Being punctual in the process of work is the minimum of manner.
From 中級日本語文法と教え方のポイント by
市川保子
.
3. 住宅ローンを利用したいと思っているのですが、借りる{うえで・際(に)は・に際しては}どのようなことに注意し たらよいでしょうか。
I want to utilize a home loan, but on the occasion of borrowing, what sort of things would be good to pay attention to?
From 中級日本語文法と教え方のポイント by 市川保子 .
~(の)際(に) is like above in that it means “on the occasion of”. 際 grammatically behaves like any other noun. It is a rather hard and ceremonious phrase, and it has the nuance of coping well when encountering a particular incident.
4. 就任の際には、是非式に参加してください。
By all means, please participate in the ceremony on inauguration.
5. イースト菌はパンを
膨
らませる際の
作用剤
だ。
Yeast is an agent that makes bread rise.
6. 地震の際はガスの
元栓
を閉めること。(Stern; 年齢的にも立場的にも上の人の言い方)
In case of an earthquake, turn off the gas at the main outlet.
~際に VS ~折に
~際に | Shows a limit to one extraordinary time than other situations. |
~折に | Shows an opportunity that happens by a stroke of luck. |
Remember that ~際に is used a lot as a formal version of ~とき, being used a lot in polite commands ~折に is very respectful and used a lot in letters and in set phrases such as 折りに触れて (on opportunity). If used in the spoken language, the speaker is most certainly old. Neither are appropriate in regular-place situations like ~とき is in the spoken language. Consider the following examples.
7. 出発の際に
点呼
をとるから、全員、遅れないように、集合すること。
Since I will take roll call on our departure, everyone fall in so as to not be late!
8. お
暇
な折にでも、お読みいただけましたら、
幸甚
に存じます。(手紙文)
I would be so obliged if you were to read this even during your spare time.
9. ひとしお
残暑
の厳しき折、くれくれもご自愛くださいますように。(手紙文)
All the more in this heat of late summer, be sure to take good care of yourself.
Citation Note: These last three examples are from 日本語類義表現 使い分け辞典 by 泉原省二.
10. 一昨日、古本屋に寄った{際・折りに}、注文しておきましたわよ。
I ordered it [when/on the opportunity of] [I stopped/stopping] by at the old book store two days ago.
11. 見ない{〇とき・X 際・X 折}も、テレビを消してね。
Turn off the TV even when you're not watching it.
~に際して has the nuance of “in facing a certain circumstance, on the occasion of that…”. It is rather formal and is often used in the preface of a salutation message. Having said this, though, there are instances where it can be interchanged with ~際に. In such a case, you are merely switching out something that is more so just a very formal fashion of saying ~とき.
Formality Note: Of course, there are the variants ~に際し ~に際しまして
12. 出発に際して、一言ご挨拶申し上げます。
I will give a word of salutations when we depart.
13. 入学{に際して・の際に}
寄附金
が要ると聞いているんですが、本当ですか。
We have been hearing that a donation is needed on admission, but is that true?
14. この度の震災に際しまして
On the occasion of this earthquake disaster
Grammar Note: ~うえで is more “static” in showing abstract static processes than even ~に際して. You will see later in this lesson how static versus dynamic makes in comparing these phrases with ~に当たって. In this sense, ~うえで is perfect in situations where one is giving an explanation to the listener.
15a.
協議書
を
交
わすに際して、
互恵平等
の原則を確認しておきたい。
15b. 協議書を交わすうえで、互恵平等の原則を確認しておきたい。
On exchanging agreements, I want to confirm the principles of mutual impartiality.
From 日本語類義表現 使い分け辞典 by 泉原省二.
16.
ドアを開けると、吉田は部下を従えて、妙に媚びるような表情で立っていた。
「昨日の
被疑者
なんですが、森井さんじゃないと、話したくないと言い張っとるんです」
挨拶もそこそこに、吉田は昨日の青年について語り始めた。彼は、事情聴取に際して、是非とも勲に会いたいと言っているのだという。
「冗談じゃない、俺はもう警察とは無関係の人間だ」
「ところが、
被害者
にも来てもらってるんですけど、そっちの方も、そうなんです。『あのおじさんになら話す』ってね」
When he opened the door, Yoshida with his men was standing with a look like he was trying to oddly curry favor.
"About yesterday's suspect, he insisted that if it's not Mr. Morii, he wouldn't want to talk."
With some salutations, Yoshida began to talk about the youth from yesterday. He, on the occasion of the police interview, [the suspect] said that he by all means wanted to meet with Isao.
"No joke, I'm no longer a person involved with the police anymore"
"On the contrary, we've had the victim come too, and that person's the same, "If it's the old man, I'll talk".
警察隠語 Police Lingo
This passage from 冷たい誘惑 by 乃南アサ introduces some rather interesting police jargon. 被疑者 and 被害者 are typically read as ひぎしゃ and ひがいしゃ respectively, but the author decided to use the police terminology instead, given that one speaker is a current officer and the other is an ex-officer. Aside from these words, there are several other words used by policemen that are of benefit of you to know, especially if you like watching Japanese cop films.
警察用語 | 一般語 | 警察用語 | 一般語 | 警察用語 | 一般語 |
ヤサ | 家 | 害者 | 被害者 | PM | 警察官 |
PC | パトカー | タタキ | 強盗 | レツ | 共犯者 |
アカイヌ | 放火 | H | ヘロイン | シャブ | 覚醒剤 |
飛ぶ | 逃げる | デカ | 刑事 | ハコ | 交番 |
For more words, see http://sumim.no-ip.com/wiki/1167.
There is also interchangeability with ~に際して and ~に当たって in situations when A is positively received. For instance, just like the first example with ~に際して, you can also see something like the following.
17. 開会に{あたって・あたりまして・際し・際しまして}、一言ご挨拶申し上げます。
On the occasion of opening session, I will give a word of salutations.
18. 年頭に{あたって・際して}の今年の抱負は、何よりも禁煙、ただ禁煙あるのみ。
My ambition for this year marking the beginning of it is above all is not smoking, simply no smoking.
Usage Warning: A sentence like the last one would not be used in the spoken language. Due to the formality and direct tone of the speech modals, such phrases would be limited to journals or soliloquies where such statements are expected.
However, their exact meanings cause them to not be 100% interchangeable.
Aにあたって(の) | The time right before A starts/Before the realization of a basis time B |
Aに際して(の) | The same time as A starts/The same time as the basis time B |
For this comparison, more grammar-study terms are used to show the full implications of these two speech modals. The first simply states that there is a time that coincides with A. This time precedes A, and B is some defined time to happen and is not realized. However, with ~に際して these time are in unison.
Consider the examples we've seen with them. So, even when they're interchangeable, this clear distinction holds. So, consider the example when giving salutations at departure.
19. 出発に際して一言ご挨拶申し上げます。
Allow me to say a few words as I/we depart.
You can vision the people leaving still giving their farewells as they, say, drive off or board a plane. Now, what would you end up saying if you rephrased it with に当たって?
20. 出発に当たって一言ご挨拶申し上げます。
Allow me to say a few words in lieu of my/our departure.
After all, there are very similar situations using words like 開会 where they are interchangeable. So, one would think that 出発 would be OK as well. It would, but you then describe a situation more like giving farewells right before departure. However, there are instances where one or the other is only right because of this minor detail.
21.
受刑者
は、
処刑
に際し、
牧師
に
懺悔
することが許されている。→ にあたり X
Convicts are allowed to repent to a pastor on their execution.
From 日本語類義表現 使い分け辞典 by 泉原省二.
漢字 Note: 懺 is not a 常用漢字.
22. 明日の試合出場にあたって、チーム全員はすでに
一丸
となっている。
All of the team members are in a body for the occasion of the game appearance tomorrow.
From 日本語類義表現 使い分け辞典 by 泉原省二.
Formality Note: As to be expected, ~に当たり (literary) and ~に当たりまして (very respectful) exist.
Another thing to note is that ~にあたって is dynamic whereas ~に際して is static. ~にあたって comes from 当たる, so a meaning of “coping/grasping with” is hidden. 際, which is also read as きわ in other instances, refers to when you have no choice but to put up with an extraordinary time of some sort.
23. 実験にあたっては、事故を起こさないように注意してください。
Please be careful to not cause an accident on the experiment.
From 日本語類義表現 使い分け辞典 by 泉原省二.
24. 実験に際しては、事故の起こらないように注意してください。
Please be careful to make sure that an accident is not caused during the experiment.
From 日本語類義表現 使い分け辞典 by 泉原省二.
Notice how the implications of these sentences change. The first sounds like the speaker is giving a verbal warning before a potentially risky experiment, but the second sounds like it is a more indirect yet important advice written down for during the experiment.
More Examples
25. 話の終わりに当たって、皆様方のご協力に感謝いたします。
Lastly, I want to thank all of you for your cooperation.
26. 発電所の建設に当たって多くの
障害
に出くわす。
To meet many difficulties in building a power plant.
27. この
施設
を利用するに当たって注意すべきこと!
You must be careful when utilizing this facility!
28. 別れに際して泣いた。
I cried at our parting.
29. 妻の死に際して
On the death of my wife
Phrase Note: ~に当たらない, on the other hand, is similar to "no" as in not hitting a certain degree.
30.
拒絶
は驚くに当たらなかった。
The refusal was not a surprise.
31. 驚くには当たらないと言わぬばかりに。
As if to say there is no use getting alarmed.
~に当たって VS ~うえで
~うえで is extremely indicative of the written language, which is not a characteristic of ~にあたって. For reiteration, ~うえで is used when stating a situation where “an important A, in the course from before you start it and till it ends, B may occur” and there is a “point of interest/necessary condition” that follows (the B).
Take the first example sentence of this lesson into second consideration.
32. 研究を続けるうえで、中国に留学したほうがいいと判断した。
I have concluded that it is best for me to study abroad in China on the basis of continuing my studies.
The event A is “continuing one’s studies”. The B can't be just a statement of explanation. Rather, it must be a point of concern: 注意点、問題点, 重要ポイント, 必要条件, etc.
Style Note: As far as the distinction between 話し言葉 and 書き言葉 in regards to this usage of ~うえで, it’s not that it is a complete 0%/100% divide. In circumstances such as speaking to a professor, more literary expressions are common as there is an academic atmosphere. This, though, blurs the divide.
33.
A: 先生、論文を書くうえで、どのようなことに注意したらいいでしょうか。
B: まず、今までにどこまで研究されているかをしっかり
摑
むことだね。
From 中級日本語文法と教え方のポイント.
Here, Student A asks what to pay attention to in [writing his/her dissertation] (A). The 問題点 of writing the dissertation is the B (necessary condition/important contingency). The professor responds by stating that first he/she needs to fully grasp what he/she has studied up to that point. Other important things to notice in the dialogue are underlined.
34. 実験する{〇 にあたって・X/△ うえで}、
危険物
の
扱
いには、十分に注意してください。(話し言葉)
On the experiment, be careful enough in the treatment of hazards.
From 日本語類義表現 使い分け辞典 by 泉原省二.
35. 実験するうえで、
下記
の
薬品
の取り扱いには、特に注意してください。(書き言葉)
On the experiment, pay special attention to the handling of the following chemicals.
From 日本語類義表現 使い分け辞典 by 泉原省二.
Although the first sentence meets the grammatical needs of using ~うえで, it is very unnatural at best because of style conflict. When rephrased to fix this, the unnaturalness goes away. Another major grammatical difference is that ~うえで is not limited to special circumstances like ~に際してand ~に当たって are. In such case, ~うえで becomes the only option, and as a consequence, is even common in the spoken language in this regard.
36. 数のうえでは
圧倒的
な状態だ。
It's an overwhelming situation concerning the numbers.
37. 十分に事件を
勘案
したうえで返事します。
I will reply after sufficiently considering the matter.
38. 年齢を重ねていくうえで、忘れてならないのは、友への感謝であろう。
As you age, what one must not forget is admiration towards friends.
From 日本語類義表現 使い分け辞典 by 泉原省二.
Just as with ~にあたって, you can see ~に先立って in situations such as the following.
39. 開会に先立ちまして、一言ご挨拶申し上げます。
In advance of the opening of session, I will give a word of salutations.
From 日本語類義表現 使い分け辞典 by 泉原省二.
Aに先立ってB gives a meaning of “carrying out B in the stage before the start of A, which is important and different than the norm”. Thus, it is seen a lot in speeches and articles. It is only used in situations where there is a “temporal ranking” of some sort. There is some sort of ritual order being expressed between A and B. Thus, the time before A and B is comparatively much larger than when using ~に当たって.
Given the meaning of 先立つ, to precede, it can be used to refer to the passing of someone when used in the passive.
40. 最愛の妻に先立たれた。
I was died on by my beloved wife.
Nuance Note: The translation has a more morbid tone that the original.
These phrases are quite similar to each other, and they are even interchangeable when expressing a situation right before an event. However, they differ in two crucial aspects.
B~を前に(して)A | Marks the realistic moment before the beginning of an event. |
B~を控えてA | Marks a psychological moment before with relative disregard to time. |
Both are indicative of the written language and both describe a third person. If the speaker becomes the subject, then the speaker becomes the object of description.
Base Note: The 連体形 of these phrases are ~を前にした and ~を控えた respectively.
41. 筆記試験を終え、面接試験を{まえにした・控えた}
応募者
は
緊張
した面持ちだ。
Finishing the written examination, the applicants have a nervous face before the interview examination.
From 日本語類義表現 使い分け辞典 by 泉原省二.
42. 期末試験を控えて学生は忙しそうだ。
The students seemed busy with the final exam at hand.
The next sentence demonstrates that 控える doesn't have to be used like above. It also has the meaning of “to hesitate/hold off”. Interchanging it, then, with ~を前に is then solely dependent on the logicality of the events and time.
43. 入試を一年後に{〇 控えて・X 前に(して)}ようやく
世間並
みの
受験生
らしくなった。
After of holding off the entrance exam, I have finally become like a normal examinee.
From 日本語類義表現 使い分け辞典 by 泉原省二.
There are also instances when they are used with place, in which they are never interchangeable and therefore may even appear in the same sentence.
44. 彼の新居は、海岸をまえに、後ろに
山脈
を控えた高台に位置していた。
His new home was placed on top of an overlook with mountain chains close in the back and the shore before it.
To finish off this lesson, consider the following speech modals: ~に臨んで, ~に面して.
Aに臨んで | On the occasion of participation in a positive/negative A… |
Aに面して | On the occasion of an extreme, negative situation A faced... |
They are basically interchangeable in emergency situations. Aに臨んで, however, shows that one is participating in an event A, whether it being present in that scene, going to such place, or forwarding oneself on.
Oppositely, ~に面して shows that one is suddenly or passively faced with a situation. So, with crisis situations concerning things like war, failure, etc., it is often the case that the former would demonstrate a strong person in spite of the crisis and the latter would give images of a weak person in the upset.
Base Note: The 連体形 of these phrases are ~に臨んだ and ~に面した respectively.
45. 母親の急死に{臨んで・面して}、それまで仲のよかった兄たちは、
諍
いを始めた。
In facing our mother’s sudden death, my older brothers who had been cordial up till then began a quarrel.
46. 経済的危機に{〇面しても、X臨んでも}、冷静に適切な行動のとれる人を尊敬しています。
I respect those that take the appropriate actions calmly even while facing economic crisis.
47. 第一試合に{〇臨んで・X面して}、緊張を隠しきれなかった。
I couldn’t completely hide my nervousness in facing the first match.
48. 緊急事態に{臨めば臨む・面すれば面する}ほど、
非凡
な力を
発揮
する者がいる。
There are people that exercise extraordinary abilities the more they face state of emergencies.
49. 難に臨んで
遽
かに
兵
を
鋳
る
Literally: To cast soldiers hastily in facing a crisis.
Phrase Note: This is a set phrase coming from the concept of making weapons quickly after a war has started. In a practical sense, it refers to situations where one doesn't make it in time even if you hurriedly prepare after an incident has started.
In the location sense, the difference is from the speaker’s position. With the former, you are looking down at a vast space from above. With the latter, you are seeing before one’s eyes a space expanding on the front sides. So, no matter if you interchange them, the speaker’s visual position and the vertical direction of the scenery is different. Note, though, that when deviating from pinpointing direction, のぞむ is spelled as 望む to signify actually looking down.
50. そのホテルは、瀬戸内海海に臨んで、高台に立っている。
The hotel faces the Seto Inland Sea and stands on the height.
51. その高層ビルは、海に面して、遊歩道に立っている。
The high rise building faces the ocean and stands on the boardwalk.
52. 街を望む。
To look down at the street/town.
~に足る | ~に依存 |
~に値する | ~に及ぶ |
足る and 足りる are essentially the same word. Historically, only the former existed, and the latter has only existed since around the Edo Period. Though not much time historically has passed since the Edo Period, the latter form has largely replaced the former. These two forms do not belong in the same class of verbs, and so their conjugations differ as follows:
未然形+ない | 連用形+ます | 終止形 | 連体形 | 已然形+ば | |
足りる (一段) | 足りない | 足ります | 足りる | 足りる | 足りれば |
足る (五段) | 足らない | 足ります | 足る | 足る | 足れば |
Both forms have the same 連用形, and in forms like 足ります・足りません, they are identical. Both verbs show that something is "sufficient/enough". For all intended purposes, this is a single word with fluctuation in form. This is likely because it has been a frequently used word for centuries. However, you don't necessarily hear people say the following all over Japan (though this would be said in some regions).
i. ぎりぎり5000円あれば十分足るよ。
If you just barely have 5000 yen, that'll be enough.
There are set forms that use less commonly used forms such as 足る itself. The negative form 足らない is actually not that uncommon. Interestingly enough, ~足らず exists and is used a lot even though 足りず is not used at all. Old words and grammar go together.
1. 衣食足りて
礼節
を知る。 (Literary set phrase)
Only when basic needs for living are met can people spare the effort to be polite.
2. 短い言葉で足りるところに長い言葉を使うのは
豊富
な知識の
印
だ。
Using a long word when a short word is enough is a sign of manifold knowledge.
3. 脳たりん。
You simpleton.
4. あなたの直観は、信用するに足る実績がありました。(信用するに足る is a rather common set phrase)
Did your intuition have any real results worth trusting?
5. 3千円必要だが半分足りない。
I need 3,000 yen but I lack half of it.
6. 彼女はようやく舌足らずの矯正に成功したそうです。
She has apparently finally succeeded in correcting her lisp.
7. あなた達全員に足りるだけの食糧があります。
There is enough food for all of you.
8a. 言い足りない = Not say enough.
8b. 言う必要がない = It's not worth saying.
9. あの新作は論ずるに足りません。(Written language)
It's not worth arguing with the new plan.
10. 政府は取るに足りない
項目
を予算から
削
らざるを得ないでしょう。
The government probably has no choice but to cut frivolous items from the budget.
依存 means "dependence" and is used with に as a verb to mean "to depend on". Its most correct reading is いそん. However, the amount of people who read it as いぞん is growing. This is especially the case when it is used as a verb in 依存する.
11. 大国の経済力に
依存
する小国がたくさん存在しています。
Many small countries that depend on the economic strength of major powers exist.
12. その町の経済は農業に依存している。
The village's economy depends on agriculture.
13. 彼の
援助
に依存しないでください。
Don't depend on his help.
14. 成功は方法に依存します。
Success depends on the method.
This phrase means "to be worthy of". It is equivalent to 価値がある.
15. あのウェブサイトは見る{に値する・価値がある}。
That website is worth seeing.
16. あの4歳の子供は大人でも見るに値する絵を描いたよ!
That four year old child drew a picture worthy of adult appreciation.
~に及ぶ is found after both nouns and the 連体形 of verbs to show that either a certain final step has at last become so. In the negative, it shows that there is no need for the said action in follows.
17a. 言うにや及ばない。(古風)
17b. 言うまでもない。
17c. 言うには及ばない。
It's not necessary to say so.
18. 彼は長ずるに及んで文才を現した。 (書き言葉)
He finally revealed his literary talent in excelling.
19. 犯行に及んだ。
It has finally become an offense.
20. この
期
に及んで何をいうのか。(ちょっと固い)
It's a little late to mention that.
21. 礼には及びません。
Don't mention it.
22. 折り
返
し電話をかけていただくには及びません。
There's no need for you to call me back.
中心 refers to the center of something, and を中心に means "centered on".
1. 駅を中心に商店が並んでいます。
Shops are lined up and centered around the train station.
2. 今日の会議では海外展開を中心に議論をしましょう。
Let's discuss overseas expansion as the center topic at today's meeting.
3. 市の中心部に住んでいます。
I live in the center part of the city.
4. 金が議論の中心だ。
Money is the heart of controversy.
5. 議論の中心点
The central point of the discussion
As a basic noun, 上 means "top/surface/above". In 上に it is used as the native version of 以上に.
1. | の上 shows something in concern with X. |
2. | のうえに it shows the basis for something to be established--upon. |
3. | した・のうえで means "after" or "as an effect of". |
4. | したうえに and な・のうえに mean "in addition to". |
5. | Aのうえに(も)A shows the seriousness of the degree of something. |
6. | かくなるうえは and する・したうえは mean "since it became this such". |
7. | の上 is after the calling name of a superior or the wife of an aristocrat. |
Usage Note: 上 may also be used as a suffix when placed after family members and is used in respect to a superior's family.
Orthography Note: Notice the usages below where its left in かな.
Examples
6. 風船が上へ上へと昇った。
The balloon went up and up.
7. 空の上から下界を望む。
To see the world from the sky.
8. 母上
Mother (of a superior)
9. 坂の上に足跡が残っています。
There are footprints remaining on the surface of the slope.
10. 数のうえでは圧倒的な状態だ。
It's an overwhelming situation concerning the numbers.
11. 今日の繁栄は国民の努力の上に築かれているはずです。
Today's prosperity should be being built upon the efforts of the people.
12. 十分に事件を勘案したうえで返事します。
I will reply after sufficiently considering the matter.
13. 忙しいうえに給料まで安い。
In addition to being busy, everything to my wages are low.
14. ご協力頂けるとは好都合のうえにも好都合でございます。
Receiving your cooperation is beyond expedient.
15. かくなるうえは覚悟を決めよう。
As it has become this, let's prepare for the worst.
16. この上ともよろしくお願いします。
Please treat me kindly from here on.
17. 二条院の上。
Nijouin!
18. 無職であるうえに、家もない。
If you're unemployed, you also don't have a house.
分 is a tough character to learn how to read correctly. Although ぶん isn't all that difficult, it does present a challenge. After a number, we know that ~分 is used in fractions. For example, 8分の6 = 6/8.
It can also mean "amount" or "degree" as in "one's lot". It is this definition that may cause an advanced student to become confused. In the pattern ...分だけ it means "in proportion to", being based off of the latter meaning. The use of だけ is optional, but its appearance could be enough to throw you off.
Examples
19. 彼は飲んだ分だけ、吐いちゃった。
He ended up throwing up just as much as he drank.
20. 皿は洗ったぶんだけきれいに見えるってわけじゃないよ。
It's not that the dishes look just as clean as they were washed.
21. 君の分はこれだけだ。
Your share is just this.
22. 高く登った分だけ、落ちたとき痛い。
The higher you climb, the harder you fall.
23. この分では終わらないだろう。
At this rate we won't finish.
相応 means "suitable/fit/just" and follows other nouns to show the fitting nature of something. Translation can sometimes be tricky.
1. 彼女は年齢相応に見えない。
She does not look her age.
Meaning Note: The above phrase is in reference to maturity and not appearance.
2. 政府は収入不相応の支出をすべきではない。
The government should not spend beyond its means.
3. それ相応の賞賛を受ける。
To receive deserved praise.
代わり means "substitute", お代わり means "seconds", and の代わりに means "instead".
4. 彼は鋸の代わりに剣を使ってみた。
He tried to use a sword as a substitute for a saw.
5. 私は市長の代わりに挨拶をしました。
I greeted them in replacement of the mayor.
6. お代わりをください。
Seconds please.
7. 代わりに誰か来るんですか。
Is anyone else coming?
8. 代わりに電話に出てよ。
Answer the telephone for me.
9. お辞儀の代わりに、アメリカ人は握手をするという。
They say that Americans shake hands instead of bowing.
10. 誰に彼の代わりができるだろうか。
Who could possibly take his place?
11. 岩がベッド代わりになった。
The rock turned into a substitute for a bed.
12a. お金は健康の代わりというわけではありません。
12b. 健康はお金には代えられない。(Better)
It's not to say that money is a substitute for health.
13. 代わりにあなたに行ってほしい。
I wish that you would go instead.
経由 either shows how one transits or does something "via" or "by way of" something. So, it either refers to travel or method.
14. バンコクを経由してインドへ行く。
Go to India via Bangkok.
15. パリ経由でアテネへ飛ぶ。
Fly to Athens via Paris.
16. 彼女は香港経由で帰国しました。
She returned to her home country via Hong Kong.
17. ベーリング海峡を経由してアジアから北アメリカへ渡ったといわれている。
It is said that (they) crossed over to North America from Asia by way of the Bering Strait.
18. 議案は審議会を経由して上程される。
For a measure to be introduced via the inquiry commission.
19. このバスは六本木経由の東京駅行きですか。
Does this bus go to Tokyo Station via Roppongi?
Geography Note: Roppongi is a district of Tokyo. It houses many foreign embassies, and holds the Roppongi Hills which is a a mega-complex with office space, apartments, shops, restaurants, cafés, movie theaters, museum, hotel, TV studio, etc.
This is the last lesson about important nominal phrases. Most of them are related to each other, so that will make things easier.
至極 | 極み | 至り | 万一 | ゆかり |
As a noun, 至極 shows an "extremity" of something. As an adverb, it means "extremely" or "exceedingly".
1. 至極便利な電気器具ですね。
This is an extremely convenient electric appliance, isn't it?
2a. 滑稽至極
2b. 滑稽の極み (More natural)
The extremity of ridicule
3a. 恐縮至極
3b. 恥ずかしさの極み (More natural)
The extremity of shame
4. 至極当然である。
To be exceedingly obvious.
極み is a noun meaning "sublime", "extremity", and "height" and shows the utmost. This word is typically not used in speaking.
5. 絶望の極みに
陥
る。
To fall into the height of despair.
6. 興奮の極み
The utmost of excitement
7. ここで断念するのは
遺憾
の極みだ。
Abandoning here is the height of regret.
8.
贅沢
の極みの生活をする。
To live a lifestyle of utmost luxury.
至り either means "the utmost" or "result".
9.
不始末
は
若気
の至りと
反省
しております。
(物事において)不始末であったことは、私の若気の至りです。
Carelessness is reflecting on the stupidity of my youth.
10. ご
同慶
の至りに存じます。
I offer you mutual congratulations.
11.
恐縮
の至りです。
I am sorry to the utmost.
万一 expresses that something rarely happens, but there is a possibility of the otherwise. It may be translated as "by some chance/possibility". It may also be used as an adverb.
12. 彼に万一のことがあれば
If anything happens to him
13. 我々は万一を考えなければならぬ。
We must think and prepare for the worst.
14. 彼は万一の場合に備えた。
He prepared for contingencies.
15. 万一遅れたら、先に行ってくださいね。
If there is the chance that you could be late, please go earlier than (planned), alright?
ゆかり, in 漢字 as 縁, means "affinity", but it can also show that something or someone is related to some place. It is this usage that catch people off guard.
16.
漱石
ゆかりの地
Place in connection with Soseki
17.
文豪
ゆかりの地
Place in connection with a literary legend
つつ is a somewhat old-fashioned particle that has less function in this generation, but it is still very important as it lives strong in literature. In this lesson, we will investigate how to use this particle correctly and know exactly when it is appropriate and how it differs with things interchangeable with it.
Like most conjunctive particles in Japanese, the particle つつ attaches to the 連用形 and is exclusive to verbs.
一段活用動詞 | 見る | 見つつ |
五段活用動詞 | 思う | 思いつつ |
サ変活用動詞 | する | しつつ |
カ変活用動詞 | 来る | 来つつ |
When the particle つつ is used to express simultaneity, with the latter clause being either a positive or contrary statement, it is equivalent to the particle ながら. ながら shows simultaneous action too, but it's still different. つつ cannot be attached to nominal phrases but ながら can be.
1. 夫を亡くしてから、母は
細腕
{Xつつ・〇 ながら}、私たち5人の子供を育て上げた。
After losing her husband, my mother by herself raised us five kids.
Even in formal speech, ながら is the only choice in this situation. On the one hand, when the sentence is colloquial, つつ often becomes inappropriate.
2. 何だよ。静かだと思ったら、テレビを見{〇 ながら・X つつ}寝ちゃって。おい、風邪引くぞ。(男性語)
What is this? Just when I think it’s quiet, you’re falling asleep watching TV. Hey, you’ll catch a cold!
3. お茶でも飲みながら、お喋りしない? ちょっと
愚痴
を聞いてよ。 (ちょっと女性っぽい)
Can't we talk a bit while having some tea? Just listen to what I have to complain about.
4. なぁ、ご飯食べながら、新聞読むのか。やめてくれねーか。
不愉快
だよ。(男性語)
Hey, you’re reading a newspaper while eating? can't you quit it? It’s just unpleasant.
Again, there are situations where the two are interchangeable. Differences will be elaborated on throughout this lesson. Of course, the most basic difference to remember is that つつ is indicative of the written language, and if it is used in the spoken language, it is rather formal and or old-fashioned.
5. 感謝し{つつ・ながら}、日々を送るがよい。
It is good to live each day by being grateful.
6. 二日酔いで痛む頭を押さえつつ、トイレに入った。 (書き言葉)
I went to the bathroom while holding my head with a hangover.
7. 起きようと思い{つつ・ながら}、
恨
みの
籠
もった眼差しをあげた。
Thinking that I would get up, I gave a look in spite.
8. 嘘と知り{つつ・ながら}、まだ来ぬ人を、雨の中で待ち続けた。
Knowing that that was a lie, I continued to wait in the rain for the one that had not come.
9. いやだとは言い{つつ・ながら}(も)、
満更
嫌いでもないらしい。
Although saying it’s bad, [he] seems to not hate it altogether.
10. 真実と知り{つつながら}(も)・、まだ誤った情報を伝えるのが本当に抜け目のないことだ。
While knowing the truth and still telling mistaken information is a really shrewd thing.
11. 車窓の景色を眺め{つつ・ながら}、過ぎ去りし日々を思い返していた。
As I gazed out at the scenery from the car window, I was reliving days past.
Archaism Note: 過ぎ去りし = 過ぎ去った. 過ぎ去りし is the 連体形 of the Classical Japanese phrase 過ぎ去りき, which uses the auxiliary verb ~き used to show recollection. 過ぎ去りし happens to be used occasionally due to its rather nostalgic feel.
As you can see, there are situations with particles where there is a contradictory relationship in the clauses.
12. 大雨は勢いを増し{ながら・つつ}、堤を決壊させるまでには至っていなかった。
The rain continued to amass momentum, though it didn’t reach the point it would break the embankment.
13. テレビを壊し{〇 (てい)ながら・X つつ}(も)、謝りもせず黙りこくっている。
I stayed quiet without apologizing having destroyed the TV.
In the case that ながら and つつ show a resultative relation, they behave the same, but when showing a contradictory situation, they differ. In such case, つつ still shows an ongoing situation, but ながら shows the situation after completion/ending of said action A.
Particle Note: When the particle も is added after ながら and つつ, they only show contradictory conjunction, which aids you in interpreting ながら.
Phrasing Note: ~ていながら more clearly demonstrates contradictory conjunction. However, semantic properties of the verbs also help.
For instance, in the following sentences, because the verb has an internal boundary—there is an internal limit to its extent—it makes two contrasting clauses a contradictory conjunction when used with ながら. Even still, it would be even less ambiguous, again, if ~ていながら were used.
14. 彼は太(り・てい)ながら、健康なダイエットを続けている。
While he has gotten fat, he continues a healthy diet.
15. 体の動きを止めながら、心を先を急いでいた。
While I had stopped my body’s movement, my heart was hastening onward.
However, when there is no “internal limit” in the verb, ambiguity can arise.
16. 彼女は美味しそうに食べながら、吐き気がするほどまずいと思っていた。
She seemed to eat like it was delicious but thought that it was bad to the point of puking. [Both clauses at the same time]
While she ate it like it was delicious, she thought that it was bad to the point of puking. [Second clause is after the fact]
Usually, in these instances, the positive interpretation is more complicated. However, this could very well be intended. Regardless, if ながらも had been used, there would be no ambiguity issue.
つつ, with it being somewhat archaic, is not used in interrogative sentences or sentences that urge things to happen like ~ようとする. It’s also not used with things like ~ている.
17a. 出かけようとしながら 〇
17b. 出かけようとしつつ X
While I was trying to leave
Another thing to note is that つつ can be used in showing the course of a change that is almost instant like a takeoff but ながら can't as it is generally used with time periods longer than that. Contrarily, ignoring the course of change, it can't show the result of change.
18. 出発し{〇 つつ・X ながら}、電車はスピードを上げていった。
The train sped up as it departed.
19. 出発し{〇 ながら・X つつ}、電車はすぐまた停まってしまった。
While the train departed, it immediately stopped again.
つつある may either show that something is trying to materialize or a certain action/effect is continuing. Thus, it is usually interchangeable with ている. However, you must be careful with verbs such as なる where ている is used to show a resultant state. Thus, なりつつある ≠ なっている.
20. 耳が遠くなりつつある。
My hearing is going.
21. 古い伝統が消滅しつつあるというわけではないと思います。
I don't think it's to say that old traditions are disappearing.
22. 冬が近づきつつある。
Winter is drawing near.
23. 乱射事件は増えつつある。
Shooting incidents are on the rise.
24. 黒崎一護の霊圧は弱まりつつある。
Kurosaki Ichigo's spiritual pressure is waning.
25. 太陽が今昇りつつある。
The sun is rising now.
26. その病気は蔓延しつつあるそうだ。
It's said that the disease has been spreading.
27. 高まりつつある保護貿易主義を阻止する。
To turn back the rising tide of protectionism.
28. 動物集団は減少しつつある。
Animal populations are decreasing.
29. 地球が次第に暖かくなりつつあることは、温室効果の増大が原因ではない。そんな情報に操られすぎているので、真実であると思いかねる。
It is not that the Earth is gradually becoming warmer because of an increase in the greenhouse effect. As such information is too manipulated, it cannot be thought of as being the truth.
30. 大気が汚染されつつあるそうです。
I hear that the atmosphere is being polluted.
31. ウーロン茶の質は下がりつつあるそうです。
I hear that the quality of Oolong tea is going down.
This lesson is all about 抜く. Now, what may be so special about 抜く? It so happens to be used in ways that brings on some somewhat complicated grammar.
抜く means "to extract" or "to remove." It is used in compounds to provide a sense of thoroughness. In other verbs, it describes a state of extreme degree. This is related to the sense of something being thorough.
To shoot through | 射抜く | いぬく | To see through | 見抜く | みぬく |
To excerpt | 書き抜く | かきぬく | To gouge out | 刳り抜く | くりぬく |
To pierce through | 突き抜く | つきぬく | To hit through | ぶち抜く | ぶちぬく |
To dig through | 掘り抜く | ほりぬく | To pass (car) | 追い抜く | おいぬく |
To select through | 選り抜く | え・よりぬく | To win through | 勝ち抜く | かちぬく |
To cut through | 切り抜く | きりぬく | To know thoroughly | 知り抜く | しりぬく |
To persist through | 耐え抜く | たえぬく | To jump through | 出し抜く | だしぬく |
Examples
1. 彼は辛い仕事をやり抜いた。
He persevered through a harsh job.
2. 手を抜くな。
Don't slack off!
Literally: Don't extract your hand (away).
3. 頑張り抜くのは難しい。
Persisting until the end is difficult.
4. 彼は生き抜けるのか?
Can he make it out alive?
5.
戦国時代
を
生
き
抜
く。
To live through the Warring States Period.
Word Note: The intransitive version of 抜く is ~抜ける. It too attaches to verbs.
6.
逆境
を
切
り
抜
ける。
To pass through adversity.
「Xぬき{で・に}(は)Y(ない)」 shows that putting others aside, without X you wouldn't be able to do Y. What causes either で or に incorrect is based on whether the phrase is dynamic 動態 (で) or static 静態 (に).
7. ちょっと私ぬき{〇 では・△ には}イベントが始まらないんじゃなかったの? Without me, the event wouldn't start, no?
8. 僕ぬき{で・△ に }そんなこと始めるなんてできないよ。
You couldn't even start that without me.
9. そろそろ食事をしますから、私ぬきで、ゲームを続けていてください。
Since I'm having dinner soon, please continue the game without me.
10. 昼ご飯ぬき{〇で・ Xに}頑張ってるんですか。
So you're trying without having had lunch?
11. 優勝なんて、あいつぬきじゃ、できっこないんだよ。
(We) won't be able to win victory without that guy.
12. 朝食ぬきで働くなんて、できるわけがないよ。
There's no way I can work without having breakfast.
13. 冗談{ぬきで・はぬきにして}、まじめに話し合いましょう。
Leaving jokes aside, let's seriously talk with each other.
As you would imagine, ~ぬきの is used in modifying other noun phrases.
14. 塩ぬきのをください。
One without salt, please.
15. マッシュルームぬきの(ラーメン)をください。
Ramen without mushrooms, please.
~を抜きにして means "leaving out". This means that an X is should be left out for the realization of B. Of course, if the sentence is negative, then the opposite is true.
17. 冗談は抜きにして、そろそろ帰らないと、まずいよ。
Leaving jokes aside, if you don't go home pretty soon, it won't be good.
18. 堅苦しい挨拶{は抜きに・抜きで}しましょう。
Let's do without the ceremonious greetings.
19a. 力強い意志を抜きに(して)戦い続けることはできぬぞ。 (Old-man; 武士 talk)
19b. 強気でなければ戦い続けることはできぬぞ。(Old-man; 武士 talk)
Without a powerful will, you will not be able to continue fighting.
This lesson is all about ways in Japanese to give an excuse/reason in ways we have yet to see thus far in the curriculum.
~せいで means "since/because of/due to" in the sense of blame. If you use this pattern with something that is generally perceived as being a good thing, it will sound strange and usually unnatural. You would have to do some explaining. The way to express this in a positive fashion is by using のおかげ(さま)で, which doesn't always have to be used in a positive situation. The point is that at least it can.
Examples
1. 妹のせいで、父に叱られた。
I was scolded by my dad because of my little sister.
2. 俺のせいにすんな。(ちょっと失礼)
Don't blame me.
3. 津波のせいで食糧不足になった。
We got into a food shortage due to the tsunami.
4. 病気のせいで、パーティーに行けなかった。
I didn't come to the party due to an illness.
5. 休みなのに強風と花粉のせいで家から出れない。(Casual)
Although I'm on a break, due to strong winds and pollen, I can't leave the house.
6a. 彼が失敗したのは怠惰のせいだ。
6b. 彼が失敗したのは怠けたからだ。(More natural)
He failed because of his laziness.
7. 雨のせいで、遅刻した。
I arrived later due to the rain.
8. 彼は疲労のせいで、眠いというよりも疲れているのです。
He is less sleepy than tired due to his fatigue.
~(の)せいか
As the adverbial particle か shows uncertainty, it shows in translation when used with せい.
9. 天気のせいか、気分が悪い。
I don't know if it's because of the weather, but I feel bad.
10. 山田さんは、試験ができなかったせいか今日は元気がありません。
Mr. Yamada isn't well today apparently because he did bad on his exam.
11.
小林:ちょっと元気がないみたいけど、どうかしたの?
出口: うん、食中たりのせいかお腹が痛いんだ。
Kobayashi: You look a little bad; what's wrong?
Deguchi: Yeah, I think my stomache's hurting because of food poisoning.
12.
中田:どうかしたの。
川崎:うん、昨日の晩風邪を引いたせいか頭が痛くて。。。
中田:じゃ、早く帰って寝たら?
Nakada: What's wrong?
Kawasaki: My head is hurting cause I might have gotten a cold last night.
Nakada: Well, how about getting home quickly and sleep?
The 一段 verb 託ける means "to use as an excuse" and ~に託けて is often translated as "under (the excuse of)".
13.
宗教
の名に
託
けてコンキスタドーレスはアステックの帝国を
攻
め滅ぼした。
The Spanish Conquistadors attacked and utterly destroyed the Aztec Empire under the name of religion.
14. 彼は雪に託けて仕事をサボった。
He skipped work under the excuse of snow.
Defining the beginning and limitation of a parameter is something that people do all the time. These phrases, although not an exhaustive list of phrases in Japanese that fit this description, will allow you to become even more sophisticated in how you can articulate yourself in this regard.
As you should know, 始める means "to start". をはじめ = "starting with". It may also be expanded to をはじめとして, which is a bit more poignant.
1. 社長を始め、社員一同です。
Starting with the company president, all employees are present.
2. 日本の会社を始めとして、沢山の企業が業績悪化しています。
Starting with Japanese companies, a lot of businesses are in a downturn.
3. 彼は中国語を始め、日本語と韓国語にも堪能ですよ。
Starting with Chinese, he is also proficient in Japanese and Korean.
4. 春になると、桜をはじめとして、いろんな花が咲きます。
When it becomes spring, starting with cherry blossoms, various flowers blossom.
皮切 り means the "outset of things" and is used in the speech modal を皮切りに(して)・を皮切りとして to show that starting with X, you do something in succession. This pattern shouldn't really be used with natural phenomena or bad things. What follows should be similar in nature, and it is especially used in situations where you want to clearly state such a chain of events.
5.
冗談
を皮切りに演説をする。
To give a speech by starting out with a joke.
6. 公演を皮切りに
各地
で
演奏会
を開きました。
They opened up concerts in various/every place(s) as the start out of their public performance.
7. 今月6日の東京公演を皮切りにして、全国ツアーを予定しております。
We are planning to do a nationwide tour starting with a Tokyo performance on the sixth of this month.
8. 塩川さんの発言を皮切りにして、みんなが次々に意見を言った。
Starting with Shiokawa's remarks, everyone said their opinions one after another.
9. カリフォルニアへの旅行を皮切りとして、国外をあちこち旅行しています。
Starting with a trip to California, I'm traveling all over outside the country.
~に至るまで shows that a certain matter's extent reaches a surprising state. As you will see in the examples, this speech modal attaches to nouns.
Examples
10. 今度の出張のスケジュール
表
は
綿密
すぎる!起床時間から飛行機内の食事開始時間に至るまで書いてあるよ。
This business trip's schedule is too detailed! It has written on it the time from when we wake up to the time we start eating in the plane.
11. 畑中先生には卒業後の進路はもちろん、
恋愛
の
悩
みに至るまで何でも相談している。
My path after graduation is one thing, but I'm also consulting about everything to even love problems with Hatanaka Sensei.
12. 外国で暮らすことになったので、ベッドから
台所用品
に至るまでみんなリサイクルショップに売った。
As it's been decided that I live abroad, I sold everything from my bed to kitchen utensils to the recycling shop.
13. 今に至るまで作られている。
Even until now they are being made.
14. 頭から足先に至るまでのほぼ全身がびしょ
濡
れだよ。
Basically my entire body is soaked from head to toe.
15. その大都市の学校はもちろんのこと、小さな分校に至るまで、統一されたカリキュラムで教育が行われている。
Of course, as far as that big city's schools, education is done with a unified curriculum to even the smallest campus.
16. 彼は頭の上から
爪先
に至るまで全身泥まみれになった。
His entire body became covered in mud from the top of his head to his tiptoes.
Usage Note: This construction is not used in reference to animals. It is always used with something concerning humans.
More About 至る
至る means "to reach...". It may follow the 連体形 or stem of する to show that something has finally reached a certain condition. ~に至って(は) and に至ると focus on something as the topic by raising an extreme example. Lastly, 至って as an adverb means "very" or "extremely".
17. 中国語はもちろん、英語に至ってはからきしだめだよ。
Not to mention Chinese, reaching English is completely hopeless.
18. 年老いたとはいえ、至って健康です。
Although he has aged, he is extremely healthy.
19.
実施
するに至った状況を説明します。
I'll explain the situation that's lead to this being implemented.
Though only the first usage relates to the topic of this lesson, as this phrase has other important usages to know about, they will also be discussed at this time.
1. ~をもって marks the end of things, and is not used in daily conversation and it is very formal and official-like.
20. 本日の営業は10時をもって閉店致します。
Today's business will close at 10 o' clock.
21. 当店は10月末日をもちまして閉店させていただきました。長い間のご利用ありがとうございました。
This store will close at the end of October. Thank you for your long use (of our store).
22. 以上をもちまして本日の演説大会は終了いたします。
With this being the end, today's speech convention is concluded.
23. 今期をもって私は退職するつもりでございます。
At the end of this term, I plan to retire.
24.
展覧会
はこの時点を以って閉会とします。
We have decided to close this exhibition with/at this occasion.
It can also show a basis for something or object of judgment.
25.
一事
を以って人を判断するなかれ。(Archaic)
Do not judge a man by one action.
26. やつを以って
嚆矢
とす。(Set phrase; archaism)
To hit the enemy as the aim with an arrow to signal the start of the battle.
27.
非人
をもって
任
じるは悪し。(Archaic; classical)
It is bad to pose as a hinin.
Historical Note: A 非人 was a person of the lowest rank of society.
2. In でもって meaning "furthermore". This is still used in formal writing.
28. 美人で以って頭も良い女
A woman who is a beautiful person, and furthermore smart
3. In まったくもって, a stronger version of まったく. Although more literary, it's still possible to hear it used in the spoken language.
29. 宮城県は全くもって困った地方だね。
Miyagi Prefecture is a completely troubled region, isn't it?
4. Older usages of this include being used as a conjunction to mean "thereupon" and as an equivalent to the case particle で to show means of action.
30. 以って
瞑
すべし。
Thereupon you should sleep.
31. 手紙を以って
皇帝
を
通達
す。
To notify the Emperor with a letter.
~といったところだ is used to say that at the most, something isn't that high. It can be after nouns or verbs. It should only be used with phrases that concern a low number/amount.
41. せいぜい1泊で温泉に行くといったところでしょうか。
How about at the most going to an onsen for a night?
42. 私の
睡眠
時間は4時間といったところです。
My sleeping time is just at most four hours.
There are a lot of adverbs that have a 促音, end in り, are onomatopoeic, and are four morae in length. Although there are definitely more adverbs that are four morae in length, this constituency deserves a name.
品詞 Note: If a definition is adjectival, use とした with the word. For example, がっしりとした.
Adverb | Definition(s) |
あっさり | Readily; flatly; easily; plain; frank |
うっかり | Inadvertently |
うっとり | Ecstatically; absentmindedly; abstractedly; vacantly |
おっとり | Gently; quietly; calmly |
がっかり | Disappointing; dejected; downcast |
かっきり | Exactly; flat; sharp even |
がっくり | Heartbroken; break down; dash |
がっしり | Stout; solid; massive; square |
かっちり | Tightly; exactly |
がっちり | Solidly built; tightly; shrewd |
がっぷり | Firmly; latched onto |
がっぽり | In large quantities |
きっかり | Promptly; precisely; exactly |
ぎっしり | Closely; densely |
きっちり | Closely; snug; tightly |
きっぱり | Flatly; absolutely; completely |
くっくり | Sharply; clearly; clear-cut |
ぐっすり | Soundly |
ぐったり | Completely exhausted; dead tired; limp |
げっそり | Being disheartened; loosing weight |
こっきり | Just; only |
こっそり | Stealthily; secretly |
ごっそり | Completely; wholly; entirely |
こってり | Thickly; heavily; severely; strongly |
ざっくり | Roughly; loosely; deeply (cut) |
さっぱり | Refreshed; trimmed; simple; entirely; not at all |
しっかり | Tightly; firmly; steadily |
しっくり | Not well |
じっくり | Thoroughly; closely |
しっとり | Moist; slightly wet |
じっとり | Sticky |
しっぽり | Moist; delicate (affection) |
すっかり | All; quite; completely; perfectly; entirely; utterly; right |
すっきり | Neat; refreshed; clean-cut; straightforward |
ずっしり | Heavily |
すっぱり | Completely; flatly |
すっぽり | Completely |
そっくり | Living; natural; lifelike; all |
たっぷり | Sufficiently; amply; heartly; good |
ちゃっかり | Calculating; shrewd; smart; cheeky |
ちょっぴり | Little; bit |
てっきり | Surely; beyond doubt |
でっぷり | Ample; beefy; stout |
どっかり | Heavily |
どっきり | Be shocked; be frightened |
とっくり | Carefully; well |
どっさり | Lot of |
どっしり | Massively; heavily; dignified |
とっぷり | Completely; fully; entirely |
どっぷり | Totally (immersed) |
にっこり | (Smile) sweetly |
ねっちり | Sticky; persistently |
ねっとり | Sticky |
のっそり | Ponderous; elephantine; sluggishly |
のっぺり | Flat |
はっきり | Clearly; distinctly; plainly; definitely; sharply; vividly |
ぱっくり | Gaping; snapping |
ばったり | With a clash; abruptly; unexpectedly |
ぱったり | Abruptly; suddenly |
ばっちり | Perfectly; properly |
ぱっちり | Open wide |
びっしり | Closely; densely |
ひっそり | Secretly |
ぴったり | Close; tightly; snug; exactly |
ぴっちり | Tightly; snugly |
ひょっこり | Accidentally; by chance |
ふっつり | Break; snapping up |
ぷっつり | Break; snapping up |
べったり | Closely; thickly; hard |
ぺったり | Closely; fast |
べっとり | Sticky; icky |
ぽっかり | Lightly; gaping wide |
ぽっきり | Only; merely |
ぽっくり | Suddenly |
ほっそり | Slender; slim; light |
ぽっちゃり | Plump |
ぼってり | Fleshy; chubby |
まったり | Full-bodily |
みっしり | Strictly; fully; closely |
みっちり | Strictly; fully |
めっきり | Very much; a lot; remarkably |
むっくり | Suddenly |
むっちり | Plump; chubby |
むっつり | Sullen; taciturn; sulky |
やっぱり | After all |
ゆっくり | Slowly; deliberately; leisurely |
ゆったり | Easy; relaxed; comfortable; loose; expansive; full |
ゆっくりと話してくれた。 ゆったりとしたスカートを履(は)く。 ゆったり過ごしただけ。 国会議員はあっさりやめるべきだ。 みんなカメラの方を見てにっこりしましょう。 みっしり鍛えれたのかな。 もっとはっきりと発音しなさい。 一晩ぐっすり眠る。 とっくりと話を聞いて。 たっぷり5時間も仕事する。 がっかりなさったでしょう。 むっくりと起き上がった。 悪道にどっぷりとつかっているだけの男だ。 気分がすっきりする。 一回こっこりでやめるとは臆病だ。 ぽっかり穴が開いた。 |
のっそりと起こす。 血のりがズボンにべっとりついてしまった。 ひょっこり幸子に出会ったのよ。(Feminine) 彼はどっかりと座った。 さっぱりしたいいやつ あいつのなまりはさっぱり分かんねーぞぇ。(Violent) めっきり暑くなった. どっさりある。 しっかりしろ! うっかりして忘れた。 うっとり眺める。 うっとりさせるような声をあげる。 日がとっぷりと暮れた。 のっぺりとした目鼻立ち ちょっぴり皮肉じゃないか? 僕はほっそりとした体格です。 |
相槌 allow conversations to be prolonged and flow in Japanese. They are often misunderstood by foreigners as showing agreement. Sometimes this may be this case, but this feature of conversation is far from limited to this.
Agreement
頷き (nodding) can show agreement as well as using words like はあ、はい、ええ、うん. Of course, you must realize that these words have different politeness implications. For instance, you shouldn't say うん to your boss. はい is the most appropriate in this situation. はあ is rather ceremonious. All of these should be used with a falling intonation for this instance.
1. はあ、分かりました。
Yes, I understand/understood.
I See...
そうですか。そうなんですか。なるほど。へえふーん
There are small differences. The first two have a slight sense of surprise with the second being slightly more emphatic. なるほど is used when something from another person is said that you yourself hadn't realized/known and you recognize or agree with it. へえ can be used in a somewhat reserved feeling in responding. ふーん・ふうん is used when one is a little impressed, agree or acknowledgment something.
2. ふーん、なるほど。
Hm...indeed.
When Surprised
ええっ? | Eh? | 本当ですか? | Really? | 嘘 | You're lying! |
信じられない | I can't believe it | 冗談でしょう? | You're kidding? |
Showing Doubt
そうですか? | そうでしょうか | そうかな(~) |
Intonation Note: Rising intonation for these phrases.
These phrases can be described as echo questions (おうむ返し疑問文) because they aren't true questions and are merely used to try to get at some understanding.
Others
Anything like それで、どういうわけでしょうか、それは____ですね, etc. are also considered 相槌. Essentially, any response from another person to keep the conversation going and making the transitions in details more natural is an 相槌. The typical Japanese way of explaining starts out broad and then getting to details by the end. Although dialogues in books, anime, and manga may have quite a lot, true natural spoken Japanese is one of the best ways to hear these in use.
Understand that 相槌 are the way to make you a good listener in Japanese. Rather than just standing there quiet, it's important to use these small phrases at appropriate stops from the speaker. Otherwise, the speaker might think that the listener isn't taking any particular attention or understanding. This is one of the easiest ways to end up with a 不安にさせる会話, and that's not a good thing.
3.
水谷: 土曜日に夕食に来ませんか。
相田: ああ、行きたいんですが、土曜日の夜は遅くまで勉強しないといけないんです。
水谷: それは残念ですね。それでは、また今度。
相田: うん、また次の機会にどこかで食べましょう。
Mizutani: Do you want to come to dinner on Saturday?
Aida: Ah, I want to go, but I have to study real late Saturday night.
Mizutani: That's too bad. Well, next time then.
Aida: Sure, let's eat somewhere some other time.
4.
学生A : 最近、勉強が捗ってないんだ。
学生B: そうなんだ、捗ってないんだって。。。
学生A: あと、1ヶ月で試験なのに
学生B: あと1ヶ月で試験なのか。。。Aは、今まで一生懸命勉強してきたんだから大丈夫だよ!
Student A: My students haven't been getting along recently?
Student B: Is that so? Not getting along...
Student A: Even though I have an exam in a month.
Student B: You have a test in a month. Well, since you've studying so hard up till now, you'll do fine!
相槌 Gone Wrong
Using 相槌 alone isn't going to magically create a nice, flowing, and friendly conversation. You can't seem distant to the speaker. Some people don't intend to be distant or mean, but it can come off that way if you act like Speaker B below.
5.
Aさん: 今日は、お会いできて光栄です。
Bさん: ああ。
Aさん: やはりパーティーに、ご出席される機会が多いのですか。
Bさん: まあ。
Aさん: たくさんの方が、お見えになっていますね。
Bさん: そうですねえ。
Aさん: It's an honor to be able to meet you today.
Bさん: Ah.
Aさん: Just as I thought, there are a lot of opportunities to attend at parties.
Bさん: So-so.
Aさん: A lot of people have come.
Bさん: That's true.
Speaker A is being so formal and nice and trying to keep the conversation going, but it doesn't seem like Speaker B really even cares. You can just imagine the change of facial expressions by Speaker A. The problem is that light 相槌 can let you get out of a conversation quicker. If in a situation like this where the more courteous thing is to extend the conversation, then you should do so. It's only proper.
The first thing to really try to do is pay close attention to what the speaker says at the very beginning of the conversation so that you can have an attempt at being able to repeat certain parts or ask questions about it. Adding opinion or emotion like surprise or disbelief is much better than being silent. Be natural, though. It's best to give a small pause to sound more natural.
When repeating what the other person says, feel free to change up the sentence endings to show an appropriate reaction. You don't want to sound like a robot or like you can't relate. Even adding a question after giving an appropriate reaction is good too. So, Student B from earlier could have added something like 本当は、合格の自信あるんだろ?Questions like どういうわけかな, それってどういうことかな, etc. can become very useful.
Common Mistake Note: To use 相槌 should be 相槌を打つ, but even natives often mistakenly use 相槌を入れる instead. 相槌 comes from the concept of two blacksmiths alternately hitting the hammer together. So, it is an idiomatic expression. Since the verb you use with 槌 is 打つ, it's only natural that it would also be used with 相槌.
~べきだ is actually an evolved form of the auxiliary ~べし. With that said, we will first look at the bases which were neglected the first time to make the different forms of it found in more advanced/rarer usages easier to make and use.
The modern form of ~べし is ~べきだ. Now it is important to see what the bases are for this auxiliary because rarer/archaic usages employed today use them.
未然形 | 連用形 | 終止形 | 連体形 | 已然形 | 命令形 |
べから- | べく-・べかり- | べし | べき・べかる | べけれ- | 存在しない |
Conjugation Note: It's usually only used with verbs, but when not it shows a strong sense of "should". -べし should follow the かる-連体形 of 形容詞 and the copula as なる for 形容動詞 and nouns. As for ~べきだ, it should follow 形容詞 like in あたらしくあるべきだ and after the copula である for 形容動詞 and nouns.
漢字 Note: The auxiliary can rarely be seen written as 可し.
~べくもない is used to show that there is absolutely no possibility in something you hope could happen. You just don't have the means even if you try. This is interchangeable with できるわけがない and できるはずがない.
1. 将来、東京大学の教授になろうなんて望むべくもない。
There's no way that I could ever become something like a Tokyo University professor in the future.
~べからず, the negative form of -べし is primarily used today to make negative imperatives. When used in ~ざるべからず with ~ざる being the 連体形 of the classical negative auxiliary ~ず, it means "must" in the same way ~なければならない is used today but with more of a command sense to it. At other times, it might be used to show incapability of something, especially with verbs like 許す (to forgive). In this usage it is usually seen in the べからざる-連体形. ~べからず can also be used like ~べくもない, but this would have to be quite archaic for it to have any importance.
2. 予測すべからざる事態。
A situation that one cannot predict.
3.
芝
に入るべからず。
Keep off the grass.
4.
羽
なければ空をも飛ぶべからず。(ちょっと古風)
Since you have no wings, you can't even fly in the sky.
5. 天皇
を
重
んぜざるべからず。(Archaic)
One must honor the emperor.
6. 「
触
るべからず!」 (Old-fashioned)
"Do not touch!"
天皇
を
重
んぜざるべからず。(Archaic)
One must honor the emperor.
Note: The above pattern ~ざるべからず is equivalent to ~なければならない. This is an archaic pattern, and you would only see it in things like proverbs or sayings today.
「
触
るべからず!」 (Old-fashioned)
"Do not touch!"
The べく-連用形 may be used similarly to ために to mean "in order to", being quite formal. It is placed after the 連体形. It may be translated as "in trying to". This is far more formal, and it is seen all the time in informative books, but you hardly ever hear it in spoken Japanese.
7. 早く帰るべく、
準備
をし始めた。
In trying to go home early, I started making preparations.
8. 我々は、将来を担うべく努力することを誓います。
We vow to endeavor to bear the future.
9. これは勝つべくして勝った試合です。
This is only natural that it’s a match that we were going to win.
10. するべくして、するべからず。(Old-fashioned)
Even though you can do it, you should not do it.
11. その教科書を読むべくして理解しがたい。(Old-fashioned)
Even if you can read the textbook, it is hard to understand.
12. この
説
は言うべくして行うべからず。(Old-fashioned)
Even if you can say the theory, you shouldn't carry it out.
13. 負けるべくして負けた。
It's only natural that we lost.
-可くして
これは
勝
つべくして
勝
った試合です。
This is only natural that it’s a match that we were going to win.
するべくして、するべからず。(Old-fashioned)
Even though you can do it, you should not do it.
その
教科書
を
読
むべくして
理解
しがたい。(Old-fashioned)
Even if you can read the textbook, it is hard to understand.
この
説
は
言
うべくして
行
うべからず。(Old-fashioned)
Even if you can say the theory, you shouldn't carry it out.
負
けるべくして
負
けた。
It's only natural that we lost.
This is rarely seen, but it is of the same mindset as the other usages. It's forceful, and it has the same effect for the affirmative as ~べからず does for the negative.
14. 辞職すべし。
Resign!
The verbs かかる (intransitive) and かける (transitive) are by far two of the most extensively used verbs in Japanese. Aside from the specific かかる and かける being discussed in this lesson, there are also other homophonous "かかる" and "かける" verbs.
Transitivity Note: Note that the translations take advantage of the lack of morphologically distinct transitive and intransitive forms for most verbs in English. When necessary, notes will be provided.
漢字 Note: These verbs are typically written in ひらがな. 掛ける・掛かる is typically alright. When there is another spelling common for a particular nuance, this will be evident in the examples and noted.
1. To hang; sit; weigh on; attach/wear.
1. 出口に注意の標識をかけたので、災害があったら、安全に逃げられるだろう。
Since we hung a warning sign at the exit, if there were a disaster, people could escape safely.
2. 空に美しい虹が懸かることは神の意の印の一つであるという。
They say that a beautiful rainbow hanging in the sky is one of the signs of God's will.
3. ローマ帝国では罪人が十字架に架けられた。
Sinners were hung on crosses in the Roman Empire.
4. 山の頂上に白雲がかかっていた。
White clouds wrapped around the tops of the mountains.
5. 調査委員会に圧力が掛かった。
Pressure hung over the investigation commission.
6. 心配をかけてごめんね。
Sorry for making you worry.
7. 優勝がかかってるぞ。(Masculine)
Victory is at our reach!
8. ハンドルに手を掛ける。
To sit one's hand on a handle.
9. 積荷がずしりとかかっていたから、どんどん腕が痛くなってきた。
The pain was quickly getting worse because of the load weighing down on my arms.
10. 重心を失って左足に躓きかけてしまう。
To end up weighing down and stumbling on one's left foot (by) losing one's balance.
11. 彼は眼鏡を掛けた。
He wore glasses.
12. 試験のことなど歯牙にもかけないやつだな。
He's a guy that pays no attention to stuff like the exam, isn't he?
漢字Note: Usually in かな. Most commonly written in 漢字 as 掛ける・掛かる. For a true physical sense of “to hang/be hung”, use 架ける・架かる. 懸ける・懸かる gives a sense of hanging over.
2. To do with a tool of some sort; only a usage of かける.
13. エンジンをかける。
To start an engine.
14. 午前6時に目覚まし時計をかけた。
I set an alarm for 6 A.M.
15. 一晩中ラジオの音がかかっていた。
The sound of the radio was going on all night long.
16. CDをかける。
To play a CD.
17. 袖にミシンをかける。
To use a sewing machine on a sleeve.
18. 清掃員が廊下に掃除機をかけたが、生徒は一週間でまた汚した。
Although the janitor vacuumed the hallway, the students made it messy again in just a week.
19. 両手に手錠がかかった。
The cuffs were locked on both his hands.
20. 戸に鍵をかけたか。
Did you lock the door with the key?
3. In 目に掛かる meaning "to keep in one's eyes". In honorifics, it is the humble form of 見る. And, にお目に掛かる is an honorific equivalent of お会いにする.
21. 半弓を似て目にかかる敵を射て
Shoot the enemy in one's eyes resembling a small bow
From 鷗外
22. お初にお目にかかります。
It's a pleasure to meet you.
4. Without seeing a resolution and the mind unsettled. In a transitive sense, it is closest to not forgetting anything.
23. 今日一日中、試験の結果のことが気にかかっていたんだ。
The results of the exam hung in my mind all day long.
24. いつも私のことを心に懸けて下さってありがたいことです。
I am grateful that you always kept me in mind.
25. 思いを懸ける。
To burden with thought.
漢字 Note: Often written with 懸ける・懸かる.
5. To span; to straddle; wrap around.
26. 多摩川に鉄橋を架ける。
To build a steel bridge over the Tama River.
27. 本州・四国間に橋が架かっている。
A bridge spans between Honshu and Shikoku.
28. アオカケスが軒下に巣をかけることが多い。
Blue jays often build nests in the overhangs of roofs.
29. 泥棒に縄をかけたよ。
I bound the rope on the burglar!
30. 肩に襷をかける。
Idiom: To exaggerate one's circle in a conversation.
漢字 Note: Excluding the last two examples, this usage is usually spelled with 架ける・架かる.
6. To fictionalize; perform.
31. 芝居小屋を掛ける。
To fictionalize theater.
32. 公園に芝居がかかっている。
Drama is being played in the park.
33. 忠臣蔵がかかっている。
A play based off of the 47 ronin is being played.
7. To squirt; to pour spices on; cover; set on fire (which is covering fire over something).
34. この料理の最後の手順はフライにソースをかけることだ。
The last thing in making this dish is putting sauce in the fry pan.
35. 庭木に水をかけましたか。
Did you squirt water on the garden trees?
36. 埃が頭にかかった。
Dust dropped onto my head.
37. クラッシュドレッドペッパーのかかったスパゲッティはおいしい!
Spaghetti with red pepper poured on it is delicious!
38. 日本では布団をかけて寝ますよ。
In Japan, you sleep on a futon.
39. 我々は敵の城に火をかけた。
We set the enemy's castle on fire.
8. To offer words.
40. 彼に後ほどお礼の電話を掛けさせていただきます。
I will give him a telephone call of gratitude.
41. 声をかけたが、まだ聞こえなかったようだ。
I raised my voice, but it looks like he still couldn't hear.
42. 若旦那からお座敷がかかりました。
A gathering was made from the young master.
Cultural Note: A 座敷 was a gathering one was invited to perform as a geisha.
43. 発破をかける。
To motivate someone with harsh words.
9. A skill is done on an opponent well. Deceiving and trapping are good examples.
44. 王女に魔法をかけよう!
Let's put a spell on the queen!
45. 睡眠術に掛かる。
To be under hypnosis.
46. ぺてんにかけて金品を奪う。
To trick and mug.
47. 詐欺に(引っ)かかった。
I was tricked in a fraud.
48.
猪
をかける。
To trap a wild boar.
49. 逃走犯を検問にかけた。
I trapped an escapee in examination.
10. To wish for divine help.
50. 合格できますようにと神様に願を懸けました。
I prayed to God in order to pass.
51. 望みをかける。
To wish for hope.
漢字 Note: 懸ける is the most common spelling.
11. To cost time, expenses, labor; to tax.
52. 完成までに二年かかったうえに、十億円かかった。
It cost two years and a billion dollars by completion.
53. 出入時には保護関税がかかる。
There is a protective tariff during exporting.
54. 所得税をかける。
To impose an income tax.
55. 12日朝からは、復旧作業が始まっているということですが、発電所の安全確認などには時間がかかりそうだということです。
Restoration efforts are said to be starting from the morning of the 12th, but the confirmation of safety of the power plants will take time.
From NHK following the 2011 earthquake.
12. ~にかけて(は): See Lesson 177.
13. In "鼻にかける" meaning "to boast" or in "鼻にかかる" referring to hanging in the nose.
56. 自分の日本語の能力を鼻にかける。
To boast about one's Japanese skills.
57. 先生の声が風邪で鼻にかかって聞き苦しかったよ。
The teacher's voice hanged in his nose due to a cold and was unpleasant to hear.
14. To come to.
58. 道路が湖畔にかかる辺りで新車が故障したみたいだ。
It looks like a new car is broken-down coming near the bank passing the road on the lake shore.
59. 勝負は終盤にかかってとても緊迫した展開となりました。
The match came to its final stage and became a very tense development.
15. To be a part; undertaken in; only a usage of かかる.
60. 映画の創作にこれからかかるとしたら、どんなことをするだろう。
If I were to be a part in the production of a movie, what kind of things would I do?
61. 整理にかかっている。
To be engaged in organizing.
62. 今すぐ準備にかかれ。
Be getting prepared right now!
63. 明日の仕事にかかるまでしばらく休もう。
Let's sleep for a while until we undertake in tomorrow's work.
16. To be produced due to an effect.
64. 髪にパーマをかけた。
I got a perm in my hair.
65. 仕事にエンジンがかかった。 (Idiomatic)
To get back to normal in one's job.
66. 磨きをかけることはいいことです。
Polishing up (one's skills) is always a good thing.
17. にかけて shows the "to" that you swear "to".
67. 神にかけて誓った。
I swore to God.
68. 神仏に懸けて誓うのはよくないです。
Swearing to God is bad.
漢字 Note: Either spelled as 懸ける or 賭ける, but the latter spelling is the most common.
18. To carry out something while prepared to lose; only a usage of かける.
69. 威信を賭けて戦うのは賢い決意だというわけではありません。
Fighting through with one's dignity is not a wise decision.
70. 一発逆転を懸ける。
To turn the tables around.
71. ポーカーに沢山の金を賭ける。
To gamble a lot of money in poker.
72. 雨が降る降らないに昼飯をかけるのは子供っぽいゲームじゃないか。
Isn't betting your lunch on whether it's going to rain or not a childish game?
漢字 Note: 賭ける is the most important spelling.
19. In "...てかかる" meaning "to cope with".
73. 敵を嘗めてかかる。
To deal with an enemy putting him down.
74. 心してかかることが肝心です。
Things you carefully cope with are crucial.
20. In "にかかる" following the 連用形 of a transitive verb meaning "to do...as an action of starting out".
75. 弱いと見るとすぐさま
脅
しにかかるのは自然な反応ではないか。
Isn't starting to threaten someone immediately when you see them as being weak a natural reaction?
76. 引き止めにかかったが、どうしても応じなかったんだ。
I started to restrain (him), but I didn't get (him) to comply in the long run.
Usage Note: This usage is not used to show habit and is used to show a temporary action.
21. In "(よ)うとかかる", a stronger version of "(よ)うとする".
77. 彼はあの手この手で説得しようとかかってきたが、結局説得できなかったよ。
He tried to persuade us this way and that, but he couldn't persuade us (about) anything well.
22. To fight against; only a usage of かかる.
78. 不良が突っかかってきた。
A delinquent charged at me.
79. 者ども、掛かれ!
Men, fight!
23. To receive medical care or a doctor's examination.
80. すぐにお医者さんにかかりなさい。
Please have a doctor see you immediately.
81. 重症ですから、すぐ医者にかかるべきですよ。
Because it's a serious illness, you should see a doctor soon.
24. To sell at an auction; only a usage of かける.
82. 競売にかける。
To hold auction.
25. To adopt legislation or measures; bind an agreement.
83. 事件を裁判にかけます。
We will give a judgment in the case.
84. 案件を会議に懸けました。
We adopted the matter in question in the meeting.
85. 毒殺事件が裁判にかけられた。
A judgment was given in the poisoning case.
86. 自分の生命に保険をかけるのはとても大切なのです。
To get an insurance agreement for one's own life is very important.
漢字 Note: 懸ける・懸かる is most appropriate. However, it is usually written in ひらがな.
26. To carry traits or tendencies; only a usage of かかる.
87. 青みのかかった緑色
Blue-tinged green
88. 彼は凄みのかかった顔で睨み付けた。
He glared at me with a ghastly look.
27. To dispose of oneself.
89. 自らの手にかける。
To kill oneself with one's own hands.
90. 敵の手にかかる。
To be disposed of by the enemy's hand.
28. "To be concerned", "be the work of", or "to concern". Only a usage of 係る.
91. 止利仏師の制作にかかった仏像でございます。
This is a Buddhist statue in the image of the works of Toribusshi.
92. 賜杯の行方は大名の活躍に係っている。
The whereabouts of the Emperor's cup is controlled by the great efforts of the Daimyo.
93. 試合の成否は努力いかんに係っている。
The outcome of the contest depends on your effort.
94. この副詞の意味は文末の動詞に係っている。
The meaning of this adverb is linked to the verb at the end of the sentence.
29. To give a ball an extraordinary rotation; only a usage of かける.
95. 打球に回転をかける。
To have one’s ball spin.
30. To multiply; only a usage of かける.
96. 8×(かける)2は16。
8 times 2 equals 16.
31. To overcharge; only a usage of かける.
97. 定価に二倍をかけて売る。
To buy at two times the standard price.
32. To pay bills regularly; only a usage of かける.
98. 保険金をかけている。
I'm paying insurance.
33. To crossbreed; only a usage of かける.
99. 雌馬にロバをかける。
To breed a female horse with a donkey.
34. To play on words; only a usage of かける.
100. 『秋風ぞ立つ』の『秋』に『飽き』をかける。
To imply "weariness" in the "autumn" of "rise autumn wind".
101. あいつは左がかった意見を持ってるね。
That guy has a leftist opinion, doesn't he.
2. Shows the possession of color traits.
102. オレンジがかった赤い色
An orange tinted red color
103. 黒みがかった紺色
A black tinted navy blue
104. 娘はむらさきと白の細かい矢がすりのきものに、
臙脂
がかったむらさきの袴をはいていた。
She was wearing a fine white and purple arrow feather kimono atop a rouge-tinged hakama.
From 不死 by 川端康成.
This "かかる" verb means "to catch a disease" or "to be caught in a problem".
105. いとこは食中毒に罹った。
My cousin got food poisoning.
106. 結核に罹ると、ときどき命の危険がある。
When you get tuberculosis, there may be a risk to your life.
107. 放射線を浴びて、原子病に罹ってしまう。
To contract radiation sickness from radiation.
This "かける" verb is intransitive, and its transitive form is 欠く.
1. For a part of a sold item to break of; to chip.
108. 机の縁が欠けた。
The edge of the desk got chipped.
109. コーヒーカップの取っ手が欠けてしまったから、滴がじんわりと漏れてるよ。
Because the coffee cup's handle accidentally got chipped, drops are slowly leaking.
2. To be missing.
110. グループのメンバーの三人が欠けている。
Three people are missing out of the group.
111. この取扱説明書は5ページ欠けています。
There are 5 pages missing in this user's manual.
3. To lack; to be negligent toward.
112. 攻撃は決め手に欠けたから、失敗した。
Because the attack lacked a decisive move, it filled.
113. 最新記録に一秒欠ける。
To lack 1 second of a record.
114. 1ドルから一セント欠ける。
To lack a cent from a dollar.
4. To wane.
115. 満月が段々円形でなくなるのは常識だ。
A full moon waning gradually losing in round shape is common knowledge.
This "かける" verb is transitive and means "to fly through the heavens".
116. 魂魄が天空を翔ける。
Souls fly through the heavens.
This "かける" verb has two usages related to each other and is transitive. It either means "to dash" or "to fly through the sky".
117. 神風が大空を駈けた。
Divine wind flew through the skies.
118. 時空を駆ける。
To dash through time and space.
119. 虎が熱帯林を駆けた。
The tiger dashed through the tropical forest.
Finally, to end this lesson, かける may also be the potential form of the verbs to write 書く, to scratch 掻く, and to draw 描く.
120. 漢字で書けない。
I can't write in Kanji.
121. 美しい絵が描ける。
To be able to draw a beautiful picture.
In this lesson we will focus on some important adverbs that deserve special attention.
むしろ | かねて | さもないと | たとえ | 一旦 | 強いて、敢えて、殊更 |
むしろ means "rather". It can be seen in the following patterns.
B (という)より(も)むしろA | A rather than B |
AというかむしろB | A...,no, B |
Bというよりもむしろ | not so much B as A |
The segments of the sentence should show parallelism. When you use むしろ with -たい, the translation becomes "prefer" or "would rather". Instead of むしろ, you may see かえって and いっそ which mean "on the contrary" and "better yet/still more" respectively.
1. 彼女
は
歌手
というよりもむしろ
女優
です。
She is an actress rather than a singer.
2. 僕
は
外車
よりもむしろ日本製の
車
を
買
うんだ。
I buy Japanese-made cars rather than foreign cars.
3. えー、あの
子供
は
利口
というか、いや、むしろ
天才
というべきだ。
Eh, that kid is bright, no, a genius.
4. あまり
好
きじゃなかった。それどころかむしろ
憎
んでさえいた。
I didn't really like it. Rather, I just detested it.
5. 辛
い
思
いをするよりはいっそ
死
んだ
方
がましだ。
I would rather die than hold (those) painful memories.
6. 海岸
へ
行
くよりむしろ
遊園地
へ
行
きたい。
I'd rather go to the amusement part rather than go to the beach.
7. パーティーに行くよりむしろ家にいたい。
I'd rather stay inside than go to the party.
8. むしろこちらのほうがいいと
思
います。
I think rather that this would be good.
9.
却
って
良
かった。
It was rather good.
Orthography Note: むしろ can be rarely seen written in 漢字 as 寧ろ.
かねて means "previously". かねてから means "has always been" and is used with the progressive past tense. 兼 ね 兼 ね is another adverb that may be used instead of かねて. You should not replace かねてから with かねがねから. Another equivalent phrase is 前以 て.
10. 以前
から
痛
んでいた。
It has always hurt.
11. 兼
ねて(から)お
伝
えしたように
As we have informed you before
12. 前以
て
備
える。
To prepare beforehand.
13. 次回
は
前以
て
電話
してくださいませんか。
Could you please phone ahead next time?
14. あらかじめ
聞
き
及
んだ
名所
を
訪
れればよい。
It would be good for you to visit the name and address you heard of before.
15. お
名前
はかねて(から)
伺
っております。(Honorific)
I have heard your name before.
16. かねがね
望
んでいたことが
本当
に
実現
した。
The thing that I have been hoping for actually happened!
17. お
噂
はかねがね{伺って・
承
って}おりました。(Honorific)
I have already been told about the rumor.
Orthography Note: かねて can seldom be seen written in 漢字 as 予て.
さもないと in a literal sense means "if you do not do so", but it is normally simply translated as "or (else)/otherwise". It may also be seen as さもなくば and さもなければ.
18. 出
て
行
け。さもないと
警察
(を)
呼
ぶぞ。
Get out. If you don't, I'll call the police!
19. 7時半
までに
出
なさい。さもなければ、
電車
に
遅
れますよ。
Leave (the house) by 7:30. Or else, you'll be late to your train.
20. そうせよ!さもなくば
必
ずや命を
失
おう。(Old-fashioned)
Do it! If not you will surely lose your life.
21. 水
を
溜
めよ。さもないと、
旱魃
が
起
こったときに、
喉
が
渇
いて
死んでしまうよ
。
Save up water. Or else, if a drought were to occur, you could dehydrate and end up near to your death.
況 して(や) and 況 や mean "much less", and they must be used with the negative. It is normally written in かな.
22. あいつは
日本語
を
読
むことすらできない。ましてや
書いたり
話したりできるわけがない。
He can't even read Japanese, much less write it or speak it.
23. 小走
りもろくにできない。
況
して
走
れるわけがない。
She can hardly jog, much less being able to run.
24. 先生「今回のテストの平均点は60点でした。」
Aくん「お前70点以上いった?」
Bくん「まさか。平均点すら届かなかったよ。ましてや70点なんて夢のまた夢だよ」
Sensei: "The average for this test was 60"
A-kun: "Did you get over a 70?"
B-kun: "No way, I couldn't even make the average, much less get a 70 which is like a hopeless dream"
25. 敵
でも
困
っていたら
助
けます。ましてや
味方
なら
当然
です。
I would help an enemy if her were to be in distress, much more a friend.
26. いわんや
子供
には
無理
だ。
It’s useless much less with kids.
In 漢字 as 仮令 and also seen as たとい in older texts, たとえ is used in the following patterns to mean "no matter" and "even though/so". It may also be seen in "たとえ...たとしても" which means "if any/if I should".
たとえ...ても | たとえ...volitional + と(も) | たとえ...にせよ |
27. たとえ
雨
が
降
っても
出
かけるぞ。
I'll go out even if rains.
28. あなたがたとえ
何
をしようとも
支持
しよう。
I will support you no matter how you do.
29. たとえ
何
があろうとやります。
I'll do it no matter what.
30a. 両者
の
間
には、たとえあったとしてもごく
僅
かしか、
相違
はありません。(Literary)
30b. 両者の間には、たとえあったとしてもごく僅かしか、
違
いはありません。(Spoken)
There is little if any difference between the two.
31. たとえ
冗談
にせよ、
傷つ
けるようなことはいうべきじゃないよ。
Even if it's just a joke, you should not say hurtful things.
32. たとえ
殺
されても
信念
は
曲
げられない。
Even if if I were killed, my faith could not be taken away.
33. たとえどんなことがあったとしても
No matter what
34. たとえどんなに
腕
がよくても、
試験
に(は)
合格
しなければならないよ。
No matter how good you are, you must still pass the exam.
Word Note: たとえ may also be replaced by 縦 しんば. This word, though, is rare.
35a. 縦
しんば
失敗
したとしても
後悔
はしない。
35b. たとえ失敗したとしても後悔はしない。(More natural)
35c. もし失敗したとしても後悔はしない。
Even if I were to lose, I will have no regrets.
一旦 can either mean "temporarily; for the present" or "once". In the first case it shows that some action or progress is currently halted. In the second case it is used at the start of a conditional clause to show an action that is necessary to bring about a certain result.
36. いったん
始
めたらやめてはいけません。
Once you've begun, you mustn't quit.
37. 一旦
は
中止
と
決
まっていました。
It has been decided that we will halt temporarily.
38. 一旦
の
楽
しみ
A fun time
Pronunciation Note: As a noun it can be used in the sense of "once" as in "a time". The pitch when it's a noun is on いった. When it's an adverb, the pitch is on ったん.
強 いて, 敢 えて, and 殊更 are very similar phrases that need to be addressed together. 強いて is like "by force". This makes sense because it comes from the verb 強いる which means "to force". 敢えて is "to dare/venture". Lastly, 殊更 is "intentionally".
39. 強
いて
言
えば
If I'm forced to say something
40. 強
いてと
仰
るなら
If you insist
41. 敢
えてもう
一度
やる覚悟があるのか?
You dare have the courage to try again?
42. 敢
えて
反対意見
を
述
べた。
He ventured an objection.
43. 私
は
行
くことを
強
いられました。
I was compelled to go.
44. {あえて・強いて}
送
ってくれなくてもいいよ。
You don't have to bother driving me home.
45. 大統領
をあえて
非難
するつもりはないです。
I wouldn't dare criticize the president.
46. 彼
は{
殊更・わざと}嫌
がらせをしていた。
He was intentionally harassing others.
In this lesson we will learn about speech modals concerning tendency.
嫌い means "to hate"--it is treated as a 形容動詞 instead of as a verb in Japanese--and is followed by がある to show what someone or something has a tendency of doing. As the word suggests, this is not a good tendency. This tendency has to be somewhat bad, so it doesn't work with phrases like ぎりぎり間に合う.
1. 依存症の嫌いがあること
To have a tendency of dependence.
2. その生徒は遅刻する嫌いがありました。
That student had a tendency to be late.
3. 彼は酒を飲みすぎる嫌いがある。
He has a tendency of drinking too much sake.
4. 人には自分の聞きたくないことは耳に入れないというきらいがあるのではないか。
Isn't there are tendency that what one doesn't want to hear doesn't get heard?
5. 彼女は優しいですが、無意識に人を傷付けることを言うきらいがある。
She's nice but, she has a tendency to say things that hurt people without knowing it.
6. 人間は年を取ると、他の人の話を聞かなくなる嫌いがある。
When humans get older, they have a tendency of not wanting to listen to other people.
が早いか is best translated as "the instant". Basically the same as the noun 瞬間(instant). The situation in question must not be of one's control. It has also become limited to actions done by people. The actions also have to be logically related to each other. が早いか can be used with the non-past or the past tense. However, the former is the most common and some speakers may not like it with the past tense.
7. 彼女は先生を見るが早いか、逃げ出しました。
She started running away the instant she saw the teacher.
8. 「飲んでみよう」と言ったが早いか、彼は全て飲んでしまった。
The instant I said, "Let's try drinking it", he completely drank it all.
9. 言うが早いかやってしまった。
No sooner said than done.
10. 弟は、口に押し込んだが早いか、玄関を出ていった。 (△)
My brother left the house just as soon as he shoved it down in his mouth.
12. ベルを聞くが早いか、生徒達は教室から飛び出していった。
The instant they heard the bell, the students dashed out of the classroom.
The verb must be one that describes something of an instant. It's not a verb that entails a longer period of time. When you see, ask, arrive, etc. that is 瞬間的. The part of the sentence that comes after is unexpected. Again, this pattern must not be used to show the speaker's wants or intentions.
Although 最後 means "last", が最後 shows that once some starts doing something, there is no end to their action in sight. Due to this, it is very similar to 一旦(いったん) meaning "once". However, 一旦 doesn't always have the implications of nonstop.
13. 飲みだしたが最後、止められなかった。
Once I started to drink it, I couldn't stop.
14. 入ったが最後二度と出てこられなくなる場所に行ったことがありますか。
Have you ever gone to a place where once you entered, you became unable to leave (because it was so awesome)?
15. いったん始めたら、止めてはならない。
Once you start, you must not quit.
16. いったん封を切ると、返品できません。
Once you break the seal, you can't return it.
そばから describes an event that repeatedly happens right over again, plain and simple. So, no matter what you do, right when you do it, something messes it up, and this cycle keeps repeating itself. So, it's usually a bad thing. It's usually used with the non-past form of a verb, but the past tense is also acceptable.
17. 返事を書いているそばからランスさんが次々とメールを送ってくる。まあ、日本語の勉強に非常に熱心ですね。
Every moment I write a response, but each instant Lance sends a new e-mail one after another. Well, he's very earnest in his Japanese studies.
18. 妹が掃除するそばから散らかすから、もう諦めたくなりました。
My little sister messes the room up (repeatedly) as soon as I clean it up, so I've become tired of doing it.
19. IMABIは漢字が多くて大変ですね。調べたそばから新しい漢字がいつも出てきます。もっとシンプルな漢字でだけ書かれていたらいいのに。
It's hard that IMABI has a lot of Kanji, isn't it? The moment I look one up, new Kanji always show up. If only it were written with just simple Kanji.
20. 習うそばから忘れてしまうので、ぜんぜん新しい単語が覚えられない。
Since as soon as I learn it I forget it, I can't learn any new words.
All of these items have a common theme, but don't let this confuse you! Pay attention to how these items are exactly used, and see if you can come up with a chart to differentiate them. Then, compare your chart to the one that ends this lesson.
~がてら either attaches to the 連用形 of a verb or to a noun. ~がてら shows that while you're doing something, you're also taking the opportunity to do something else. So, whatever it attaches to, there should be some sense of movement implied.
~がてら is primarily used with nouns that express an action of movement such as walking or shopping. Unlike ~ながら, ~がてら doesn't indicate that two things are simultaneous. In both cases, though, the two actions are happening in the same time period.
~がてら shows that things are happening in a relatively close time span. This is rather old-fashioned, so you probably will not see it often. However, it does show up in writing and the JLPT 1, so you still need to know what it is.
Examples
1. 散歩がてら友達と話し合う。
While taking a walk, I talk with my friend.
2. 散歩がてら買い物に行く。
While taking a walk, I go shopping.
3. 駅に行きがてら郵便局に立ち寄ります。
While going to the train station, I'll drop by the post office.
4. 教会に行きがてら、おじさんの家に寄ってきた。
While I went to church, I went to visit my uncle (on the way).
5. 散歩がてらちょっとピーマンを買いに行ってきます。
I'll get some peppers on my walk.
6. 外に行きがてら、手紙を出してきてくれない?
Can't you send out this letter as you go outside?
7. 友だちを駅まで送りがてら本を返してきた。
I returned a book back to my friend while I sent him to the train station.
8. 運動がてら犬の散歩に出かけたっけ。
You said you took the dog on a walk in exercising?
Grammar Note: When using a noun that can be made verbs by adding する, you shouldn't attach がてら to the 連用形. So, rather than ever saying 運動しがてら, simply use 運動がてら.
9. 暖かい日の
午過
食後の運動がてら水仙の水を
易
えてやろうと思って洗面所へ出て、水道の
栓
を
捩
っていると、その看護婦が受持の
室
の茶器を洗いに来て、例の通り
挨拶
をしながら、しばらく自分の手にした
朱泥
の
鉢
と、その中に盛り上げられたように
膨
れて見える
珠根
を眺めていたが、やがてその眼を自分の横顔に移して、この前御入院の時よりもうずっと御顔色が好くなりましたねと、三カ月前の自分と今の自分を比較したような批評をした。
Past noon on a warm day, I thought about watering the daffodil on going to exercise and went to the washroom, and when I had twisted the water nob, the nurse had come to wash the tea utensils of the room she was in charge of, and as she gave regular greetings, she gazed at the reddish-brown pot in my hand and the bulbs that seemed swollen up like they had been piled in there, but she finally moved her glance to my profile and gave the comment, “Your complexion has really improved lately since you came in the hospital”, which seemed to be a comparison of me now and three months ago.
From 変な音 by 夏目漱石.
Some usages of ~がてら, given that it has passed its heyday, may be questionable. If it is a situation seemingly not completely within one's free will, it can sound unnatural. In the following case, it would be natural if the meeting is most important to you and you just had to go on a 出張 for your own comfort.
10a. イギリスへの出張がてら、地球環境会議に出席しました。
10b. イギリスへの出張(の)ついでに、地球環境会議に出席しました。
On the occasion of going on a business trip to England, I attended a global environment meeting.
To reiterate, if there isn't a sense of moving, ~がてら becomes ungrammatical and you would have to use something else like ついでに (see below) or rephrase the sentence entirely.
11a. 食事がてらこの間話していた映画でも見に行こう。〇
11b. 食事がてらこの間話していた映画でも見よう。X
Let's go see the movie we've been talking about recently while out to dinner.
12. 散歩がてら(に)行って来よう。
I'll come by way of going on a walk.
Particle Note: You can also rarely see がてらに. This explicitly establishes a sense of direction/movement.
~かたがた: attaches to nouns. "Previously" or "on the occasion/same time as". It is mainly used with verbs related to movement such as 行く. Essentially, you do a certain thing on the occasion of tending to another prerogative. As you will see, this is typically only used in 敬語 in the form of あいさつ文. It can still be used in the sense of ~がてら by older speakers, which still makes it old-fashioned.
13. お礼かたがたご機嫌伺いをしてきましょう。
Let's go come and make an inquiry on good times for their previous gratitude to us.
14. 見舞いかたがた手伝いに行った。
On the occasion of inquiring on (him), I went to give some help.
15. お近くにお越しの節は、お遊びかたがた、お立ち寄りください。
Please stop by when you are near while on your excursion.
16. ご挨拶かたがたお宅に伺います。
I will come to your house as I give my salutations.
17. 散歩かたがた
On the same time as my walk
Usage Note: This suffix is normally replaced with something like ついでに in the spoken language.
漢字 Note: かたがた may also rarely be written as 旁(々).
Literally meaning "beside", 傍ら is after the 連体形 of verbs or the nominal form of a verb to show simultaneous action and is equivalent to "一方で…と同時に". 傍ら is often used with time frames that are much broader. This pattern implies that the first action is the primary action and the second is something that is also occurring in parallel with the first.
If you were to turn this into a verbal expression, they would all turn to "連用形+ながら". かたわら is used a lot in the written language whereas ~ながら would be used in the spoken language. The former is used a lot in regard to protagonists in describing their lifestyle backgrounds in novels. If a description was given for a character to only appear once, ~ながら would be used. The pattern Xは動詞+人の+かたわらで is also literary, and it is used in describing condition, but it is only describing place of activity. In this manner, the distance between X and A (動詞+人) is like the following with the right being larger: そば → 隣 → 横 → かたわら.
Examples
18. 道のかたわらで
Beside the road
19. 彼女は高校の数学の教師の傍ら、バレーボール部の
監督
をしています。
While she is a high school mathematics teacher, she is at the same time the volleyball department manager.
20. 私はスペイン語を習う傍ら、韓国語を習うことにしました。
Alongside Spanish, I have also decided to study Korean.
21a. 先生たちのかたわらで、彼らの
相談事
に耳を傾けていた。X
21b. 先生たちのそばで、彼らの相談事に耳を傾けていた。
I was listening to the side of the teachers discussing things.
22. 傍らに人なきがごとし。(Set Phrase)
Act outrageously as if no one is around.
Written as 次いで, ついで is a conjunction meaning "subsequently". Written as 序で, ついで is a noun meaning "opportunity". Building on this, 序でに means "incidentally".
23. 序でに
一言
言っておく。
To incidentally give a word about something in advance.
24. 開会式が終わりました。次いで、
競技
に移ります。
The opening ceremony ended. Subsequently/afterwards, we'll move to the events.
25. 「
一瞬
の
塵
」という歌に次いで「ヴェロニカ」というのは僕の好きな歌だよ。
After the song, "Dust of a Moment", my favorite song is called, "Velonica".
26. 序でがあったら、これを
渡
しておいてください。
If you have a chance, please send this to him.
~ついでに is somewhat interchangeable with ~がてら. However, they're not exactly the same. 「A-る・た・動作名詞(の)+ついでにB」 shows that the speaker does/wants to end up doing B as well in the case that A--a daily task, chore, duty, or obligation--has to be done. Using ~がてら has no such requirements. Rather, ~がてら is more like saying "Aというせっかくの機会だから、Bもしてみよう".
27a. 図書館へ本を返しに行くついでに、ジョギングする。
27b. 図書館へ本を返しに行きがてら、ジョギングする。
I'll go jogging while I go return the book/books to the library.
28a. 周
りの景色を楽しむついでに、山を下りた。X
28b. 周りの景色を楽しみがてら、山を下りた。〇
On the occasion of enjoying the surrounding scenery, I descended down the mountain.
When ついでに shows ordinariness, の may be dropped with 動作名詞 in the spoken language. Don't do this in writing unless you're writing a dialogue.
29. 登山ついでに、いろんな写真を撮ってみたよ。
I took all sorts of pictures when going mountain climbing.
Although context is crucial, there are instances when it doesn't have to be used with a 動作名詞, but the conditions mentioned above still apply.
30a. お風呂がてら、
浴槽
を洗っておいて。X
30b. お風呂ついでに、浴槽を洗っておいて。 〇
30c. お風呂のついでに、浴槽を洗っておいて。〇
When you get a bath, be sure to wash the tub.
31. 居間の
壁
のついでに、家の
外壁
も塗
る。
To paint the outside of the house on the occasion of (painting) the living room walls.
32a. 彼女を見
舞
うついでに、定期
健診
を受けてくる。
32b. 彼女を見舞いがてら、定期健診を受けてくる。
I'll get my regular medical check up on the occasion that I see her.
When reversed, only ついでに is possible because it's something you have an obligation for. In this situation, the order of events is unclear. It's also unclear whether the two events are happening in the same place or not. If in the same place, then the speaker would be taking the checkup in the midst of going to see about her.
It's thought to be that the two events are taking place at basically same time. However, when strictly speaking, taking the latter action as the standard point of time, one can express whether or not it is before, after, or at the same time as A. On the other hand, がてら limits interpretations to just getting both down during the time you're at the same hospital/facility.
When the non-past tense is used before ついでに, A and B can either be happening at the same time or B happens before A. When the past tense is used before ついでに, B happens after A.
33. 友達の家へ行くついでに、海岸で泳いだ。
I swam in the ocean on the occasion of going to my friend's house.
Note: The swimming can be simultaneous to going to your friend's house or before.
34a. こっちへ来るついでに、
土産
を買ってきてほしいんだけど。
34b. こっちへ来たついでに、土産を買ってきてほしいんだけど。X
You want someone as they are to come over to get a souvenir. Why on Earth would you want a souvenir from your own place anyway? Is that even a possible usage of the word 土産? No! In reality, speakers, even when B is after A, will use the non-past with ついでに because of the previous statement that the two actions are usually deemed as happening basically at the same time. This practical interchangeability, though, is in regards to 瞬間動詞.
35.
花瓶
を壊すついでに、それらの皿も壊しといてくれないか?
While you destroy the vase, can't you also break those plates?
Consider the following where the opposite situation holds: flipping them potentially makes ついでに ungrammatical. It just so happens that the following sentences don't have this problem as both directions are logical. The meanings of these phrases are summarized below, so don't think that all of these mean the same things.
36a. 実家に帰るついでに遊んできた。〇
36b. 実家に帰ったついでに遊んできた。〇
36c. 実家に帰りがてら、遊んできた。〇
36d. 遊ぶついでに、実家に帰ってきた。〇
36e. 遊んだついでに、実家に帰ってきた。△
36f. 遊びがてら、実家に帰ってきた。〇
がてら VS ついでに VS かたわら VS かたがた VS ながら
Hopefully you've seen a lot of differences and overlap between these phrases. So, to summarize, here is a chart to act as your cheat sheet on how to distinguish.
Phrase | Characteristics of A | Importance | Time Ordering | Period |
A+ながら+B | Ordinary | A≦B | Same time | One scene |
A+かたわら+B | Ordinary | A>B | Parallel | Long time |
A+かたがた+B | Unordinary | A=B | Same time | Short time |
A+ついでに+B | Obligatory | A>B | Before or after or same | Short time |
A+がてら+B | Pleasure | 不明 | Same time | Short distance |
The conjunctive particle に is usually ignored in Japanese studies, but it is not that difficult. In this lesson, we will learn all about how exactly it is used. Some of its usages are actually really important.
In Classical Japanese, に was used along with を and が almost interchangeably to mean “but”. Or, it would be after the 連体形 of verbs just as other case particles could. So, just as のに has two interpretations in Modern Japanese, the conjunctive に had two potential meanings.
1. 十月
晦日
なるに、
紅葉
散らで
盛
りなり。
Though it’s already the end of the tenth month (of the lunar calendar), colored leaves have not scattered; they're at peak.
From the
更級
日記.
The first usage we will look at is how this に is used to show a prelude to an utterance. The most common example of this is the phrase 要 するに, which essentially means “long story short” or “in brief”. The next most common example is 思うに, which means "presumably/upon thought". The similar 考えるに meaning "in considering" is not used as much. You can also say 推測 するに (in presuming) and 想像するに (in imagining). These phrases are often used in formal situations as well as in arguments. Rarer examples show up in writing.
2. 思うに、
喧嘩
は僕のせいだった。
Upon reflection, the fight was my fault.
3. 思うに、これがAさんの
本性
なのだ。
Presumably, this is A-san’s nature.
4.
響
きから想像するに、バタフリーというポケモンは
蝶
のような姿をしているのだろう。
Imagining from its sound, the pokemon named Butterfree probably has the appearance of a butterfly.
5. 考えるには、ポケモンと一緒に戦って成長することが一番大事である。
In consideration, battling and growing with one’s pokemon is most important.
6. この記述から想像するに、ホエルオーはスタジアムよりも大きいね。
Imagining it from this description, Wailord is bigger than a stadium, right?
7. 要するに、これがあなたの言いたいことでしょう。
In short, this is what you want to say, no?
8.
状況
から推測するに、その位置も安定している。
Judging from the conditions, that position is also stable.
9. 思うに、ポケモンは
本能的
に進化するのだ!
Upon thought, pokemon instinctively evolve!
10. 要するに、このゲームはポケモンという生き物を
捕
まえて、育てて、対戦するゲームなんだね。
In short, this game is a game you catch creatures called Pokemon and then raise and battle with them.
11. 見た目から推測するに、ピカチュウは電気タイプのポケモンだろう。
Judging from appearance, Pikachu is probably an electric type pokemon.
12. 調査結果から推測するに、今回の噴火が起こった原因はヒードランの復活のためでしょう。
Judging from the investigation results, the case of this last eruption is probably due to the revival of Heatran.
13. 要するに、モンスターボールでポケモンが
捕
まえられる。
In short, you can catch pokemon with pokeballs.
14. 私が考えるに、この
案
には問題がある。
In my thought, there is a problem in this plan.
15. この大きさから(想像)するに、この
貝
は100年は生きてきたのだろう。
Judging from the size, this shellfish has probably lived at least 100 years.
16. 要するに、注意しろということだ。
Long story short, this is about paying attention.
17. 要するに、答えはノーだった。
In short, the answer was no.
18. 地理的に予想するに寒そうな場所だね。
Judging geographically, it seems like a cold place.
19. 想像(する)に
難
くない (書き言葉)
Not difficult to imagine
The pattern “verb in 連体形 + に + same verb in negative potential” is extremely common in Japanese and can essentially be used with any verb you can put in the potential form. What this pattern means is that although you want to do X, you can't for whatever reason. Usually, the reason is circumstantial.
20. 売るに売れないものだ。
It’s something I can't sell even if I wanted to.
21. 今朝からずっと雨で、行くに行けない。
It’s been raining ever since this morning, and so I just can't go.
22. 歌うに歌えない歌詞
Lyrics that one just can't sing
23. 行くに行けない雰囲気になった。
The atmosphere became one that I couldn't go.
24. 帰るに帰れないかもなあ。
Looks like I/we can't go home…
25. トイレに行くに行けない状況になった時は、精神的にかなりきつい。
It’s psychologically very tense whenever you’re in a situation you can't go to the restroom.
26. 泣くに泣けない
凡
ミスだった。
It was a trivial mistake too bitter to cry about.
27.
越
すに越されぬ大きな川
A river impossible to traverse
~ようにも show supposition and is equivalent to "しても". It is extremely common and is often followed with something that relates to incapability. This can also be found in the negative as ~まいにも. This, though, is not really used anymore.
28. 起きようにも起きられなかった。
I couldn’t get up even if I tried.
29. プールの中で歩こうにも中々
抵抗
で歩けない。
Even if you walk inside a pool, you can't quite walk even with significant resistance.
30. 歌を歌おうにも
高音
が出にくい。
Even if I try to sing the song, it’s hard to reach the high tones.
31. 急ごうにも急げる体でもない。
I’m not in the physical condition to be able to hurry.
32.
履歴書
を書こうにも電話番号の記入は
必須
だから、携帯が無いと履歴書を作れない。
Even if I were to write a resume, because phone number is a required field, if I don’t have a cellphone, I can't make a resume.
33. 今から就職活動しようにも、やりたい事もないし資格とかも持っていない。
Even if I were to start looking for a job now, there’s nothing I want to do or really have the qualifications for.
34.
塾
で学んだ事を復習させようにも、ほとんど時間が確保出来ない。
Even if I were to have (the students) review what they've learned in cram school, I could not secure hardly any time.
35. 家出をしようにもお金がないよ。
Even if run away, you don't have any money.