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初級
第51課: Adjectives III: No-Adjectival Nouns ノ形容詞
第52課: Adjectives: Ōi 多い & Sukunai 少ない
第54課: Counters III (Time: Part I): 日, 週間, 月, 年, Etc.
第55課: Counters IV (Time: Part II): 時, 時間, 分, 秒, 晩, 夜
第56課: Basic Absolute Time Phrases
第57課: Kara, Node, & Noda: から, ので, & のだ
第60課: Adnominal Adjectives: /i/ vs /na/
第62課: After I: Ato あと, Nochi のち, Te kara てから
第65課: Transitivity I: Different Transitive & Intransitive Forms
第66課: The Particle To: と II: Citation
第76課: The Conjunctive Particles が & けれど
第78課: 語尾 II: わ, な, と, の, さ, ぞ, ぜ, & え
第79課: Start to: ~始める, ~出す, & ~かける
第80課: End: ~終わる・終える, ~やむ, & ~上がる・上げる
第81課: Whenever: 毎~, ~毎に, & ~おきに
第86課: The Non-Question "How": ~かた
第87課: Interrogatives II: The Question "How"
第88課: Interrogatives III: With Particles
第94課: Plural こそあど: これら, それら, & あれら
第95課: Te て With Giving Verbs: ~てあげる, ~てくれる, & ~てもらう
第97課: Counters V: 文字, クラス, 品, 桁, 切れ, 玉, 房, 株, 袋, 箱, 棟, 組み, 皿, 束, & 通り
第98課: Counters VI: 羽, 部, 戸, 発, 軒, 人前, 丁, 本, 点, 泊, 通, 尾, 駅, & 兆
第99課: Want and Feeling I: ~たい & ほしい
In our coverage of “adjectival nouns ( 形容動詞 ),” we looked at a class of words that behave as adjectives but are etymologically nouns that use the copula to behave as such. The topic of adjectival nouns, though, does not stop with adjectives that use the copula to modify nouns. There are also many words that are adjectival that look like nouns but use no の to modify nouns and ni に to modify verbs as adverbs. In essence, they're hybrids of nouns and adjectives.
This lesson will focus on those words as well as their close connection to na-adjectival nouns. Although distinguishing between these two groups of words is often impossible to do, you'll learn more about the real dynamics of Japanese adjectives.
Nouns ・修行 Shugyō – (Ascetic) training/discipline ・人生 Jinsei – (Human) life ・意味 Imi – Meaning ・人 Hito – Person ・ブッダ(仏陀)Budda – (A) Buddha ・生活 Seikatsu – Life/livelihood ・噂 Uwasa – Rumor ・車内アナウンス Shanai anaunsu – Train announcement ・喋り方 Shaberikata – Way of speaking ・音程 Ontei – Pitch/interval ・夕暮れ前 Yūgure-mae – Before dusk ・空 Sora – Sky ・使い方 Tsukaikata – Way to use ・注意 Chūi – Attention ・注射 Chūsha – Shot/injection ・土鍋 Donabe – Earthenware pot ・底 Soko – Bottom ・左足 Hidariashi – Left foot ・右足 Migiashi – Right foot ・ブレーキ Burēki - Break ・アクセル Akuseru - Accelerator ・景気 Keiki - Business ・時期 Jiki – Time/period ・場所 Basho – Place ・株式 Kabushiki – Stock (company) ・価格 Kakaku – Price/value/cost ・大学 Daigaku – University/college ・大人 Otona – Adult ・最初 Saisho – Beginning ・態度 Taido – Attitude ・感じ Kanji - Feeling ・鶏肉 Toriniku - Poultry ・俎板 Manaita - Cutting board ・ボール Bōru – Bowl/ball ・調理器具 Chōri kigu – Cooking ware ・新興国 Shinkōkoku – Emerging nation ・経済 Keizai – Economy ・成長 Seichō – Growth/development ・食文化 Shokubunka – Food culture/cuisine ・舌Shita – Tongue/palate ・必要 Hitsuyō - Necessity ・料理 Ryōri – Cuisine/cookery ・思い込み Omoikomi – Assumption ・専業主婦 Sengyō shufu - Housewife ・措置 Sochi – Measure ・女性 Josei – Female ・就労 Shūrō – Being employed ・意欲 Iyoku – Will/desire/urge ・結果 Kekka – Result/effect ・症状 Shōjō – Symptom(s) ・叔父 Oji – Uncle (younger than one’s parent) ・家 Ie – House/home ・雨 Ame – Rain ・髪 Kami – Hair ・色 Iro - Color ・草原 Sōgen - Grassland ・裏側 Uragawa – Back(side) ・黒 Kuro – Black ・服 Fuku - Clothes ・体 Karada – Body ・健康 Kenkō – Health ・状態 Jōtai – Condition ・心臓 Shinzō – Heart ・森Mori – Forest ・奴 Yatsu – Guy ・進化 Shinka – Evolution ・発展 Hatten – Development/advancement ・人間 Ningen – Human ・関係 Kankei – Relation ・意見 Iken - Opinion ・種類 Shurui – Species ・哺乳類 Honyūrui – Mammal ・鳥 Tori – Bird ・担当者 Tantōsha – Manager ・テクニック Tekunikku – Technique ・立場 Tachiba – Position/footing ・貿易 Bōeki – Trade ・こと Koto – Thing/incident/situation ・太陽 Taiyō – Sun ・恩恵 Onkei – Grace/favor ・判断 Handan – Judgment ・お酒 Osake – Liquor ・運動 Undō – Exercise ・現象 Genshō – Phenomenon ・友達 Tomodachi – Friend(s) ・別れ Wakare – Parting/Separation ・相性 Aishō – Affinity ・女神 Megami – Goddess ・彼氏 Kareshi – Boyfriend Pronouns ・私達 Watashitachi - We Proper Nouns ・関東人 Kantōjin - Kanto(ite) ・日本人 Nihonjin – Japanese person Question Words ・誰にでも Dare ni demo – Anyone Demonstratives ・この Kono – This (adj.) ・こういう Kō iu – Like this ・あの Ano – That (over there) (adj.) ・あそこ Asoko – That over there Adjectives ・厳しい Kibishii – Harsh/strict ・浅い Asai – Shallow ・薄い Usui – Thin/pale ・良い Yoi – Good ・麗しい Uruwashii – Beautiful/lovely Number Phrases ・二人 Futari – Two people |
Adjectival Nouns
・本当{の}Hontō [no] – Actual/true/real ・大変{な}Taihen [na] – Serious/hard/immense ・独特{な・の} Dokutoku [na/no] – Unique/peculiar ・特別{な・の}Tokubetsu [na/no] – Especial ・普通{の}Futsū [no] – Ordinary/general ・四角{の・な} Shikaku [no/na] - Square ・連日{の} Renjitsu [no] – Prolonged/every day ・一般{の} Ippan [no]- General ・一流{の} Ichiryū [no] – First-class/top grade ・大人{の・な}Otona [no/na] – Adult(-like) ・最初{の} Saisho [no] - First ・苦手{な} Nigate [na] – Bad at ・生{の・な} Nama [no/na] – Raw/unprocessed/live/crude/unprotected ・他{の}Ta/hoka [no] - Other ・多く{の} Ōku [no] - A lot ・高度{な・の}Kōdo [na/no] – Sophisticated ・それぞれ{の} Sorezore [no] – Each ・必要{な}Hitsuyō [na] – Necessary ・世界中{の}Sekai-jū [no] – Worldwide ・NG{な}Enujii [na] – Not good ・優遇{の}Yūgū [no] – Preferential ・皮肉{な} Hiniku [na] – Ironic ・個別{の}Kobetsu [no] – Individual ・緑色{の}Midori’iro [no] – Green ・黒{の}Kuro [no] – Black ・健康{な}Kenkō [na] – Healthy ・鮮やか{な}Azayaka [na] – Vivid/vibrant ・大量{の}Tairyō [no] – Large amount of ・地球上{の}Chikyūjō [no] – On Earth ・色々{な・の}Iroiro [na/no] – Various ・急速{な}Kyūsoku [na] – Rapid ・別{の・な}Betsu [no/na] – Different ・対等{な・の}Taitō [na/no] – Equal ・当たり前{な・の}Atarimae [na/no] – Obvious ・当然{な・の}Tōzen [na/no] – Obvious ・平気{な}Heiki [na] – Calm/fine ・大丈夫{な}Daijōbu [na] – Alright ・適度{な・の}Tekido [na/no] – Moderate (amount) ・不思議{な}Fushigi [na] – Mysterious ・永遠{の}Eien [no] – Eternal ・仲良し{の}Nakayoshi [no] – Close/intimate ・最悪{の・な}Saiaku [no/na] – Worst Adverbs ・わざと Waza to – On purpose ・若干 Jakkan – Somewhat ・最初から Saisho kara – From the beginning ・ごく Goku – Quite ・ちょっと Chotto – A little ・そのまま Sono mama – As is ・延々と En’en to – Endlessly ・必ず Kanarazu – Always ・極めて Kiwamete – Extremely ・今日 Kyō – Today ・今週 Konshū – This week (ru) Ichidan Verbs ・積み重ねる Tsumikasaneru – To pile up (trans.) ・上げる Ageru – To raise (trans.) ・別ける Wakeru – To divide/split/share/distinguish (trans.) ・触れる Fureru – To touch (intr.) ・やめる Yameru – To stop (trans.) ・食べる Taberu – To eat (trans.) ・認める Mitomeru – To recognize (trans.) ・着る Kiru – To wear (trans.) ・遂げる Togeru – To achieve/accomplish (trans.) ・いる Iru – To be (animate and live) (trans.) ・出る Deru – To leave/appear/emerge/come up (intr.) ・起きる Okiru – To get up/occur (intr.) ・別れる Wakareru – To separate/break up (intr.) (u) Godan Verbs ・悟る Satoru – To be enlightened/discern (trans.) ・なる Naru – To be(come) (intr.) ・払う Harau – To pay (attention/money)/brush off (trans.) ・立ち入る Tachi’iru – To enter/trespass (int.) ・違う Chigau – To be different/wrong (intr.) ・取るToru – To take (trans.) ・残る Nokoru – To be left (intr.) ・焼くYaku – To burn/bake/toast/heat up/tan/burn (disc) (trans.) ・習う Narau – To take lessons in (trans.) ・持つ Motsu – To hold/possess (trans.) ・招く Maneku – To invite/beckon (trans.) ・削ぐ Sogu – To chip off/discourage (trans.) ・保つ Tamotsu – To preserve (trans.) ・広がる Hirogaru – To extend/stretch (intr.) ・行う Okonau – To perform/conduct (trans.) ・棲む Sumu – To inhabit (intr.) ・思う Omou – To think (trans.) ・言う Iu – To say (trans.) suru Verbs ・留学(を)する Ryūgaku (wo) suru – To study abroad (intr.) ・アナウンスする Anaunsu suru – To announce (trans.) ・運転する Unten suru – To drive (trans.) ・下落する Geraku suru – To depreciate (intr.) ・入学する Nyūgaku suru – To enroll (intr.) ・調理する Chōri suru – To prepare (food) (trans.) ・指定する Shitei suru – To designate/specify (trans.) ・料理する Ryōri suru – To cook ・対する Tai suru – To face/be directed toward/contrast with (intr.) ・管理する Kanri suru – To manage ・対応する Taiō suru – To handle ・構築する Kōchiku suru – To construct Set Phrases ・鼻にかかった Hana ni kakatta – Nasal ・特別の機関 Tokubetsu no kikan – Attached organization ・百薬の長 Hyakuyaku no chō – Chief of medicines ・不思議の国 Fushigi no kuni – Wonderland ・ようこそ Yōkoso – Welcome |
At first glance, many no-adjectives seem to share the same functions that na-adjectival nouns have. These so-called no-adjectives may be used to modify nouns, form the predicate of a sentence, or even be used adverbially by switching out no の with ni に.
1.
厳
しい
修行
を
積
み
重
ねて
人生
の
本当
の
意味
を
悟
った
人
を「ブッダ」と
言
います。
Kibishii shugyō wo tsumikasanete jinsei no hontō no imi wo satotta hito wo "Budda" to iimasu.
We call people who have built up rigid discipline and have become enlightened about the true meaning of life a "Buddha."
2.
留学生活
は
本当
に
大変
でした。
Ryūgaku seikatsu wa hontō ni taihen deshita.
Life while studying abroad was really tough.
3. あの
噂
は
本当
だった。
Ano uwasa wa hontō datta.
That rumor was true.
4.
車内
アナウンスをする人たちは、わざと
鼻
にかかった
独特
の
喋
り
方
で
音程
を
上
げてアナウンスしているんですよ。
Shanai anaunsu wo suru hitotachi wa, waza to hana ni kakatta dokutoku no shaberikata de ontei wo agete anaunsu shite iru n desu yo.
Train announcers purposely do the announcements with a raised pitch by speaking in a peculiarly nasal fashion.
5.
夕暮
れ
前
の
空
は
独特
でした。
Yūgure-mae no sora wa dokutoku deshita.
The sky before dusk was peculiar.
6.
使
い
方
も
若干独特
になっています。
Tsukaikata mo jakkan dokutoku ni natte imasu.
How to use it is also somewhat peculiar.
7.
特別
に
注意
を
払
ってください。
Tokubetsu ni chūi wo haratte kudasai.
Pay especial attention.
8.
普通
の
土鍋
と
違
って
底
が
四角
で、
浅
いのです。
Futsū no donabe to chigatte soko ga shikaku de, asai no desu.
Different from a regular earthenware pot, the bottom of (this one) is square and shallow.
9.
連日注射
はごく
普通
ですよ。
Renjitsu chūsha wa goku futsū desu yo.
Prolonged shots are quite normal.
Grammar Note: At times, no の is omitted from no-adjective phrases like in renjitsu chuusha 連日注射. This is very common when the resultant phrase is four characters or longer and when said resultant phrase semantically refers to a particular concept.
10.
最初
から
左足
でブレーキ、
右足
でアクセルと
別
けて
普通
に
運転
しています。
Saisho kara hidariashi de burēki, migashi de akuseru to wakete futsū ni unten shite imasu.
I’ve been driving like normal from the beginning by putting my left foot on the break and my right foot on the accelerator.
11. あそこは
一般
の
人
が
立
ち
入
れない
場所
です。
Asoko wa ippan no hito ga tachi’irenai basho desu.
That place over there can't be entered by people at large.
Grammar Note: Tachi’ireru 立ち入れる is the potential (can) form of the verb tachi’iru 立ち入る, which is used to mean “enter” usually in the sense of “to trespass.”
12.
一般
に
景気
が
悪
い
時期
には
株式
の
価格
が
下落
します。
Ippan ni keiki ga warui jiki ni wa kabushiki no kakaku ga geraku shimasu.
Generally when business is bad, the stock price/stock prices goes down.
13.
一流
の
大学
に
入学
しました。
Ichiryū no daigaku ni nyūgaku shita.
I enrolled into a first class university.
No の or Na な
Many no-adjectival nouns can also be used as na-adjectival nouns instead. The nuance will tend to be different, but the interchangeability is still there.
14.
本当
に
大人
な
人
が
苦手
です。
Hontō ni otona na hito ga nigate desu.
I’m bad with really adult-like people.
15.
誰
にでも
大人
の
態度
を
取
っていますか。
Dare ni demo otona no taido wo totte imasu ka?
Do you take an adult attitude with anyone?
16. ちょっと
生
な
感
じが
残
っている。
Chotto nama na kanji ga nokotte iru.
There’s still a somewhat uncooked/unprocessed/unpolished feel to it.
Meaning Note: The meaning of nama 生 can be quite varied, which is why context is needed to know how it’s meant.
17.
生
の
鶏肉
に
触
れた
俎板
や
ボ
ー
ル
などの
調理器具
はそのまま
他
の
調理
に
使用
することはやめましょう。
Nama no toriniku ni fureta manaita ya bōru nado no chōri kigu wa sono mama hoka no chōri ni shiyō suru koto wa yamemashō.
Let's stop using cookware, such as cutting boards and bowls, that have come in contact with raw poultry when preparing other dishes.
Grammar Note: The ending -mashō ましょう is used in this context to create a general polite suggestion for everyone to follow. It is the "let's" in the translation.
18.
世界中
の
新興国
はそれぞれ
高度
の
経済成長
を
目指
しています。
Sekaijū no shinkōkoku wa sorezore kōdo no keizai seichō wo mezashite imasu.
Developing countries worldwide are each aiming for rapid economic growth.
19.
私
たち
関東人
は、
高度
な
食文化
と
舌
を
持
っているんですよ。
Watashitachi kantōjin wa, kōdo na shokubunka to shita wo motte iru n desu yo.
We Kanto-ites possess a sophisticated cuisine and palate.
20.
特別
の
機関
を
指定
する
必要
は
認
めない。
Tokubetsu no kikan wo shitei suru hitsuyō wa mitomenai.
(We) do not recognize the need to designate an Attached Organization.
Meaning Note: An “Attached Organization” is an organization in the Japanese government established for some specific purpose.
21.
多
くのテクニックや
特別
な
料理
を
習
いました。
Ōku no tekunikku ya tokubetsu na ryōri wo naraimashita.
I was taught on a lot of techniques and special cuisines.
No not Allowed
Conversely, not all na-adjectival nouns can be used as no-adjectival nouns instead.
22.
勝手
{な ○ ・ の X}
思
い
込
みはNG!
Katte [na ○ /no X] omoikomi wa NG!
Arbitrary assumptions are no good!
23.
専業主婦
に
対
する
優遇措置
が、
女性
の
就労意欲
を
削
ぐ
皮肉
{な ○ ・ の X}
結果
を
招
いている。
Sengyō shufu ni tai suru yūgū sochi ga, josei no shūrō iyoku wo sogu hiniku [na ○ /no X] kekka wo maneite iru.
Preferential treatment toward housewives has brought about the ironic effect of weakening female desire to work.
Na → NG
There are some no-adjectives that can never have no の be replaced by na な. There are instances where switching them is grammatically incorrect.
24. それぞれ{の ○・な X}
個別
{の ○・な X}
症状
が
出
ることがあります。
Sorezore [no ○/na X] kobetsu [no ○/na X] shōjō ga deru koto ga arimasu.
Individual symptoms of each occasionally occur.
Grammar Note: Koto ga aru ことがある, when after the non-past tense of a verb, is used to show "occasional behavior."
25.
叔父
の
家
でさっき
大量
{の ○・な X}の
雨
が
降
っていました。
Oji no ie de sakki tairyō [no ○/na X] ame ga futte imashita.
There was a massive amount of rain just now at my uncle’s house.
Noun or Adjective?
Sometimes, telling whether a no の should be treated as a noun or an adjective is not easy. The best way to figure this out is by thinking about the phrase's English equivalent. For instance, in the phrase "hair color," both "hair" and "color" are recognized as nouns, but in this phrase, "hair" is an attribute to color. As such, treating it as an adjective-like noun phrase would be appropriate.
26.
黒
の
服
を
着
る。(Adjective?)
Kuro no fuku wo kiru.
To wear black clothes.
27.
日本人
の
髪
の
色
は
黒
ですね。 (Noun?)
Nihonjin no kami no iro wa kuro desu ne.
Japanese hair color is black, isn’t it.
28.
鮮
やかな
緑色
の
草原
が
延々
と
広
がっていた。 (Adjective?)
Azayaka na midori’iro no sōgen ga en’en to hirogatte ita.
A vibrant, green grassland endlessly stretched out.
29.
裏側
は
緑色
が
薄
くなっている。 (Noun?)
Uragawa wa midori’iro ga usuku natte iru.
On the back, the green is light.
30.
体
を
健康
な
状態
に
保
つ。 (Adjective?)
Karada wo kenkō na jōtai ni tamotsu.
To keep one’s body healthy.
31.
心臓
の
健康
の
状態
を
管理
する。 (Noun?)
Shinzō no kenkō no jōtai wo kanri suru.
To manage the condition of one’s heart.
Interchangeability of No の and Na な
Even when it may be standard to use either na な or no の, variation will still exist between the two.The motivations for why na な is used in place of no の when either is possible, or when the latter is deemed standard form, are as follows:
1. The use of na な strengthens the sense that one is qualifying the phrase that follows.
2. The use of na な becomes more casual, especially when it is not the “standard” choice.
3. Generally speaking, na な is typically softer and subjective in nature whereas no の can sound colder, more objective, and stiff.
4. No の may feel simply as a mere connector of phrases whereas na な can embed some of the speaker’s feelings on top of functioning as a modifier.
The difference between the two largely falls on the feeling of the individual. Whenever either can be used, a semantic space is opened up to meet the emotional needs of the context. If you are ever corrected on the use of na な vs. no の, the cadence and tone of what you are saying will likely be faulty rather than the choice itself being fundamentally wrong.
In the following sentences, the adjectival nouns used can either use na な or no の, but the choice between the two is made based on the guidelines above.
32.
地球上
に
色々
の
種類
の
哺乳類
が
急速
に
進化発展
を
遂
げました。
Chikyūjō ni iroiro no shurui no honyūrui ga kyūsoku ni shinka hatten wo togemashita.
Various species of mammals on Earth have undergone rapid evolutionary development.
33. この
森
には
色々
な
鳥
が
棲
んでいます。
Kono mori ni wa iroiro na tori ga sunde imasu.
There are various kinds of birds that live in this forest.
34.
別
な
意見
を
言
う
奴
がいても、
平気
です。
Betsu na iken wo iu yatsu ga ite mo, heiki desu.
I’m fine even if there’s a guy with a different opinion.
35.
別
の
担当者
が
対応
しても
大丈夫
です。
Betsu no tantōsha ga taiō shite mo daijōbu desu.
It’s okay if a different manager handles it.
36.
対等
な
人間関係
を
構築
する。
Taitō na ningen kankei wo kōchiku suru.
To build equal human relations.
37.
対等
の
立場
で
貿易
を
行
う。
Taitō no tachiba de bōeki wo okonau.
To conduct trade on equal footing.
38. こういう
当
たり
前
なことを
言
う
人
は
必
ずいるよね。
Kō iu atarimae na koto wo iu hito wa kanarazu iru yo ne.
There’s always a person who says obvious things like this, huh.
39.
私
たち
人間
は
太陽
の
恩恵
を
当
たり
前
のことだと
思
っています。
Watashitachi ningen wa taiyō no onkei wo atarimae no koto da to omotte imasu.
We humans think of the benefits of the Sun as something of the ordinary.
40.
極
めて
当然
な
判断
だと
思
います。
Kiwamete tōzen na handan da to omoimasu.
I think it is an extremely obvious judgment.
41.
当然
の
結果
が
出
ました。
Tōzen no kekka ga demashita.
The obvious results were made.
42.
適度
のお
酒
は、「
百薬
の
長
」なのです。
Tekido no osake wa,"hyakuyaku no chō” na no desu.
That’s because a moderate amount of liquor is the chief of all medicines.
43.
適度
な
運動
は
体
によいです。
Tekido na undō wa karada ni yoi desu.
Moderate exercise is good for the body.
Set Phrases
Sometimes, variation is typically restricted to set phrases, with one being restricted and the other one being the overwhelming used option.
44. 不思議の国へようこそ。
Fushigi no kuni e yōkoso.
Welcome to Wonderland.
45. 不思議{な 〇・の X}現象が起きた。
Fushigi [na 〇/no X] genshō ga okita.
A mysterious phenomenon has occurred.
Na vs. No: Dependent Clause
While there is great variation as to whether one should use no の or na な, the decision as to which should be used shifts almost entirely to na な whenever it functions as the end of a dependent clause modifying a noun. For example, in Ex. 46 kareshi 彼氏 is being modified by [aishō ga saiaku da 相性が最悪だ], which makes saiaku 最悪 seem more like a noun that happens to be next to the copula in the form of na な.
46. 今週、相性が最悪な彼氏と別れました。
Konshu, aishō ga saiaku na kareshi to wakaremashita.
This week, I broke up with my boyfriend who I had the worst compatibility with.
Adjective + No の
There is a small handful of adjectives with which no の attaches itself in peculiar ways. One such example is nakayoshi 仲良し, the original form of naka ga ii 仲がいい. This can in fact be used as a no-adjective as seen below.
47.
今日
も
2
人
は
仲良
しだった。
Kyō mo futari wa nakayoshi datta.
The two got along well today as well.
48.
仲良
しの
友達
がいない。
Nakayoshi no tomodachi ga inai.
I don’t have any close friends.
Lastly, though they are few in number, there are examples of no の attaching to the stem of adjectives in literary language. They are always replaceable with something else, but they’re interesting to know about.
49a.
永
の
別
れとなった。(Old-fashioned/literary)
Naga no wakare to natta.
49b.
永遠
の
別
れとなった。
Eien no wakare to natta.
It became an eternal separation.
50.
麗
しの
女神
Uruwashi no megami
An outstandingly beautiful goddess
The adjectives ōi 多い and sukunai 少ない respectively mean “many” and “few” respectively. As straight forward as that may seem, using these words poses its own problems.
i.
多
い
友達
がいます。X
Ōi tomodachi ga imasu.
I have many friends.
ii.
地元
には
少
ない
店舗
があります。X
Jimoto ni wa sukunai tempo ga arimasu.
There are few stores at my home town.
As these examples show, they cannot be used like all other adjectives in directly modifying a noun like kawaii 可愛い (cute) can.
iii. あのカメは
可愛
いですね。
Ano kame wa kawaii desu ne.
That turtle is cute, isn’t it?
iv.
教室
には
可愛
いカメがいます。
Kyōshitsu ni wa kawaii kame ga imasu.
There is a cute turtle in the classroom.
In this lesson, we will look intently at what exactly defines these adjectives and how they are unique. We will now investigate further into how these two adjectives are used so that you don’t fall victim to the many mistakes that few students don’t end up making.
Interestingly, both ōi 多い and sukunai 少ない may be used at the end of the sentence without problem, but they differ regarding their ability to precede nouns.
1.
公園
にはベンチが
多
いです。
Kōen ni wa benchi ga ōi desu.
There are many benches in the park.
2.
公園
には、
多
いベンチがあります。X
Kōen ni wa, ōi benchi ga arimasu.
There are many benches in the park.
3. この
周辺
には、ベンチが
多
い
公園
があります。
Kono shūhen ni wa, benchi ga oi kōen ga arimasu.
There is a park with many benches nearby.
4.
私
はお
金
が
少
ないです。
Watashi wa okane ga sukunai desu.
I have little money.
5.
少
ないお
金
で
暮
らす
人
がたくさんいます。
Sukunai okane de kurasu hito ga takusan imasu.
There is a lot of people who live with little money.
6.
店舗
が
少
ないところに
住
んでいます。
Tempo ga sukunai tokoro ni sunde imasu.
I live in a place where there are few stores.
As you can see, it is not always the case that sukunai 少ない can't directly precede and modify a noun. It also happens to be the case that both can be before a noun if part of a dependent clause modifying a noun.
Grammatical Restraint
Because these adjectives indicate quantity/size of something, there must be an element in the sentence indicating what the quantity/size is. When using these adjectives as the predicate of the sentence, you must use the pattern "X wa Y ga Z", with these adjectives being Z. The subject can only be dropped if the information has already been supplemented in context.
7. シアトルでは
雨
が
多
いです。
Shiatoru de wa ame ga ōi desu.
There is a lot of rain in Seattle.
Word Note: Both ōi 多い and sukunai 少ない can be used to indicate frequency.
8. テキサス
州
では
雨
が
少
ないです。
Tekisasu-shū de wa ame ga sukunai desu.
There is little rain in Texas.
9.
沖縄
の
料理
は
量
が
多
いですね。
Okinawa no ryōri wa ryō ga ōi desu ne.
The portions are large in Okinawan cuisine.
10. なぜ
高級料理
は
量
が
少
ないのですか。
Naze kōkyū ryōri wa ryō ga sukunai no desu ka?
Why is it that the portions are small in high class cuisine?
Word Note: Unlike in English, the word ryō 量 (quantity) and any word with it are used as if they are countable entities. This is because aside from meaning that there is “few” or “many” of something, they may also indicate the size of quantity. Incidentally, chiisai 小さい and ōkii 大きい may occasionally be used in relation to physical entities, but sukunai 少ない and ōi 多い are used almost always.
11.
建物
が
多
いです。(?)
Tatemono ga ōi desu.
There are many buildings.
12.
漢字
が
少
ないです。(?)
Kanji ga sukunai desu.
There are few Kanji.
Context Note: If the context as for what the quantity statement these adjectives describe is not clear, obvious, and or stated, their use becomes ungrammatical. This, however, is no different than English.
13. 「
東京
はどうでしたか。」「
建物
が
多
かったです。」
“Tōkyō wa dō deshita ka?” “Tatemono ga ōkatta desu.”
“How was Tokyo?” “There were many buildings.”
14. 「
町
の
市場
はどうですか」「
大
きい
魚
が
少
ないです」
“Machi no ichiba wa dō desu ka?” “Ōkii sakana ga sukunai desu.”
“How is the town’s market?” “There are few large fish.”
Now let’s return to how these adjectives are used to directly modify nouns.
15. ムンバイは
人口
が
多
い
街
です。
Mumbai wa jinkō ga ōi machi desu.
Mumbai is a town with a large population.
16. ムンバイは
多
い
街
です。X
Mumbai wa ōi machi desu.
Mumbai is a large town.
17.
画数
が
少
ない
漢字
が
多
い。
Kakusū ga sukunai kanji ga ōi.
There are many Kanji with few strokes.
18.
画数
が
多
い
漢字
は、
実
は、
多
くありません。
Kakusū ga ōi kanji wa, jitsu wa, ōku arimasen.
As for Kanji with many strokes, in actuality, there aren’t that many.
19.
少
ない
漢字
は
画数
が
多
くありません。X
Sukunai kanji wa kakusu ga oku arimasen.
Few Kanji don’t have many strokes.
The reason for why sukunai 少ない and ōi 多い are incapable of directly modifying nouns is that they don’t express the attributes of something. They solely describe quantity. When they are in dependent clauses which then modify a noun, they still only indicate the quantity of whatever is inside the dependent clause with them, and it is only case that that assertion is being used to qualify another noun.
To express “few” and “many” while directly modifying a noun, sukunai 少ない and ōi 多い must be replaced with sukoshi no 少しの and ōku no 多くの respectively. However, just because you convert to the latter forms, doesn’t mean that there are never any quirks.
20.
大阪
には、
多
くのお
寺
があるかどうか
知
りません。
Ōsaka ni wa, ōku no otera ga aru ka dō ka shirimasen.
I don’t know whether there are many temples in Osaka.
21. {
多
くの・たくさんの・
大勢
の}
人
が
集
まりました。
[Ōku no/takusan no/ōzei no] hito ga atsumarimashita.
Many people gathered.
Word Note: Takusan no 沢山の and ōzei no 大勢の are no-adjectival nouns that, in this situation, are slightly more natural and common than ōku no 多くの. This is because both sukunai 少ない and ōi 多い, and by default, sukoshi no 少しの and ōku no 多くの, indicate whether an amount exceeds or is below a standard amount, but if there is no standard ascertainable in context, using them becomes somewhat unnatural in contrast to words like takusan 沢山 (many) and wazuka 僅か (few), which are more emphatic.
22.
少
しの
金額
から
大
きな
稼
ぎを
作
る。
Sukoshi no kingaku kara ōkina kasegi wo tsukuru.
To make large earnings from a small amount of money.
23.
彼
はわずかな
金額
を
欲張
って
1
万円
の
損失
を
被
りました。
Kare wa wazuka na kingaku wo yokubatte ichiman’en no sonshitsu wo kōmurimashita.
He coveted a small amount of money and lost 10,000 yen.
Exceptions with Sukunai 少ない
When sukunai 少ない is in fact used in directly modifying a noun, its meaning is the same as wazuka na わずかな, which is to show the sheer scarcity/lack of quantity. This is made possible because whenever sukunai 少ない is used in this way, the parameters are deemed as societal general knowledge, and so there is no need to explicitly ‘restate’ said parameters.
24.
少
ない
給料
でお
金
を貯める。
Sukunai kyūryō de okane wo tameru.
To save money with little income.
25.
様々
な、
少
ない
材料
でできています。
Samazama na, sukunai zairyō de dekite imasu.
It’s made with various, scarce materials.
26.
私
たちは
今回
、もっと
少
ない
時間
で
達成
しました。
Watashitachi wa konkai, motto sukunai jikan de tassei shimashita.
We accomplished it in far less time this time.
The adjective for same is onaji 同じ. As simple as this may be, conjugating it is not. It is for this reason that it has been avoided. Although we haven't looked into why things are the way they are, this is one instance where etymology is rather important to understand how it works.
Long ago, onaji was like all the other adjectives. It wasn’t the only one that ended in /ji/. All the other ones, though, evolved to end in /jii/ instead. It is for this reason we have adjectives like susamajii 凄まじい (fierce/tremendous) and mutsumajii 睦まじい (harmonious). Had it remained as onashi like it was even further back in time, it might be just like all the other adjectives, but now its conjugations are hybrid between adjectives and adjectival nouns.
Form | Plain Speech | Polite Speech |
Non-Past | 同じだ Onaji da |
同じです Onaji desu |
Past | 同じだった Onaji datta |
同じでした Onaji deshita |
Negative | 同じ{では・じゃ}ない Onaji [de wa/ja] nai |
同じ{では・じゃ}ないです Onaji [de wa/ja] nai desu 同じ{では・じゃ}ありません Onaji [de wa/ja] arimasen |
Negative Past | 同じ{では・じゃ}なかった Onaji [de wa/ja] nakatta |
同じ{では・じゃ}なかったです Onaji [de wa/ja] nakatta desu 同じ{では・じゃ}ありませんでした |
Before Nouns | 同じ Onaji |
|
Before Nominalizer No の | 同じな Onaji na |
|
Adverbial Form | 同じ Onaji 同じく Onajiku 同じに Onaji ni 同じように Onaji yō ni |
|
Te て Form | 同じで Onaji de |
同じでして Onaji deshite |
Although its conjugations are more or less an amalgam of adjectives and adjectival nouns, some of its forms deserve extra addition, and because this is the case, we will spend a little more time seeing how its various forms are used.
Typical Conjugations
1.
結果
は
同
じだったよ。
Kekka wa onaji datta yo.
The results were the same.
2. ずっと
同
じじゃないですか。
Zutto onaji ja nai desu ka?
Is it not always the same?
3.
日本語
と
同
じですね。
Nihongo to onaji desu ne.
It’s the same as Japanese, huh.
4. これは
人間
と
同
じで、
一番多
いのは、ガンです。
Kore wa ningen to onaji de, ichiban ōi no wa, gan desu.
This is the same as humans, and the most common is cancer.
5.
昨日
とおんなじだよ。
Kinō to on’naji da yo.
It’s the same as yesterday.
Pronunciation Note: Onaji may also emphatically be pronounced as /on’naji/.
Before Nouns
6.
彼
は、
1
年間
くらい
同
じ
服
を
着
ていました。
Kare wa, ichinenkan kurai onaji fuku wo kite imashita.
He wore the same clothes for about a year.
7. ほぼ
同
じ
意味
です。
Hobo onaji imi desu.
It has almost the same meaning.
8.
僕
たちは
同
じ
学校
に
通
っています。(Male Speech)
Bokutachi wa onaji gakkō ni kayotte imasu.
We go to the same school.
9.
皆同
じ
穴
のムジナだな。
Mina onaji ana no mujina da na.
They are all birds of a feather.
Phrase Note: The Japanese expression for this is literally “badgers of the same hole.”
10.
私
たちは
同
じ
年
に
生
まれました。
Watashitachi wa onaji toshi umaremashita.
We were born in the same year.
11.
私
は
同
い
年
の
人
と
結婚
しています。
Watashi wa onaidoshi no hito to kekkon shite imasu.
I’m married to someone of the same age.
Phrase Note: Onaidoshi 同い年 is a set phrase meaning “the same age.”
Before Nominalizer No の
When the particle no の is used in turning what precedes into a noun phrase for whatever reason, if onaji 同じ is what’s directly before it, na な must intervene. We’ve already seen how no/n desu (ka) の・んです(か) is used in sentences in seeking an answer, and we learned how na な is needed with adjectival nouns. In this case, onaji 同じ functions like any other adjectival noun.
12.
音質
は、
CD
と
同
じなのです。
Onshitsu wa, shiidii to onaji na no desu.
That’s because the sound quality is the same as a CD.
13.
何故
、
惑星
の
公転方向
は
同
じなんですか。
Naze, wakusei no kōten hōkō wa onaji na n desu ka?
Why is it that the direction of revolution for the planets is the same?
14.
服装
が
同
じなので、
見分
けがつきにくいですね。
Fukusō ga onaji na node, miwake ga tsukinikui desu ne.
Their clothes are the same, so it’s hard to distinguish them, huh.
Particle Note: The particle node ので is composed of the particle no の and the te て form of da だ. Put together, node のでmeans “because.”
Adverbial Form: Onaji ni 同じに
15.
私達
の
結果
と
同
じになりました。
Watashitachi no kekka to onaji ni narimashita.
(Their results) became the same as our results.
16.
全部
同
じに
見
えます。
Zembu onaji ni miemasu.
They all look the same.
17.
実印
と
銀行印
を
同
じにすることはできるんですか。
Jitsuin to ginkōin wo onaji ni suru koto wa dekiru n desu ka?
Is it possible to have one’s registered seal the same as one’s bank transaction seal?
Adverbial Form: Onaji yō ni 同じように
This form has a meaning of “similarly/like.”
18. スパゲティをレシピと
同
じように
作
った。
Supageti wo reshipi to onaji yō ni tsukutta.
I made spaghetti like the recipe.
19.
猫
からは
周囲
が
人
と
同
じように
見
えますか。
Neko kara wa shūi ga hito to onaji yō ni miemasu ka?
Do one’s surroundings look the same from a cat’s perspective?
20.
普通
の
人
と
同
じように
仕事
が
出来
ません。
Futsū no hito to onaji yō ni shigoto ga dekimasen.
I can't work like normal people.
21.
過去
と
同
じように
設定
してください。
Kako to onaji yō ni settei shite kudasai.
Please have settings be like they were in the past.
22.
猿
たちはいつもと
同
じように
遊
んでいます。
Sarutachi wa itsu mo to onaji yō ni asonde imasu.
The monkeys are playing like they always do.
Adverbial Form: A + Onajiku 同じく + B
The form onajiku 同じく is reminiscent of when it was more like a regular adjective. In typical speech and writing, it isn't used that much, but when it is used, its meaning is most similar to "ditto" and "same as."
23.
彼
と
同
じく
私
もイギリス
出身
です。
Kare to onajiku watashi mo igirisu shusshin desu.
Ditto to him, I too am from England.
24.
昨日
と
同
じく
今日
も
雨
だ。
Kinō to onajiku kyō mo ame da.
Same as yesterday, today is also rain.
25a.
軌
を
同
じくする。
Ki wo onajiku suru.
25b.
軌
を
一
にする
Ki wo itsu ni suru.
To have the same way of doing.
26a.
志
を
同
じくする。
Kokorozashi wo onajiku suru.
26b.
他人
と
同
じように
感
じる。
Tanin to onaji yō ni kanjiru.
To be like-minded.
Adverbial Form: Onaji 同じ
When used in conjunction with the particle nara なら, which creates “if” statements when making suggestions, onaji 同じ becomes an adverb meaning “anyhow” and is interchangeable with dōse どうせ.
27.
同
じ
買
うなら、
地元
で
買
った
方
がいい。
Onaji kau nara, jimoto de katta hō ga ii.
Anyhow, if you’re going to buy, it’s best to buy local.
Grammar Note: Verb + -ta hō ga ii た方がいい is a grammatical pattern meaning “it’s best to…”
28.
同
じ
売
るなら、
少
しでも
得
したい。
Onaji uru nara, sukoshi demo toku shitai.
Anyhow, if I'm going to sell it, I want to get at least some profit.
Grammar Note: Verb + -tai (to omou) たい(と思う)is a grammatical pattern meaning “want to…”
29.
同
じお
金
がかかるなら、
自分
の
家
を
建
てたいと
思
う。
Onaji okane ga kakaru nara, jibun no ie wo tatetai to omou.
Anyhow, if it's going to cost money, I’d want to build my own house.
Dō- 同
You will also discover a lot of words that start with the character 同 when read as dō in Sino-Japanese compounds. Most of these words are literary, but this is not always the case. For example, the word for sympathy is dōjō 同情, which is simply the characters for “same” and “emotion” put together.
30.
上記
、
利用規約
に
同意
します。
Jōki, riyō kiyaku ni dōi shimasu.
You agree to the above user agreement.
31.
由香里
さんの
彼氏
と
私
の
夫
は
同一人物
に
違
いありません!
Yukari-san no kareshi to watashi no otto wa doitsu jimbutsu ni chigai arimasen!
Yukari’s boyfriend and my husband are no doubt the exact same individual!
32.
前回
と
同様
に
実験
を
開始
しました。
Zenkai to dōyō ni jikken wo kaishi shimashita.
We began the experiment similarly to last time.
33.
英語
の
同音異義語
を
教
えてください。
Eigo no dō’on igigo wo oshiete kudasai.
Please teach me English homophones.
34.
看護師
は
医者
と
同等
ですか。
Kangoshi wa isha to dōtō desu ka?
Are nurses equivalent to doctors?
35.
被災者
に
同情
します。
Hisaisha ni dōjō shimasu.
I sympathize with disaster victims.
36.
東南
アジアの
国々
も
隣国同士
は
仲
が
悪
いですか。
Tōnan ajia no kuniguni mo ringoku dōshi wa naka ga warui desu ka?
Why is it that neighboring countries among Southeast Asian nations have such bad relations?
37.
同志
よ、
行
くぞ。
Dōshi yo, iku zo!
Comrades, let’s go!
Phrase Note: In Mandarin Chinese, 同志 means "homosexual." However, in Japanese, it is a somewhat uncommon word meaning “comrade.”
38.
私
は
同性
と
付
き
合
っています。
Watashi wa dōsei to tsukiatte imasu.
I’m dating someone of the same sex.
39.
私
も
全
く
同感
です。
Watashi mo mattaku dōkan desu.
I completely agree/feel exactly the same way.
40.
外国人
の
同僚
と
喧嘩
になった。
Gaikokujin no dōryō to kenka ni natta.
I got into an argument with a foreign colleague.
In this lesson, we will learn about temporal counters. Before doing so, though, we will start off by learning the days of the week, which unfortunately don’t involve counters.
Counters Covered in This Lesson
1. -ka 日
2. -nichi(kan) 日(間)
3. -shūkan 週間
4. -gatsu 月
5. -kagetsu(kan) ヶ月(間)
6. -tsuki 月
7. -nen(kan) 年(間)
8. -kanen ヶ年
9. -nensei 年生
10. -gakunen 学年
The days of the week, yōbi 曜日 , in Japanese each start with the first character of seven luminous bodies in our solar system in the following order: the Sun, moon, Mars, Mercury, Jupiter, Venus and Saturn.
Sunday |
Nichiyōbi 日曜日 |
Monday |
Getsuyōbi 月曜日 |
Tuesday |
Kayōbi 火曜日 |
Wednesday |
Suiyōbi 水曜日 |
Thursday |
Mokuyōbi 木曜日 |
Friday |
Kin’yōbi 金曜日 |
Saturday |
Doyōbi 土曜日 |
What day (of the week)? |
Nan’yōbi 何曜日 |
Reading Note: Theoretically, if you were to want to talk about hypothetical days of the week, you would read 何曜日as “naniyōbi,” but aside from this, it’s always read as above.
All days of the week may be abbreviated by dropping the final -bi 日 . In abbreviated writing, you will very frequently see days of the week written with only the initial character. They can even be combined to make saying things like “Thursday and Friday” easier. Meaning, instead of writing mokuyōbi to kin’yōbi 木曜日 と 金曜日 , you can simply write mokukin 木金 . This is usually done in the context of scheduling.
1.
一週間
の
真
ん
中
の
日
は
何曜日
ですか。
Isshūkan no man’naka no hi wa nan’yōbi desu ka?
What is the day of the week that is in the middle of the week?
2.
日曜日
の
新聞
には
旅行特集
の
記事
が
載
っています。
Nichiyōbi no shimbun ni wa ryokō tokushū no kiji ga notte imasu.
There is a travel supplement article in the Sunday newspaper.
3.
火曜日
から
木曜日
まで
働
きます。
Kayōbi kara mokuyōbi made hatarakimasu.
I work from Tuesday to Thursday.
4.
明日
は
何曜
(
日
)ですか?
Ashita wa nan’yō(bi) desu ka?
What day is it tomorrow?
5.
今日
は
何曜日
ですか。
Kyō wa nan’yōbi desu ka?
What's today?
6.
木曜日
は
水曜日
の
前
ですか、
後
ですか?
Mokuyōbi wa suiyōbi no mae desu ka, ato desu ka?
Is Thursday before or after Wednesday?
7.
明後日
は
土曜
です。
Asatte wa doyō desu.
The day after tomorrow is Saturday.
8. なぜ
日曜日
に
学生
は
学校
に
行
かないんですか。
Naze nichiyōbi ni gakusei wa gakkō ni ikanai n desu ka?
Why don't students go to school on Sunday?
9.
水曜日
に
来
てください。
Suiyōbi ni kite kudasai.
Please come on Wednesday.
10.
日曜日
は
一週間
の
初
めの
日
で、
土曜日
は
終
わりの
日
だ。
Nichiyōbi wa isshūkan no hajime no hi de, doyōbi wa owari no hi da.
Sunday is the first day of the week, and Saturday is the last day.
Exercises:
1. Try to use the Japanese days of the week rather than in English. Get others involved to help you remember them.
2. Write out the days of the week in order 10 times.
You would expect the days of the month to be the same as how you count days in general. Although this is somewhat true, several days of the month utilize native words, hybrids of Sino-Japanese and native parts, and set readings. 1-10 are especially complicated.
1日 |
ついたち |
2日 |
ふつか |
3日 |
みっか |
4日 |
よっか |
5日 |
いつか |
6日 |
むいか |
7日 |
なのか |
8日 |
ようか |
9日 |
ここのか |
10日 |
とおか |
11日 |
じゅういちにち |
12日 |
じゅうににち |
13日 |
じゅうさんにち |
14日 |
じゅうよっか |
15日 |
じゅうごにち |
16日 |
じゅうろくにち |
17日 |
じゅうしちにち |
18日 |
じゅうはちにち |
19日 |
じゅうくにち |
20日 |
はつか |
21日 |
にじゅういちにち |
22日 |
にじゅうににち |
23日 |
にじゅうさんにち |
24日 |
にじゅうよっか |
25日 |
にじゅうごにち |
26日 |
にじゅうろくにち |
27日 |
にじゅうしちにち |
28日 |
にじゅうはちにち |
29日 |
にじゅうくにち |
30日 |
さんじゅうにち |
31日 |
さんじゅういちにち |
何日 |
なんにち |
|
|
Reading Notes:
1. Tsuitachi ついたち is a contraction of tsukitachi つきたち, which means “the start of the month.” The 1st may also be ippi いっぴ in the business world.
2. The native counter for days is -ka 日. It is seen in several of these phrases.
3. 7日 is traditionally read as “nanuka なぬか” and is still somewhat used.
4. The last day of a month is called “misoka
晦・三十日
.” New Year's Eve is “Ōmisoka
大晦日
.
5. The first three days of the New Year is called “sanganichi
三
が
日
.”
Particle Note: The particle ni に usually follows these phrases whenever “in/on” would be used in English. However, it can frequently be omitted.
10.
今日
は
何日
ですか。
Kyō wa nan’nichi desu ka?
What day is it?
11.
7
日
の
朝
(に)
到着
しました。
Nanoka no asa (ni) tōchaku shimashita.
I arrived on the morning of the seventh.
12.
九州
では
5
日
からたくさん
雨
が
降
っています。
Kyūshū de wa itsuka kara takusan ame ga futte imasu.
In Kyushu, a lot of rain has been falling since the fifth.
13.
11
日
に、
海
に
浮
いている
象
を
海
軍
の
船
が
見
つけました。
Jūichinichi ni, umi ni uite iru zō wo gun ga mitsukemashita.
On the eleventh, a navy vessel found an elephant floating in the ocean.
Days are counted with -nichi(kan) 日(間). -kan 間 is not obligatory but is used to prevent ambiguity except with the number 1. Very rarely, you’ll see it used with -kan 間 in things like forms. Incidentally, except for “one day,” all day phrases that were exceptional above are used instead with little exception.
1 | いちにち | 2 | ふつか(かん) | 3 | みっか(かん) |
4 | よっか(かん) | 5 | いつか(かん) | 6 | むいか(かん) |
7 | なのか(かん) なぬか(かん) |
8 | ようか(かん) | 9 | ここのか(かん) |
10 | とおか(かん) | 14 | じゅうよっか(かん) | 17 | じゅうしちにち(かん) じゅうななにち(かん) |
19 | じゅうくにち(かん) | 20 | はつか(かん) | 24 | にじゅうよっか(かん) |
27 | にじゅうしちにち(かん) にじゅうななにち(かん) |
29 | にじゅうくにち(かん) | 30 | さんじゅうにち(かん) |
50 | ごじゅうにち(かん) | 100 | ひゃくにち(かん) | ? | なんにち(かん) |
15. このソフトウェアを
30
日間無料
で
使
いました。
Kono sofutowea wo sanjūnichikan muryō de tsukaimashita.
I used this software for free for 30 days.
16. ヨーロッパを
10
日間旅行
しました。
Yōroppa wo tokakan ryokō shimashita.
I traveled Europe for ten days.
17.
宮古島
に
3
日間旅行
しました。
Miyako-jima ni mikkakan ryokō shimashita.
I traveled to Miyako-jima for three days.
18.
配達
には
2
日
(
間
)かかります。
Haitatsu ni wa futsuka(kan) kakarimasu.
It takes two days for delivery.
Grammar Note: -kan 間 is frequently omitted when the verb kakaru かかる is used. This verb, in the sense of time, indicates how long something takes to transpire.
19.
熱
が
6
日間続
きました。
Netsu ga muikakan tsuzukimashita.
The/my fever continued for six days.
20.
何日
(
間
)
滞在
する
予定
ですか。
Nan’nichi(kan) taizai suru yotei desu ka?
How long will you stay?
The word for “week” is shū(kan) 週(間). To say “this week,” you use the word konshū 今週. For “last week,” you use senshū 先週. Like their English counterparts not being used with the prepositions “in” or “on,” neither konshū 今週 nor senshū 先週 are typically used with the particle ni に. To count weeks, you use the word for week in the form -shūkan 週間 as a counter.
1 | いっしゅうかん | 2 | にしゅうかん | 3 | さんしゅうかん |
4 | よんしゅうかん | 5 | ごしゅうかん | 6 | ろくしゅうかん |
7 | ななしゅうかん | 8 | はちしゅうかん はっしゅうかん |
9 | きゅうしゅうかん |
10 | じゅっしゅうかん じっしゅうかん |
100 | ひゃくしゅうかん | ? | なんしゅうかん |
21.
一週間
は
七日
(
間
)です。
Isshūkan wa nanoka(kan) desu.
A week is seven days.
22.
仕事
でモスクワに
出張
して、(そこで)
2
週間過
ごしました。
Shigoto de Mosukuwa ni shutchō shite, (soko de) nishūkan sugoshimashita.
I went on a business trip to Moscow for work, and I spent two weeks (there).
23.
今週
は
日食
が
起
きます。
Konshū wa nisshoku ga okimasu.
This week, there’s going to be a solar eclipse.
24.
先週
も
天気
が
良
かったです。
Senshū mo tenki ga yokatta desu.
The weather was also good last week.
25.
20
日
から
丸一週間雪
が(
降
り)
続
きました。
Hatsuka kara maru-isshūkan yuki ga (furi)tsuzukimashita.
Snow continued to fall for a whole week since the twentieth.
26. 明日から3
週間
お
願
いします。
Asu/ashita kara sanshūkan onegai shimasu.
For three weeks from tomorrow, please.
Reading Note: Asu is slightly politer than ashita, which makes it very likely in a sentence like this.
The names of the months (tsuki 月) are simply expressed with the number of the month plus the counter -gatsu 月.
January | いちがつ Ichigatsu |
February | にがつ Nigatsu |
March | さんがつ Sangatsu |
April | しがつ Shigatsu |
May | ごがつ Gogatsu |
June | ろくがつ Rokugatsu |
July | しちがつ Shichigatsu |
August | はちがつ Hachigatsu |
September | くがつ Kugatsu |
October | じゅうがつ Jūgatsu |
November | じゅういちがつ Jūichigatsu |
December | じゅうにがつ Jūnigatsu |
? | なんがつ Nangatsu |
Reading Note: As you can see, April and September use the not so frequently used variants of 4 and 9. You should also note that July is shichigatsu しちがつ instead of nanagatsu なながつ, which is only dialectical.
27.
日本
では
新学期
は
4
月
に
始
まります。
Nihon de wa shingakki wa shigatsu ni hajimarimasu.
In Japan, new semesters begin in April.
28.
私
は
1
月
19
日
に
大阪
に
引
っ
越
しました。
Watashi wa ichigatsu jūkunichi ni Ōsaka ni hikkoshimashita.
I moved to Osaka on January 19th.
29.
彼女
は
5
月
の
終
わりにカナダに
向
かいました。
Kanojo wa gogatsu no owari ni Kanada ni mukaimashita.
She headed for Canada at the end of May.
30.
僕
の
誕生日
は
11
月
16
日
です。
Boku no tanjōbi wa jūichigatsu jūrokunichi desu.
My birthday is on November 16th.
-jun 旬 means "tens days of a month" and is used in the following phrases.
上旬 |
じょうじゅん |
First ten days of the month |
中旬 |
ちゅうじゅん |
Middle ten days of the month |
下旬 |
げじゅん |
Last ten days of the month |
32.
3
月上旬
に
発表
します。
Sangatsu jōjun ni happyo shimasu.
We will announce it in the first ten days of next month.
33.
9
月中旬
に
出張
することになりました。
Kugatsu chūjun ni shutchō suru koto ni narimashita.
I am to go on a business trip in mid-September.
34.
11
月下旬
に
発売
した。
Jūichigatsu gejun ni hatsubai shita.
it went on sale in the latter part of November.
-kagetsu(kan) ヶ月(間)
To generically count months, you must use the counter -kagetsu(kan) ヶ月(間).
1 | いっかげつ(かん) | 2 | にかげつ(かん) | 3 | さんかげつ(かん) |
4 | よんかげつ(かん) | 5 | ごかげつ(かん) | 6 | ろっかげつ(かん) |
7 | ななかげつ(かん) | 8 | はちかげつ(かん) はっかげつ(かん) |
9 | きゅうかげつ(かん) |
10 | じゅっかげつ(かん) じっかげつ(かん) |
100 | ひゃっかげつ(かん) | ? | なんかげつ(かん) |
35.
一
ヶ
月
は
約
4
週間
です。
Ikkagetsu wa yaku-yonshūkan desu.
There are about four weeks in a month.
36.
2
ヶ
月分
を
払
いました。
Nikagetsu-bun wo haraimashita.
I paid two months’ worth.
37.
3
ヶ
月
(
間
)
友達
に
会
っていなかった。
Sankagetsu(kan) tomodachi ni atte inakatta.
I hadn’t met my friends in three months.
38.
5
ヶ
月間思
いっきり
筋
トレしています。
Gokagetsu(kan) omoikkiri kintore shite imasu.
I’ve been weight training wholeheartedly for five months.
-tsuki 月
In the spoken language, month periods are often expressed with native phrases for 1-4 as seen below with the counter -tsuki 月. Historically, this counter could be used with more numbers. For instance, there is an old phrase, totsuki tōka 十月十日, which refers to day 10 of the 10th month to refer to how long pregnancy typically is. Outside of such set phrases, though -tsuki 月 is not outside the numbers 1-4.
1 | ひとつき | 2 | ふたつき | 3 | みつき | 4 | よつき |
39.
一月
3000
円
です!
Hitotsuki sanzen’en desu!
It’s 3,000 yen a month!
40. ふた
月
でも、み
月
でも
待
ちます。
Futatsuki demo, mitsuki demo machimasu.
I will wait, whether it be two months or even three months.
41.
三日
でも
三月
でも
構
いませんよ。
Mikka demo mitsuki demo kamaimasen yo.
I don’t mind if it’s three days or three months.
42.
家賃
は{ひと
月
・
1
ヶ
月
}いくらですか。
Yachin wa [hitotsuki/ikkagetsu] ikura desu ka?
How much is rent per month?
43.
月々
の
援助
は{
2
ヶ
月
・ふた
月
}
滞
っています。
Tsukizuki no enjo wa [nikagetsu/futatsuki] todokotte imasu.
(My) monthly support is two months behind.
-nen(kan) 年(間)
The counter for year is -nen(kan) 年(間). This counter is also one of the handful of counters in which 4 must be read as "yo よ."
1 | いちねん(かん) | 2 | にねん(かん) | 3 | さんねん(かん) |
4 | よねん(かん) | 5 | ごねんかん | 6 | ろくねん(かん) |
7 | ななねん(かん) しちねん(かん) |
8 | はちねん(かん) | 9 | きゅうねん(かん) くねん(かん) |
10 | じゅうねん(かん) | 14 | じゅうよねん(かん) | 100 | ひゃくねん(かん) |
When used to refer to what year it is, -kan 間 is never used. Generally, there are no differences with how numbers are counted when used to refer to what year it is. However, it is worth noting that 2007 and 2009 are typically read as “nisenshichinen にせんしちねん” and “nisenkunen にせんくねん” respectively, although “nisen’nananenにせんななねん” and “nisenkyūnen にせんきゅうねん” respectively are also common. The same goes for 2017, 2019, etc.
44.
台湾語
を
3
年間勉強
しています。
Taiwango wo san’nenkan benkyō shite imasu.
I’ve been studying Taiwanese for three years.
45. マレー(シア)
語
を
習得
するのに
5
年
(
間
)かかりました。
Marē(shia)go wo shūtoku suru no ni gonen(kan) kakarimashita.
It took me five years to acquire Malay.
46.
私
は
南
アフリカに
10
年
(
間
)
住
んでいました。
Watashi wa Minami Afurika ni jūnen(kan) sunde imashita.
I once lived in South Africa for ten years.
47.
保証
は
5
年間
です。
Hoshō wa gonenkan desu.
The warranty is for five years.
48.
彼
は
8
年間先生
をしています。
Kare wa hachinenkan sensei wo shite imasu.
He has been a teacher for eight years.
49.
日付
は
2017
年
4
月
22
日
です。
Hizuke wa nisenjūshichinen shigatsu nijūninichi desu.
The date is April 22nd, 2017.
50.
今年
は
平成
29
年
です。
Kotoshi wa Heisei nijūkunen desu.
This year is Heisei Year 29.
Culture Note: In Japan, alongside the Western date system, there is traditional date system that utilizes the eras of emperors. The current era is called the Heisei Period (Heisei Jidai 平成時代).
-kanen ヶ年
The counter -kanen ヶ年 translates as “over…years” and is frequently employed in legislation and business settings. However, ikkanen 1ヶ年 is infrequently used because “one year” is typically too short for major projects to take place.
1 | いっかねん △ | 2 | にかねん | 3 | さんかねん | 4 | よんかねん |
5 | ごかねん | 6 | ろっかねん | 7 | ななかねん | 8 | はちかねん はっかねん |
9 | きゅうかねん | 10 | じゅっかねん じっかねん |
100 | ひゃっかねん | ? | なんかねん |
51.
5
ヶ
年計画
を
実施
しました。
Gokanen keikaku wo jisshi shimashita.
We implemented a five-year plan.
52.
10
ヶ
年
の
戦略
を
実現
しました。
Jukkanen no senryaku wo jitsugen shimashita.
We actualized a 10-year strategy.
53.
新
たな
3
ヶ
年数値目標
を
発表
しました。
Aratana sankanen suchi mokuhyō wo happyō shimashita.
We announced a new three-year target value.
54.
我々
は
2
ヶ
年
にわたる
研究
に
着手
しました。
Wareware wa nikanen ni wataru kenkyū ni chakushu shimashita.
We embarked a two-year long study.
55.
人生
50
ヶ
年計画
を
立
てました。
Jinsei gojukkanen keikaku wo tatemashita.
I made a fifty-year life plan.
-nensei 年生
The counter -nensei 年生is used to indicate what grade in school someone is in.
1 | いちねんせい | 2 | にねんせい | 3 | さんねんせい | 4 | よねんせい |
5 | ごねんせい | 6 | ろくねんせい | 7 | ななねんせい | 8 | はちねんせい |
9 | きゅうねんせい | 10 | じゅうねんせい | ? | なんねんせい |
It is important to note that after 6, the only time one would use this counter would be when referencing the American school system which is divided into 12 grade levels. Although the Japanese education system is also divided into 12 grades, what they’re called is not the same.
Grade 1 | Shōgakkō ichinen 小学校1年 | Shō-Ichi 小1 |
Grade 2 | Shōgakkō ninen 小学校2年 | Shō-ni 小2 |
Grade 3 | Shōgakkō san’nen 小学校3年 | Shō-san 小3 |
Grade 4 | Shōgakkō yonen 小学校4年 | Shō-yon 小4 |
Grade 5 | Shōgakkō gonen 小学校5年 | Shō-go 小5 |
Grade 6 | Shōgakkō rokunen 小学校6年 | Shō-roku 小6 |
Grade 7 | Chūgakkō ichinen 中学校1年 | Chū-ichi 中1 |
Grade 8 | Chūgakkō ninen 中学校2年 | Chū-ni 中2 |
Grade 9 | Chūgakkō san’nen 中学校3年 | Chū-san 中3 |
Grade 10 | Kōkō ichinen 高校1年 | Kō-ichi 高1 |
Grade 11 | Kōkō ninen 高校2年 | Kō-ni 高2 |
Grade 12 | Kōkō san’nen 高校3年 | Kō-san 高3 |
56.
1
年生
がたくさん
来
ました。
Ichinensei ga takusan kimashita.
A lot of first graders came.
57.
僕
は
去年中学
2
年生
でした。
Boku wa kyonen chūgaku ninensei deshita.
I was in eighth grade last year.
58.
彼女
は
今
ハーバード
大学
の
4
年生
です。
Kanojo wa ima Hābādo Daigaku no yonensei desu.
She is now a senior at Harvard.
-gakunen 学年
Gakunen 学年 means “academic year” and can also be used as a counter to count them.
1 | いちがくねん | 2 | にがくねん | 3 | さんがくねん | 4 | よんがくねん |
5 | ごがくねん | 6 | ろくがくねん | 7 | なながくねん しちがくねん |
8 | はちがくねん |
9 | きゅうがくねん | 10 | じゅうがくねん | 11 | じゅういちがくねん | ? | なんがくねん |
59.
1
学年
で
学習
する
内容
を
指定
しました。
Ichigakunen de gakushū suru naiyō wo shitei shimashita.
We designated what material is to be studied in one academic year.
60.
2
学年差
の
兄弟
がいます。
Nigakunen-sa no kyōdai ga imasu.
I have siblings two grades apart (from me).
In part two of our coverage on temporal counters, we’ll learn how to tell time and understand a little bit more about time in general.
Counters Covered in This Lesson
1. -jikan 時間
2. -ji 時
3. -fun(kan) 分(間)
4. -byō(kan) 秒(間)
5. -ban 晩
6. -ya/-yo 夜
-jikan 時間
The counter -jikan 時間 is used to count the number of hours. Do note that 4 must be read as “yo よ” with this counter.
1 | いちじかん | 2 | にじかん | 3 | さんじかん | 4 | よじかん |
5 | ごじかん | 6 | ろくじかん | 7 | ななじかん しちじかん |
8 | はちじかん |
9 | くじかん | 10 | じゅうじかん | 14 | じゅうよじかん | ? | なんじかん |
1.
羽田空港
に
行
くのに
4
時間
かかりました。
Haneda Kūkō ni iku no ni yojikan kakarimashita.
It took four hours to go to Haneda Airport.
2.
博物館
で
何時間過
ごしましたか。
Hakubutsukan de nanjikan sugoshimashita?
How many hours did you spend at the museum?
3. スタートから
8
時間経過
しています。
Sutāto kara hachijikan keika shite imasu.
Eight hours have passed since the start (of this).
4.
毎日
、
10
時間
の
勉強
を
1
年間続
けました。
Mainichi, jūjikan no benkyō wo ichinenkan tsuzukemashita.
I have continued my ten-hour studies every day for a year.
5.
僕
は
毎週
、アイヌ
語
を
10
時間
{くらい・ほど}
勉強
しています。
Boku wa maishū, Ainugo wo jūjikan [kurai/hodo] benkyō shite imasu.
I’m studying Ainu for about ten hours every week.
6.
昨夜
は
久
しぶりに
8
時間寝
ました!
Sakuya wa hisashiburi ni hachijikan nemashita!
Last night, I slept eight years for the first time in a while!
7. あのファミレスも
24
時間営業
をやめたんですね。
Ano famiresu mo nijūyojikan mo eigyō wo yameta n desu ne.
That family restaurant also quit their twenty-four service, huh.
-ji 時
0:00 | れいじ (零時) | 1:00 | いちじ | 2:00 | にじ |
3:00 | さんじ | 4:00 | よじ | 5:00 | ごじ |
6:00 | ろくじ | 7:00 | しちじ ななじ |
8:00 | はちじ |
9:00 | くじ | 10:00 | じゅうじ | 11:00 | じゅういちじ |
12:00 | じゅうにじ | 13:00 | じゅうさんじ | 14:00 | じゅうよじ |
15:00 | じゅうごじ | 16:00 | じゅうろくじ | 17:00 | じゅうしちじ じゅうななじ |
18:00 | じゅうはちじ | 19:00 | じゅうくじ | 20:00 | にじゅうじ |
21:00 | にじゅういちじ | 22:00 | にじゅうにじ | 23:00 | にじゅうさんじ |
24:00 | にじゅうよじ | ? | なんじ |
In Japan, military time is frequently used. Although phrases for “A.M” and “P.M” exist, we’ll first see how 0:00 through 24:00 are expressed with the counter -ji 時. Do note that 4 must be read as “yo よ” with this counter.
As 0:00 and 24:00 are synonymous, speakers will typically default to 0:00 to refer to midnight. In colloquial speech, the words zero ゼロ and nijūyon にじゅうよん often replace the above expressions to refer to midnight. Above, you’ll notice that nanaji ななじ and jūnanaji じゅうななじ are possible readings for 7:00 and 17:00 respectively. These readings are dialectical at best, or pronunciations only appropriate when making oneself as clear as possible, but they are not viewed as the ‘correct’ readings of these phrases.
8.
私
たちは
家族
4
人
で
8
時
に
公園
に
行
きました。
Watashitachi wa kazoku yonin de hachiji ni kōen ni ikimashita.
We went to the park at eight o’ clock as a family of four.
9.
14
時
に
起
こしてください。
Jūyoji ni okoshite kudasai.
Wake me up at 2 P.M.
12.
今
、
何時
ですか。
Ima, nanji desu ka?
What time is it now?
13. ほとんどの
社員
が
17
時
に
退社
した。
Hotondo no shain ga jūshichiji ni taisha shita.
Most of the company employees left work at 5 P.M.
14.
毎朝
、
NHK
総合
テレビの
7
時台
のニュースを
見
ます。
Maiasa, enueichikē sōgō terebi no shichiji-dai no nyūsu wo mimasu.
Every morning, I watch the news from the 7 o’ clock hour on NHK General TV.
Pronunciation Note: NHK stands for “Nippon Hōsō Kyōkai 日本放送協会” and it is Japan’s national public broadcast organization. Many speakers alternatively pronounce NHK as “eneichikē.”
15.
零時
にシャワーを
浴
びました。
Reiji ni shawā wo abimashita.
I took a shower at midnight?
16.
何時
に
開店
しますか。
Nanji ni kaiten shimasu ka?
At what time do you open?
17. バスは
何時
に
着
きますか。
Basu wa nanji ni tsukimasu ka?
At what time does the bus arrive?
18.
9
時
に
朝
ご
飯
を
食
べて、
12
時
に
昼
ご
飯
、
17
時
に
早
めの
夕食
を
取
ることにしています。
Kuji ni asagohan wo tabete, jūniji ni hirugohan, jūshichiji ni hayame no yūshoku wo toru koto ni shite imasu.
I’m trying to eat breakfast at nine, lunch at twelve, and take an earlier dinner at five.
19.
私
はたいてい
7
時
に
学校
に
行
きます。
Watashi wa taitei shichiji ni gakkō ni ikimasu.
I generally go to school at seven.
20. 私は16時から晩ご飯の支度とお風呂の掃除をして、18時に晩ご飯を食べます。
Watashi wa jūrokuji kara bangohan no shitaku to ofuro no sōji wo shite, jūhachiji ni bangohan wo tabemasu.
I do preparations for dinner and clean the bath at four and then eat dinner at six.
A.M & P.M
A.M and P.M are replaced by six expressions that come first in a time phrase. They may either be used as nouns or adverbs. As nouns, they refer to the time of day.
5:00~11:00 |
Gozen 午前/Asa 朝 |
12 PM |
Hiru 昼 |
11:00~24:00 |
Gogo 午後 |
17:00~24:00 |
Yūgata 夕方 |
18:00~24:00 |
Yoru 夜 |
12 AM~4 AM |
Shin’ya 深夜 |
Word Note: This process can be simplified by simply using gozen 午前 for a.m and gogo 午後 for p.m.
21.
今日
、
私
は
朝
7
時
に
起
きました。
Kyō, watashi wa asa shichiji ni okimashita.
I woke up today at seven in the morning.
22. グラウンドに
昼
12
時
に
集合
してください。
Guraundo ni hiru jūniji ni shūgō shite kudasai.
Please gather at the sports ground at twelve noon.
23.
夕方
8
時
に
帰宅
しました。 (Written language)
Yūgata hachiji ni kitaku shimashita.
I returned home at eight in the evening.
24.
私
は
午前
8
時
に
出社
しました。
Watashi wa gozen hachiji ni shussha shimashita.
I went/came to work at 8 A.M.
25.
午後
10
時
になりました。
Gozen jūji ni narimashita.
It’s 10 P.M.
26.
夜
9
時放送
です!
Yoru kuji hōsō desu!
This is a 9 P.M. broadcast!
27.
私
は
深夜
3
時
に
寝
て、
朝
8
時
に
起
きる
生活
を
続
けています。
Watashi wa shin’ya sanji ni nete, asa hachiji ni okiru seikatsu wo tsuzukete imasu.
I continue my life of sleeping at 3 A.M. and waking up at 8 A.M.
When counting minutes in the sense of duration, you use -fun(kan) 分(間). If you are expressing minutes as in time, you only use -fun 分. As such, below you’ll only see -fun 分 reflected in the chart. Just know that you can add -kan 間 so long as you’re not expressing the time.
1 | いっぷん | 2 | にふん | 3 | さんぷん | 4 | よんぷん |
5 | ごふん | 6 | ろっぷん | 7 | ななふん | 8 | はっぷん はちふん |
9 | きゅうふん | 10 | じゅっぷん じっぷん |
100 | ひゃっぷん | ? | なんぷん |
28.
到着
は、
明日
の
朝
6
時
45
分
です。
Tōchaku wa, asu no asa rokuji yonjūgofun desu.
My/our arrival will be at 6:45 tomorrow morning.
29.
初対面
30
分
で
結婚
を
決
めた
夫婦
もいますよ。
Shotaimen sanjuppun de kekkon wo kimeta fūfu mo imasu yo.
There are also couples who decided to marry just from meeting each other for the first in thirty minutes.
30.
10
分
でお腹の
脂肪
を
燃
やすワークアウトをご
紹介
します。
Juppun de onaka no shibō wo moyasu wakuauto wo go-shōkai shimasu.
I will introduce to you a workout to burn stomach fat in ten minutes.
31.
20
分
(
間
)
待
ちました。
Nijuppun(kan) machimashita.
I waited for twenty minutes.
32.
予定通
り、
15
:
14
に
品川駅
に
到着
しました。
Yotei-dōri, jūgoji jūyonpun ni Shinagawa-eki ni tōchaku shimashita.
As planned, I/we arrived at Shinagawa Station at 3:14 P.M.
Quarter and Half
Like English, there are other phrases that can accompany “o’clock” phrases that roughly indicate minutes. For instance, using -han 半 refers to “half past.” There are also phrases that equate to “quarter past” and “quarter to.” However, unlike English, they simply indicate that a certain time has either already past or hasn’t past respectively.
Half Past (...:30) |
-han 半 |
(Quarter) Past (...:15) |
-sugi 過ぎ |
(Quarter) To (...:15) |
-mae 前 |
When counting seconds in the sense of duration, you use -byō(kan) 秒(間). If you are expressing seconds as in time, you only use -byō 秒. As such, below you’ll only see -byō 秒 reflected in the chart. Just know that you can add -kan 間 so long as you’re not expressing the time.
1 | いちびょう | 2 | にびょう | 3 | さんびょう | 4 | よんびょう |
5 | ごびょう | 6 | ろくびょう | 7 | ななびょう | 8 | はちびょう |
9 | きゅうびょう | 10 | じゅうびょう | 20 | にじゅうびょう | ? | なんびょう |
36.
一分
でも
一秒
でもいいから。
Ippun demo ichibyō demo ii kara.
I don’t care if it’s just for a minute or even a second.
37.
30
秒間瞬
き
禁止
!
Sanjūbyō matataki kinshi!
Blinking prohibited for 30 seconds!
38. トンネルを
通過
するのに
10
秒
かかりました。
Ton’neru wo tsūka suru no ni jūbyō kakarimashita.
It took ten seconds to pass through the tunnel.
39.
後
100
秒
の
間
に
何個
の
積
み
木
を
片付
けられるか
試
してみてください。
Ato hyakubyō no aida ni nanko no tsumiki wo katazukerareru ka tameshite mite kudasai.
Try seeing how many building blocks you can put up in the 100 seconds left.
-ban 晩
-ban 晩 is used to count nights, but it is only used for the following numbers. Typically, this counter is used to count nights as in “stays.” As such, you ought to replace it with -haku 泊 when not literally counting nights once you pass 2.
1 | ひとばん | 2 | ふたばん | 3 | みばん | ? | いくばん |
Usage Note: Miban みばん is only used in the set phrase mikka miban 三日三晩, which means “three days and three nights.”
40.
避難所
に
一晩泊
まりました。
Hinanjo ni hitoban tomarimashita.
I stayed one night at the shelter.
41.
今回
は
家族
6
人
で
二晩泊
まりました。
Konkai wa kazoku rokunin de futaban tomarimashita.
This time, we stayed two nights as a family of six.
42.
二晩徹夜
したよ。
Futaban tetsuya shita yo.
I stayed up for two nights.
43.
二晩
で
痛
みもなくなった。
Futaban de itami mo nakunatta.
The pain also went away in two nights.
44.
強
いショックを
受
けて
一晩
で
白髪
になった。
Tsuyoi shokku wo ukete hitoban de shiraga ni natta.
I received a great shock and became gray-haired in a night.
45.
一晩
で
熱
が
下
がりました。
Hitoban de netsu ga sagarimashita.
My fever went down in one night.
-ya/-yo 夜
The word for night is yoru 夜. To count nights in a literal fashion, you use the counter -ya 夜. For 1 and 2, there is also the counter -yo 夜; however, it is limited to the written language and seldom used in the spoken language.
1 | いちや ひとよ |
2 | にや ふたよ |
3 | さんや | 4 | よんや |
5 | ごや | 6 | ろくや | 7 | ななや | 8 | はちや |
9 | きゅうや | 10 | じゅうや | 11 | じゅういちや | ? | なんや |
46.
一夜
が
明
けた。
Ichiya ga aketa.
The following morning dawned.
Literally: One night ended.
47.
男性
は
雪
が
積
もった
穴
の
底
で
5
夜過
ごした。
Dansei wa yuki ga tsumotta ana no soko de goya sugoshita.
The man spent five nights at the bottom of a whole covered by snow.
48.
硬
いベッドマットで
3
夜
過
ごした
経験
があります。
Katai beddomatto de san’ya sugoshita keiken ga arimasu.
I’ve had the experience of spending three nights on a hard bedmat.
49.
旅
の
荷物
を
整理
して
10
夜
過ごした部屋を後にした。
Tabi no nimotsu wo seiri shite jūya sugoshita heya wo ato ni shita.
I gathered up my luggage to my journey and left the room I had spent ten nights in.
50.
秋
の
一夜
をゆったりと
過
ごしてみませんか。
Aki no hitoyo wo yuttari to sugoshite mimasen ka?
Why not spend an autumn night at ease?
Absolute time expressions indicate a relatively exact time frame and are often sensitive to tense. They are generally adverbial nouns. This means that they usually can either function as nouns or adverbs depending on context. So, pay attention to how this affects particle usage.
The following table shows many single word absolute time phrases in Japanese. Patterns to be discussed in this lesson help fill in the gaps. Take note of patterns. There are word notes after the chart. So, be sure to not overlook them.
Chart Note: Variants are listed from most to least polite. ▽ stands for rare.
時間帯 | 2...ago | Last... | This... | Next... | 2...from now |
Day | 一昨日 いっさくじつ おととい |
昨日 さくじつ きのう |
本日、今日 ほんじつ、 こんじつ ▽ こんにち きょう |
明日 みょうにち あす あした |
明後日 みょうごにち あさって |
Morning | 昨朝 さくちょう |
今朝 こんちょう ▽ けさ |
明朝 |
||
Evening | 一昨晩 いっさくばん |
昨晩・夕べ さくばん・ゆうべ |
今晩 こんばん |
明晩 みょうばん |
|
Night | 一昨夜 いっさくや |
昨夜 さくや |
今夜 こんや |
明夜 みょうや |
|
Week | 先々週 せんせんしゅう |
昨週、先週 さくしゅう ▽、せんしゅう |
今週 こんしゅう |
来週 らいしゅう |
再来週 さらいしゅう |
Month | 先々月 せんせんげつ |
先月 せんげつ |
今月 こんげつ |
来月 らいげつ |
再来月 さらいげつ |
Year | 一昨年 いっさくねん おととし |
昨年、去年 さくねん、きょねん |
今年 ことし |
来年 らいねん |
明後年、再来年 |
Word Notes:
1. 先日 means "the other day". 本月 (this month) and 本年 (this year) exist, but they are very formal and typically in written addresses. However, note that although 本朝 exists, it means "our nation" instead of "this morning".
2. Changing 一昨 to 一昨々 creates "3...ago". However, the Chinese readings are not used in the spoken language and should be reserved for the written language. For the native words おととい and おととし, you can さき to get さきおととい (three days ago) and さきおととし (three years ago) respectively. It is these native readings that should be used in actual practice.
3. "3 days from now" can be 明々後日 or 明日 の 翌々日 .
4. 今年 may be read as こんねん in certain contexts such as in the phrase 今年度 (this fiscal year).
5. It's funny to note that 明々後日 exists too, and its native counterpart is やのあさって. These words are not really used that often because 4日後 is much easier.
6. 昨 can sometimes be very formal. For instance, 去年 will be used most of the time when speaking. The words 昨春, 昨夏, 昨秋, and 昨冬 are all 書き言葉.
Making other Absolute Time Expressions
The following expressions are very important when you can't use a specific, one word time expression like the ones above. Some of these expressions are not really used and some may be more formal than others. All of these details are discussed in the word notes following the chart.
3...ago | 一昨昨+Time Word | 2...ago | 一昨 | Last... | この前の |
This/next... | 今度の | Today's... | 今日の | Next... | この次の |
1 after next | 翌々(の) | Day | 日 | Morning | 朝, 午前 |
Evening | 夕方, 夕べ, 夕暮れ, 晩, 夕 | Night | 夜, 夜間 | Week | 週(間) |
Month | 月, 月間 | Year | 年, 年(間) |
Word Notes:
1. 夜間, 週間, 月間, and 年間 are all formal and more likely to be used in the written language. 週間 and 年間 are common in the spoken language, but they are still more formal.
2. 夕べ most frequently means "last night" where it is more common than 昨夜.
3. 夕 is essentially the same as 夕方, but it's often used in set phrases. 夕暮れ is very commonly used, and as the character 暮 suggests, it especially refers to the time when the sun is actually going down. Lastly, 晩 is the closest equivalent to the generic English word "evening" and is a commonly used word.
4. You may use 翌 ~ for "next" for expressions that use 来 ~. Frequency of use depends on the expression. The difference between 翌週 and 来週 would be the same as the difference between "the next week" and "next week" in English. This is the same for the other expressions.
5. 翌々 is usually used without a の. You can use it with days, months, and years. Something like 翌々2016年 would it equate to "2016, the year two years from now". The word is not quite that common, and you are more likely to see it in writing.
6. 一昨々 has the reading いっさくさく. It is not used in the spoken language, and neither are other Sino-Japanese phrases made with it such as 一昨々日 and 一昨々週 . For 一昨々日 and 一昨々年, there are the native readings さきおととい and さきおととし respectively, and they're actually used. So, say you wanted to say Monday three days ago, you would need to say 一昨々日 の 月曜日 .
7. 一昨 for "2...ago" is read as いっさく and is rare. This is mainly due to the fact that it is Sino-Japanese. When it is used, it is appended without the particle の to a time phrase. So, you get phrases like 一昨 3日 meaning "the third, which was two days ago".
8. If you want to realistically go past two units of time either direction (past or future), it is more practical to say something like 5年前 (five years ago) or 3日前 (three days ago). Of course, sometimes one of these cooler phrases like さきおととい (= 3日前). Nevertheless, #+ Time Phrase + 前(before)/ 後 (after) is more frequently used once you leave the sphere of the common words like きのう, きょう, あした, etc.
Examples
1. 昨夜、10
時
に
寝
た。(More common)
I went to sleep at 10 last night.
2. アニメクラブは7時から
零時
までです。
Anime club is from 7 to midnight.
3. きのう仕事を休みました。
I took a break from work yesterday.
漢字 Note: Words like きょう and きのう are frequently written in ひらがな.
4. 彼女は
一昨年
生
まれました。
She was born the year before last.
5. 翌日の
授業
の
予習
をする。
To prepare for the next day's lessons.
Classroom Note: You should always 予習 before your Japanese class to get more out of what your teacher says.
6. 今朝はたいそう寒かったですね。
This morning was quite cold, wasn't it?
7. この前の火曜日におもしろい
映画
を見ましたよ。
I saw an interesting movie last Tuesday!
8. 明日の朝8時に
起
こしてください。
Please wake me up at 8 o'clock tomorrow morning.
9. その人は瞬時
に(して)
猿
になった。
That person became a monkey in an instant.
10. 「
今年
の
冬
は
寒
くなるでしょうか」「
天気予報
を見ていないので寒いかどうか分かりません」
“Will this winter be cold?” “I don't know whether or not it's going to be cold in the weather forecast."
Times (Frequency): The Counters ~度 VS ~回
Many Japanese speakers will say that 一度 and 一回 are the same, but they actually differentiate them. First, consider the following sentence where they are completely interchangeable.
11. 私はあの本を{2度・2回}読んだ。
I read that book twice.
12. {2度・2回}目
の不渡
り
Second bouncing/non-payment
Despite the fact that they both count the number of times an action occurs, there are instances where you choose them liberally. One restriction is that ~度 can't be used with 第 ~ or 全 ~. ~度 is also not used with decimals.
13. 6回
連続
で
参加
している。(6回 → 6度 X)
I've been participated six times consecutively.
14. 今年は
祭
りが2度ある。(2度 → 2回 ?)
This year, the festival will come twice.
15. 第4回の
関係閣僚協議
(第4度 X)
The fourth relations cabinet conference
16. 平均週3.7回
An average of 3.7 times a week
17.
全
20回のセミナー
All 20 seminars
18. 2度の
体験
をよい経験として
生
かす。(2回 ?)
To use the second experience as a good lesson.
When the number is more than 10, some of these restrictions go away. It's also interesting to note that ~度目 is used twice as much as ~回目. Remember that example with 6回連続? Something like 5年連続100度目 would be completely fine. For instances where they are interchangeable, 回 is more common. However, 度 is particularly common with the number 2. Also, as the number gets larger, 回 is less frequent. So, if a headline were to have "third non-payment" in it, odds are that it would have 3回. If a company somehow did this for the 15th time, we would expect to see 度.
When counting the frequency/repetition of an action in a particular time frame, use ~回. This is in terms of years, days, etc. and doesn't take on details such as minutes, etc. In such case, you'd expect 度. Something like 月に三度 is possible, but this doesn't show frequency.
19. 毎年、この村では祭りを3回行います。
We have festivals three times annually in this village.
~度 would count repetition that is uncertain and or irregular. Other expressions that deal with series or segmenting statistically prefer ~回. One last thing to consider is that ~度 is often used in regards to things that are hard to predict and ~回 is preferred overwhelmingly when the number of times of something can be known beforehand.
20. 10度目の
優勝
を
目指
す。
To aim for the tenth victory.
21. 3年
連続
3度
目
の
優勝
The third consecutive victory in three years
Frequency Note: Remember that ~度目 is generally twice as common as ~回.
22. 4度目の
復活
は難しい。
A fourth restoration is difficult.
23. 3回めのセミナー
The third seminar
24. 6回目の
核実験
The sixth nuclear tests after restart
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Next Lesson → 第33課: 時, 間, & 内
Showing reason is a very complex matter in Japanese, but these three items, two of which are related to each other, will give you a basic understanding of how to do this.
The most important usage of the conjunctive particle から is to connect clauses to mean "because". It shows reason and may solicit a response, suggest something, or any means that appeals to the listener. If the sentence is polite, the clause it modifies should be too.
から doesn't have to be used after a dependent clause to show reason. It may also be at the end of a sentence. When at the end of the sentence and followed by だ, you can make a strong assertion. Without a copula, though, you show reason with more emotional appeal. Regardless, if から is used with nouns or 形容動詞, it must be preceded by the copula!
から goes after the 終止形. So, you should use it after verbs, adjectives, or a copula phrase.
だ |
だから |
ですから |
形容詞 |
いいから |
形容動詞 |
静かだから |
動詞 |
するから |
In Standard Japanese, you cannot say なから. However, it does exist in certain dialects. For the purposes of Tokyo speech, it is deemed incorrect.
Examples
For some of these examples, a question would be stated before the response in order to sound perfectly natural.
13.
時間
があるから、
休憩
をしない?
Since we have time, how about taking a break?
14.
機械
が
壊
れたからです。
It's because the machine broke.
15. 明日、
試験
があるからです。
It's because I have an exam tomorrow.
16.
簡単
だからだ。
It's because it's easy.
17. あいつが馬鹿だからだな。 (Masculine)
It's because he's an idiot, you know.
のだから
から can mean "because" and のだ strongly shows reason. Thus, んだから has it that the listener knows the "why". The speaker, then, reasserts. If the listener doesn't know the "why", then it's extremely pushy. A clause following のだから often expresses the speaker's judgment, intent, wish, etc.
18. やべーから、早くしろ!時間(が)ねーんだよ。すでに遅れてんだから、早よ準備しろ!(Casual; vulgar)
We're screwed, so hurry up! We don't have time! We're already late, so get ready already!
~たら makes a hypothetical. ねーんだよ means the same thing as ないんだよ. It is just more vulgar. ~てんだ is a contraction of ~ているんだ.
Noun | けいようし | けいようどうし | Verb |
犬なのだ | 新しいのだ | だめなのだ | 見るのだ |
Plain | Polite | |
Non-past | ~なのだ | ~なのです |
Past | ~なのだった | ~なのでした |
Past | ~だったのだ | ~だったのです |
Negative | ~なのじゃない | ~なのじゃないです |
Negative | ~じゃないのだ | ~じゃないのです |
Negative Past | ~なのじゃなかった | ~なのじゃなかったです |
Negative Past | ~じゃなかったのだ | ~じゃなかったのです |
Unlike から, ので follows the 連体形 of adjectives, verbs, and copula phrases.
だ |
なので |
です |
ですので* |
形容詞 |
よいので |
形容動詞 |
静かなので |
動詞 |
するので |
Grammar Notes:
*1: ですので is technically incorrect Japanese, but it is has become frequently used to the point that is now correct Japanese.
*2: Although improper in Standard Japanese, だので is actually seen, but it's dialectical.
This rule, though, is relatively new in Japanese, and it really has no bearing over ので. In fact, you can also find ~ますので. This, however, will be considered ungrammatical by more speakers than ですので. Why this is the case is not clear, but it probably has to deal with part of speech and the formal nature of ので. If someone doesn't like ~ますので, the person is probably from West Japan.
Examples
19. 今日は暖かいので、桜も満開になるでしょう。
Since it is warm today, the cherry blossoms will likely be in full bloom.
20. 宿題をし終わったので、外へ遊びに行った。
Since I finished my homework, I went to play outside.
21. その料理は思ったよりおいしくなかったので、
一口
しか食べませんでした。
Since that dish wasn't as a good as I thought it would be, I didn't eat more than a bite.
21. 彼が
美術館
に行きたいというので、
案内
してあげた。
Because he said he wanted to go to an art museum, I took him around.
22. あまりに寒いので、ストーブをつけた。
Since it was so cold, I turned on the heater.
23. 日本語がうまく(しゃべれるように)なりたいので、
一生懸命勉強
します。
As I want to become good at Japanese, I'll study with all my might.
24.「
包
みは
航空便
でいくらですか」「600グラムですので、1500円になります」
“How much will it cost (to send) for the package?” “Since it is 600 grams, it will be 1500 yen”.
When at the end of a sentence, ので is essentially a softer version of のだ.
25. すまない、もう先約があるんで。
Sorry, I've got a commitment.
26. 終電に乗りたいので。
I need to catch the last train.
Sentence Note: Ex. 26 is in response to a question.
This particle is very similar in grammar to ので. However, it serves a different function.
~のに shows that the latter statement differs from the former, "although". Again, the second clause has to be contrary to what is expected from the first clause. If not, ~が or ~ても should be used. It is not uncommon to see it used as a final particle.
Nouns | 犬なのに | Must use copula |
Adjectives | 新しいのに | Must not use copula |
Adjectival Nouns | 簡単なのに | Must use copula |
Verbs | 食べるのに | Must not use copula |
Grammar Note: ~だのに is used by some speakers and is viewed as being rather dialectical.
1. あら、2
杯
も
食
べたのに、またお
代
わり? (Feminine)
My goodness, you've already had two helpings, but you want another one?
2. 急
いでいるのに、バスが来なくて、
困
りました。
Although I was in a hurry, the bus didn't come, so I was troubled.
3. 彼
はとても
年
を
取
っているのに
元気
ですよ。
Although he's very old, he's healthy!
4. あれだけがんばって教えたのに私の生徒たちはみなこの前の試験に合格しませんでした。
Despite after all I did, all my students didn't pass the last exam.
5. (
周囲
の)
反対
をおして怪我をしているのに、
戦
い続けた。
Despite voices of opposition around me and my injuries, I continued to fight.
6. その服、すごくぼろぼろなのに、まだ着てるんだね。
Although those clothes are really worn-out, you're still wearing them, aren't you.
7. 姉は75歳になるのに、まだフランス語の家庭教師をやっている。
Although my older sister is turning 75, she still gives French tutorials (to students).
Spelling Note: せっかく can be written as 折角.
8. 食べないの? せっかく作ったのに。
You're not going to eat it? Even though I went through all the trouble of making it?
9. 早く雨が上がるといいなあ。〇
早く雨が上がるといいのに。△
It would be good for the rain to let up quickly...
~たらいいのに
~たらいいのに shows regret. It is often used with the potential. It can also be used in proposal of ideas. It is normally translated as "if only".
10. 彼ともう一度会えたらいいのに。
I wish I was able to meet with him one more time.
11. (お)金持ちだったらいいのになあ。
It would be nice if I were rich.
12. 空を飛べたらいいなあ。
Wouldn't it be nice if I could fly…
~ばいいのに
~ばいいのに・ばいいのだが・ば{なあ・ねえ} are like "although it would be good if you". This suggests that the person is doing the contrary. "You" doesn't have to be the only subject. It could be an "it".
13. そんなに日本語を勉強したいなら、日本へ行けばいいのに。
If you really want to study Japanese so badly, then it'd be good for you to just go to Japan.
14. 雨がやめばいいのだが。
Although it would be nice for the rain to end...
15. 彼はもう少しゴルフがうまければなあ。
If only he could be a little better at golf.
16. 「このごろ
太
っちゃって...」「もっと
運動
(を)すればいいのに。テニスとかバスケとか(して)はどう?」
“I've been getting fat recently” “It would be nice if you exercised more. How about doing tennis, basketball, or something?”
17. 「漢字が覚えられないんです」「
辞書
を引けばいいのに」
“I can't remember Kanji” “It would be nice if you used a dictionary”.
18. 「漢字が覚えられないんです」「毎日読めばいいのに」
“I can't remember Kanji” “It would be nice if you read”.
19.
前向
きに考えればいいのに。
It would be nice if you thought positively.
20. 「
試験
の
点
が悪くて...」「もっと勉強すればいいのに」
“I did bad on my exam” “It would be nice if you studied more”.
Nuance Note: ~ばいいのに is a little cold. Try using nicer patterns to suggest things like ~たらどうですか and ~たらいいと 思 います. You can also add context to make the suggestion more 柔らかい "soft".
21. 「お金がなくて、
困
ってるんだ」 「仕事を探せばいいのに。最低賃金でも
一文
なしより(かは)いいだろう」
"I'm troubled because I don't have any money" "It would be nice if you got a job. Minimum wage is better than being penniless".
22. 一日40時間あればいいのに。
I wish there was 40 hours in a day.
23. 雨が
激
しく降ればよかったのに。
I wish it would have poured.
Everyone has bad habits, tendencies, or mannerisms. On top of that, everyone in the world loves to complain and ridicule the bad qualities of others—sometimes themselves as well. In Japanese, one of the most effective ways of ridiculing others for something is done so by using the word 癖, which literally means “habit” in the negative sense.
In this lesson, we will learn how this word is used in the grammar expression くせに, which is seen in cruder contexts asくせして, to mean “even though/in spite of” when used to express annoyance, criticism, anger, etc.
As mentioned in the introduction, 癖’s basic meaning is to describe habits, mainly bad ones although not limited to them. For instance, “biting one’s nails” would be 爪 を 噛 む 癖 and “waking up early” can be expressed with 早起 きの 癖 .
1.
悪
い
癖
を
直
すには、どうしたらいいでしょうか。
What should I do to fix a bad habit?
2. この
味
、
癖
になりますね!
I’m going to get hooked to this taste!
In Ex. 2, you can see how X{が・は} 癖 になる is used to mean “to get hooked to X.” Interestingly, 癖 may also refer to kinks and curls in things like hair, rugs, etc. For instance, “to straighten out one’s hair” can be expressed with 髪 の 癖 を 直 す and the word 癖毛 means “frizzy/unruly hair.”
The pattern 癖に, usually written out as くせに, attaches to nouns, adjectives, adjectival nouns, and verbs as demonstrated in the chart below. Its meaning, as mentioned in the introduction, is “even though/in spite of” and is used when describing annoyance, criticism, anger, a complaint, etc. It is semantically synonymous with the particle のに with the only true difference being the extremely negative connotations implied by くせに.
Nouns | Noun + の・である + くせに | 男
{の・である}くせに Even though you’re a man… |
Adjectives | Adj. + くせに |
古
いくせに Even though it’s old… |
Adjectival Nouns | Adj. Noun + な + くせに | 簡単
なくせに Even though it’s easy… |
Verbs | Verb + くせに |
買
うくせに In spite of buying… |
Grammar Note: Noun + であるくせに is not used in the spoken language and is seen in somewhat old-fashioned speech.
Below are example sentences of くせに following the various parts of speech as shown in the table above to show an array of negative critical connotations.
3.
彼女
って
大人
のくせに、まだ
母親
に
洗濯
してもらってるそうだ。
I hear that she still has her mom do her laundry even though she’s an adult.
4.
健太君
は
子供
のくせに、
全然外
で
遊
びたがらないの。
Kenta doesn’t want to play outside all even though he’s a kid.
5.
田中
さんは、
日本人
のくせに、
日本語
を
話
すのが
好
きじゃないみたいですねえ。
Mr. Tanaka, despite being Japanese, doesn’t appear to like speaking Japanese, huh.
6. あの
人
、
新卒者
のくせに、よく
何
でも
知
ってるように
喋
ったりしますね。
Despite being a new graduate, that person sure often talks like he knows everything, huh.
7.
彼女
、コメディアンのくせに、
全然面白
くないよ。
She isn’t funny at all despite being a comedian.
8. 「
男
のくせに」や、「
女
のくせに」などといった
言
い
方
はセクハラになり
得
ると
言
えよう。
One could say that expressions like “even though you’re a man” or “even though you’re a woman” can be treated as forms of sexual harassment.
9.
野生動物
のくせに
動
きが
鈍
いな。
It’s slow moving despite being a wild animal, huh.
10. ワニのくせに
海水
もへっちゃらなんだぁ。
Huh, sea water isn’t even a big deal even though it’s an alligator.
Spelling Note: ワニ can seldom be seen spelled as 鰐.
11.
中国人
のくせに
爆買
いしないなんておかしい!
It’s so strange that he/she won’t spend like crazy despite being Chinese!
12.
猪原
は
頭
が
悪
いくせに、
人気
があって
羨
ましい!
I’m so jealous that Ihara is popular even though he’s dumb!
13.
本当
は
元気
なくせに
怠
けやがって!
How dare you slack off when you’re actually fine!
14.
自分
が
馬鹿
なくせに
人
を
馬鹿
にする
人
が
大嫌
い。
I hate people who make others out to be idiots even though they themselves are idiots.
15.
賢
いくせに、おかしなことを
考
えるんだね。
You sure think a lot of crazy stuff for someone who’s wise.
16.
学歴
がないくせにプライドだけ
高
い
男
、めっちゃ
嫌
いなの!
I really hate men who only have pride with no education!
17. あんた、
戦争
の
経験
もないくせに
戦争
に
憧
れを
持
つんじゃねーぞ。
You don’t yearn for war when you’ve never experienced war!
18. あたしの
彼氏
ね、
知
ってるくせに
教
えてくれないわ。
My boyfriend, you know, knows but he won’t tell/teach me.
19. やったくせに
知
らんぷりするんじゃないぞ!
Don’t act like you don’t know when you’re the one who did it!
20. それだけの
怪我
したくせに?
Even though that’s all you’re hurt?
21.
3
回
も
恥
ずかしい
失敗
をしちゃったくせに、
今更何
が
恥
ずかしいの?
What are you so embarrassed about now? You’ve already failed three times…
22.
何
だ、
自分
がミスしたくせに・・・
What? Even though you yourself have messed up…
くせして
In far critical, often derogatory contexts, くせに can be seen as くせして. This implies slightly older grammar in which に and して share some degree of interchangeability with the latter being more emphatic, thus this form of the expression.
23.
俺
って、
日本人
のくせして
仏教
についてはとんと
門外漢
だよ。
Even though I'm Japanese, I’m a complete outsider about Buddhism.
24.
帰国子女
の
癖
してそんなのも
知
らないってわけか。
So you don’t even know stuff like that despite being a kikoku shijo, huh?
Word Note: 帰国子女 refers to children of Japanese expatriates who then return to Japan.
25.
日本人
のくせして、
日本語
の
文法
がからっきしダメだ。
Even though I’m Japanese, my Japanese grammar is absolutely hopeless.
Adj. + くせに |
What is an adnominal adjective is? The word "adnominal" simply means something that modifies a noun. In which case, all adjectives are adnominal. However, adnominal adjectives in the realm of Japanese grammar refer to adjectival phrases that don’t conjugate and solely modify the noun they attach to and are not interpreted as predicates modifying a noun (participle).
Adnominal adjectives (Rentaishi 連体詞) are easily distinguished from normal adjectives by the fact that they are all variants of normal adjectives. Appearance-wise, adnominal adjectives all end in /na/ whereas their normal variants all end in /i/. For instance, let's look at chiisai 小さい and chiisana 小さな, which both translate as "small" but behave differently syntactically following the basic principle mentioned above.
i.
山
の
小
さい
鳥
たちを
観賞
しています。
Yama no chiisai toritachi wo kanshō shite imasu.
I’m admiring the small birds of the mountain.
ii. あの
山
の
小
さな
町
に
住
んでいます。
Ano yama no chiisana machi ni sunde imasu.
I live in the small town on that mountain.
iii.
日本人
は
本当
に
体格
{が・の}
小
さい
人種
なんですか。
Nihonjin wa hontō ni taikaku [ga/no] chiisai jinshu na n desu ka?
Are Japanese really a race whose build is small?
Particle Note: Either ga が or no の can be used to mark what would be the subject if the dependent clause were being used as an independent clause.
Of the two forms, only chiisai 小さい can be seen at the end of a sentence, which is why you can view it as the "predicate form". Naturally, predicates tend to be full phrases, and these full phrases can then in turn be embedded into a noun phrase as one big modifier, which we call a participle.
As is the case with English, though, noun phrases can be modified by more than one phrase simultaneously. This would seem to be the case in i., but in this example it would be incorrect to view 小さい acting as a predicate embedded into a noun phrase. It is simply being used to mean "small bird". This prevents the speaker from interpreting 山の小さい鳥たち as "birds with small mountains", which would be nonsensical.
What this means is that 小さい and 小さな do coincide a lot. Syntactically, they're identical in i. and ii., with iii. being the example in which 小さい is indeed part of a complex participle embedded into a noun phrase, which is a function that 小さな cannot have. It is this syntactic complexity that tells the reader the phrase 小さい is a part of must be treated as a participle.
Adnominal adjectives in many ways are just like no-adjectives or any other modifying phrase that utilizes the particle no の. The only difference is that adnominal adjectives must be directly attached to the noun they modify whereas phrases with no の like yama no 山の in i. can float, meaning they are not bound directly before the noun they modify.
Although adnominal phrases do not inherently have the syntactic role of behaving as predicates, there are rare instances of this being broken when the otherwise participle is only composed of the adjective itself due to abnominal adjectives being more common before nouns than their non-abnominal forms.
iv. {
小
さい・
小
さな(△)}
時
から
大好
きでした。
[Chiisai/chiisana] toki kara daisuki deshita.
I loved it since I was little.
As to be expected, chiisai toki 小さい時 is the default choice to express this. However, it just so happens that chiisana 小さな is statistically used more in front of nouns. This is due to the fact that the two forms create a predicate/non-predicate relationship in which the former is typically seen at the end of sentences whereas the latter is typically seen after nouns. Grammatically, however, the former is most correct.
Terminology Note: Adnominal adjectives are called rentaishi 連体詞 in Japanese.
The syntactic difference outlined above is able to explain the differences between adnominal adjectives and non-adnominal adjectives from a distribution standpoint. What it fails to explain, however, is when their distributions overlap, which is the case when neither are viewed as participles when directly modifying a noun. In this grammatical scenario, we must look how they're pragmatically interpreted. Meaning, the forms produce slightly different nuances.
Before getting into further detail, in the chart below you will find a list of all the essential adnominal adjectives (to the right) along with their non-adnominal variants to the left. The first four examples, however, are examples of normal adjectival nouns who share the same variation between /i/ and /na/ based on the same nuancing principles that are to be explained next that are included in the chart to be as thorough as possible.
Meaning | Ending in /i/ | Ending in /na/ |
Warm | 暖かい Atatakai |
暖か{な・だ} Atataka [na/da] |
Square | 四角い Shikakui |
四角{な・だ} Shikaku [na/da] |
Soft | 柔らかい Yawarakai |
柔らか{な・だ} Yawaraka [na/da] |
Fine/minute | 細かい Komakai |
細か{な・だ} Komaka [na/da] |
Small | 小さい Chiisai |
小さな Chiisana |
Large | 大きい Ōkii |
大きな Ōkina |
Strange | 可笑しい Okashii |
可笑しな Okashina |
New | 新しい Atarashii |
新たな Aratana |
All of the /na/ forms in the right column are examples of adnominal adjectives. Even if any of these words do have other conjugations, those conjugations would be incredibly limited in scope and would need to be studied separately.
1. か
細
い
声
はだんだん
大
きくなっている。(Use of 大きい)
Kabosoi koe wa dandan ōkiku natte iru.
The fragile voice is becoming gradually larger.
2.
驚
くほど
小
さな
素足
が
露
になった。 (Use of 小さな)
Odoroku hodo chiisana suashi ga arawa ni natta.
Surprisingly small bare feet became exposed.
Grammar Note: This is an example of 小さな being used as a predicate; however, it is still juxtaposed right before the noun it modifies. Only the degree of the sense of "small" is being modified, and that is via the adverbial phrase 驚くほど. Otherwise, adnominal adjectives do not have the same free range as other adjectives to be used in complex predicate phrases that modify nouns.
3.
小
さな
声
で
話
しかける。(Use of 小さな)
Chiisana koe de hanashikakeru.
To talk to someone in a small voice.
4.
柔
らかかった。
暖
かかった。(Use of 柔らかい & 暖かい)
Yawarakakakatta. Atatakakatta.
It was soft. It was warm.
5.
皮
を
剥
いて
細
かく
切
りました。(Use of 細かい)
Kawa wo muite komakaku kirimashita.
I peeled the skin and finely cut it up.
6.
大
きい
希望
の
雲
が
湧
いている。(Use of 大きい)
Ōkii kibō no kumo ga waite iru.
Large clouds of hope are gushing forth.
7.
大
きな
希望
の
雲
が
湧
いている。(Use of 大きな)
Ōkina kibō no kumo ga waite iru.
Clouds of great hope are gushing forth.
When /i/ and /na/ pairs exist, the ones that end in /i/ are naturally objective, typically used with concrete nouns, but are not limited to literal interpretations, and the ones that end in /na/ are naturally subjective, typically used with abstract nouns, and almost always limited to literal yet emotional interpretations.
However, this is not all you have to consider. Some forms do have nuances the others don’t. You also can't just choose which form you want in a set phrase. After all, set phrases are set for a reason. With that being said, we will now focus on what exactly these nuance restrictions are.
Chiisai/Chiisana 小さい・小さな Ōkii/Ōkina 大きい・大きな
Generally speaking, chiisana 小さな and ōkina 大きな are only used to indicate physical size but with a subjective twist. Only chiisai 小さい and ōkii 大きい may be used to indicate small/large monetary values, and they may even be used to mean “old” and “young” in the context of age among siblings.
8.
400
円
ですか。すみません、{
大
きい ○・
大
きな X}のしかないんです。
Yonhyakuen desu ka? Sumimasen, [ōkii ○/ōkina X] no shika nai n desu.
It’s 400 yen? I’m sorry, but I only have large ones (bills).
9.
世界一小
さい
紙幣
は
何
ですか。
Sekai’ichi chiisai shihei wa nan desu ka?
What is the world’s smallest paper bill?
10.
大
きくなったね。
Ōkiku natta ne.
My, you’ve grown.
11.
小
さい
頃
からずっとそう
思
っていました。
Chiisai kara koro zutto sō omotte imashita.
I’ve always thought so since I was little.
12.
中央
に
小
さなテーブルがありました。
Chūō ni chiisana tēburu ga arimashita.
There was a small table in the center.
13.
世界
で
一番大
きい
建物
は
何
ですか。
Sekai de ichiban ōkii tatemono wa nan desu ka?
What is the largest building in the world?
14.
大
きな
政府
を
求
める
人
たちが
必
ずどこの
国
にもいる。
Ōkina seifu wo motomeru hitotachi ga kanarazu doko no kuni ni mo iru.
There are always people who seek big government in any country.
Okashii おかしい vs Okashina おかしな
Okashii おかしい is generally used in positive connotations in the sense of “funny” whereas okashina おかしな is generally used in negative connotations in the sense of “weird/suspicious/odd.” This, of course, is only a rule of thumb, but it generally holds true. However, it is important to note that this distinction really has nothing to do with being objective or subjective or being concrete or abstract.
15. おかしな
顔
をする。
Okashina kao wo suru.
To make a strange/suspicious face.
16. おかしい
顔
をする。
Okashii kao wo suru.
To make a strange/funny face.
17. おかしい
話
ですね。
Okashii hanashi desu ne.
What a strange thing to say.
18. おかしな
行動
を
取
る。
Okashina kōdō wo toru.
To take strange/suspicious action(s).
Atarashii 新しい vs Aratana 新たな
Although aratana 新たな was grouped as an adnominal adjective above, the adverbial form aratani 新たに does exist, and it is actually quite common. The difference between atarashii 新しい and aratana 新たな is that the former is more suitable for objective/concrete contexts whereas is most suitable for (potentially) subjective/obscure. The latter form also happens to be primarily used in writing and has what can be best described as a ‘cool’ nuance.
That isn’t to say aratana 新たな and aratani 新たに are never used in the spoken language. To the contrary, because they are ‘cool’ sounding with great emotional undertones, they are used extensively in advertisement and the like.
19.
新
しい
家具
を
買
いました。
Atarashii kagu wo kaimashita.
I bought new furniture.
20.
新
たな
冒険
が
始
まる!
Aratana bōken ga hajimaru!
A new adventure will become!
21.
新
しい
考
えに
取
って
代
わる。
Atarashii kangae ni tottekawaru.
To replace with a new idea.
22.
決意
を
新
たにしました。
Ketsui wo aratani shimashita.
I’ve renewed my resolution.
Yawarakai 柔らかい vs Yawarakana 柔らかな
Yawarakana 柔らかな is only capable of referring to literal softness of the five senses. However, yawarakai 柔らかい may be used more broadly despite being less subjective. For instance, when used in the phrase yawarakai hon 柔らかい本, it can refer to erotica. However, other phrases are more common for this.
As you may have already noticed, whenever forms are not interchangeable, it is the set phrases and obscure instances that only seem to matter. Of course, everything distinguishing /i/ and /na/ forms still apply.
23. {
柔
らかい・
柔
らかな}
感触
に
目
を
見開
く。
[Yawarakai/yawarakana] kanshoku ni me wo mihiraku.
To open one’s eyes to a tinder sensation.
24.
柔
らかな
日差
しを
感
じる。
Yawarakana hizashi wo kanjiru.
To feel gentle sunlight.
25.
柔
らかな
物腰
で
接
する。
Yawarakana monogoshi de sessuru.
To look after/deal with a gentle demeanor.
26.
柔
らかい(お)
餅
を
作
った。
Yawarakai (o)mochi wo tsukutta.
I made soft rice cake.
27.
柔
らかな(お)
餅
を
食
べませんか。
Yawarakana (o)mochi wo tabemasen ka?
Why not have some soft rice cake?
Expressing "before" in Japanese is not as difficult as other similar temporal phrases, but it still come with its own set of challenges.
When used as a temporal word, 前 means "before". It can be used with verbs in the non-past tense or with other nouns. Because 前 is also noun, you need to use the particle の when it is after another noun phrase.
1. それはどのくらい
前
のことでしたか。
How long ago was that?
2. 私は
旅行
に行く前に、トラベラーズ・チェックを買いました。
I bought traveler's checks before I went on my trip.
重言 Note: Some speakers use 旅行に行く, but this is traditionally incorrect. It is more correctly 旅行(を)する. This is because 旅行 literally means "going on a trip".
4.
海外旅行
の前に、パスポートを
取
りました。
I got a passport before going abroad.
5. 食べる前に、手を
洗
います。
I wash my hands before I eat.
6.
僕
が帰る前に、ホストファミリーのお
母
さんは
料理
をしました。
Before I got home, my host family mother had cooked.
7. これは11年前の新聞だ。
This is a newspaper from 11 years ago.
8. 日本に行く前に、ちょっと日本語を勉強しました。
I studied some Japanese before going to Japan.
9. 彼は3年前に死んだ。
He died three years ago.
10. 彼は3年前に死んでいた。 (今になってわかったこと)
He's been dead for three years.
11. 彼は3年前に死んでいる。
It's been three years since he died.
Word Note: 亡 くなる is more neutral than 死ぬ for when someone passes away.
前: ぜん
前 also has the reading ぜん. When used as a suffix after Sino-Japanese words, it is a very formal and suitable for 書き言葉. Its usage is almost unheard of the spoken language, but it is part of the official reading of many phrases in the jargon of many fields.
12.
1
日
3回
食前
に
服用
してください。
Please take (medicine) three times a day before eating.
Word Note: 服用する is more formal than 飲む and is used in settings in which medical terminology is most appropriate.
Reading Note: 一日 is not read as ついたち when 一日 is used to mean "a day".
13.
使用前
自主
検査
Independent/autonomous inspection before use
14. 期日前投票
Early voting
Reading Note: Many people would think きじつぜんとうひょう meant 期日全投票. So, in the spoken language, this word should be read as きじつまえとうひょう.
15. 出生前診断
Prenatal diagnosis
Reading Note: 出生 is usually read as しゅっしょう. However, some organizations use the reading しゅっせい. For instance, in medical terminology 出生届 (birth registration) is read as しゅっせいとどけ despite the fact that most people say しゅっしょうとどけ. In the spoken language, 前 would be read as まえ as expected.
As a prefix, it is used to mean "ex-". However, it comes with the word 元‐, which also means "ex-" but implies that other "ex-..." have existed before. This, though, is not sufficient in distinguishing them all the time. Someone who has stepped back from his position would be 前〇〇. Before this person, anyone with the title would be 元〇〇. What if you had a boat and there were no person to carry the legacy after the vessel sunk? You would use 元 船長 instead of 前船長.
16.
現社長
が前社長を
殺害
したという
事態
が
明
るみに出た。
The state of affairs of the current company president having murdered the ex-company president
has come to light.
17. どうしても元カノを気にしてしまうよ。
My ex-girlfriend always gets to me no matter what.
Contraction Note: カノ is a contraction of 彼女 when used to mean "girlfriend".
Final Note: Aside from this, 前 read as ぜん exists in other time phrases such as 前 日 (the other day).
直前
Right before can be expressed with the word 直前. The word also has the literal direction meaning of "right in front of". When used in a temporal sense, it is frequently appended to nouns without the need of の. However, the use of の is most certainly appropriate in the spoken language.
18.
帰京
する
飛行機
の直前に
到着
する
時刻
のバスにしか
間
に
合
わなかったこともあります。(Written)
I've also only managed to make it to a bus with an arrival time (to the airport) right before my flight back (to Tokyo).
Word Note: 帰京する = 東京に帰る.
19. 車の直前に人が
突然
飛
び出してきた。
A person suddenly dashed out right in front of the/my car.
20.
爆発
直前
にガソリンが
気化
したような
臭
いがしていた。
There was a smell of gasoline vaporizing right before the explosion.
漢字 Note: 臭い gives a nuance of stench whereas 匂い is any given smell. The word is also frequently spelled in ひらがな.
There is not one phrase for "after," and there are minute differences that you need to know about the various ways to say it. So, pay attention as always.
"Verb A + た 後 (で) + Verb B" states that B happens after A. However, there are several other similar expressions in Japanese. So, pay close attention to the differences discussed later on.
As for this basic pattern, the verb before 後 must be in the past tense. Yet, ~ていた後 is ungrammatical because it needs to show the end of an action. Other grammatical issues that the example sentences and subsequent explanation will show is that whether to use で, に, or no particle is somewhat difficult. However, it's important to see examples first.
1a.
雑誌
を読んでいた後で、アニメを見た。 X
1b. 雑誌を読んだ後で、アニメを見た。〇
I watched anime after reading a magazine.
2a.
百貨店
があった後で、
駅
ができた。X
2b. 百貨店{があった・の}後に、駅ができた。〇
A train station was built where a department store had been.
3. 昨日は
授業
の
後
、
家
に帰らないで
映画
を
観
に行った。〇
Yesterday I went to go see a movie instead of going home after class.
漢字 Note: 観 can be used instead of 見 when one is watching a program of some sort such as a movie, a TV show, play, drama, Family Guy (I love this show), etc.
4. 学校のあと、ふと
目
まい目まいがした。〇
I felt dizzy all of a sudden after school.
Spelling Notes: 後 is occasionally written in ひらがな as the character has several readings and some speakers just like to write it in ひらがな to disambiguate as habit. Lastly, 目まい may seldom fully be written in 漢字 as 眩暈・目眩.
Ex. 2a is ungrammatical because ある is existential, and to clearly show the location in which the train station has now taken the place of the department store, you need to use the particle に. Even so, verbs of condition can be used with 後 as long as the "end" of the state is clearly instantiated correctly.
5. しばらくギリシャにいた後、トルコへ
渡
った。
After being in Greece for a while, I crossed over to Turkey.
6.
大変
だった後は、
良
いことがあるのかな。
I wonder if there can be anything good after things being so terrible.
Many other particles can follow 後. You should not be surprised to a sentence where に, は, や, と, or から follow it. After all, it is a noun. When showing the condition after a change, then 後は is perfect to use. Verb B after 後は should deal with duration or condition.
7. 勉強をしたあとは、
疲
れて何もできない。(X) → (後で)
After studying, I'm tired and can't do anything.
Ex. 7 is not plausible to some speakers as being unable to do anything due to studying isn't a state of change over any serious duration of time. Studying is usually not long in duration and is realistically a temporary state of action. Now, if you are exaggerating things, then it would be more OK.
8.
県外
に
引
っ
越
した後は、
友人
と会う
機会
が
減
った。
Since moving out of the prefecture, chances to meet friends have decreased.
Word Note: 友人 is more frequently used in the written language.
9. Kポップを
聴
いた後は、
気持
ちがよくなります。
I feel better after having listened to K-pop.
Pronunciation Note: Pronounce K as ケイ.
後は can also be used to show that something is done after another action habitually. It's also very important to have this form when you want to conjoin multiple 後 expressions for topicalization/emphasis.
10.
歯
を
磨
いた後はすぐ寝ます。
I go right to sleep after I brush my teeth.
11.
働
いた後や勉強した後はカラオケ!
Karaoke after working and or studying!
後に can be used in a sense of time, and in doing so it is more punctual. But, there are many more examples where it is used in the sense of location as well.
12.
僕
は食べた後(に)歯を
磨
いた。
I brushed my teeth after I ate.
13.
友達
が帰った後には、ゴミがたくさん落ちてた。(Casual)
There was a lot of trash dropped after my friends went home.
14. 花が
咲
いた後に、
実
ができて、その中に
種
ができる。
After a flower blooms, a fruit forms, and inside that seeds form.
15.
卒業
(を)した後に、仕事を
探
します。
After graduating, I'll look for a job.
16. 子供が寝た後に、映画を見ました。
I watched a movie after my child went to bed.
17. 昼ご飯の後に、その町を
見物
しました。
We went sightseeing in the town after lunch.
As 後 is a noun, ~後だ can also be seen at the end of a sentence or clause. So, it could be that で in 後で is the て Form of だ, which will show in context and intonation. You can also see あとのN. As far as 後から is concerned, it uses the physical sense of the word. から means "from". So, imagine that there is something that comes about from the end of an action A.
18.
結果
が分かるのは、
調査
の後だ。
We'll know the results after the investigation.
19. 子供が帰ったあとからはま~るい大きなお
月様
!
From after the children have gone home, the round, big moon comes out!
From the lyrics of 夕焼け小焼け.
~後に
~ 後 に also means "later". This attaches to Sino-Japanese words involving time. It is sometimes formal such as in Ex. 22 and 23, but there are also instances in which it is quite normal like when it is paired with 週間 as in Ex. 20 and 21.
20. 三時間後に
鳩山総理大臣
は
成田空港
に
到着
します。
Prime Minister Hatoyama will arrive in Narita Airport in 3 hours.
Person Note: Yukio Hatoyama (鳩山由紀夫) was the Prime Minister of Japan from 2009 to 2010.
21. 2週間後に帰ります。
I'll return in two weeks.
22.
食後
に
薬
を飲む。
To take medicine after a meal.
Sentence Note: Ex. 22 would be most expected of a doctor to say or write.
23.
帰宅後
にメイクを
落
とす
女性
Women who take off their make-up after arriving home
Word Note: 帰宅後 = 家に帰った後
~のち
後 may also be read as のち. のち may be used in the same sense as 後 and may be used just like ~後に in the sense of ~あとに and ~ごに. However, it is more formal and is most likely to be in the written language. のちに may also be used in the sense of "henceforth".
24. それをずっとのちに知りました。
I knew of that long afterwards.
25.
三
ヶ
月
後
に
離脱
。
Defecting after three months.
26. 大学を卒業した
後
、
演劇界
に入った。
After graduating, I entered the world of theatre.
27.
晴
れのち
曇
り
Fine, cloudy later
Sentence Note: Ex. 27 is an example of common messages you might find watching a Japanese weather report.
~てから shows what you do after something else. This goes in hand when showing the starting point of something. In this case, it's the starting point of the new action after the previous one. So, once the first action is established, then that sets up the starting point for the next action. This pattern is very good for showing sequence.
28.
夕食
を
食
べてから
寝
る前の
時間が
長すぎる。
The time before I go to bed after eating dinner is too long.
29.
別
れてから
会
っていない。
I haven't met her since we split up.
30. 私
は
勉強
を
始
めてから、
多
くのことを
学
びました。
I've learned a lot of things since I started studying.
31. よく
考
えてから
答
えます。
I will answer after some thought.
32. 日本
に
来
てからもう10
年
になります。
It has already been ten years since I came to Japan.
33. 日本
に
来
てからずっと
日本語
の
勉強
をしています。
I've been studying Japanese ever since I came to Japan.
34. 高校
を
卒業
してから、
大学
に
行
かないで
仕事
をする
人
も
多
い。
There are also a lot of people that work instead of going to college after graduating high school.
Phrase Note: 入学 する = "to be admitted", which can also be used in reference to middle and high school in Japan. So, using this instead of 大学 に 行 く may not be a smart idea if you don't have the context. Now, 大学に入学する would still mean "to be admitted into college", but it doesn't describe going to four years of college like the above sentence does.
35.
入
ってから
出
るまで、
怖
かった。
I was scared from when I entered until I left.
Particle Note: Other particles like は and の can follow ~てから. You can even see だ after it.
Tense Note: You should not use this pattern with ~ている.So, ~ていてから X.
~後で VS ~てから
There are many instances where using ~後で can be unnatural or even ungrammatical. At other times, they're interchangeable. Consider the following examples.
36. 買い物を{してから・した後で}映画を見ました。
I watched a movie after shopping.
37.
切符
を買っ{てから 〇・た後に 〇・た後で △}ポケットの中に入れた。
After I bought the ticket, I put it inside my pocket.
Grammar Note: 後で is unnatural because Action B happens right after Action A as a consequence of it. The same problem exists for Ex. 38.
38. ちょっと口をすすい{でから 〇 ・た後に 〇・だ後で △}歯を磨く。
To brush one's teeth after rinsing one's mouth a little.
漢字 Note: すすぐ may rarely be written as 漱ぐ in this context.
39. 卒業し{てから 〇・た後で X}、彼には会っていない。
I haven't met with him since graduating.
Grammar Note: You should never use ない as the latter condition (state/action B) with 後で. So, in the sense of "since", you should use ~てから rather than ~後で.
40.
秋
が来{てから 〇・た後で X}、
急
に
人通
りが少なくなった。
Street traffic suddenly got deserted since fall came.
時 is used to mean "when" when used with time phrases. The tense and part of speech used with 時 is very important as you will see throughout this lesson.
Tense
As mentioned in the introduction, 時 is complicated because of tense. Why? Considering that the following combinations are possible, it’s easy for students to get them all confused.
~するとき、~する | ~するとき、~した | ~したとき、~する | ~したとき、~した |
English likes tense to be consistent in a sentence, so the first and last combinations tend to be easier for students to acquire. The middle ones, though, are different to say the least.
1. ご飯を食べるとき、いつも手を洗います。
When(ever)/before I eat a meal, I always wash my hands.
2. ご飯を食べ始めるとき、「いただきます」という。
You/we say “Itadakimasu” when(ever)/before we start eating a meal.
3. 日本に帰ったとき、まず(お)寿司を食べました。
I first ate sushi right when/after I returned home to Japan.
4. 昨夜、ご飯を食べるとき、手を洗いませんでした。
Last night, before I ate, I didn't wash my hands.
5. ご飯を食べ終わったとき、いつも「ご馳走さまでした」と言います。
You/we say “Gochisou-sama deshita” after finishing a meal.
It's not that the other combinations can't be translated into English. From these last two examples, it looks as if there is a before-after relation being made in the dependent clause in relation to the main clause. This is often the case, but as you will see, it is not the only possible situation.
Consider the difference between the following two sentences.
6. ベトナムへ行く時に、ベトナム語を少し習いました。 (日本で)
Before going to Vietnam, I studied a little Vietnamese.
7. ベトナムへ行った時に、ベトナム語を少し習いました。 (ベトナムで)
When I went to Vietnam, I studied a little Vietnamese.
The only thing different was the form of 行く before 時. The distinction does not tell whether the sentence is in the past or not because that’s already evident. What the tense distinction in the subordinate clause shows is whether the action in that clause has realized or not. Thus, 時 functions as the base time, and the action in the clause before it may either happen before or after the action of the main clause.
前後関係 and 時
There are instances when ignoring this 前後関係 (before-after relationship) can cause the sentence to be ungrammatical.
8. 朝起きるときに、口をすすぐ。X
When I wake up in the morning, I rinse my mouth. △
Note: You can't be rinsing your mouth the moment you're waking up. Although in English you can get by with saying this sentence with "the very moment you're waking up" not necessarily being implied, this is implied in Japanese, thus causing the sentence to be ungrammatical with 時.
9. 寝たときに、犬を外に行かせる。X
I make the dog go outside after I go to sleep. X
Note: You can't be taking your dog outside after you've already gone to bed unless you've mastered sleep walking.
When 時 is used to show a 前後関係 such as in the previous examples, each verb can be viewed as being independent from each other. For those that have a problem with a future event being used with the past tense, more thought into “after” statements in English needs to be made.
10. ソウルの空港に着いたときに、電話します。
I'll call you after I arrive in the Seoul Airport.
X & Y → Instantenous
It so happens, though, that when action X and Y are instantaneous and seem to happen at the same time, both the non-past and past tense seem to be able to be used interchangeably before とき without a change of meaning. However, note the detail in this situation. You shouldn't run with this and apply it haphazardly to everything else mentioned in this lesson to the contrary.
11. そのボールが{
爆
ぜる・爆ぜた}とき、がちゃんと大きな音がした。
There was a big bang right when the ball exploded.
As stated earlier, there are situations where 時 does not express a 前後関係. This is evident when both actions X and Y essentially happen simultaneously.
12. 中国
滞在中
、中国料理を食べるときは、
箸
を使いました。
When I was in China, I used chopsticks whenever ate Chinese food.
13. 神戸へ出張するときは、新幹線に乗りました。
I rode the Shinkansen when I went to Kobe.
14. 僕んち(に)入るときは、いつも
裏口
から入ってたんだけど、やめて。(Very colloquial)
Whenever you enter my house, you've always come through the back, but quit it.
Tense Interchangeability
Time phrases in addition to 時 allow for variation in tense before 時. For instance, notice how the word いつも allows either the non-past or the past to be used before 時 though the final verb in the sentence is in the past tense. This is possible because no specific event of the past is being cited. If it were a specific event, the past tense would inevitably be used.
15. 韓国の方とビビンバを{食べる・食べた}ときは、いつも
銀製
のお箸で食べました。
Whenever I ate bibimbap with Koreans, I always ate with silver chopsticks.
Word Note: 方 = 人. This is a formal word. You could also say 韓国の人 or 韓国人.
16. 小林さんが
講演会
を開くときは、
多少
遠くてもいつも
聴
きに行きました。
Whenever Mr. Kobayashi opened a lecture seminar, no matter if it was far, I always went to go listen (to his lectures).
17. 雪が{降る・降っている}ときは、図書館で
研究書
を読んだ。
Whenever it {snowed/was snowing}, I read studies at the library.
18. 電気が{切れる・切れている}ときは、
海岸
に泳ぎに行った。
When the electricity {cut off, was cut off}, I went to the beach to swim.
With Adjectives
When the main clause is past tense and the adjective before 時 is also in the past tense, 時 gives a rather reminiscent feeling. Otherwise, it wouldn't quite have that feeling.
19. この
老犬
は若いとき、とても美しかった。
When this old dog was young, it was really beautiful.
20. 君が若かったとき、わしは君を
大事
にしてやったけど、今はわしの
存在
を
認
めてくりゃしないや。(Old person)
When you were young, I would treat you dearly, but now you won't even recognize my existence.
Contraction Note: くりゃしない = くれはしない = a very emphatic くれない.
21. 天気が悪い時に、ビデオゲームをした。
When the weather was bad, I played video games.
Particle Note: With the addition of に, the last sentence pinpoints a specific time in the past.
With いる
This is the same with いる. So, for いる, when the actions in the clauses occur in the same time period, either tense can be used when the main sentence is in the past with no change in meaning. The only difference then is that using the past tense gives a stronger sense of looking back in time.
22. 私は埼玉に{いる・いた}時、
二階建
てのアパートでタイ人の友達と住んでいました。
When I was in Saitama, I lived with a Thai friend in a two story apartment.
When it is the case that the predicate and condition described by いる are not in the same time period, the main clause’s action occurs within the range of the action of the dependent clause. So, if the dependent clause action is Y and the main clause action is X, X happens within Y.
23. 僕が海外してたとき、彼女は僕を
裏切
って、友人の知り合いと付き合ってあいつのマンションに引っ越したんだ!
When I was overseas, my girlfriend dumped me, got together with an acquaintance of a friend of mine and moved into his apartment!
24. メールを読んでたとき、地震があって、とってもびっくりしたよ。
An earthquake happened when I was reading my e-mails, and I was really shocked.
With Nominal Phrases
Judgments seen thus far apply for when 時 follows nominal phrases. Notice that の is interchangeable with である in this case. However, when the copula is used, it gives a stronger sense of retrospection or looking into the future. This is due to the introduction of a tense item. Consider other particles that can be used with 時 like から and でも.
25. 僕は学生[の・だった]時、あまり本を読まなかった。
I didn't read a lot of books when I was a student.
26. どんなときでもずっと側にいるよ。
I'll be by your side no matter what.
27. 高校に入学したときから、数えて20年が経ちました。
20 years have passed since I entered high school.
Particle Troubles: ~とき、~ときに、~ときは、~ときには
Of course, に・には・nothing after 時 is problematic. You may have gotten a sense of the differences between them by looking at all of the examples so far, but to address this explicitly, consider the following. As mentioned earlier, ~ときに mentions a certain point in time.
So, ambiguity as to whether something happens at a certain time or not is caused by no particle being used. On the other hand, the particle は is emphatic and usually with 時 to contrast with other times. With ときには, you are emphasizing a particular part in time in contrast with other points in time. The following examples give a nice mix of this and the material covered thus far.
28. 日本に行く時には、空港でウィスキーを買いました。
I bought whiskey right before I went to Japan.
29. 食べている時に、テレビは見ません。
I don't watch TV (right) when I'm eating.
30. 学校に行く時、電話します。
When/before I go to school, I'll call you. (before).
31.
桜
がきれい[な・だった]時に、日本へ行った。
I went/used to go to Japan when(ever) the cherry blossoms were pretty (in bloom).
32. 分からない時は、先生に聞いてください。
When you don't understand, ask a teacher.
33. お金がないとき、何をしないで
我慢
しますか。
When you don't have money, what do you endure without?
34. 前回台北に来たときは、誰にも会わなかったが、今回は多くの友人に会いました。
Last time I came to Taipei, I didn't meet anyone, but this time I met a lot of friends.
Reading Note: 台北 is officially read by NHK as たいほく. However, many speakers no longer read it this way and say たいぺい, perhaps out of respect of the modern Chinese pronunciation. Similarly, though, the standard reading for 北京 (Beijing) is ぺきん, which is based off of the older pronunciation of the city's name (Peking).
Relative time phrases differ from absolute time phrases in that they do not refer to specific instances of time. Like their absolute counterparts, relative time phrases may function as either nouns or adverbs. Typically, their part of speech mirrors what they would be in English. However, this is not always the case.
Of the many relative time phrases in Japanese, the ones below are the most important to get down. Some of them involve grammar you've already encountered. For instance, よく comes from the adjective よい. Other phrases involve prefixes, suffixes, and particles that make them more or less set phrases.
Long ago | 昔 | At one time | かつて | Before and after | 前後 |
The other day | 先日 |
Previously | 先に | Already | もう |
Mostly | たいてい |
Later | 後で | No longer | もはや |
Always | いつも | At once | すぐに | Usually | 普通 |
Frequently | 度々 | Sometimes | 時々 |
Often |
よく |
Again | また | Again; twice | 再 び | For a first | はじめて |
Seldom | 滅多 に | Never | ぜんぜん | Never | 決して |
A while ago | さっき | Every other | ~おきに | At about | ~ごろ |
Usage Notes:
1. ~前後 may mean "back and forth" when not used with time.
2. (の)
頃
means "as; when" and is similar to 時.
3. 昔に is not frequently used, but it is seen in compound expressions such as はるか昔に (in the remote past).
4. ふたたびに is incorrect.
Examples
1. 私たちは
滅多
に{
口喧嘩
・口論
}しません。
We seldom quarrel.
2. 時々スプーンとフォークで食べます。
I sometimes eat with a spoon and fork.
3. 彼女は
一日
おきに
出勤
する。
She goes to work every other day.
4.
事故
は日曜日の
三時頃
に
起
こった。
The accident happened on Sunday at about 3:00.
5. お(お)よそ五時間の
旅
となります。
It'll turn into around a five hour trip.
6. 8月の
半
ばに学校に
戻
ります。
I will go back to school in the middle of August.
7. 彼は9時前後にここに
到着
するでしょう。
He'll probably arrive here at around nine o'clock.
8. 僕は子供のころから英語に
興味
があった。
I had an interest in England since I was a kid.
9. 彼を子供のころから知っている。
I have known him since childhood.
10. このごろアメリカへ
旅行
する人が多い。
A lot of people are traveling to America nowadays.
"Used to" is usually expressed with one of two patterns. The pattern ~たものだ is used to reminisce or confirm a past experience with a deep sense of emotion. かつて shows what something "used to be," not what one used "to do". かつて when used as noun means "former."
1. | Used to be/was once | 嘗(かつ)て+~た |
2. | Used to do | よく+~た+~ものだ |
Examples
11. 火曜日にはいつも友だちと
釣
りに行ったものだ。
I used to always like go fishing with my friends on Tuesdays.
12. かつてないほどの
円高
だ。
The strong yen is better than ever.
Word Note: The opposite of 円高 is 円安. The suffixes ~高 and ~安 may be used with any world currency such as the ドル (dollar), the ユーロ (euro), and the ウォン (won).
13. かつて、
第二次世界大戦
にドイツはイタリアと
同盟国
でありました。 (Formal 書き言葉)
Germany used to be an ally of Italy in World War II.
14a. かつて住んでいたところはこちらです。(Literary)
14b. 以前こちらに住んでいました。(Spoken)
The place I used to live at is here.
15. こんな
事件
はいまだかつてなかった。
We have not yet had this kind of case ever before.
16. かつて彼らは
同僚
だった。
They were once colleagues.
17. 彼はかつて
組織
の
一員
であった。(書き言葉)
He used to be a member of the organization.
18. {かつて・旧来}の友 (Somewhat lyrical)
A former friend
Orthography Note: Although rare, かつて may be written in 漢字 as 嘗て.
Customary Action: ~ていた
Customary action may also be expressed with ~ていた. This also equates to "used to."
19. 毎朝ジョギングをしていました。
I used to jog every morning.
20. 中学校の時、毎晩9時に
寝
ていた。
I used to go to bed every night at nine when I was in junior high.
Most verbs are usually either transitive or intransitive. Transitivity is a concept that helps explain what does what, what does what to whom, and similar questions related to action or state.
The Japanese terms for transitive verbs ( 他動詞 ) and intransitive verbs ( 自動詞 ) are defined below. As transitivity classifications don't always match with their English equivalent, the Japanese terms will be preferred in this discussion.
他動詞 | An action done by "someone/thing" on something or someone else (direct object). |
自動詞 | An action or state that has no active agent and no direct object. |
Definition Note: An "agent" in grammar is, simply put, the "doer" of an action. However, just because a verb has "no active agent," this doesn't mean that the verb has "no agent" at all. There are some verbs like 暮 らす which do have an agent, but the agent is "non-active". After all, "people" do "live" out their lives. However, "living" is not the same thing as "cooking a meal" or "driving a car." As opposed to having a non-active agent, "cooking" and "driving" have active agents acting upon a direct object.
As alluded to above, some verbs don't have the same transitivity as their English equivalents. For example, 分 かる (to understand) and 要 る (to need) are intransitive in Japanese even though their English equivalents are transitive verbs. The reason for these discrepancies is that the two languages describe things from different angles in these instances. More will be discussed about this later.
Rules of Thumb
を with 他動詞 always marks the direct object of a sentence. If it is used with a 自動詞, it essentially means "through".
1. パソコンを捨てる。 (捨てる = 他動詞)
To throw away a PC.
2. 道を歩く。 歩く = 自動詞
To walk through the street.
If you don't see を and the subject is marked with が, it is often safe to assume that the verb is a 自動詞. However, the direct object could be dropped. So, you must take that into consideration. Is it logical for the verb in question to have a direct object?
3. 鳥が歌っている。 (歌う = 他動詞)
The bird is singing.
Transitivity Note: 歌う is a transitive verb because birds sing songs. There is intrinsically always a direct object implied.
4. 車が
停
まった。 (停まる = 自動詞)
The car stopped.
There are upwards of 300 of these verb pairs in Japanese. Most fit nicely into four broad categories with various sub-types. Derivation becomes convoluted very quickly, however. Morphology doesn't always make a language easier. It just explains where things come from and why. As you go through the types of transitivity verb pairs, don't feel that you must memorize every detail being shown. After all, not even the best Japanese scholars have this completely figured out.
Type 1: ある and おる = Intransitive
About a fourth of pairs have an intransitive pair with an r or y suffix usually preceded by either the vowel /a/ or /o/ to the root of a verb (except for Type 1d below). The transitive form may end in -u, -eru, or -ru based on type. The sub-types will be listed by frequency. Frequency here is not frequency in type 1 alone but for ALL verb pairs of all types.
Type 1 | Frequency | Intransitive | Example | Transitive | Example |
a | ~20% | √ -(w)ar-u | 上がる (to rise) | √-Ø-eru | 上げる (to raise) |
b | ~3% | √-ar-u | 塞 がる | √-Ø-u | 塞(ふさ)ぐ (to block) |
c | ~1% | √-(w)ar-eru | 分かれる (to divide/branch) | √-Ø-eru | 分ける (to split) |
d | ~.70% | √-[y]-eru | 見える (to be in sight) | √-Ø-ru | 見る (to see) |
e | ~.33% | √-o[y]-eru | 聞こえる (to be heard) | √-Ø-u | 聞く (to hear) |
f | ~.33% | √-or-u |
積
もる (to pile) |
√-Ø-u | 積む (to pile) |
g | ~.33% | √-or-eru |
埋
もれる (to be covered) |
√-Ø-eru | 埋める (to bury/cover) |
Chart Note: Ø is used here to stand for "nothing" that takes the place for where a morpheme (meaning component) would otherwise be located to indicate transitivity explicitly.
Even though there are seven sub-types, many patterns can be observed. The /ar-/ and /or-/ you see actually relate to the verbs ある and おる.The [y] in parentheses is actually silent and is etymologically the same as the /r/ in these derivations.
Type 2: S = Transitive
These verbs all have a transitive form with a stem that ends in s. What else makes up the stem or what follows varies, but this characterizes 30% of all pairs in Japanese. Frequency, again, refers to frequency among all verb pairs.
Type 2 | Frequency | Intransitive | Example | Transitive | Example |
a | ~14% | √-Ø-eru |
冷
える (to get chilly) |
√-(y)as-u | 冷やす (to chill) |
b | ~10% | √-Ø-u |
散
る (to scatter) |
√-(w)as-u | 散らす (to scatter) |
c | ~2% | √-Ø-iru |
干
る (to dry up) |
√-os-u |
干
す (to dry) |
d | ~1.3% | √-Ø-iru | 生きる (to live) | √-as-u | 生かす (to keep alive) |
e | ~1% | √-Ø-ru | 着る* (to wear) | √-s-eru | 着せる (to clothe) |
f | ~.70% | √-Ø-eru |
膨
れる (to swell) |
√-as-eru | 膨らせる (to swell) |
g | ~.33% | √-Ø-u |
及
ぶ (to extend) |
√-os-u | 及ぼす (to affect) |
h | ~.33% | √-Ø-iru |
綻
びる (to come apart) |
√-as-eru | 綻ばせる (to break into) |
i | ~.33% | √-Ø-iru |
尽
きる (to run out) |
√-us-u | 尽くす (to exhaust) |
*: Although it is technically transitive, its meaning is more like an intransitive verb and this is important for other uses of the verb.
Word Note: 綻ばせる is "to break into" as in "to break into a smile.
Type 3: Once the Same Long Ago
Type 2 and Type 3 are extremely similar. Put together, they indicate that at one point, many transitivity verb pairs probably derived from a single verb which could function as either an intransitive or a transitive verb. This would be just how most English verbs work. As for Type 3, its verbs have morphemes expressed after the root indicating transitivity. Unsurprisingly, the "r/y-s" pattern is used for this.
Type 3 | Frequency | Intransitive | Meaning | Transitive | Meaning |
a | ~8% | √-r-u |
余
る (to be plenty) |
√-s-u | 余す (to spare over) |
b | s ~6% | √-r-eru |
現
れる (to appear) |
√-s-u | 現す (to show/appear) |
c | r ~1% | √-r-u | 乗る (to ride) | √-s-eru | 乗せる (to pick up) |
d | u ~.70% | √-[y]-eru |
越
える (to go over) |
√-s-u |
越す (to go over) |
e | t ~.33% | √-r-iru |
足
りる (to suffice) |
√-s-u | 足す (to add) |
Type 4: Change in Verb Class
For the above types, a morpheme of some sort is used to go from one transitivity to another. Adding a morpheme to the root of the verb frequently results in a verb that's in a different verb class than its counterpart. For instance, 上がる is a 五段 verb and 上げる is an 一段 verb. The addition of "-ar" to the root of these verbs "ag-" was all that was needed to cause this difference.
For the remaining 25% of verbs, change in verb class alone is what's responsible for transitivity change. Nothing is added to the roots of these verbs to change transitivity. In times past, the basic verb form for these verb pairs looked identical. The only distinguishing aspect they had was having different conjugations. This indicates that these verbs may be remnants of a far older process to derive transitivity pairs. Ironically, however, this type of verb pairs is split into two polar opposite sub-types. This is where memorization becomes especially important.
Type 4 | Frequency | Intransitive | Example | Transitive | Example |
a | ~16% | √-Ø-u |
開
く (to open) |
√-Ø-eru | 開ける (to open) |
b | ~10% | √-Ø-eru |
割
れる (to crack) |
√-Ø-u | 割る (to crack) |
Exceptions Note: There are several exceptions that are important to learn. Those will be found as examples in this lesson.
Examples
Sometimes knowing which verb form to use is not easy. For instance, suppose you have a cat named ニャ子ちゃん. To tell her to hide because a dog is coming, you would say かくれて, not かくして. This is because there is only an implied subject (the cat) and an action (hiding). There is no direct object. Had you wanted to say "hide yourself", you would use the transitive form かくす and get 身 をかくして.
The chart below has a handful of the most important pairs for you to learn.
意義 | 他動詞 | 意義 | 自動詞 | 意義 | 他動詞 | 意義 | 自動詞 |
To break | 壊す | To be broken | 壊れる | To open | 開ける | To open | 開く |
To raise | 育てる |
To be raised |
育つ |
To close | 閉める | To close | 閉まる |
To put out | 消す | To disappear | 消える | To flow | 流す | To flow | 流れる |
To drop | 落とす | To fall | 落ちる | To stand | 立てる | To stand | 立つ |
To stop | 止める | To stop | 止まる | To change | 変える | To change | 変わる |
To start/begin | 始める | To begin | 始まる | To reveal | 現す | To appear | 現れる |
To add | 加える | To take part/join | 加わる | To (a)wake |
覚
ます |
To wake up | 覚める |
To leave | 残す | To remain | 残る | To rotate | 回す | To rotate | 回る |
Transitivity Notes:
1. 開く read as あく is an intransitive verb.
2. 開ける read as あける is only transitive and is used to open many things. There are also other spellings of this verb depending on usage. When read as ひらける, it is a more literary, intransitive verb for enlightenment, development, and things being opened up. For instance, you can say 目の前に海がひらけた (the sea opened up in front of our eyes) and 文明がひらけた (civilization has developed).
Meaning Notes:
1. 消える may also mean "to fade", "to go off/out", "to pass", "to vanish", etc. 消す may also mean "to turn off", "to remove", "to erase", "to vanish", "to extinguish", etc.
2. Etymologically, 立つ and 立てる are the same words as 建つ (to be built) and 建てる (to build) respectively. Translation of たつ and たてる, which have other spellings depending on usage, varies. However, you should get the theme of what they mean.
3. 止める read as とめる means "stop" as in "to halt". It can be spelled as 停める (to halt a vehicle), 留める (to restrain; to hold (custody); to leave an impression), and 泊める (to accommodate/lodge). When read as やめる, it means "stop" as in stopping a condition/action. It can be spelled as 辞める (to quit a job). The intransitive form of やめる is やむ.
Spelling Note: Many of these words have additional meanings and additional spellings. Knowing each and every meaning of these verb pairs and the spellings to go with them is too overwhelming for now.
6. 車
が
突然止
まった。
The car suddenly stopped.
漢字 Note: 停まる = 止まる. The first is more indicative of a temporary stop.
7. 弟
がカメラを
壊
しました。
My younger brother broke the camera.
8. ぼくの新しいカメラが
壊
れました。
My new camera broke.
9. 川
が
湖
に
流
れている。
The river is flowing into the lake.
10. タクシーを
止
めなかったの。
You didn't stop a taxi?
11. ドアを
開
けました。
I opened the door.
12.
自動
ドアが
開
きました。
The automatic door opened.
13. いつ
始
まりますか。
When will it start?
14.
気
が
変
わったかわからない。
I don't know if [his/her] mind changed.
15. 妹
がテレビをつけました。
My little sister turned on the TV.
16. テレビがつきました。
The TV came on.
17.
涙
を
流
す。
To shed tears.
18. 土
が
血
で
染
まった。
The ground was dyed with blood.
19.
宿題
を
始
める。
To start one's homework.
20.
電気
を
消
しました。
I turned off the lights.
21. 電気
が
消
えました。
The lights [turned/went] off.
22. {話・話題}
を
変
える。
To change topics.
23. 彼
は
腹
が
立
った。(Set Phrase)
He got angry.
24. バラの木が
植
わっている。
There are rose bushes planted.
25. バラの木を植えました。
I planted a rose bush.
Usage Note: Sometimes a certain verb in a transitivity pair will not be frequently used. For instance, some speakers hardly ever use 植わる.
More Practice
The following sentences will have you choose one of two options. Use additional information and the contents of the lesson to help you choose the right answer.
Questions:
1. オレンジが(落ちる・落とす)。 Drop
2. 図書館の前に人が(
並
ぶ・並べる)。 Line up
3.
日時
を(決まる・決める)。 Decide
4.
枝
を(折れる・折る)。 Bend
5. 勉強を(続く・続ける)。 Continue
6. 草を(
燃
える・燃やす)。 Burn
7. 週末を(過ぎる・過ごす)。 Spend
8. 猫を(助かる・助ける)。 Save
9. 木が(倒れる・倒す)。 Fall down
10. 仕事が(
増
える・増やす)。 Increase
11. 数が(
減
る・減らす)。 Decrease
12. 子どもを(育つ・育てる)。 Raise
13. トイレを(流れる・流す)。 Flush
14.
角
を左に(
曲
がる・曲げる)。 Turn
15. ひげを(
伸
びる・伸ばす)。 Grow long
Curriculum Note: Later on in a series of lessons, we will learn about verbs that do not change depending on transitivity. These verbs must be looked at on an individual basis, but because they each require a considerable amount of attention due to their complexity, this will conclude our studies of transitivity for now.
Questions:
1. 落ちる 2. 並ぶ 3. 決める 4. 折る 5. 続ける 6. 燃やす 7. 過ごす 8. 助ける 9. 倒れる 10. 増える
11. 減る 12. 育てる 13. 流す 14. 曲がる 15. 伸ばす
We've looked at several usages of the case particle と before, but now it's time to learn about how it is used in citation.
と is also the citation particle, basically spoken quotation marks. This usage often translates to "that". However, grammar within subordinate clauses--those that are embedded within a sentence--is not exactly the same as in English as you will see.
Orthography Note: Actual quotation marks, 「」, are only used in direct quotes.
と言う | To say that | と思う | To think that | と考える | To consider that |
Basic Grammatical Restraints in Citation
In direct quotation, the quoted verb may be in any form because you're telling what someone has said. So, sentences like below are completely correct.
1. 彼女は「雨が
降
りません」と言いました。
She said, "It won't rain."
It is common to just see と in abbreviated speech. This means that the citation verb is just implied. It is often the case that the verb is 言う, but full context will make it clear which citation verb is intended. If such deletion is within a more complex sentence, a comma is often after と, and the citation verb is probably the final verb of a following clause. Having said that, though, below is a sentence where neither is the case.
2. もうそんな寒さかと
島村
は
外
を
眺
めると、
鉄道
の
官舎
らしいバラックが
山裾
に
寒々
と
散
らばっているだけで、
雪の色はそこまで行かぬうちに
闇
に
呑
まれていた。
When Shimamura gazed outside, thinking it had already gotten cold, railroad residence-like barracks were desolately dispersed at the foot of the mountains, and before the snow hues could reach that far, the barracks were swallowed by darkness.
From 雪国 by 川端康成 .
Particle Note: The quotation is of a thought. The thought is もうそんな寒さか. The verb that is implied, then, is 思う. The sentence would, then, be もうそんな寒さかと思い. 思い is just like 思って here.
漢字 Note: 呑む means "to swallow," but it is usually spelled as 飲む nowadays.
Grammar Note: 行かぬうちに = 行かないうちに.
Ungrammatical?
For verbs of thought both the citation and cited verb mustn't be polite. Your thoughts aren't in polite speech. Thus, the final verb should be what takes ~ます. Furthermore, Japanese hates for the same purpose being expressed twice in the same clause or phrase.
3a. 雨が降りませんと思います。X
3b. 雨が降らないと思います。〇
I think that it won't rain.
For other people's thoughts, the verb of thought must be used with ~ている. You can also use the progressive for first person too. Now, for other citation verbs like "to say", polite speech is OK only in a direct quote.
4a. 彼はどう思うの? X
4b. 彼はどう思ってるの? 〇 (ちょっとくだけた)
What is he thinking?
Tense and Negation with Citation
What about the past and negative? Either verb can be changed but not both. Again, Japanese avoids function words being doubled. If both are negative, you make a positive. If both are past, your sentence becomes difficult to interpret and sounds unnatural.
The choice you make in deciding which is negative or past does slightly change nuance. Some combinations are more common than others, but none are ungrammatical. However, speaker variation does exist. For instance, for the negative, 5b is preferred over 5d by many speakers.
5a. 雨
が
降
ったと
思
う。 = I think that it rained.
5b. 雨
が
降
らないと
思
う。= I think that it won't rain.
5c. 雨
が
降
ると
思
った。 = I thought it would rain.
5d. 雨
が
降
ると
思
わない。 = I don't think that it will rain.
The second and last are similar, but the last is more emphatic. This is because you're rejecting that "雨が降る" is what you think. You'd generally say "雨が降らないと思う".
Consider the following. Do not do this. This is a clear example of why doubling past tense items in Japanese is a big problem. This does not negate the existence of past tense in a relative clause or the main clause. In context, this may work to show that you thought something had ended.
6. 「映画を見て、どう思いましたか?」
「スリルがあって面白かったと思いました」 X・△
This is something a kid might say in Japanese. It's best not to mimic this, but it is important to know that some speakers might use it, but it would certainly not be refined Japanese. The speaker meant to say "I thought (the movie) was interesting". Remember, と quotes the thought that one has. When you're watching the movie, you think it's おもしろい.
おもしろかったと思う is possible, but it would express that "you think that it was cool". For example, a show could be discontinued and you are saying what you think about the show in retrospect. This is similar for other expressions with the cited verb/adjective in the past tense and the main citing verb in the non-past.
If the ~た were used to show completion (完了), then ~たと~た would be correct. To insert a ~た due to English tense agreement in a Japanese sentence with no need for this, it becomes strange Japanese, to say the least.
7. 梅雨はもう終わったと思ったのですが、どうやらまだ続いているようですね。
I thought that the rainy season had already ended, but it appears to still be going, doesn't it?
Examples
8. 彼
の
祖父
は
偉大
な
学者
だったという。
They say that his grandfather was a great scholar.
9. 山田
さんは「
英語
は
難
しいですよ」と
言
いました。
Ms. Yamada said, "English is hard!"
10. 妹
はサンタ・クロースは
来
ないと
思
っています。
My little sister thinks that Santa Claus won't come.
11. 〇〇さんのことは
友人
だと
考
えている。
To regard 〇〇 as a friend.
12. 花子
が
先生
に
英語
でいいえと
答
えました。
It is Hanako that told the teacher no in English.
Culture Note: The above is not a direct quotation because it's highly unlikely that Hanako actually said いいえ. A quote is likely to be a summary. Japanese speakers are always conscious of their relations to others. So, Hanako probably said じつは、そうではありません。
Citation と + する
The last thing we'll look at is とする. This is specifically about uses that are really just an extension of と's citation usage.
1. | To presume that... |
2. | A euphemism of という, と考える, or と主張する |
13. その
政党
が
過半数
を
取
ったとする。
To presume that the party takes the majority.
14.
気象庁
では
津波
の
心配
はないとしています。
The Meteorological Center is saying that there is no worry of a tsunami.
でも、でも、もう。。。
でも is like "even" and often lessens the tone of a sentence. In the latter case, it is seen in contexts where the speaker is often trying to make some sort of suggestion or offer to someone. Options are implied given the literal interpretation of "even". This is meant to be less direct so one doesn't sound pushy.
でも is simply the て形 of the copula with も. So, ~ても is very similar but with adjectives and verbs to mean "even though". The negative form of this is ~なくても or ~ないでも, although the latter is uncommon and rather literary.
Part of Speech | Pattern | Meaning |
名詞 | でも | ~Even |
形容詞 | ~ても | ~(Even) though |
形容動詞 | ~(であっ)ても | ~(Even) though |
動詞 | ~ても・でも | ~(Even) though |
Although there are situations where translation may change, the general purpose of these modals is to make a 逆接関係, which is Japanese terminology for a contradictory relationship. This should make sense in light of the translations above.
Particle Note: It is not used with particles such as が, を, and は, but it can be seen after other particles such as に, と, から, and まで. However, in slightly older Japanese, you can see combinations such as ~をでも. It is not advisable to use this as it is, again, not used anymore.
Origin Note: でも comes from the て form of だ + も.
Examples
1. 先生でも分からないな。(Masculine)
Even the teacher doesn't understand it.
2. お
茶
でも飲みますか。
Literally: Do you want to drink even (if it's) tea?
Shall we drink tea or something?
3. ここでも、あそこでも、子供が遊んでいます。
There are children playing here and even over there.
4. あの人のいうことは、
満更嘘
でもない。
What that person says isn't all a lie.
5. 彼はまたしても「お
願
いします」と来た。
He came again saying, "Please."
6a. 彼が言わないでも、分かるでしょう。 (Usually don't use)
6b. 彼が言わなくても、分かるでしょう。(More natural)
Even if he doesn't say, you'll probably understand.
7. どうでもいい。
I don't care.
Literally: Whatever it is, it's OK.
8. コーヒーでもどう?おごるよ。
How about a coffee on me?
9. どんなことがあっても、
絶対
に行くんだ。(Assertive)
No matter what, I'm definitely going to go!
10. 雨が
降
っていても、ゲームは楽しかった。
Even though it had been raining, I enjoyed the game.
11. いずれにしても飲酒運転は絶対にしません。
In any case, I absolutely do not drink and drive.
12. 私でも分かります。
Even I understand.
13. そんな例はいくつでも見つかる。
You can find ever so many such examples.
14. 彼は
貧
しくても
幸
せだ。
He is happy even though he is poor.
15. メキシコでは、冬になっても、雪が
降
らない。
It doesn't snow in Mexico even in the winter.
16. 居ても立ってもいられなかった。
I couldn't sit still.
Set Phrase Note: This last phrase literally means that one couldn't even be sitting or standing. 居る originally meant "to sit", and it is used in its original sense in this phrase.
何と言っても: Undeniably (lit. = no matter what they say)
17. 何といってもこの曲が一番だよね。
No matter what you say, this song is the best.
18. 何といっても
命
だけは
大事
だ。
Life is no doubt but the only important thing.
でいい is like "it's all right/OK to", でかまわない is like "I don't care/mind if you", and でさしつかえない is like "it won't interfere if you". All three generally represent the same thing, and their purpose is to show permission. でも can be used instead of で, and the inclusion of も makes the phrases less direct. でも may appear as ても as these are also て form speech modals.
19. 新
しくなくてもいいですか。
Is it OK if it's not new?
20.
中古車
でもかまいませんか。
Do you mind if it's a used vehicle?
21.
参加
しなくてもいいでしょうか。
Is it all right for me not to participate?
22.
心配
しなくていいから。
It's all right not to worry.
23. トイレを
使
っていいですか。
May I use the bathroom?
Classroom Note: The above sentence is an essential classroom phrase.
24.
家
は
古
くてもさしつかえませんか。
Is it all right if the house is old?
25.
十一階
のシングルルームでよろしいですか。
Is a single room on the eleventh floor all right?
26. どれでもけっこうですよ。
Anything will do.
27. 何をやっても一日と続かない。
No matter what you do, it won't continue for another day.
~てでも
This pattern is used to show that no matter what you do with whatever means necessary, you carry it out. The verb phrase that follows should be one that shows intention. This phrase is typically translated as "no matter if", but let this not detract from the fact that what follows is a statement of what is/should be carried out rather than showing despair.
28. 若い時の
苦労
は買ってでもせよ。(Proverb)
By all means do so no matter if you buy hardships in youth.
Proverb Note: This proverb says that hardships when you’re young become great experiences for the future, so it is best to seek them out.
29. 金で買ってでも、苦労した方がいいのは、若いうちだけだ。
No matter if you buy with money, it's only best to have hardships when one is young.
Here is yet another particle you can use to list things. It also does other things, though. Listing, as you would imagine, is a case particle usage. After all, that's what と is in this case. And, this usage is specifically seen in between nominal phrases. Notice how the word "nominal" used instead of just "noun." This means that you can link things with や that are grammatically made nouns.
After all, や is a particle. Do you really expect one to have just ONE usage? Its other usages are not as important, and some will be deferred to other lessons. Although the remaining usages discussed in this lesson may seem out of place, since they are relatively easy, you might as well know about them.
や lists things incompletely. This means that there is a sense that there are more related things implied. It may list nouns, phrases, and even clauses like "and", but it more so lists in categories.
1. ピクニックには、お
菓子
や飲み
物
を
持
って行った。
We brought candies, drinks, etc. to the picnic.
2. 家は
電車
やバスの
停留場
に近くてとても
便利
なところです。
My home is close to the stations, bus, train, etc., and it's (in) a very convenient place.
3. 牛や馬が草むらで草を
食
む。
Cows and horses graze in grassy places.
4. 東京や
韓国
へ行く時や、
飛行機
で行きます。
Whenever I go to Tokyo, Korea, etc., I go by plane.
5. 何やかや言っては両親にお金をせびる。
To say this and that to get money from one's parents.
Word Note: The か in the above expression is not the particle か. Rather, it can be written in 漢字 as 彼, the same character for "he" and actually has the same origin as かれ. Both are demonstrative words, and in this case, it is being used as an indefinite pronoun.
This classification of や happens to not be as important as the conjunctive usage, which is why more must be said of it. Attached to an adverb and accompanied with a statement of exclamation, it strengthens the meaning of the adverb that it is attached to. This is rather limited, so it is best that you only use this with set phrases and other instances that you see it used in. For instance, the first example has またもや, which happens to be a common set example of this.
6. またもや
失敗
しました。
I lost yet again.
7. 今や
遅
しと
勝利
を待ち
侘
びていた。
He was just impatiently tired of waiting for victory.
8. 彼の言葉に、祥子はまたもや目頭を熱くした。
His words made Sachiko yet again move to tears.
From 冷たい誘惑 by 乃南アサ.
This particle is especially important for daily conversation. So, make sure you understand it before leaving this lesson!
Curriculum Note: The し seen in phrases such as 過ぎ去りし日 is not the particle し. Rather, it is the attribute form of a classical ending for past event. Thus, it will not be discussed in this lesson.
し is used to emphatically list similar situations and is after the 終止形 of a verb or adjective.
動詞 | 吸うし | 形容詞 | 高いし | 形容動詞 | 簡単だし | だ | バカだし |
It's often used in descriptions from a certain viewpoint that links certain aspects of a particular subject. It can list good things and bad things and also show contrast.
1. お金もないし、車もない(し)。
I don't have money or a car.
2. 彼女は顔も美しいし、背も高いし、性格もいい(し)。
She has a beautiful face, she's tall, and she has a good personality...
3. 彼氏は、タバコも吸{う・います}し、お酒も飲みます。
My boyfriend smokes and drinks.
4. その映画は見たいし、お金はないし、どうしよう。
I want to watch that movie, but I don't have the money...what am I going to do...
Politeness Note: し may follow ~ます, but it is required in the final verb of a polite statement. Other verbs in the sentence may optionally have ~ます as well.
し is most frequently seen in sentences like Ex. 1 and 2 showing parallel situations (並列). Note that the particle も shows up in this situation instead of が (Ex. 1 and 2) or を (Ex. 3).
Sentences of contrast (対比) is very similar to listing bad situations as they are both bad in the sense that they contradict with each other and that's causing the speaker grief. Here, we see that the particle after the nouns is は. After all, it has the function for showing contrast. Contrast does not require the phrases be in the negative.
5.
歯
は
痛
いし、
歯医者
には行きたくないし、
困
ったよ。
My teeth hurt, but I don't want to go to the doctor, I'm in a rut!
6. 台風は来るし、仕事はあるし、本当に困ったよ。
The typhoon's coming, but I got my job. And so, I'm really at a loss.
Usually, the use of し regardless of how it is used leads to showing some sort of reason. So, you often see ~し~(し)で and ~し~から. A difference between this し and から is that even when there is one thing stated, more parallel (or contrasting) things are implied with し. This is not so with から! Thus, they can occur with each other.
7. お金もあるし、プリウスでも買おうか。
We have the money, so why don't we buy a Prius?
8. 今日は日曜(日)だし
天気
がいいから、
散歩
に行きましょう。
Today is Sunday, and the weather is fine. So, let's go out for a walk.
9.
職
は
失
うし、
妻
とは
別
れるし(で)、彼はひどく
元気
がない。
Losing his job, splitting up with his wife, he is really depressed.
10. どうせ暇ですし(本当にやりたい、等) ≈ どうせ暇ですから。
At any rate, I'm free. So...
If, however, you are showing any sort of comparison or contrast that comes about as a consequence of X, then you are stating things in terms of a ~ば conditional. The only difference between ~ば and ~し in this case, aside from obvious conjugation differences (~ば goes after the いぜん形), the former is a conditional. And so, "if X is such, then Y must also be such". The such can be a comparison or a contrast, and this relation always implies reason.
11. 金もなければ暇もない。
If one has no money, then one has no free time.
12. 頭も良ければ、スポーツも出来る。
If you are smart, you can also do sports.
13. 頭のいい人もいれば、(頭の)悪い人もいる。
If there are smart people, there are also dumb people.
Grammar Note: The deletion of 頭の is more natural, but the addition of it would be the sentence more parallel.
14. 歩いても歩いても緑もなければ、獲物もいない。
No matter if you walk and walk, if there are no greens, there is no prey.
15. 晴れの日もあれば、雨の日もあれば、曇りの日もありますよ。
If there are clear days, and if there are rainy days, there are also cloudy days.
Grammar Note: Having two conditional phrases with the same Y final phrase is OK!
16. 風も吹けば雨も降る、寒い日もあれば、暑い日もある。
If there are days in which the wind blows with the rainfall, then there are also days that are hot.
Grammar Note: Notice how this pattern is compounded.
17. 先日は、[風も吹けば雨も降る]で、すごく大変でした。
The other day was one of those days when if the wind blows it rains, so it was really awful.
Grammar Note: Sometimes, you may see entire phrases treated as a set phrase like this.
Another thing to note is how the particle し appears as a final particle. This is very colloquial, and although the particle overall is 話し言葉的, this particular usage would not be appropriate for 書き言葉. Also, in really くだけた speech, we even see ~しね. This is often used when there is but one thing mentioned and し is almost like a filler word to be less direct.
18. 今日は天気も悪いしね。
And today, the weather's bad.
19. 寒いと、風邪も引きますし・・・。
If it's cold, you'll get a cold.
20. 風邪も引くし、熱も出るしね。
You'll get a cold and a fever, you know.
21. 「あなたはいつアメリカに帰りますか」「今のところ、帰るつもりはないんです。帰っても景気が悪い(です)しね」
"When will you return home to America?" "At this point, I don't plan to return. Even if I went home, the economy is bad and such"
More Examples
22. 新しい
洋服
はほしいし、お金はないし、学生の
懐
は
寂
しいなあ。
I want to buy new clothes, but I have no money, a student's finances are depressing.
23. 彼の体は大きいし、力も強い。
His body is large, and he is very strong.
24. 田中さんもそう言いましたし、鈴木さんもそう言いました。
Mr. Tanaka said so, and Mr. Suzuki said so too.
25. 風は強いし、雪は
降
り出したし、今日は出かけるのはやめるわよ。(Feminine)
It's very windy, it's started to snow, so I'm going to quit on going out today.
26.
気分
が悪いし忙しいから出かけられませんね。
Since I'm sick and busy, I won't go out, OK?
27. 彼はまだ若いんだし、いくらでもやり
直
せるね。
He's still young, so he has as many times as he wants to redo things.
28. 駅からは遠いしバスもないしで
大変
です。
It's terrible that we're too far from the train station and that there aren't any buses.
29. 畑中先生は
熱心
だし、まじめだし、たくさんの
経験
もあります。
Hatanaka Sensei is earnest, diligent, and has a lot of experience.
30. 駅から遠いし、車でも来られないし、この
店
はとっても
不便
だよ。
This store is very inconvenient since it's far from the train station and you can't even get to it by car.
Grammar/Curriculum Note: ~られない makes the negative potential form for 一段 verbs and 来る.
2. ~{では・でも}あるまいし expresses a light sense of contempt meaning "it's not as if...". If the two parts are parallel, then this pattern stresses reason. If the two parts are contrasting, then the phrase means ~ないのに.
This usage is one of the only usages in which the auxiliary ~まい is still even used. Its meaning is just like ~ないだろう. Even though it is usually old-fashioned, it is even found in colloquial conversations in this expression. However, if the first clause is lengthy, there is no particle deletion before ~まい. Though you may see it in conversation, its use is still following down even in this usage, and so あるまい is usually replaced by ない.
31.
冬
でも{ない・ない}し、
厚
いシャツを着てるんだから、暑くないでしょう。(ちょっと
砕
けた言い方)
It's not as if it's even winter, and since you're wearing a thick shirt, aren't you hot?
32. 彼は、選手になれるわけじゃ{ない・あるまい}し、 悪くはない。
Although it's not like he can become an athlete, he's not that bad.
33.
他人
じゃ{ない・あるまい}し、
水臭
いじゃん? (砕けた言い方)
It's not as if he's a stranger, so isn't he stand-offish?
Contraction Note: Remember that じゃ is the contraction of では.
参照: http://web.ydu.edu.tw/~uchiyama/conv/shishi.htm
This lesson will go over many similar こそあど. Many are interrelated with each other, and so nuance differences will be a major take-out from this lesson.
There are many こそあど phrases used to describe what something is like. Of course, the "what" is replaced with a こそあど. So, remember that you can't use こそあど if what you're referencing cannot be inferred from context. The words below are the basic phrases for "like...". The first four are the most important.
Like this | Like that | Like that* | What sort of... | Any | |
Attribute | こんな | そんな | あんな | どんな | いかな** |
End of a Sentence | このようだ | そのようだ | あのようだ | どのようだ |
*: "Like that" involves understand basic differences between それ and あれ. そんな sounds less distant than あんな in terms of feeling towards whatever style is being referred to. This is in regards to both the speaker and listener. そんな may even be used as an interjection similar to "no way!".
**: いかな is a contraction of いかなる. Both words are not common and are essentially 書き言葉. The latter is far more common in writing. You may never see いかな, but it finishes the series of demonstratives here.
As you can see, these are all contractions involving the noun よう (様). This word literally means "appearance". These abbreviated forms are more casual. The attribute forms may actually be used at the end of dependent and independent clauses, but it is not as frequent for them to be in that position. These forms may even be followed by particles such as ので and のに.
Variant Phrases
Various other methods can be used to make "like..." phrases. For instance, you can add the filler word 風 read as ふう, which also means "style", to the attribute forms mentioned above. Or, you can use a series of adverbial こそあど which simply start with the sounds but have long vowels instead. To use them as attribute phrases, you either use した, いう, or いった.
Attribute | 文尾* | Attribute | 文尾 | Attribute | 文尾 |
こんな風{の・な} | こんな風だ | こうした | こうしたものだ | こういう(風{の・な}) | こう(いう風)だ |
そんな風{の・な} | そんな風だ | そうした | そうしたものだ | そういう(風{の・な}) | そう(いう風)だ |
あんな風{の・な} | あんな風だ | ああした | ああしたものだ | ああいう(風{の・な}) | ああ(いう風)だ |
どんな風{の・な} | どんな風だ | どうした | どうしたものか | どういう(風{の・な}) | どう(いう風)か |
*: 文尾 = End of the sentence.
1. The ~いう series is more objective than the first series with or without 風.
2. The addition of 風 is even more common in the spoken language. Traditionally, the first column is bad Japanese. Another issue is the use of な. の is much more common as it is traditionally correct. However, な is acceptable to most speakers. If in doubt, choose の.
3. When you use いった instead of いう, rather than grouping similar things together, you're describing them separately.
4. どういった sounds like you're interrogating someone on something whereas どのような is formal with no such nuance.
Examples
1. ああいう
時計
A watch like that
2. どんな
講座
を
受
けていますか。
What kind of course are you taking?
3. そんな
方法
のことは
一度
も
聞
かなかった。
I never heard of a method like that.
4. こういう
事情
なので
Such being the case
5.
背後
にどういう
葉
っぱ(の色)がくるかが
大事
です。
What kind of color the leaves will come in the background is important.
Grammar Note: Remember that the particle か in situations like this is used to make relative clauses.
6. これはどういう
意味
ですか。
What does this mean?
7.
公園
にはそのような
小鳥
がたくさんいます。
There are many such birds in the park.
8. キャンディーやアイスクリーム、私はこういう甘いものが好きです。
I like sweet things like candy and ice cream. (Groups things similar together)
9. キャンディーやアイスクリーム、私はこういった甘いものが好きです。
I like sweet things like candy and like ice cream. (Mentions things as separate examples)
10. {こういう 〇・このような △・こうした}色の服が欲しい。
I want clothes of this color.
11. あの人はどんなマナー違反をしていますか。
What sort of breaches of manner is that person committing?
Culture Note: Japan is a very 規則正しい society. Violating socially understood rules of behavior is bad, but in Japan, a lot of things that are not thought as being bad etiquette in America happen to be frowned upon in Japan. Some of the worst things people complain about in Japan include the following.
ポイ捨て (Littering) | 平気で遅刻 (Coming late all fine) |
電車で化粧をする (Doing make-up on the train) | あいさつしない (Not greeting) |
大声で話す (Speaking loudly) | ヘッドホンの音漏れ (Hearing sound from headphones) |
Adverbial Forms
We have yet to address that these forms can be made into adverbs. The interrogative columns will not be mentioned. It's important to note that the final column is frequently used for showing method.
こんな → こんなに | こう | こういう風に | こうやって |
そんな → そんなに | そう | そういう風に | そうやって |
あんな → あんなに | ああ* | ああいう風に | ああやって |
*: ああ in this sense is limited to specific phrases such as ああでも and ああいえば.
Examples
12. そんなに
急
がないでね。(Familiar)
Don't be in such a hurry.
13. そうは
思
いません。(Contrastive)
I don't think so.
14. こんなに
遅
いとは
知
らなかった。
I didn't realize how late it was.
15. そういう風に英語を勉強します。
I study English that sort of way.
16. 映像をこうやって作ります。
You create a clip like this.
いかにも
いかにも shows us that the adverbial series may also be followed by the emphatic も. Early, it was said that forms of いか are not used in the spoken language, but this is the one exception. So, this is actually an important word. いかにも is similar in meaning to "indeed".
17. いかにも
得意
そうに
With evident pride
18. いかにもその
通
りだよ。
You can say that again!
+(い)ら
~いら can be added to the こそあど for place to create "...area/neighborhood" phrases. So, ここいら = This area. You may drop the い in these phrases. You may see ~辺 attached to ~ら. So, ここら辺 is "these surroundings".
An important set phrase with this grammar is ~かそこいら, which can show approximated value/amount.
19.13歳かそこいらの
若僧
。
A young person around 13 years old.
20.
歩数
は千歩かそこらだ。
The number of steps is around 1000.
21. 一時間かそこら待った。
I waited for about an hour.
Another interesting phrase is そんじょそこらの, which is a very emphatic form of そこら, which is in turn a form of そこいら. This is often used with a tangible noun afterward. It points out something as not being of the ordinary, but the word is still rather vague and ambiguous in regards to degree.
22. あの会社はそんじょそこらの人じゃ受からないよ。
No ordinary person would get through at that company.
23. 彼女はそんじょそこらの女とは違う。
She's quite different from just the ordinary woman.
24. そんじょそこらのチョコレートでは満足しない。
I'm not satisfied with just ordinary chocolate.
This lesson will be about the word 間.
間 literally means "between". This can be used in a physical or spacial sense. However, what we want to focus on here is how this is applied to temporal situations. 間 with time phrases means "while". The actions in the first and second clause respectively aren't necessarily happening at the same time. However, the latter action does happen within the time frame of the first.
Following nouns, 間 should always be used with の because 間 itself is a noun. When following verbs to mean "while", the verb should be in the ~ている pattern for our purposes now. As you will see, you can attach 間 to nouns of condition, adjectives, and verbs.
Particle Note: If the events are simultaneously occurring, you should use the particle ながら instead.
Tense Note: For this section, we will consider only ~ている for when using verbs. We will later see in this lesson how to use ~ていた and return to the question of how to use ”Non-past + 間に".
Examples
1.食べている
間
は、テレビを見ません。
I don't watch TV while I eat.
2. しばらくの間、
動画
を見ていた。
I was watching a video/movie/clip for a while.
3. 宿題をしている間、ピザを食べた。
I ate pizza while I did my homework.
4. ロンドンに
滞在
している間にシェイクスピアの
生誕地
を
訪
れます。
I'll visit Shakespeare's birthplace during my stay in London.
5. 夜の間に
風向
きは東に変わった。
The wind shifted to the east during the night.
Reading Note: 風向き may also be read as かぜむき. However, this is not as common and some speakers may think it is incorrect.
6. {雨がザーザー
降
ってる・
土砂降
りの}間、中にいた。(Casual)
I was inside while it was pouring rain.
7.
国会
は
夏
の間は
休会
になりました。
Congress adjourned for the summer.
8. しばらくの間、
出足
がよかった。
There was a good turn-out for some time.
9. 二人の間を
裂
くのはだめだよ! (The physical sense of 間)
Separating people is wrong!
Grammar Note: ~間に is used with instantial verbs while ~間 is used with durational verbs.
~ていた間に
This form of the pattern does exist, but you should always pay close attention to differences when changing tense. For instance, ~た間に is always bad. Yet, regardless of whether ~ている or ~ていた is used, "A+間に+B" still shows that A and B were during the same time period. And, oddly, ~た is bad, ~ていた is OK.
10.
彼氏
が晩ご飯の
支度
をして{いる・いた}間に、宿題をすませた。
I finished my homework while my boyfriend was preparing dinner.
11. 子供が
昼寝
をして{いる・いた}間に、本を読み終えた。
While the kids were taking a nap, I finished reading {a/the} book.
Though there isn't a fundamental change in meaning, one slight nuance difference that you can get is that ~ていた間に is used in situations when the speaker treats A as already being a past event.
Tense Notes:
1. ~た間に is illogical because Action A would have then ended before the duration of Action B ever begins. You would be forcing an "after" statement on what should be a "while" statement.
2. There are cases where the non-past can be used with 間 which you will see later in this lesson.
~間: When to Use ~かん
This suffix is not that easy to use. It depends largely on context and what time phrase you are attaching it to.
For seconds and minutes, you'll see that there is not much of a difference whether you use ~間 or not. However, because it does demonstrate a "duration of time" more explicitly, it is a bit more formal.
12. 5
秒
(間)待って!
Wait five seconds!
13. 5分(間)待って!
Wait five minutes!
14. 5時間待って!
Wait five hours!
15.
十
週に間待って!
Wait ten weeks!
16.
5
ヶ月
(間)待って!
Wait five months!
17. 5年(間)待って!
Wait five years!
Things get a little more tricky when you deal with ~前に.
十秒前に 〇 十分前に 〇 十日前 に 〇 十ヶ月前 に 〇 十年前に 〇
Only 週間 and 時間 can be used with ~前に. #週待つ is usually unnatural. However, when 週 is used in the context of 1週目 (first week), you can say things such as 5週待って! or 6週前に始まった. 時間 is acceptable presumably because it is not the same thing as ~時. ~時 refers to "o' clock" while ~時間 refers to "hours". So, although #時前に and #時間前に are possible, they're not the same.
In this lesson we will learn all about うち. うち is another word for "while," and it will be important for us to compare it with あいだ and other less common "while" phrases.
うち can attach to verbs, adjectives, and nouns of state/condition (夜・留守 ). However, it must never be used with the past tense. When used to mean "while", うち must be followed by a particle. So, "A + うち + Ø” is impossible despite that "A + 間 + Ø” is possible.
There is some interchangeability between ~間に and ~うちに. Due to the existence of ~ないうちに, there are three time variables in this lesson: A, B, and C. The basic interpretation of ~うちに is Time A ends after Time C takes place. ”Time", here, replaces the words "state" and or "action" as either kind of word is plausible. In the case of ~ないうちに, Time C occurs before Time B ever begins.
To show what forms these patterns may take, look at the following table. Example words will be used to better show what these forms look like. Again, these two patterns can be used with verbs, adjectives, and nouns, but they all involve state of being or action.
うちに | 間に | |
Verb | するうちに しているうちに |
する間に している間に していた間に |
形容詞 | すずしいうちに | すずしい間に |
形容動詞 | 元気なうちに | 元気な間に |
Noun | 留守のうちに | 留守の間に |
漢字 Note: うちに is usually spelled in ひらがな when used in a temporal sense, but it still may be spelled in 漢字 as 内に.
In either case, both ~うちに and ~間に involve a Time C realizing within the frame of Time A. However, for ~間に, Time C starts and ends anytime during Time A. ~うちに means that by the time Time A ends, Time C is realized. If not, there would be bad consequences. In either case, Time C doesn't start until Time A starts. For ~ないうちに, then, Time C is realized before Time B ever happens because Time B is unfavorable. Take for example Ex. 1.
1.
若
い(うちに 〇・間に X}英語を勉強した
方
がいいよ。
It's best that you study English while you're young.
Grammar Note: ~た方がいい = It's best that (you)...
Clarification Note: Because 内 literally comes from indoors/within, you are literally saying that you're doing C in the time frame of A. So, you can't do C before A because it's within and not outside A.
若い間に itself is a possible phrase. You can do many things while you're young, but learning languages is something that becomes incredibly difficult by age 12 for most people. So, there is a suggestion in Ex. 1 that if you want to learn English, you better do so by the time Time A runs out. If this favorable condition is so intrinsic to the statement, you cannot replace ~うちに with ~間に.
2. スープがまだ熱い{うちに 〇・間に X}飲むのが好きです。Word Note: The Japanese use the verb “to drink” instead of “to eat” for soup.
3.
警察
が来ないうちに、
逃
げるから、
心配
ないよ。(Casual)
I'll run away before the police come, so no worries.
In Ex. 3, the main point is escaping before the cops make it there (before Time B realizes). Because this so important, you cannot use ~間に. In fact, ~ない間に is usually unnatural in general. However, when it is possible to imagine the end point of 〇〇ない, ~ない間に is possible.
4.
妻
が帰ってこない{うちに・間に}、部屋を
片
づけました。
I cleaned up the room in the time my wife wasn't home yet.
Nuance Note: Using うちに would suggest not cleaning the room before your wife comes home would be bad.
5. 知らない{間に・うちに}、
眠
ってしまっていた。
I was accidentally sleeping when I didn't know it.
Again, it is possible for 間 to not be followed by a particle, but this is not possible for うち. Using ~うちに with まで would be illogical because Time C ends before A does. まで below has the events be simultaneous to the end, which is possible with ~間に.
6. 家に帰るまでの間、雨につかまってしまった。
I was caught in the rain till I got home.
Grammar Note: Here, ~てしまった shows that you were unfortunately/regretfully caught in the rain.
Now it is time to delve more into how they are different.
Using "While" with No Time Line
Both ~間に and ~うちに may be used with verbs like 行く and 帰る despite the fact that they have no timeline as they're instantial verbs. The reason for this is there is one implied via the route needed to do the actions. After all, they are motion verbs. So, instead of 帰っているうちに, you say 帰るうちに. This does not mean, though, using ~うちに and ~間に here interchangeably result in the same meaning.
7. 家へ帰る間に、
傘
を忘れてきたのに気づいた。
While going home, I noticed that I had come without my umbrella.
8. 家へ帰るうちに、傘を忘れてきたのに気づいた。
Before getting home, I noticed that I had come without my umbrella.
漢字 Note: 気づく may be written in 漢字 as 気付く, but this is not that common anymore.
Grammar Note: ~の nominalizes the verb expressions preceding it. 気づく can also be 気がつく.
Non-Past: ~間に 〇 but ~うちに X
Before we talk about what happens when you use ~ている with these patterns, let's look into restrictions involving the non-past tense, which is a form you will less likely encounter. If even after the realization of Time C there is the potential that Time A continues for a long time or indefinitely, you can use ~間に because its Time C just has to occur within Time A begins and ends. You cannot use ~うちに because it implies that Time A will soon stop or stop once Time C is realized. Otherwise, there would not be the added nuance of consequences if things don't go as planned.
9a.
彼氏
が晩ご
飯
の
支度
をする間に、宿題を
全部済
ませてしまった。 〇
9b. 彼氏が晩ご飯の支度をするうちに、宿題を全部済ませてしまった。X
I finished all of my homework while my boyfriend prepared dinner.
Grammar Note: Here, ~てしまった indicates the full completion of an action.
Non-Past: ~間に X but ~うちに 〇
However, if there is the potential that Time A stops due to Time C realizing, you can use ~うちに because Time C realizes before Time A ends, but you cannot use ~間に. This is because although the time frame for ~間に is broad and wide so long Time A keeps on going, you cannot use it if Time A ends abruptly due to Time C as Time A doesn't come to a proper close. For instance, say you're drinking and intended for the event to start and end at some point. We'll call this Time A. During Time A, though, you get really red and then you redden once more later on, but this time, Time C, it's serious to the point you have to stop your drinking Time A. This is when you can't use ~間に and have to use ~うちに.
10. 酒をごくごくと飲む{〇 うちに・X 間に}、また顔が
真っ赤
になってた。(Casual)
My face got completely red again while I was gulping down sake/liquor/alcohol.
Non-Past: ~間に 〇 & ~うちに 〇
Conversely and almost contrary to what has been said in the last two sections, if Time C realizes and there is both the potential that Time A continues on later or that Time A is suspended, you can use either or. When you use ~間に, though, you imply that Time A didn't just end there because of Time C realizing. Or, if you do stop Time A, you can still go back to it later. This note of interchangeability refers to simply replacing one for the other and getting a correct sentence because the context could go either way depending on what you use. So, if you used ~うちに, it would sound like Time A got suspended because of the realization of Time C. Thus, the nuances of the two apply whenever they show up.
11. 暖かい{うちに・間に}、ちょっと
散歩
に出かけます。
I'll go out for a little walk while it's warm.
12. 駅へ行く{うちに・間に}、家に
傘
を忘れてきたのに気がついた。
While I was going to the train station, I realized that I had left my umbrella at home.
13. その新聞は、夜の{うちに・間に}、
配
られてくるんですね。
That's because the newspaper is delivered during the night.
Grammar Note: 配られる is the passive form of 配る (to deliver/distribute).
~ている + ~間に・うちに
So, what's the difference when you use ~ている and just the non-past tense for both these patterns? In the case of ~ている, the time line involving Time A and Time C is quite long. So, there is ample time for Time C to end before Time A, allowing ~うちに to be grammatical in situations it wouldn't be with the non-past due to high probably that Time C wouldn't be able to end in time before the conclusion of Time A.
14. 赤ちゃんが寝てる{うちに・間に}、新聞読むよ。(Casual)
I'll read the newspaper while the baby is sleeping.
15. 彼氏が晩ご飯の支度をして{いるうちに・いる間に}、宿題を全部済ませてしまった。
I finished all of my homework while my boyfriend was preparing dinner.
More on ~ないうちに
First, consider the following examples.
16. {まだ覚えている・忘れない}うちに宿題をします。
I'll do my homework {while I remember/before I forget}.
17. {
涼
しい・
暑
くならない}うちに、夏休みの宿題をしてしまいました。
I completed all of my summer break homework {while it was cool/before it got hot}.
18. {明るい・暗
くならない}うちに帰りなさい。(Stern)
Come home {while it's light/before it gets dark}.
As said earlier, ~ないうちに shows that Time C is realized before Time B realizes. You can reword these sentences by replacing ~ないうちに with ~間に. ~ないうちに can be used to paraphrase ~間に phrases so long as there is a complete opposite of Time A or a possible Time B and that Time B, if it does occur, happens after Time C is done. So, if it gets dark, that's OK so long as you get home in time. Thus, we can also say that Time B may happen after Time A (when the sun goes away) as long Time C happens beforehand. It's important to note, though, that ~ないうちに inherently implies a misfortune if things don't go as planned, which is not the case at all with ~間に.
~ないうちに can be the only correct version of a sentence. For instance, in Exs. 19 and 20, see how the opposite isn't possible with either うち or 間. Shots are preventative, so it's logical that ~ないうちに makes sense.
19. 病気にならないうちに、
予防注射
をしておいた方がいいですよ。〇
It's best that you get immunizations in advance before you get ill.
20.
丈夫
な{うち・間}に、予防注射をしておいた方がいいですよ。X
It's best that you get immunizations in advance while you're sturdy.
Grammar Note: ~ておく = To do in advance.
21.
蚊
が{〇 入らない・X 出ている}うちに、
蚊帳
を
吊
った。
I hanged up the mosquito net {〇 before/X while} the mosquitoes got in.
漢字 Note: 吊 is not a common character, so don't worry about remembering it now.
Remember, when you can visualize a beginning and end point, ~ない間に can be used, but all of the facts leading up to now hold.
21.
誰
もいない{うちに・間に}、机を
片付
けた。
While there was no one, I fixed up the desks.
~ないうちに VS ~まえに
Although their translations may have you think they are the same, they're not. Remember that in "Bない+うちに+C", C is a positive situation, and the realization of B is feared. This is not implied in ~まえに. Rather, in this case, B hasn't realized yet, but its potential to is right in front of one's eyes.
22. 走ったが、家に{着かないうちに・着くまえに}、雨につかまった。
I ran, but I got hit by the rain before I got home.
23. 妻が{起きないうちに・起きるまえに}、家を出た。
I left the house before my wife woke up.
24. 雨が
降
{る前に・らないうちに}、帰りましょう。
Let's go home before it rains.
Grammar Note: ~ましょう attaches to the 連用形 of a verb to make the polite volitional (let's) form.
~すきに & ~まに?
If you were to come across these expressions, you would find them very similar to ~うちに. However, there are important differences.
~{る・ない・た}すきに shows that one does what one wishes to do during an opportunity that opens up (from the negligence of someone).
~まに is used to show that one does something when a chance arises and the time until that chance is lost. Thus, it has interchangeability with ~あいだに. It just has the added sense of taking advantage.
25. 先生のいない{うち・あいだ・ま・すき}に、すばやくホワイトボードを消してしまった。
I erased the white board quickly while the teacher wasn't there.
26. 今だ!こっちを見ない{〇 うち・〇 すき・X ま・ X 間}に、逃げて!
Now! Run away while they don't look here!
27. 夜{が・の}涼しい{〇 うち・〇 間・X ま・X すき}に、部屋をきれいにした。
I cleaned my room while the night was cool.
漢字 Note: This すき can be written as 隙.
~間(は) & ~うちは
X+あいだは+Z |
X+うちは+Z |
Z shows a line of time, and with the contrasting は, a contrasting situation to X is either explicitly stated or hinted at. Although you can use ~間 whether there is a contrasting situation or not, in order to use ~うちは, there has to be a contrasting situation.
28. 彼氏が晩ご飯の支度する{あいだ(は)・うちは}、宿題をしていた。
I was doing my homework while my boyfriend was preparing homework (but not at other times).
29a. 授業のあいだ(は)、ずっと
居眠
りしていた。 〇
29b. 授業のうちは、ずっと居眠りしていた。X
I napped all through class.
30. コーヒーって若いうちはあまり飲まないほうがいいんですか。
Is it best to not drink a lot of coffee while you're young?
~うちが
Although any instance of this can be rephrased to avoid it, it shouldn't surprise you that this is possible given that うち is a noun. In this case all this is showing is "within A".
31. 何といっても、若いうちが花だよ。
No matter what they say, youth is the flower of life.
32. お酒は、ほろ
酔
いのうちが
最高
だと言われる。
It's said that alcohol is the best while tipsy.
Grammar Note: 言われる is the passive form of 言う and is translated as "it's said".
Other Meanings of うち
Aside from meaning "while", うち has other usages. All these meanings can be written as 内, but this is only the case today when used in a spacial sense.
1. Indoors; interior; middle
2. One's home, family, spouse, in-group
3. In an abstractly established perimeter.
4. First person pronoun most often used by women.
Examples
33. うちの車や。(関西弁; feminine)
It's my car.
34.
百人残
ったうちの一人が
犯人
だぞ。 (Masculine; vulgar)
One of these remaining 100 people is the criminal!
35. あのドアは内に
向
かって
開
きます。
That door over there opens inward.
36. また、近いうちに。
Let's meet again soon.
37.
内側
から
鍵
がかかってしまった。
It was locked from the inside.
Grammar Note: ~てしまう = To accidentally do something.
38.
運
も
実力
のうちである。
Luck is also in one's true ability.
When temporal nouns can be used with に and why is a matter that boggles the best minds of Japanese grammarians. It turns out that a lot of this decision depends on the more specific properties of groups of similar words and quirks on an individual basis. As the student, you will need to learn about what is certain so that you know when this relation exists or not.
In large part, many temporal nouns are not used with the particle に. For instance, just as you don’t say “at yesterday”, Japanese don’t say きのうに. Why, then, are there sentences like the following?
1. それを明日(に)することになっています。
It has been decided that we will do that tomorrow.
2. 約束はいつにしましょうか。
When shall we carry out the appointment?
On the flip side, none of these sentences need に after the temporal nouns (which are in bold). Yet, as is the case with expressing a particular absolute point in time, に shows up obligatorily. So, if the context in which Ex. 1 was uttered were serious and particular, に would become obligatory. In reverse, if the contexts in which Ex. 2 was uttered were less serious and particular, に would become ungrammatical.
3. 私は8時に学校に行きます。
I will go to school at 8 o’ clock.
4. どうぞお先に行ってください。
Please go before (me).
5. 彼は、今年2013年(に)亡くなりました。〇
He died this year, 2013.
6a. 彼は今年に亡くなりました。X/〇
6b. 彼は今年亡くなりました。〇
He died this year.
Sentence Note: The grammaticality of 6a is based on whether there is context that would make 今年 more absolute. If the preceding sentence were say a question such as 「彼はいつ亡くなられたのですか」, it would become grammatical to say it.
Just from a few examples, you may already be getting a sense at when に shows up. But, we still have to think of more definitive ways to explain all of this.
The easiest usages of に that really aren't sources of any confusion is when rather than being part of a time phrase, に is a predicate phrase for some other reason.
7.
以前
にもまして、彼女の
韓国語
は
上達
している。
Her Korean is improving more than before.
8. 昨日に引き続き今日は暑苦しい。
Today is sultry continuing from yesterday.
9. 明日にかけて広い
範囲
で
曇
るでしょう。
It will be cloudy in a large area into tomorrow.
10. 仕事を来年に持ち
越
さないほうがいい。
It's best not to prolong work to the next year.
11. あさってにしよう。
Let's do it the day after tomorrow.
12. 今日になってやっと
愛犬
と
再会
した!
After all this time, I finally united today with my beloved dog!
13. 明日に
控
えた最後の集会
Last assembly postponed to tomorrow
14. きのう今日に始まったことではない。 (Set Phrase)
This is not a first.
15. 夜になっても、寝ないで。
Don't even sleep at night.
にでも, にも, and には are also significantly different and are not in the scope of the problem of this lesson. However, example sentences will be given.
16. 明日にでも仕事を
辞
めたい。
I'd like to quit my job even tomorrow.
17. 明日にもプレゼントが
届
きますよ。
The present will be delivered possibly even tomorrow.
18. 奇跡
の
賜物
は今日にも当てはまるのですか。
Do miraculous gifts apply to today's world?
19. 明日には明日の風が吹く。
Tomorrow's wind will blow tomorrow.
First we need to take a bird’s eye view on the characteristics of temporal nouns.
Representative temporal nouns that do not take に for time include 今日, 明日, and 昨日. This is typically explained by their relativity to now. These nouns have a range of time associated with them, and there is no specific point in time like 4:56 being expressed. They can be used with things like ~じゅう (throughout) and ~のあいだ, but they can't be used with something like ~ごろ.
20.
今日中
に
準備
が出来ているはずです。
Preparations should be finished during today.
21.
明日中
にやります。
I will do it by (the end of) tomorrow.
Representative temporal nouns that do take に for time include ~時, ~日, and ~月 phrases. These are most indicative of absolute time expressions. They consequently can't be used with ~中 ~のあいだ. They do, however, work with 頃.
22. 何時ごろに寝るの?
At what time do you go to sleep?
23. 8時30分ごろに電話をください。
Please call around 8:30.
24. 7月11日ごろに
梅雨明
けした。
The rainy season ended around June 11.
There are times when they aren’t used with に, but as is shown below, this is the case when you are showing which point in time a phenomenon in its entirety occurs, which differs greatly from when an action/event is done. It can also be said that without に, the time phrase becomes more emphasized.
25. この
調査船
は、先月
下旬
にオーストラリアを出発して
南極海
で
気候変動
の
観測
に
当
たっていましたが、今月24日、
厚
い
氷
に
航路
を
阻
まれ
航行
できなくなりました。
The research vessel left Australia late last month and was heading for measuring climate change in the Antarctic Sea, but its course was obstructed by thick ice this month on the 24th, and it is now unable to pass through.
Of course, there are those that are in between absolute and relative time phrases—intermediates—that at times can be with に and at other times can't. Examples include the season words 春, 夏, 秋, and 冬. These can be used with ~中, ~の間, and ~ごろ. So, when they act more like relative time phrases, you can expect them to not be with に.
26.
健太
は一年生の間だけ家から
通学
したが、二年になった春、
寮
に住むことになった。
Kenta commuted to school from home only while he was a first year student, but the spring he became a second year student, he began living in the dorms.
27. わたしの最初の小説を昭和50年の夏に出版しました。
I published my first novel in the summer of Showa Year 50.
28. 去年の秋にバイトから首になった。
I got my job cut from my part time job last fall.
So, what are referential time phrases? As listed earlier, words like 翌日 are similar to words like 明日, these words are not rooted down in the present. Tomorrow is quite different than “the next day” in terms of usage.
29. 翌週会う約束をした。
I made an appointment to meet the next week.
30. 翌日に家に帰る。
To return home the next day.
31. ぼくは新しいケイタイを買って、その翌日に
失
くしちゃったんです。
I bought a new cell-phone and lost it the next day.
What we really want to know is if there is any relation between に and words like 今日, 明日, and 昨日. Consider 明日. Although it may be a relative time expression, it specifically refers to the day after "today." This quality makes these relative time phrases behave like demonstratives. Because of this, though, they don't usually go together well with actual demonstratives unless if the statement is figurative in some way.
32a. この今日、わたしは学校に行きます。X
32b. 今日、わたしは学校に行きます。〇
I will go to school today.
33. その明日を目指す。 (Figurative)
To shoot for that tomorrow.
34. 自分はその明日
刑務所
へ行って... (Literary)
I went to the jail the next day...
35. それでは、彼は、その明日の
価値
を
町民
に知らせてまわっているのではないか。(やや
古風
)
So then, is he not going about notifying the townspeople of the prices as of tomorrow?
36. この毎年 X
This every year X
The same cannot be said for words like 日 and 夜, which are used frequently with demonstratives. Though they may be relative, their position on a timeline is not nearly as fixed as the words above.
37. その夜、彼は
胃癌
で
亡
くなりました。
That night, he died from stomach cancer.
38. あの日々を忘れないでください。
Do not forget about those days.
39. この年まで続く。
To continue into this year.
Japanese has specific verbs that define the relationship between the giver and recipient. Their usages with て are so important and particularly difficult that they will be covered separately.
The main verbs of giving are あげる, くれる, and もらう. They also have different forms.
Vulgar | Regular | Respectful |
やる | あげる | 差し上げる |
くれる | 下さる | |
もらう | いただく |
Conjugation Note: The 連用形 of 下 さる has a sound change of り → い with -ます.
あげる shows oneself giving something. It may also be used to show the giving of things by people in one's in-group to other (close) in-group members. This does not mean, though, that this should ever be used for when someone, even if they are in your in-group, gives something to you.
1. 父は母に時計をあげました。私も母にプレゼントをあげました。
My father gave my mother a watch. I too gave my mother a present.
2a. 父は私にコンピューターゲームをあげました。X
2b. 父は私にコンピューターゲームをくれました。〇
My dad gave me a computer game.
Definitions Note: あげる can also mean "to rise". Spelling depends on how it's used. やる may be a casual form of "to do", and it can also mean "to send; dispatch", "to kill", "to show (movie)", "to drink (alcohol)", "to suffer from", etc.
くれる means an outsider or a less close member gives something to the speaker or to a member of one's in-group. So, it is when someone gives something to either you or someone in your in group. It may also be used to describe either you or someone in your in-group doing something unpleasant to an opposing person. This is similar to "to let someone have...".
もらう and its variant means "to receive; get". It may also mean "to welcome someone/something into the family". いただく is always said when receiving food, especially at the beginning of a meal.
Particle Note: For "to give", に is used to mark the recipient while for "to receive", the giver is marked by に. For the latter, から may be used instead. から, unlike に, may also be used with "receive" aside from an actual person.
3. 私は彼にプレゼントをあげた。
I gave him a gift.
4.
一杯
やらないか。
How about a drink?
5.
芝
に水をやる。
To water the lawn.
6.
加藤
さんは、
息子
に犬をプレゼントしてあげました。
Mr. Kato gave a dog to his son as a present.
7.
社長
さんは私に
紹介状
を下さいました。
The company president gave me a letter of introduction.
8. 犬に肉をやった。
I gave meat to the/a dog.
9.
娘
はお
客
さまに
花束
を
差
し上げました。
My daughter gave a bouquet to the guests.
10. やるせない
Helpless/miserable
11. アイディアをもらう。
To borrow an idea.
12. この
勝負
は
我々
がもらった。
We took this match.
There are other verbs in Japanese that mean "to give" but are not at a personal level. 受ける is used in several situations for things received "outside of favor", and 与える is generally used with things given "outside of a personal level".
受ける (Receive) |
与える (Give) |
Figurative, with things such as a ball or event. | Used in respect to animals. |
Used with things such as a job, education, etc. | Used when granting things. |
"To take/receive" an exam; often 受験する | Used with prizes. |
Used with bringing harm. |
Word Note: 受 ける may also be 受 け 止 める. It is used in the sense of "to take" as in "to take the news", "to take the events badly", etc.
13. 彼
は
深刻
に
受
け
止
めたね。
He took it seriously, didn't he?
14. 有名高校
を
目指
して
難関
の
試験
を
受
けた。
I took a highly competitive exam aiming for the prestigious high school.
15. 彼
は
首
に
軽傷
を
受
けた。
He received a smaller injury on the neck.
16.
判決
を
受
ける。
To receive a sentence.
17.
貧
しい
人々
に
与
える。
Give to the poor.
18.
台風
が
与
えた
損害
が
多
い。
There is a lot of damage caused (given) by the typhoon.
19.
許可
を
与
えます。
I will give permission.
20. いい
成績
を
与
えた。
I gave (him) a good grade.
21.
健康診断
を
受
ける。
To have health checks.
This lesson will be about ~て(も)いい. This is an essential part of many sentences for asking and giving permission to someone to do something.
~て(も)いい is used to ask for permission. As speech level changes this phrase, this is a good time to review these processes. Remember that も makes the sentence more indirect, thus making it more polite. The particle adds the meaning of "even if I".
Plain | て(も)いい | Polite | て(も)いいですか | Very Polite | てもいいでしょうか |
Formal | てもよろしいですか | Very Formal | てもよろしいでしょうか |
The addition of the particle も emphasizes the sense of "if you do X, that's OK", and it is often used to give a softening effect. This is why it is usually seen when asking questions as to be more polite.
Examples
1. お
母
ちゃん!
今夜映画
を
観
ていい?
Mom! Can I see a movie tonight?
2. すみません、タバコを吸ってもいいですか。
Excuse me, is it alright if I smoke?
3. あのう、お隣に座ってもよろしいですか。
Mm, is it fine for me to sit by you?
4.
箱
を
開
けてよろしいですか。
May I open the box?
5. たくさんありますから、
全部
を
校正
しなくてもいいです。
Because there is a lot of them, it's OK if you don't proofread them all.
6.
入
ってよろしいでしょうか。
May I come in?
7.
黒田社長
、
私達
はこちらに
座
ってもよろしいですか。
President Kuroda, may we sit down here?
8. 彼
はこちらに
座
ってもよろしいでしょうか。
May he sit down here?
9.
社長
、この
本
をお
借
りしてもよろしいでしょうか。(Humble Speech)
President, may I borrow this book?
10. こちらにご記入をいただいてよろしいですか。
May I have you fill this out here?
Sentence Note: In honorifics, it is important to lessen the effect of pushing a request on someone. So,~てよろしい is seen here asking for permission to make a request to the listener.
許可 Not 依頼
~ていい asks for permission, not request. In any case, the listener could still say no. If you were to use ~ていい with 借りる (to borrow), the listener is the person you're seeking permission to borrow. The listener is not the person lending you the money (貸す人ではない!). We can surmise that the only people that would say something like お金を貸してください are bank deposit salesmen or loan sharks, but friends wouldn't use it among each other.
11a. 先生に〇を習ってもいいですか? X
11b. 先生、〇を教えていただけませんか。〇
Sensei, may you teach me 〇?
12a. 10万円を借りてもよろしいですか。 X
12b. 10万円を貸していただけませんか。〇
Could I please have you lend me 100 thousand yen?
13. 友達から借りてもいいですか。
Is it alright if I borrow from a friend?
14. 細かいのがないので、ちょっと10円{借りてもいい X・貸してくれない}?
I don't have small change, so could I borrow 10 yen?
Sentence Note: In Ex. 14, the difference between the English "borrow" and Japanese 借りる is apparent. Asking to borrow something from the listener always involves the verb 貸す instead.
~て結構
Another equivalent phrase ~[て・で] 結構 . It shows that something is fine but may not be entirely satisfactory.
15. どれでも
結構
だ。
Anything's fine.
Particle Note: As you should know by now で+も results in the particle でも.
These are perhaps the most used conjunctions in Japanese.
The conjunctive particle が may give the premise of a conversation or indicate a contradiction. The two clauses of the sentence should be the same in politeness.
1. 目
が
赤
いが、どうしたの。(Casual)
Your eyes are red...what's the matter?
2. テレビで聞いたが。
I heard it on TV, but...
3. 高
いが、
質
は
悪
い。
It's expensive, but the quality is bad.
4. ちょっとすみませんが、
案内所
はどこですか。
Excuse me one moment, but where is the information center?
5. すみませんが、
塩
を取っていただけませんか。
Excuse me, but could you pass me the salt?
6.
安
いことは
安
いが、
質
が
悪
い。
A cheap thing is cheap, but the quality is bad.
8. すみませんが、私の
質問
に
答
えてくださいませんか。
I'm sorry, but could you please answer to my questions?
9. 質はいいが、
値段
も高い。
The quality is good, but the price is high.
10.
映画
を
見
たが、
面白
かった。
I watched a movie, and it was interesting.
11. 「日本語のコースでは、漢字をいくつか習いますか」「いくつ習うか分かりませんが、もう漢字が読めますから、 私は気にしません」
“How many Kanji do you learn in the Japanese course?” “I don't know how many you learn, but since I can already read Kanji, I don't care”.
12. 本を読んだが、つまらなかった。
I read it, and it was dull.
13. 札幌へは行きますが、函館へは行きません。
I'll go to Sapporo, but I won't go to Hakodate.
14.
負
けるに負けたが、悲しくない。
{I/we} indeed lost, but I'm not sad.
15. 聞くには聞いたが、まだよく聞こえない。
I've listened to it and listened, but I still can't hear it well.
16. 高田くんは頭がいいが、冷たい人だ。
Takata is smart, but he's a cold person.
Sentence Note: As is, this sentence is rather harsh. To critique someone less harshly in Japanese, you should mention the bad quality first and then say something positive.
17.
鼻
が
高
いが、においができない。
His nose is long, but he can't smell.
Word Choice Note: 高い is "long" for human noses; long for other noses like elephants' is 長 い.
漢字 Note: The 漢字 spelling for におい in this situation is 匂い, which is very common.
18. ちょっとお
願
いがあるんですが。
I have a little request.
Usage Note: This sentence shows how んですが can be used to introduce a topic politely, and it's followed by something that needs permission, whether it be a request or invitation. As this sentence shows, what follows が doesn't always have to be mentioned. Something that could have followed it here would be いいでしょうか. け(れ)ど could have been used instead of が.
けれど, more polite as けれども and casual as けど, means "although/but", similarly to が. It may also be used to mean "but" at the end of a sentence, but it may also just soften a statement to be more polite and indirect. Even as a conjunctive particle, it may just simply connect phrases without a sense of contrast.
18. 彼は若いけれど、考えのしっかりした人です。
Although he's young, he's a sound thinking person.
19. 漢字は書けないけれど、読むことはできます。
Although I can't write Kanji, I can read them.
20. ちょっとテレビがうるさくて勉強できないんだけど、音を小さくしてくれない?(Casual)
The TV is a little loud and I can't study, so could you turn it down?
21. 益田ですけれども。
This is Masuda.
22. もうすこし日本語がよく分かるといいのだけれども。
But it would be nice if I understood Japanese a little bit better.
23.
登山
に行きたいんですけど、どこかいいところありませんか。
I want to go mountain climbing. Could you tell me of any good places?
24. この
地方
は寒くないと聞いたけれども、本当に毎日冷え
込
みますよ。
Although I heard that it wasn't cold in this region, it actually gets chilly every day.
25. それは
立派
だけれど、そうなっていない。
That's great, but it's not turning out as such.
26.
返事
するにはするけど、もうちょっと待ってね。(Soft; probably a female speaker)
I'll give you the answer, certainly, but could you wait a minute?
27. そうすっけど、本当にだいじょうぶ?
I'll do so, but is it really OK?
Contraction Note: すっけど = するけど. る → っ is common in really causal speech in situations like this where it is before a consonant like k. Thus, するから may be seen as すっから.
Variant Note: けども is a slightly old and somewhat dialectical variant.
Phrase Note: こう言ってはなんだ{が・けど} is a vague way of saying that one might be saying too much.
語尾 are fundamental to Japanese. In a broad sense, they're any ending at the end of a sentence, but we'll use 語尾 interchangeably with 終助詞 (final particles). The two most important ones are よ and ね. At their most basic understanding, よ emphasizing emotion, judgment, or assertion, and ね seeks agreement and/or a response from the addressee(s).
These particles are best understand in regards to intonation and role of necessity. So, this lesson will first see why we sometimes have to use them and discuss what the actual uses are based on intonation.
自然さ
よ is perhaps less important than ね because its absence does not cause a sentence to sound unnatural as often. As (over)use can sound rude to superiors, its use is not often positively taught. When you use よ, you are presenting something that the listener is supposed to then recognize. For instance, sentences like 「はい分かりましたよ」 and 「私がやりますよ」 can easily be interpreted as complaining, especially the first one, and at the very least, you could be showing frustration. You are telling the person that he should know that you already know.
Of course, there are cases in which よ's absence is natural or unnatural. For instance, if you are telling something to someone that is beneficial to that person, the use of よ is natural. However, one must always consider the status of the listener and one's tone of voice.
1. おせんべい、どうぞ。美味しいですよ。
Here are some rice crackers. They're delicious.
2. もう、帰っていいですよ。
You can go home already.
Not using よ in these two sentences would show a lack of consideration towards the listener.
Consider 「さあ、始めますよ」. The lack of よ doesn’t really change the meaning, but if you were to ask Japanese people whether 「さあ、始めるよ」 or 「さあ、始める」 is natural, they would say the former. Here’s another example.
3. 「
授業
、終わった?」「うん、終わったよ」
"Has your class ended" "Yeah, it has"
The lack of よ here would be very unnatural.
Knowing how to use 語尾 is exceptionally hard if we were to only look at polite speech. Dialectical variation also makes them very difficult to acquire correctly. As 語尾 are essential to proper conversation, however, at any given level regardless of their frequency in any given speech style, we will take the time in this lesson to look at よ and ね in depth.
Intonation
When you are trying to tell someone that a response is needed, you see a slight rise in intonation in よ. It is important to note that よ never actually has an intonation ↑. Even when someone is shouting, their pitch is going in a direction more similar to ↗ because the vowel gets lengthened. This is one reason why this particle is allowed in many speech styles.
4.
髪
に何かついてますよ。 ↗
Something's stuck in your hair.
5. それ、
超
辛
いよ。 ↗
That's gonna be hot (spicy).
Giving new information in this way implies that the listener doesn't already know. So, you must always balance sounding pushy with being helpful. Of course, one's relation to the person must be taken into account for familiarity is a factor to the use of よ. Always know your audience, and realize that these usages are controlled by your control of tone.
Sometimes this intonation is in fact used simply to show familiarity and closeness to someone. This clearly shows how よ is not just the equivalent of a verbal exclamation point.
6. 本を持ってきてくれた?
うん、持ってきたよ。↗
Did you bring the book for me?
Yeah, I brought it.
A lowering ↘ in pitch can do one of four things.
Usage Note: These usages can easily be seen directed at oneself in 独 り 言 .
7. 今日は
疲
れてるから、まっすぐ帰るよ。↘
I'm tired today, so I'm going straight home.
8. がんばれよ。↘
Come on. (Somewhat disappointed tone)
9. リーさんが
手伝
ってくれたおかげで、早く終わったよ。↘
Thanks to Lee-san helping, I got finished early.
10. やっぱりその本が見つからなかったよ。↘
I unsurprisingly didn't find the book.
If you want to add a kiddish nuance to things, you can alter this intonation to ↑↓, which means elongation of the particle. You could see this spelled as よう or よー. The latter spelling is more colloquial. Whether it is kiddish or not depends on context, but it certainly adds emotional appeal.
11. 曇ってるから、何にも見えないよう。↑↓
Ahhh, we can't seen anything because it's cloudy....
12. あいつがまたメールしたよ(う)。↑↓
That guy's sent another e-mail.....
ね
When saying something which is deemed to be mutually understood, ね’s intonation goes up like ↑. This may also be used in response to an inquiry as well as for rejection.
13.
暑
いね。↑
It's hot, huh.
14. 今日は人がよくいらっしゃいましたね。↑
A lot of people came today, haven't they.
15. そうだね!↑
Yeah, that's true!
16. 日本は今、何時?
ええと、昼2時くらいだね。↑
What time is it now in Japan?
Uh, it's about 2 in the afternoon.
17. なんとか
頼
むよ。↘
嫌
だね。↑
I need your help somehow.
Ah, I don't wanna.
When used to seek confirmation or approval, ね’s intonation is ↗.
18. これが納豆だね。↗
This is natto, right?
19. このペン、ちょっと借りるね。↗
Let me borrow this pen just a moment, k?
20.
到着
時間
は午後4時50分ですね。↗
The arrival time will be 4:50 PM, right?
The patterns ↘ and ↑↓ are very similar in meaning for ね。 Going up and down in pitch doesn't make one sound more childish. Nor is the speaker seeking sympathy in either case.
Both patterns may be used to show collective recognition with an added sense of emotion. In this case, the listener is not expected to respond. It’s possible to view such statements as being blurted out with not even much thought. This also applies to responding to inquiry. What is clear is that there is a heightened sense of emotion.
21. 着いたね。↑
着いたね。↘・↑↓
We've arrived.
None of these intonations particularly means that the train had any problem, but the last two would certainly make sense if there were a problem.
22. そうですねえ。↘
Yeah.....
This sentence shows some hesitation. This should make sense because a typical そうですね↑ is a response to having been sought agreement, but you’re adding more emotional emphasis, which would in this situation equate to not being so on board.
Combinations
In compounds with the two at the end, the pitch goes down. The first combination below is わよ, which is simply a feminine form of the ↘ よ. よね, on the other hand, is a combination which has a little bit more complicated status. There are more examples, but we will stick to these two for now.
23. このケーキ、美味しいわよ。
This cake is delicious!
24.
可笑
しいよね。
That's so strange, no kidding?
~よね is relatively new. This combination particle has come about from a need to bring a close to one’s own opinion but see agreement/emotional appeal at the same. In contrast to a typical そうですね, そうですよね is used in anticipation of having people around you more involved. For those who think it is correct, they claim it shows more familiarity in colloquial speech and is used under the assumption that agreement is already had ( 共有 認識 ).
Using よ and ね with のだ
のだ’s basic function is to get someone to understand something by bringing it to their attention. Adding ね has the tone seek sympathy as you try to have the listener understand things. Adding よ greatly emphasizes that you want to notify the listener of something. Repeating ~んだよover and over again, though, can lead you to sound verbose. How exactly overuse leads to unnaturalness in this situation is not quite clear, but it is likely due to the functions of んだ and よ being redundant to the point you aren’t actually using them to mean what they should, which leads to misuse.
25. 彼
は
銀行
に
勤
めてるんだよね。(Not questioning)
He works in a bank, right?
26. 一体何
があったんだよ?(Coarse; 男性語)
What the heck happened?
誤用
There are mistaken usages of よ and ね that even cause problems for native speakers. One of the best examples is when clerks try saying よろしいですよ to give permission but be cordial and respectful at the same time actually does the opposite and sounds rude. This stems from よ’s use of marking criticism. It also has to deal with how よろしい can be used, too. Because superiors can use it to show recognition or permission to underlings, using it in this way would be arrogant.
26.
部長
:「よろしい。私が考えよう」
Alright. I'll think about it.
The replacement phrase for よろしいですよ would be はい、 承知 しました or はい、分かりました.
More Usages & Examples
You may also see ね used as a filler word with a ↘ intonation.
27. あのね、
僕
、これがね、ほしいの。
Um, I, I really want this you see.
28. 明日
はね、
都合
がいいんだ。
Um, tomorrow is going to be convenient.
When used after the て form to show a light, casual command with a ↑↓ intonation, ね can sound somewhat feminine. It may also be used by both men and women when speaking to children or when trying to be cute.
29. ここで
待
ってね。
Wait here, OK?
30. 知
らないね。
I don't know.
Sentence Note: This is a response to inquiry, and the tone can be most light with a ↘ intonation.
かね is a combination that is often heard by old speakers and by speakers of certain dialects, though it is not limited to these speakers. It is also often treated as a gender neutral form of かな (I wonder).
31. 来
てくれるかね。
Could you come over?
32. そんな
手
にだれが
乗
りますかね。
I wonder who would drive in such transportation.
33. 彼女
に
会
いたいよ。↗
I want to see her!
34. 早
くしないと
遅
れますよ。↘ (Scolding)
You'll be late if you don't hurry.
35.
上司
が思
いつきでものを
言
うからまいるよ。↗
My boss talks off the top of his head.
36. 泣
かなくてもいいのよ。(Feminine) ↗↘
It's OK not to cry.
Usage Note: Final particles, again, can be used as filler words at the end of dependent clauses to add emotion. This doesn't apply as much to よ, but it can happen. The usage of these particles like this is not proper in truly formal polite situations. You might hear your boss use particles like ね in this fashion, but you wouldn't talk that way to him. So, this, like anything in Japanese that is sensitive to situation, you should do some investigation before attempting.
Another use of よ is to call out for someone. We often see this is great pleads which we don't get to see in every day situations much but might in literature, dramas, etc.
37. 神よ、助けてくれ!
Oh God, save me!
蝶よ花よ & 月よ星よ
These phrases are used as adverbs followed by the particle と. Although literally "butterflies and flowers!" and "moon and stars!" respectively, they are used idiomatically to mean "bringing up like a princess" and "extremely loving and praising" respectively. The origin of these phrases is questionable, but that's not really important.
38. 娘を蝶よ花よと育てた。
I raised my daughter like a princess.
39. 月よ星よと眺める。
To gaze with great admiration.
語尾 , as we have learned, are interjectory particles that show all sorts of emotions.
わ is more colloquial--used in casual speech--than よ with gender restrictions based on tone. If high, it is associated with standard feminine speech. If low, it is associated with 関西弁 in which both men and women use it frequently. It may also list things with exclamation; this isn't necessarily feminine.
1. 本当
に
困
ったわ。
I'm really troubled.
2. まあ、
素敵
だわ。
Well, that's great.
3. 行
くわよ。
I'm going!
Usage Note: ~わよ is very feminine. Extremely feminine and extremely masculine expressions are in somewhat of a decline in favor of more gender neutral ones. They are also not going to be used in polite speech.
4. バンが
壊
れるわ、
乗
り
上
げるわ、
散々
な
一日
だった。
The van broke, I got stranded, and I've had a day!
Particle Note: The sentence above is a great example of the usage of particles as filler words after clauses mentioned in the last section.
5. あとの事は何れ東京へ出たら、逢った上で話を付けらあ。
I'll talk about that once I've gone and met (with him).
From 門 by 夏目漱石.
Contraction Note: ~らあ is a contraction of ~るわ and is equivalent to ~るなぁ in this context.
Historical Note: わ is an evolved form of は.
1. な is for the most part the masculine version of ね. However, females have begun to use it as well, particularly those that are seen as being stronger than the average woman. This should not be used in polite situations.
6.
俺
な、
今度
な、
勝
つんだ。
I, uh, this time, will win.
7. あのな、こっちではな、
酒
はいけないんだ。(説教的な言い方)
Um, you mustn't drink sake here, you know.
8. 懐かしいなあ。
How nostalgic.
9. いやだな。
What a pain!
10. 君が来ないと、つまらないなあ。
If you don't come, it'll be boring.
11.
誰
か
来
たな。
Someone came, didn't they?
12. 罪人
はお
前
だな。
The sinner is you, isn't it!
2. Placed after the 終止形 (the end form) of a verb to show a strong negative command.
13. そんなことをするな。
Don't do such a thing!
14. 行
くな!
Don't go!
15. すんな!
Don't do it!
Contraction Note: ~るな is often contracted to ~んな. Even if a verb doesn't end in the sound, ん is often inserted before な. So, things
話
すんな are becoming more common. Again, don't use these contractions in polite situations.
3. Used as a contraction of ~なさい,. Don't confuse this with Usage 2!
16. 行
きな!
Go!
17. やってみな!
Try it!
18. ちょっとこっちに
来
な。
Come here for a moment.
There are three very different usages of the final particle と.
Examples
19. 何だと!?(Vulgar/casual)
WHAT!?
20. いやだと?
You say no!?
21. 知らねーっと。(Vulgar; slang)
I don't know.
22. 二人で
幸
せに
暮
らしましたとさ。
And they lived happily ever after.
23. やめたいだと?
You want to quit!?
Grammar Note: だと is allowed here because it is acting as a final particle.
The final particle の is becoming more unisex in appeal, but guys should be careful with their tone of voice. As said earlier, it can show a decisiveness/confirmation, reasoning with a low pitch, and question with a high pitch. Patterns that are particularly feminine include (な)のよ, のね, and の!.
24. やりたくないの!(Feminine)
I don't want to do it!
25. 休みなのよ。(Feminine)
It's a break!
26. 宿題
(を)
忘
れたの?
You forgot your homework?
27. ああ、そうだったの。(A little feminine)
Ah, is that so?
28. やはりだめだったのね。(Feminine)
It was bad as expected, wasn't it?
29. 明日来
ないの。
You're not coming tomorrow?
30. 仕事
があったんじゃないの?
Didn't you have work?
31. 強い
男
は
泣
かないの。
Strong guys don't cry.
32. おお、まことか、よく来たの。(Old person)
Oh, it's you Makoto; good of you to come.
Speech Style Note: The last sentence sounds like it came from an old person. よく来たな is a more masculine yet more common way to say it. よく来たね is more gender neutral. As you can see, it's different from the other sentences above.
さ is a signature feature of Tokyo speech and is the Japanese equivalent to the overuse of "like" in English. Don't use this in polite speech. This is very casual, and the usage is rather random based on region and age. The people most likely to use it are young people in and around the capital area ( 首都圏 ).
33. 東京
は
本当
にきれいさ。
Tokyo is like really pretty.
34. 明日
はさ、
土曜
だからさ、
休
みなんだ。
Tomorrow is, um, cause it’s Saturday, we're going to be on break.
35. 何
さ、あんなやつめ!
What the, that guy!
Grammar Note: さ is typically not placed after だ as the first example demonstrates. However, many speakers don't follow this.
ぞ is very casual and at times harsh. ぞ, which is associated with masculine speech, creates a casual yet strong assertive emphasis. It may also be used to make a rhetorical question. Its role as being strongly masculine is in decline, but it is still used frequently, just not with as much of the gender baggage. You should not use this in polite speech.
36
. 何
か
変
だぞ。
Something's strange.
37. 今
しないと、
失敗
するぞ。
If you don't do it now, you'll fail!
38. とにかく
家
へ
帰
るぞ。
Anyway, I'm going home.
39. 勉強しなかったから、テストに
合格
しなかったんだぞ。
It's because you didn't study that you didn't pass your test!
40a. あれは
何者
ぞ。 (Very old-fashioned)
40b. あいつは何者だ? (More natural)
Who is that?
Phrasing Note: Using ぞ in making a rhetorical question is rather archaic.
ぜ rudely and or forcefully pushes an idea. Due to this, it is only appropriate in casual conversation and should never be used with your superiors (in a typical situation). Only if you and your superior(s) are drunk should you ever use it; that is unless you're quitting.
ぜ has historically been extremely masculine, but it is now not completely out of the norm for female speakers to use it among themselves. This, though, may make them look unfeminine. Strong female bodybuilders can use ぜ just like a rough playing boy child in a schoolyard.
It is because of these reasons why experience in hearing them used is the best way to truly know the full realm of their usage.
41. 雪
だぜ。
It's snow!
42. 行
くぜ!
Let's go!
Origin Note: ぜ is the contraction of ぞえ.
Although no longer common, え is used to either to call for someone or push an idea for questioning something. It's often in the pattern ぞえ. You might hear something with this in it in some old-fashioned drama.
43. 行
くぞえ。
Let's go!
44. お
上
さんえ (Old-fashioned)
Missus!
Spelling Note: ぞえ and ぞぇ are both common spellings, and the pattern is still common among many speakers. It's just that using the particle in any other situation is very uncommon.
Compound verbs are created in Japanese by adding one verb to another verb’s stem. Verbs that attach to others in this way are called supplementary verbs. However, not all verbs can be used in this way. The first ones that we will study concern “beginning”, which are ~始める, ~出す, and ~かける.
一だん | 五だん | する | 来る |
食べる → 食べ | 思う → 思い | する → し | 来る → 来(き) |
The 一段 verb 始 める means "to begin/start". It also means this in compound verbs. So, you can use it to create new verbs like the following.
書く + 始める = 書き始める | To begin writing |
する + 始める = し始める | To begin doing |
壊す + 始める = 壊し始める | To begin destroying |
覚える + 始める = 覚え始める | To begin remembering |
Remember that this verb is transitive. However, when it attaches to verbs, the transitivity of the verb expression is determined by the verb that it attaches to. So, it attaches to both intransitive and transitive verbs. So, when it’s used as a stand-alone verb, you have the 始まる and 始める contrast, but not in compound verbs.
1. 今日、レポートを書き始めました。
I started writing the report today.
2. 宿題を(し)始めた。
I started doing my homework.
3. 僕が日本語を勉強し始めたのは、6年前です。
It was six years ago since I started studying Japanese.
4.
疲
れを
感
じ始めた。
I began to feel tired.
5.
来学期
から日本語を勉強し始める。
I'll start studying Japanese from next semester.
6. 仕事を始める。
To start work.
7. 話を始めた。
I began a conversation.
8. 雪は冷たいみぞれに変わり始めた。
The snow started to turn into icy sleet.
9. 手がかじかみ始めました。
My hands began to feel numb.
漢字 Notes:
1. みぞれ can be written in 漢字 as 霙, but you are not responsible for this.
2. かじかむ can be written in 漢字 as 悴む, but you are not responsible for this.
First and foremost, 出 す is a transitive verb which means "to take out", and it may be used in an array of situations. Although not the main point of this section, here are some examples of how this verb is used as a stand-alone verb.
10. ゴミを出す。
To take out the trash.
11. 強いにおいを出した。
It gave off a strong smell.
12. レポートを出す。
To submit a report.
13. 私はあの
店
で飲み物を出しています。
I serve drinks at that store.
14.
手紙
を出す。
To mail a letter.
~出す is like ~始める in that they both describe the start of an action, circumstance, or change, but they are slightly different.
~始める is used generally in regards to the starting of an event, and it is used with verbs of volition, actions in which people have control of, in this sense. In the case that it shows a circumstance or change beginning, it is used with non-volitional/intransitive verbs. Even still, it generally states the beginning of something.
~出す attaches to verbs of volition/non-volition as well. Thus, although the main verb is transitive, the transitivity of the compound verb expression is decided by the verb that it attaches to. As for ~出す, it describes the sudden start of an action or circumstance. In this sense, it is far more emotionally emphatic.
To be clear on how this is attached to verbs, consider the following chart.
動く (To move) | + 出す → | 動き出す | 叫ぶ (To shout) | + 出す → | 叫び出す |
歩く (To walk) | + 出す → | 歩き出す | 飛ぶ (To fly) | + 出す → | 飛び出す |
15. 由美子ちゃんが泣き出した。
Yumiko broke into tears.
16. 彼女は
笑
い出した。
She started to laugh (big time).
17. 走り出した。
He began to dash.
18. 太陽が顔を出した。
The sun showed its face.
19. 雨が降り出した。
It began to rain (a lot).
Note: 見出す = みいだす (to find; pick out)
20. 面白い映画を見て、吹き出した。
Watching a funny movie, I burst out laughing.
21.
政府
の
姿勢
に
不満
が
噴
き出した。
I was flushed with dissatisfaction at the government's stance.
Word Note: ふきだす is a word with two spellings and several meanings. It can show something spouting out with much force, which can be applied in a physical sense or in a more abstract sense like in Ex. 21. In Ex. 22, it has a meaning of “sprout out”. Just as in Ex. 20, it may be like 笑い出す. The verb is also sometimes used in a transitive sense.
22.
新芽
が吹き出した。
The bud sprouted (out).
23. 桜島はいつも真っ白な
火山灰
を
噴
き出しますね。
Mt. Sakurajima always spouts out white volcanic ash.
Geography Note: 桜島 is an island next to 鹿児島, which is a major city on the southern tip of 九州, the southernmost major Japanese island. This island has an active volcano,
活火山
(also read more correctly asかつかざん), which is formally called
桜島御岳
.
御 is an honorific prefix, and although it is usually read as お in this context, it is actually read with the older reading おん here. 岳 is an alternative character for certain mountains/volcanos as opposed to the more frequent山. However, this active volcano is usually called 桜島, despite being the name of the island. If the ash was to finally stop and the volcano became dormant, it would be called as
休火山
.
漢字 Note: Do not read 火山 as かさん. The change from さん to ざん is not because of sequential voicing. Instead, ざん is a later 音 reading that entered Japanese from Chinese. You see this reading in similar words like 氷山 (iceberg).
However, 灰 does get voiced due to sequential voicing, which is called 連濁 . はい is not Chinese. The Chinese reading is かい. This reading is used in words like 灰白色 (grayish white).
Prefix Note: 真っ白 is “pure/snow-white”. When you attach 真っ to other colors, be careful of sound changes! 真っ青 = まっさお; 真赤 = まっか; 真っ黒 = まっくろ. Note that 真っ白い is possible for many speakers, but it is not 100% proper Japanese.
24. 葡萄の木が芽を吹き出す。
25. ぶどうの芽が吹き出す。
The grape tree’s shoots will sprout.
Transitivity Note: This pair of sentences shows flexibility in transitivity. However, it is important to note that the latter is more frequently used as it is shorter. This does not, though, make the former incorrect.
漢字 Notes:
1. Many things have 漢字. Although ぶどう is typically not written as 葡萄, it’s important for you to get the feel of what does have a 漢字 spelling, even if it’s not provided to you.
2. 噴き出す may not be used in the plant sense of “to sprout”. 噴, pronounced as ふん in compounds, has the meaning of “erupt”. Thus, 火山の噴火 means “volcano eruption”.
Another peculiar difference is that ~始める but not ~出す may be used with phrases like ~てください (please…). Even with, ~てもいい (all right to…), ~出す is often unnatural.
26. 食べ始めてください。〇
食べ出してください。X
Please start to eat.
27. 食べ出してもいいですか。△
食べ始めてもいいですか。〇
Is it alright if I start eating?
~かける also marks the starting of an action or circumstance. The exact nuances that it could have are all over the place to the point that it's best to take each case individually and find out what it means. This may sound like a very difficult task to do, but there are a few commonalities across the combinations that you can use to understand this ending better. 1. you already know that it can deal with something starting. Thus, it may show something being on the verge of whatever. 2. this "on the verge" meaning is very similar to doing something midway/halfway. As a nominal phrase in the form of ~かけ in describing things half-done.
In the example sentences below, Examples 28~30 should be straight-forward. The last two involve more thinking, and the latter example will require some more information about the verb かける itself to make sense.
28. 何かを言いかける。
To be on the verge of starting to say something.
29. 彼女は二度と死にかけた。
She almost died twice.
30. 夜が明けかけている。
The day is breaking.
31. 見知らぬ人に話しかけてはいけない。
Don't talk to strangers!
32. 彼の顔に
煙
をぷっと吹きかける。
To puff smoke into his face.
Sentence Note: 話しかける refers to the point in time when one tries to start a conversation. So, you're still on the verge of something. 吹きかける requires that you understand かける may also mean "to cover/put over". Even so, the verb is still somewhat figurative because 煙を吹く also exists with the meaning "to blow smoke", but this wouldn't be used in the context of Ex. 32.
~かかる
~かかる may also be used to mean "to begin," but it implied that one is on the verge of an end result. It may also be used to show that an action is being directed elsewhere. Either way, because this ending is not that productive, you will have to study how to use it on a case-by-case basis. Furthermore, you will also have to learn the transitivity of the resultant verb.
34. 死にかかる魚って見たことがあまりない。
I have seldom seen fish at the point of death.
35.
心痛
が重く伸しかかった。
Worries weighed heavily on her.
36. 何時から仕事に取りかかりますか。
When do you start work?
37. 旅行の
準備
をしかかる。
To begin preparations for the trip.
These endings will greatly aid in expanding your Japanese knowledge.
"To end" is either 終 わる or 終える. The grammar is a bit confusing. Originally, 終わる was strictly intransitive and 終える was transitive. Remember, intransitive verbs happen with no active agent but transitive verbs have a direct object.
Transitive verbs are used with を, but intransitive verbs are typically used with が. 終える may be used as a transitive verb, but it is rare as an intransitive verb. The chart below will show the three main patterns with these verbs.
Particle | Verb | Meaning |
が | 終わる | Event ends naturally |
を | 終わる | To not end intently |
を | 終える | To end intently |
1.
授業
が終わった。
Class ended.
Word Note: クラスが終わった is wrong because クラス, contrary to how it's used in English, is used in reference to the group/body of the class.
2. 道路
はここで終わっている。
The road ends here.
Tense Note: Notice the use of the progressive tense in the sentence above. ~ている is used to show a continuous action. The road has and will continue to end there unless if something happened. Therefore, the non-past tense would be incorrect.
3. 先生は
講義
を終えましたか。
Has the teacher concluded his lecture?
4.
失敗
に終わる。
To end in failure.
5. 何時に終わりますか。
At what time will it end?
6. 何時に終えますか。
At what time will (they) end it?
7. それはどのように終わりましたか。
How did to end up = How did it go?
8. その映画が死で終わる。
That movie ends in death.
9. 昨夜の演奏は歌って終わった。
Last night's performance ended with singing.
10.
試合
は引き分けに終わった。
The game ended in a tie.
11. 動物の権利活動家らが抗議を終えましたが、反対の声をあげつづけるそうです。
The animal rights activists ending the protest, but they are to continue raising voices of opposition.
12. ぼくは試験が全部終わったよ。ぼくの人生も終わったかもしれない。
I'm finished with all of my exams! My life may have ended as well.
13. これで
一生
を終えるんだと思ってました。
I thought that I would end my life with this.
Word Note: There are several words for life. 生活 for way of life, 人生 for "human life", 命 for the force that keeps us alive, and 一生 is one's "whole life".
14.
修理
を終えましたか。
Did you finish the repairs?
15.
生涯
が終わる。 = 死ぬ
To die.
Definition Note: This usage of the verb 終わる shows that one's life or role comes to an end.
16. 生涯を終える。
To end one's life.
Nuance Note: This does not show intent. Otherwise, it would refer to suicide which it does not.
17. 宿題をおえたぞ。 (Masculine)
I finished my homework.
18.
会議
を終わる。
To end a meeting (halfway).
19. 会議を終える。
To end a meeting.
20. 会議が終わる。
The meeting ends.
漢字 Note: 了 and 卒 (which signifies graduation) may also be used instead of 終, but they're uncommon.
~終わる・終える
In compounds ~終わる shows that an action ends or is completed. ~終わる is used with intransitive and transitive verbs, and it is the initial verb that decides the transitivity of the compound verb phrase.
When you see ~終わる with transitive verbs, it shows that the subject of the sentence has finished something naturally or unintentionally in the sense that there is not necessarily a motive or goal for completion. For instance, you may finish paying off your student loan to college eleven years out of the fact. If you wanted to say you finished paying off your loan, you would use Ex. 21.
~終える signifies that one ends an action, and it must only be used with verbs of volition. Also, ~終える is more frequently seen in the written language, no doubt because one's intent is more powerfully expressed with it.
These endings can't be with condition verbs like いる or できる. They can't attach to verbs of change or movement because there is no end point.
21. ローンを
払
い終わりました。
I finished paying off the loan.
22. 宿題をし終えて、外へ遊びに行った。
I finished my homework and went outside to play.
23.
取引
を終える。
To close (as in the stock market).
24. その本を読み終えましたか。
Did you finish reading that book?
25. 早くやり終える。
To get it over with.
26. 彼は歌い終わりました。
He finished singing.
27. 小説を書き終えた。
I ended writing the novel.
28. 彼が意見を言い終わるか終わらないうちに、あの人は邪魔をして口を挟んだ。
Before he could finish saying his opinion, that person interjected himself.
止 む means "to end/stop" and is intransitive. Its counterpart that is used for personal action is 止める. In compounds やむ is only used with verbs that occur naturally. For anything else, use やむ or やめる (the transitive form of “to stop”) as independent verbs.
29. 雨が降り止んだ。
雨がやんだ。 (More common)
It stopped raining.
30.
音楽
が止みました。
The music stopped.
31. なにかをやめることが必要かもしれません。
It might be necessary to quit/stop (doing) something.
To Quit Doing
"To quit/stop doing" is made with a nominalizer plus やめる. Change in habit itself is shown by the negative with "ようになる".
32. 彼は勉強するのをやめた。
He stopped studying.
33. 彼はタバコを
吸
わないようになった。
He stopped smoking.
34. 私はそれを表示できないようになってしまいました。
I ended up not being able to display it.
Meaning Note: ~てしまう = To end up
上がる and 上げる are verbal pairs to express raising and lifting. Of course, there are many usages of these two words. 上がる is intransitive and 上げる is transitive. These broad meanings will make sense once you see how they are applied to actual compounds.
~上がる | ~上げる |
An action ends | To do exhaustively/to a limit |
An action is completed | To do an action completely |
Adds a sense of humility | |
To show an explicit wording |
35. 彼女は歌い上げました。
She sang to the top of her voice.
36.
氏名
を読み上げる。
To read out a name.
37. 何とぞよろしくお
願
い
申
し上げます。
I kindly ask for you to remember me on my behalf.
38. 本をすっかり書き上げた。
I completely wrote up the book.
39.
全部数
えあげたのか。(A little rough)
Did you count it all up?
40. 空が
晴
れ上がった。
The sky cleared up.
41.
焼
きあがる。(Never transitive)
To finish burning.
42. いい食事が出来上がりました。
A great meal is ready.
43.
街中
が
震
え上がった。
The town shuddered.
This lesson is about speech modals that describe repetition of circumstances. Though in some respects, there are striking commonalities among these expressions, pay very close attention to detail as all information in this lesson is relevant in further understanding Japanese time phrases.
Though English has the single word "every...", Japanese does not. Rather, there are 毎~ and ~毎に, but their combinations, exact readings, and exact nuances cause issues.
朝 | 晩 | 夜 | 日 | 時間 | 週間 | 月間 | 年間 | |
毎~ | まいあさ まいちょう |
まいばん | まいよ | まいにち | まいじ | まいしゅう | まいげつ まいつき |
まいねん まいとし |
~毎に | あさごとに | ひとばんごとに ゆうごとに |
よごとに | 1日ごとに ひごとに |
(1)じかんごとに | (1)しゅうごとに |
いっかげつごとに つきごとに |
(1)ねんごとに |
Usage Notes:
1. You may also use these expressions with the words for the seasons. ~ごとに is on the decline in general, so you may not get chances to hear it very often. It also can be seen after verbs, but this has also declined in usage.
春 | 夏 | 秋 | 冬 | |
毎~ | まいはる まいしゅん (書き言葉) |
まいなつ まいか (書き言葉; Rare) |
まいあき まいしゅう (書き言葉) |
まいふゆ まいとう (書き言葉; Rare) |
~毎に | はるごとに | なつごとに | あきごとに | ふゆごとに |
2. まいちょう is rare and very formal. It is more likely to be in writing.
3. ~毎に can also be translated as "X by X". So, 1時間ごとに = "hour by hour".
4. "Night after night" can be
夜
な
夜
な. A similar expression is
朝
な
夕
な meaning "day and evening" in a repetitive sense. These phrases are not usually used in the spoken language.
5. "Month by month" can also be
月々
.
6. 毎~ must never be used with non-temporal phrases.
7. 毎年 and 毎月 are usually read as まいとし and まいつき respectively.
Examples
1. 毎朝散歩に出かけます。
I go out on a walk every morning.
2. 毎時50キロメートルの
速度
50 kilometers per hour
3.
母
は
毎朝散歩
します。
My mom walks every morning.
4. 毎日どこでご飯を食べますか。
Where do you eat every day?
5. 日本人とアメリカ人は
毎日三回食事
をするのが
普通
だ。
Japanese and Americans usually eat three times every day.
Practice:
1.Try making a sentence with ことあるごとに (With every little thing)
2. Translate ことあるごとに、彼を思い出すんだよ。
Using ~ごとに
~ごとに has several usages. Other than phrases such as ことあるごとに, it is hardly ever used after verbs. However, it is always very old-fashioned when after verbs to mean “whenever” (See ~度に below). There are four distinct situations that you may see ~ごとに used in.
1. For every constant A (place, point of time, or person), a repetition B occurs.
2. For every variable A (place/person), a different thing exists.
3. It shows that something takes place once every given amount of time.
4. As you repeat a certain constant A, a change progresses. (Rarely seen with verbs)
Examples
6.
祝日
{ごと・のたび}に、家族みんなでドライブに出かけることにしてますよ。(話し言葉)
The whole family goes out on a drive {every/whenever there is a} holiday.
Speech Style Note: ~のたびに would make it more 話し言葉的.
7. その
企業
グ
ループは、会社ごとに、それぞれの
社是
と
社則
があるから、よく注意してください。
As for that corporation group, every company has its own policies and rules. So, please pay close attention.
8. 一雨ごとに、もっと暖かくなる。
With each rain, it gets warmer.
9. ことあるごとに
反対
するのはだめだよ。
It's bad for you to be against with every little thing.
10. 四年ごとに
閏年
になって、オリンピックが開かれるということは
常識
だ。
It's common sense that every four years there is a leap year, and the Olympics are held.
Grammar Note: 開かれる is the passive form of the 五段 verb 開く.
漢字 Note: 閏 is not a 常用漢字. So, you aren't responsible for it at this time.
Every Time
For "every time", 毎度 , 毎回 , 毎次 , 度 に, and 都度 exist. The first two are different in that the former is stronger and seen in set phrases like 毎度ありがとうございます. For when you want to say you attend every time, you need to use 毎回 instead. 毎次 is quite formal is used in the sense of "whenever" but is not used in the spoken language.
11. 六時間
毎
に
薬
を
服用
しなくてはいけません。
You have to take medicine every 6 hours of time.
12. その都度
使用料
を
払
う。
I pay the usage fee each and every time.
13. 毎回
参加
します。
I participate each time.
14.
毎次密接
に
連絡
を取ります。
Each time I'll be in close touch.
15. やる度に
失敗
する。
To fail whenever one tries.
16. 彼は週毎に4万円の
稼
ぎがあります。
He has earnings of 40,000 yen a week.
Frequency Note: Although 月ごとに and 週ごとに are correct, they are typically replaced with 月に and 週に respectively.
関西弁 Note: 毎度大きに is a very important phrase from 関西弁 meaning the same thing as 毎度ありがとうございます.
With Time
~おきに is equivalent to "every other". Like all of these other expressions, something is repeated in a given interval. However, as you can see in the translation, it is not quite the same.
17. 2日おきに = Every other two daysVS 2日ごとに = Every second day
●○○●○○●○○●... ●○●○●○●...
18. 3日おきに = 4日ごとに Every other three days = every fourth day
●○○○●○○○●... ●○○●○○●...
19. 彼女は
一日
おきに
出勤
する。
She goes to work every other day
With Distance
For distance, ~ごとにshows precise repetition of distance. So, if you are lining bottles and place them 5メートルごとに, you start from the midpoint from one bottle and place the next bottle five meters from that point. If you place them 5メートルおきに, you are measuring the space in between each bottle, so you measure from the edges of each bottle.
20. 部屋は5分おきに
揺
れた。
The room shook every other five minutes.
Expressing potential in Japanese isn't easy. There are many ways not exactly the same to do this, and there are restrictions on these phrases that don't exist for the English "can". In Japanese, the potential is intertwined with the concept of volition. This, not surprisingly, affects the grammar.
The direct object of a potential sentence is treated as the subject of an intransitive verb. The object is still the object. が and を, though, may mark the object. There are rules behind it, but for now, we will use them interchangeably.
Ex. | 可能形 | Past | Negative | Negative Past | |
一段 | 食べる | 食べられる | 食べられた | 食べられない | 食べられなかった |
五段 | 行く | 行かれる → 行ける | 行けた | 行けない | 行けなかった |
来る | 来る | 来(こ)られる | 来られた | 来られない | 来られなかった |
する | する | できる | できた | できない | できなかった |
形容詞 | 正しい | 正しく(して)いられる | 正しく(して)いられた | 正しく(して)いられない | 正しく(して)いられなかった |
形容動詞 | 幸せだ | 幸せでいられる | 幸せでいられた | 幸せでいられない | 幸せでいられなかった |
Examples
1. 漢字など
書
けますか。
Can you write Kanji and what not?
2.
仕方
がありませんが、
明日
は
公園
に
行
けません。
It can't be helped, but I can't go to the park tomorrow.
3. 日本語
の
本
が
読
めますか。
Can you read a Japanese book?
4. このキノコは
食
べられますか。
Is this mushroom edible?
5. 私
が
会社
で
出世
できたのは、
運
がよかったまでのことです。
It's just luck that I was able to succeed at the company.
6. その
話
はできすぎで(、)
信
じられません。
The story is too good to be true.
7. そこまで歩けますか。
Can I walk there?
8. いくつまで
数
えられるのか。(Somewhat rude; a sense of doubt is portrayed)
How far can you count to?
9.
自転車
に
乗
れますか。
Can you ride a bicycle?
10. 鳥
は
空
を
飛
べる。
Birds can fly.
Literally: Birds can fly through the sky.
11. 僕
の
学校
では
日本語
が
習
えません。
You can't take Japanese at my school.
12. 明日
は
仕事
があります。ですから、
行
けません。
I have work tomorrow. So, I can't go.
13.
連絡
が
取
れなくなったから、帰ってこないか
心配
した。
Because we lost contact with him, we worried whether he would come back home.
14. お
金
がなくて、バスに
乗
れませんでした。
I didn't have money, so I couldn't ride the bus.
15. ピアノが
弾
けますか。
Can you play the piano?
16. この
次
の
金曜日
に
来
られますか。
Can you come next Friday?
17. うちの
赤
ん
坊
はもうヨチヨチ歩けますよ。(Feminine)
Our baby can already waddle around.
18. ファックスを
送
れますか。
Can I send a fax?
19. それは言えてるね。
Idiomatic: That's exactly it.
Word Note: See that いえる, aside from literally mean "can say", can also be used idiomatically.
20.
将棋
では
勝
てる。 (Contrasting)
I can win at shogi.
Word Note: 将棋 is Japanese chess.
21. お酒ですか。ええ、飲めますよ。
Liquor? Yes, you can drink it.
Meaning Note: In the above sentence, the potential is used in showing permission. Or, depending on context, it may refer to the liquor in question being safe to drink.
22. この水、飲めますか。
Can I drink this water?
Meaning Note: This isn't asking about the ability to drink water. Rather, it's about whether it's OK. The water could be dirty. People can still drink dirty water, but should they is the question.
23. どこに
車
を
停
められますか。
Where can I park my car?
24.
{遅
れ・
失
った
時間}
は
金
では
償
えない。
Money cannot pay for lost time.
連用形+しない
連用形 + は+ しない is like a strong "won't" in the sense of not being able to do something.
25.
誰
の
鍵
も
合
いはしない。
Nobody's key will work.
Verb + に + Negative Potential Verb
This is an emphatic pattern used to show that even when you want to do something, you can't.
26. 雪が
降
り
積
もって、出かけるに出かけられない。
The snow piled up, and we were unable to go out (though we wanted to).
27. 嵐が強くて、行くに行けない。
The storm is so strong that I can't even go.
More Verbs in the Potential
Can go home |
帰られる | Can swim |
泳げる |
Can die |
死ねる | Can buy |
買える |
Can drink |
飲める | Can wait |
待てる |
Can take | 取れる | Can sing | 歌える |
Verbs that Cannot Have Potentials
Non-volitional verbs cannot have potential forms. This includes verbs of natural phenomenon like 降る, 光 る, 流 れる, and 凍 る, those concerning human emotion and physiology ( 痛 む, 痺 れる (to be paralyzed), 羨 む (to be jealous), any verbs that end in ある (as they have no volition), and any pattern that has no control involved like phrases with つく and いく such as 想像 がつく (one can imagine) and 納得 がいく (to accept as valid).
Notice that these are all intransitive verbs. However, it’s not to say that all intransitive verbs don't have potential forms. Think of motion verbs like 走る, 行く, 帰る, 戻 る, 来る, etc. All of these have potentials because volition is involved in their meanings.
Set Phrase Note: あられる, the potential of ある, does happen to exist in the phrase あられもない, which means "impossible". As this is the case, it doesn't contradict what has been said above because there is no volition in impossibility.
とても
とても in a negative sentence means "can't possibly".
28. とってもじゃないけど、そんなもん(なんか)買えねーよ。(Vulgar)
I can't possibly buy something like that!
29. とても泳ぎきれない。
I can't possibly completely swim (that distance).
なかなか
なかなか in a negative sentence means "not easily/by no means". It's used a lot with potential expressions.
30. 漢字がなかなか
覚
えられなくて
困
っている学生は、たくさんいますね。
There are a lot of students that are troubled at not being able to quite memorize Kanji, aren't there?
31.
昨夜
、なかなか
眠
れなかったから、今日はとっても眠くてたまらない。
Since I couldn't easily sleep last night, today I really want to sleep and can't stand it.
32. 宿題がなかなかできなくて、困っています。
I'm troubled that I can't seem to do my homework.
33. タバコはよくないと分かっていても、なかなかやめられなくて、困っている人が多いです。
There are a lot of people that can't quite quit smoking even though they know that tobacco is bad.
34.
時差
ボケで、なかなか
寝
られなくて、
困
りました。
I was troubled because I couldn't quite sleep due to jet lag.
Other than using られる with 一段 verbs and changing 五段 into special potential verbs, you can also use できる in the pattern ~ことができる. できる more or less correlates to the potential form of する. As you can see, though, they do not come from the same word.
する’s potential form is できる・出来る. You don't have to add or do anything else. In Japanese, you can use できる with things regarding ability. So, the equivalent of "can English" would be a valid expression.
1.
努力
と運が
相
まって
優勝
できた。
Together with effort and luck, I was able to be victorious.
2. 加藤さんは
碁
が出来ます。
Mr. Kato can play go.
3a. 日本語ができます。〇
3b. 日本語を話しができます。X
I can speak Japanese.
Literally: I can do Japanese.
Grammar Note: You don't make a verb a noun and use "Noun + ができる (see ことができる). This example shows how できる can show ability/talent. So, ゴルフができない would also be correct.
4. 彼らは
賛成
も
反対
もできない。
They can't even agree or disagree.
5. もう
一泊
できますか。
Can I stay for one more day?
Meanings Other Than Potential
The 可能形 is unable to show appearance or what something is made of, but できる sure can. Those are the "other" usages of it mentioned at the beginning of this lesson.
6. 水は
酸素
と
水素
からできている。
Water is made up of oxygen and hydrogen.
7. ご飯、できましたよ。
Dinner is made!
8. 人生って、悩みと苦しみからできてるんだなあ。 (男性語)
Life really is made from worries and suffering.
9. 人間は体と心からできているのに、みんな体のことばかりに
一生懸命
気を使って、心のほうに
栄養
を与えることを忘れている。
Although humans are made up of the body and the heart, everyone focuses solely on their bodies and forget about providing nurture to their hearts.
~ことができる
Instead of using ~(ら)れる, you may use ことができる. This pattern is arguably more common despite being longer. Without qualification, it will sound as if you can't do the phrase at all when used in the negative. This does not have the requirement of being only used with verbs of volition. This can be used to show the potential of something to happen.
10. 私は日本語を話すことができます。
I can speak Japanese.
11. コンピューターを使うことができるか。 (Rough)
Can you use a computer?
12. アメフトの
試合
を見ることができました。
I was able to see the American football game.
13. 100万からの
署名
を
集
めることができないでしょう。
You won't be able to collect over a million signatures.
14. その漢字を読むことができませんでした。
I could not read that Kanji.
Particle Note: が in this pattern, due to its specific nature, would otherwise make it sound like you in particular are the one that "can"; however, this is not necessarily the case. Nowadays, ~ことができる has more or less become an affirmative, refined pattern.
~することができる
~することができる shouldn't be used excessively, and it should be avoided in promotion-oriented settings. However, it shows up a lot in magazines and such because it is felt by many to be more polite. Yet, when there is a word limit, できる should do. For a minority of speakers, this phrase is ungrammatical. However, this is an extreme position based mainly on a misconception of case marking in Japanese. In the potential, が does not mark a subject. It marks an object. This may be confusing, but other languages have similar alignment rules. This is simply a quirk in Japanese, and it's not like natives were confused on how to deal with it until being introduced with half-baked knowledge about Western grammar terms.
15. ダウンロードすることができます!
You can download it!
Other Ways to Make する Potential
There are four potential routes that you can take to make the potential with する-verbs.
Verb Note: Verbs like 愛す are treated as 五段 verbs. Also note that something like 理解することができる is typically deemed to be unnecessarily wordy.
Curriculum Note: See Potential III for ~得る.
16. 彼は
危険
を
察
することができないやつだな。
He's a guy that can't sense danger, isn't he?
17.
君
を愛せない。
I can't love you.
18. 経験(《すること》が)できる。
To be able to experience.
19. 彼は
誰
でも愛せる人だね。
He's a person that can love anybody, isn't he?
20. これでも中学生の
時
に日本語を
理解
できませんでした。
Believe it or not, I couldn't understand Japanese in junior high.
Pronouns in Japanese are not easy to use, and it is truly impossible to explain how each may be used. Given that there are endless facets of use to these words, pay attention to what is mentioned. If you take anything as an absolute, you are not giving the material fair justice in interpretation. That's not to say everything is up for grabs. Rather, the fluidity in pronoun usage must be viewed as fluid rather than being defined by strict perimeters.
As a quick grammar note, Japanese pronouns (代名詞) act a lot like regular nouns, and one way we can prove that is simply from the fact that we're talking about so many of them. One thing that you cannot do with them, for instance, is repeat them over and over again in the same sentence. It's not just unnatural to do so, but it results in incorrect Japanese.
1. 私は私の部屋で私のパソコンで私の友達とチャットしていました。X
私は部屋でパソコンで友達とチャットしていました。〇
I was talking with my friend with my computer in my room.
The other instances of first person are assumed as defaults unless situation says otherwise, in which case, you should use 自分 instead or some other pronoun other than first pronoun for the other instances for there to be a reason for qualifying. You will learn that although there are especially many first and second person pronouns to choose from, you should try to avoid using them whenever possible.
This is because Japanese is a pro-drop language: it drops such pronouns unless there is a need to emphasize the information these pronouns give. For instance, topicalization, contrast, pointing out things are legitimate reasons to use them. Using them so much in a single assignment because you're trying to make a certain word count and are ignoring proper Japanese grammar is not legitimate.
わたくし: This is a respectful pronoun and has been numerously defined by government guidelines as the proper first person pronoun of choice for polite speech and honorifics. However, the less polite but more neutral form わたし has surpassed it in frequency. In 漢字 both are 私. わたくし can sound pompous outside of honorifics. This, though, is due to a flouting of speech styles, not intrinsic in the word itself.
わたし: Overuse of this may sound slightly feminine. This is because the trend for men using it is going down, and given the business world esteems proper use of honorifics, わたくし can potentially receive more currency.
あっし: In the working class dialect of Tokyo Bay, you also hear あっし, which ultimately comes from わたくし.
わし: This is casual and used by men over 50 and by old people in general in some regions. As you can see, it is a contraction of わたし. It is sometimes written in 漢字 as 儂.
あた(く)し : These are generally deemed to be feminine and causal. Considering the history of traditional feminine speech, this is somewhat ironic. It is certain, though, that the use of these pronouns in polite contexts makes a woman look less educated, despite how unfair it may seem from the use of a feminine word. They may also appear in 下町 speech of Tokyo by both men and women.
あたい: This is found in rougher casual speech of female speakers.
うち: This is often used by women in casual and polite settings; however, there are many regions in Japan where this is a commonplace pronoun used by both genders.
Usage Note: First person pronouns are often dropped and assumed in context. Don't overuse them because it can make you sound egotistic. Don't assume that the situations discussed are the only ones. Tone and one's identity can change their implications a lot.
Practice (1):
Determine which first person pronoun the following people will most likely use.
1. A 50 year old man at home.
2. A foreigner visiting Japan.
3. A teacher speaking to her principal.
4. A female speaking to her boyfriend.
5. A woman you see in an alley.
僕 is the general pronoun for guys of any age. It is actually used by both genders in song. It may also be used to call for a boy child. 僕, due to its sense of humility, is appropriate in polite speech. 俺 asserts masculinity and 俺様 is a very pompous variant. おら and おいら are slang, non-vulgar, country-like variants. 我輩 is old-fashioned and pompous.
Another old-fashioned pronoun is 我 . It is normally used in set expressions. The form 我 が is used in formal situations to mean "our". Ex. "our country" is 我が 国 . Finally, 朕 is equivalent to the "royal we" used by the Emperor. Other archaic pronouns can be found in Lesson 216.
Practice (2):
Determine which first person pronoun the following people will most likely use.
1. A boy child in kindergarten.
2. A teenager showing off to his friends.
3. A 20 year old male being incredibly ostentatious.
4. Someone sounding archaic.
5. The Emperor and Empress.
Curriculum Note: We'll study dialectical and classical pronouns much later on.
2. あたしは
看護婦
です。
I am a nurse.
Word Note: 看護師 is the gender neutral word for nurse.
3. 俺は
男
だ。
I am a man.
4. 僕は
歌
う。
I sing.
5. 我輩は
猫
である。
I am a cat.
Sentence Note: The sentence above is the title of a famous novel.
6. わしは大阪の
出身
じゃ。(Old person)
I was born in Osaka.
Phrase Notes: To indicate where you are born, add の出身 or 生 まれ after the name of your birthplace. "Is" is usually だ in plain speech, but じゃ is commonly used by old people.
"You" is considered rude because Japanese people normally address each other by name or title. So, instead of "Is this your pen?", you'll hear something like "Is this Kim's pen?". When being polite, attach -さん to the name.
There are a lot of second person pronouns to choose from. The most neutral is あなた. It is direct, so use a name if possible. It can also mean "dear" when used by women to their spouses. あんた is a rude variant in Standard Japanese when talking to someone, but it can be seen in casual situations. There are a lot of dialects in which it is the standard second person pronoun. So, know your listener.
A teacher with 50 kids wouldn't refer to her pupils by name, though. Instead, she would use あなたたち, the plural form of you. However, when you should be polite to an audience, use みなさん (everyone).
君 is a common casual "you” and it can be used towards subordinates and peers. It is also used by men to their lovers. However, this last usage may not be acceptable by some women. It can be seen by some as belittling while by some as intimate. From guy to guy, it may be seen as rude.
お 前 and おめー are often used in vulgar situations by guys. However, they may still be seen used in just casual situations. They are actually extremely commonly used by men in close company as a general word to use with no such stigma. Things are really different when you know someone personally.
Most other second person pronouns are very rude or old-fashioned but with various degrees of nuance: てめー (this is from てまえ but the non-contracted form is not used anymore in regular conversation), きさま (貴様), おのれ (originally a first person reflexive pronoun meaning oneself, which it still means in set phrases), (お)ぬし (not that common), われ(most people don't use it aside from actual delinquent speech, which was the basis for pop-culture usage such as in movies and manga), etc. You just don't use these rude pronouns to people. They're just like fighting words.
History Note: It's important to note that 貴様 and お前 used to be very honorific terms, and the former stayed slightly honorific up until the early Edo Period. おぬし (お主) also has honorific origin.
7. お前は
負
ける。
You will lose.
8. あなたに
会
います。
I'll meet with you.
9. 山本
さんのペンですか。(P)
Is this your pen Mr. Yamamoto?
10. あんたはずるい。(Casual; rude)
You're sly.
Vocabulary Note: おたく is a second person pronoun that shows light respect towards someone of relatively equal status. It can also mean "nerd" and "someone's house (honorific)".
11. お宅(、)どちらさん?
Who are you?
12. コンピューターおたく
Computer nerd
13. お名前は何ですか。
What is your name?
Phrasing Note: あなたの名前は何ですか is grammatically possible, but the first is more natural.
Archaism Note: There is an archaic second person pronoun 爾汝 used in the phrase 爾汝 の 交 わり, which refers to using words like お前 and きさま mutually with those you are close to. It is not the kind of phrase most people know about. It's just interesting to know.
The third person pronouns in Japanese that you should know are the following. Japanese actually prefers to avoid the words for he and she as they are more frequently used to refer to boyfriend and girlfriend. That does not mean, though, that you won't seem them clearly used to mean "he" and "she" as this is extremely common in translated works, of which there are many, and you will still hear the pronoun meanings used in conversation. Circumstances should make the intended meaning obvious.
He | 彼 | She | 彼女 | That person | あの人 |
That man | あの男 | That woman | あの女 | That person (F) | あの方 |
Word Note: For "that woman" and "that man", add の人 in formal contexts. Or, you may be inclined to say things like あの男性(の方)or あの女性(の方) for man and woman respectively. Japanese also tends to use titles to address others. So, if "he" is the clerk at the bank and you are referring to him, you would say 銀行員さん instead of 彼.
14. 彼は
変
な男だ。
He is a weird man.
15. 彼女はばかものだ。(PL)
She is stupid.
16. あの
方
は
水川
さんのお
母
さんです。
That person over there is Mrs. Mizukawa's mother.
17. あの人はだれですか?(Polite)
Who is that person over there?
Practice (1) 1. わし |
Practice (2)
1. ぼく
|
In a nutshell, the adverbial particle だけ shows limitation meaning "just/only." This lesson will teach you how it is used to mean just this.
だけ means "just/only" and shows the extent/limit of something. だけ can also be after verbs, adjectives, etc that are in the れんたいけい. So, いやなだけ not いやだけ. This is because it's actually from the noun 丈(たけ), which means "length".
Noun + だけ | 形容詞 + だけ | 形容動詞 + だけ | Verb + だけ |
手 + だけ → 手だけ | ほしい + だけ → ほしいだけ | 好き + だけ → 好きなだけ | 話す+ だけ → 話すだけ |
Particle Note: が and を are optional after だけ. Don’t put them before it.
1. テストのことを思うだけで
不安
になった。
I became uneasy just at the thought of the test.
2. 赤いリンゴだけ五つください。
Please give me five red apples only.
3. 君だけを愛している。
I only love you.
4. 私は
英語
だけ(を)勉強します。
I only study English.
5. 人は
外見
だけでは分かりません。
You can't tell a person just by looks.
6.
今回
だけは
見逃
してください。
Please overlook just this one time.
7.
一人
だけ{です・います}。
There is only 1 person.
8. ほしいだけ
持
つ。
To carry just what one wants.
9. 彼は、この前の
週末
に
洗濯
だけしたのよ。(Feminine)
He only did the laundry last weekend!
10. 彼女は、この前の週末に
掃除
だけしたんだよ。(Masculine)
She only did cleaning last weekend!
だけで(は)なく
だけで{(は)・じゃ}なく means "not only".
11.
猫
がいるだけでなく、
犬
もいます。
Not only are there cats, but there are also dogs.
12a. あの
部屋
は広いだけでなく、とても明るくて美しいです。(ちょっと不自然)
12b. あの部屋は広くて明るいです。(もっと自然)
That room is not only spacious, but it's also very bright and beautiful.
だけ(のこと)だ
だけ(のこと)だ states that there is nothing more than something. So, it can be translated as "...is no more than". With the inclusion of のこと, the statement is more forceful.
13.
風邪
を
引
いただけだよ。
I only caught a cold.
14.
会社
が
破産
しただけのことだ。
It's just that the company went bankrupt.
15. 見ているだけです。
I'm just looking.
16.
膝
を
擦
り
剥
いただけ。
I only grazed my knee.
Speech Level Note: The deletion of だ makes だけ a final particle. It makes the sentence less blunt. だけです is perfectly fine for polite speech.
With こそあど
With これ, それ, あれ, and どれ, だけ translates as "much".
18.
便利
なサイトはこれだけです。
These are the only useful sites.
19. これだけの
切符
を
集
めていた。
I've collected this many tickets.
20. それだけなの?(A little feminine)
Is that all?
21. その
入門書
は本当に高いが、それだけの
価値
がある。
The beginner's book is really expensive, but it has the worth.
22. どれだけ
苦
しくても僕は
離
しはしない。
No matter how hard it is, I won't let go.
Verb+だけ+Verb
だけ shows a limit, and in this expression you make it even more clear that you are not expecting, wanting, or doing any more.
23. このことは両親にも話すだけは話しておいた方がいい。
As for this, it's best that you at the most talk to your parents.
24. やるだけはやったんだから、静かに結果を待ちましょう。
I'll wait quietly for the results since I did what I had to do.
25. 言うだけ言ったらすっきりした。
I feel good now that I've said (what I had to say).
26. まあ聞くだけ聞いてくれ。
Come on, at least listen to what I have to say.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Potential + だけ
With the potential form of the verb, it can be translated in this way as "as much as...".
27. できるだけして。
Do as much as possible.
28. 私
は
走
れるだけ
走
りました。
I ran as much as I could.
なるべく VS できるだけ
Both mean "if possible/as (much) as possible". なるべく is (somewhat) formal. できるだけ can be followed by の. To use it with なるべく , you have to use the rare なるたけ/なるだけ.
29. なるべくタバコをすうな。
As much as possible/if possible, do not smoke.
Grammar Note: な in the above sentence creates the negative imperative.
30. なるべく
午後
に
来
てほしいです。
I would like you to come during the afternoon if possible.
31. できるだけ
多
くの
金
が
必要
!
I need as much money as possible!
32. できるだけ
早
く
帰
ってください。
Please come home as soon as possible.
As an adverb, ただ means "just what you're doing". For example, "you're just hoping that you get a good grade in Japanese class". Other synonyms include 専 ら and ひたすら. Or, it may stress that there's "nothing else" or that there is "merely" something. Other words for this include たった and わずかに.
ただ...だけ means "mere(ly)", but だけ isn’t necessary. 専 ら ≒ "entirely", so there is no need for だけ. Neither is there a need for it with ひたすら. ほんの 僅 か...だけ = "just a few". たった comes from ただ to mean "mere" and is frequently used with だけ.
Examples
33. たった
一
つ
Just one
34. たった
今
消
えたんだよ。
It disappeared just now!
35. ただいま
I'm home!
Culture Note: Whenever you come home, you say ただいま. People there will response with お帰り(なさい) "welcome home". The added part makes it polite.
37. もっぱらの
噂
だよ。
It's widely rumored.
38. ただの
理由
で
With just a mere excuse
39. それは
単
に
程度
の
問題
じゃないか?
Isn't that just a problem of degree?
Word Note: 単 に means "purely/simply/merely" and is also often used with だけ.
40. 単
に
私見
を
述
べただけだよ。
I merely stated my own opinion.
Nuance Note: Simply as in "easily" can be 単純 に, 簡単 に, 単 に, etc. with just slight differences. The first shows a heavy emphasis on simplifying a process down. The second shows more so the easy, and the latter emphasizes on the extent of the matter.
41. 東京
までたった10キロです。
It's just 10 kilometers to Tokyo.
42. あられがほんのわずか
降
っただけだ。(Somewhat written style)
There was only a light amount of hail that fell.
43. ほんの
一度
だけ
Just one time
Word Note: ほんの is an attributive phrase that means "mere". ほんの 少 し means "just a little". The word gives the sense that there really is nothing else beyond it. It can also be written as 本 の.
44. ただの
風邪
でしょう。
It's probably just a cold.
Word Note: 風邪 means "cold" but comes from and is pronounced just like 風 (wind).
45 [徒・只]より高いものはない。
Nothing costs more than what is given to us.
46. 道
はただひとつ。
There is but one way to live.
47.
美
はただ
皮一枚
。
Beauty is but skin-deep.
ただでは in a negative sentence means that something serious is to happen.
48. ただではおかないぞ!
You'll pay for this!
This lesson is all about how to address the word “how” in Japanese.It requires that you know a little bit about こそあど and the particles か and でも as related phrases are created with the “how” words to be taught in this lesson. The reason for why “how” was not taught in the first lesson on interrogatives is that a lot more information is involved. Now, it is time to tackle the challenge of expressing “how” in Japanese!
The "how" as in “how to express” describes means/way of doing something is expressed with the suffix ~方.
1. 誰か、
伝説
のポケモンの
捕
まえ方を教えてくださいませんか。
Could someone please teach me how to catch legendary Pokemon?
2. どんな言い方をされても
絶
えるしかない?
No matter what expression is used at me, is there nothing else than to endure?
3. 生き方を変えたい。
I want to change my way of living.
4. 本当の自分の知り方を教えていただきました。
I was taught how to understand my true self.
5. 不完全な死に方をすると、不完全な
霊
になってしまいますよ。
If you die an imperfect death, you become an imperfect spirit.
6.
食
塩水
と砂糖水の凍り方を比べてみましょう。
Let's compare the way to freeze saline solutions and sugar water.
7. 鉄の
溶
かし方を教えてください。
Please teach me how to melt steel?
8.
縫
い方が難しいの?
Is the sewing technique difficult?
9. 村のおじさんに簡単にできる人の
呪
い方を教えてもらったんだぞ。
I had an old village man teach me how to easily curse people.
10. 山田先生は今日、
哺乳
動物
の産み方について講座をした。
Yamada Sensei lectured today about the way mammals give birth.
When you use する verbs, you have to use ~の仕方 after the stem.
料理 → 料理の仕方 | 運転 → 運転の仕方 | 日本語の勉強 → 日本語の勉強の仕方 |
11. 海外への電話の仕方を教えてくれませんか。
Could you tell me how to make overseas phone calls?
12. 神様から好印象を持たれる、正しい初詣の仕方とは何でしょう?
What exactly is the correct way to pay one's visit to the shrine for the first time in the year to win good favor from the gods?
13. 化粧の仕方を見直しましょう。
Let's redo your make-up routine.
Following our coverage of the non-question how with ~かた, we'll now cover the many phrases for how to make a question "how" in Japanese.
どう and どのように are used to mean “how” as in regards to action. However, the two words are not the same when it comes to politeness. どう is typically more casual, and when it is used in polite speech, it still has a somewhat casual feel to it. どのように, on the other hand, is more formal and is expected in more polite contexts as well as in written documents.
1. この
状況
をどのように
覆
すことができるのでしょうか。
How can be we overturn this condition?
2. どのように新しい世界を
開拓
されてきたのか、お聞きしました。 (Humble speech)
I asked how a new world has been pioneered.
3. その印象はどのように感じますか。
How do you feel about the impression?
どう may also simply describe an uncertain state. A politer form would be いかが. For instance, ~はどうですか meaning “how is…?” is more politely as ~はいかがですか. To further make it more polite, you can replace ~ですか with ~でしょうか as です is often too abrupt for truly polite/honorific utterances. Of course, when the situation does not call for such measures, ~でしょうか would be taken the opposite way.
4. 「仕事はどうですか」「私は
自営業
です」
How is your work?” I am self-employed”
5. お天気はどうですか。
How is the weather?
6. 日本をどう思いますか。
What do you think about Japan?
7.
広東語
のクラスはどうですか。
How is your Cantonese class?
8. 皆様いかがお過ごしですか。(Honorific)
How is everyone fairing?
どうか
ど うか, the combination of どう and the particle か, either means どうぞ (which is ultimately also a combination of どう with the particle ぞ) in the sense of pleading or なんとか. Do not confuse this with かどうか. In かどうか, the か is used to mark the end of a question clause inside a larger sentence.
9. そのことはどうかしなければなりません。
We have to do something about it.
10. この頃彼女はどうかしてるね。
Something’s been wrong with her lately.
11. どうか許してください。
Please forgive me.
12. 頭がどうかなってしまいそうだ。
My head feels like it’s going crazy.
どんな風に・どういう風に
どんな 風 に and どういう 風 に are similar words meaning “how”. Both are used to describe how things are done in regards to manner/style. The first is more casual while the latter is more polite/formal. 風 is read as ふう when used to mean method; manner; way; style; appearance etc.
13. いまびはどういう風に作られているんですか。
How has IMABI been being made?
14. どんな風に生きれば幸せになれるんだろう。
I wonder how one could live happily.
15. どんな風に天(国)に導かれるのでしょう?
How is one led to heaven?
16. 日本語は外国人にどんな風に聞こえているのでしょうか。
How does Japanese sound to foreigners?
どうやって
どうやって is another word for “how” often used in asking how something is done. This makes it especially useful in asking for directions and how things work. Even so, どう and どのように may also be used in the same way.
17. ここからどうやって駅に行けばいいのか全く分からないんですよ。
I have no idea how to get to the train station from here.
18. どうやって
応募
したらいいですか?
How should I apply?
19. どうやって英語を勉強すればいいの? (Casual)
How should I study English?
20.
信頼
はどのように作りますか。
How does one build trust?
“How” as in “how much” in degree is expressed with either どれくらい, どれぐらい, どのくらい, or どのぐらい. There is almost no difference in meaning or nuance. However, the variants are listed from most to least common. This is not to insinuate any one of them is not used a lot because they all are.
21. 日本にどれくらい滞在するつもりですか。
How long do you plan to reside in Japan?
22. どれくらいの
頻度
で運動したら
効果
を期待できるのでしょうか。
How often should one exercise and expect to see effects?
23. 宇宙はどのくらい広いの?
How wide is the universe?
24. 理想の彼氏の
身長
ってどれくらい? (Casual)
How tall is your ideal boyfriend?
25. どれくらいの頻度でトイレに行くの? (Casual)
How often do you go to the bathroom?
26. 愛ちゃんの耳がどのくらい赤くなっているのかが気がかりだ。
How red Ai-chan's ears have gotten is a big worry.
いくら
“How much” as in money or quantity is expressed with いくら. It is also seen in the phrases いくらか, いくらも, and いくらでも.
27. 出来れば、アメリカ人に、いくら払うとかどんな場所でチップを期待されているのかについて、聞いたほうがい いですよ。
If you can, it would be best to ask an American on how much and in what places it is expected of you to tip.
28.
体重
はいくらですか。
What is your weight?
29.
氷
の
温度
はいくらですか。
How hot is the ice?
31. お金がいくらでも使える。
I can use as much money as I want.
32a. 立派な品をどれほどでも買おう!
32b. 立派な品をいくらでも買おう!
I'll buy splendid items no matter how much (there are).
Sentence Note: 32a can only refer to quantity of what is being bought. 32b would usually be interpreted as referring to price, but it is ambiguous enough to refer to quantity as well.
33. インドの人口はいくらでしょうか。
What is the population of India?
34. 値段はいくらでもいいから、売ってくれ。(Vulgar)
The price is no problem, so sell it (to me)!
35.
提示
する
額
はいくらですか?
How much is your offering price?
36.
在庫
はいくらも
残
っていない。
Almost nothing remains in the stockpile.
37. 「
今日
一
ドルは
何円
ですか」「
為替
レートはいくらか分かりません」
"How many yen is one dollar today?" "I don't know how much the exchange rate is".
38. 「日本からアメリカまでいくらぐらいかかりますか」「
旅行費
はいくらか分かりません」
“About how much is it from Japan to America? ” “I don't know how much the travel costs are”.
何ぼ
何ぼ can be used for not only price but also quantity in general. This is used in 関西弁 and other parts of Japan.
39. これ、ちょっと何ぼ?
How much is this?
40. このリンゴ何ぼ?
How much is this apple/are these apples?
いくつ
“How many” as in age or counting things is いくつ. However, this is a generic word. So, for counter phrases, you must use the pattern 何+counter. 幾‐ is sometimes seen instead of 何‐ in native phrases in literary contexts.
いくつか means “a few”. It may be used as a noun or adverb. Regardless of its syntactic role, it is always in reference to 数. いくつも is on either end of the spectrum, being able to express large and hardly any amount depending on whether the sentence is positive or negative.
41. おいくつですか。
How old are you?
42.
虹
には
色
がいくつありますか。
How many colors does a rainbow have?
43. あのクラスには何人いますか。
How many people do you have in this class?
44.
共通点
がいくつかある。
To have some points in common.
45. 選択肢はいくつも残っていない。
There's absolutely no option to be had.
46. 指サイズはいくつですか?
What's your finger size?
Literally: How much is your finger size?
Word Note: いくら, although it means "how much", is not used here because "finger size" is not deemed as something of quantity. If you akin finger size to age, the logic behind this may be clearer.
We've seen the basic interrogatives, the many ways to say how, and other phrases involving this thing. Now it is time to see them used with particles.
When a 疑問詞 is followed by the particles か or も, you get expressions for "some..." and "all..." respectively. The expressions with も have positive and negative definitions.
+ か | + も |
|
だれ・どなた | Someone | Either/Everyone/Neither/Nobody |
なに | Something | Everything/Nothing |
なぜ | Somehow | X |
どうして | X | By any means |
いつ | Sometime | Always |
どこ・どちら | Somewhere | Everywhere/Nowhere |
どれ | Every (one/thing) | Anything/none |
どう | Somehow or another | Much |
か makes the "some". When も follows these words, it gives a meaning of "all". In a negative expression, it does the complete opposite. 何 も is almost always used with the negative, but it is positive in 何もかも and 何も 全 て.
Part of Speech Note: These words are either used as nouns or adverbs. Remember that these words are no longer interrogatives.
Examples
1. 仕事
も
何
もかも
忘
れて、
休暇
を
楽
しんだ。
I forgot about work and everything, and I enjoyed a vacation.
Grammar Note: To say "nobody's", use " 誰 のXも". 誰 の 車 も = "nobody's car". "Someone's car" = 誰 かの 車 . 誰 か is an indefinite pronoun. For always, いつもの is right.
2. 彼
らの
住
んでいる
所
はどこも
街道筋
に
近
い。
Wherever they are living, it is close to the highway.
3. 誰
かがおいしいクッキーを
全部食
べた。
Somebody ate all of the delicious cookies!
4. いつも
何
を
考
えているのですか。
What are you always thinking about?
5. 彼
は
本当
にいつも
親切
です。
He is really always kind.
6. あいつはいつも
愚痴
を
零
してる。
That guy is always complaining.
Meaning Note:
愚痴
を
零
す is a set phrase meaning "to complain". Also note that the character 零 is hardly ever used.
7.
犯人
をどこかで
見
たか。
Did you see the criminal somewhere?
8. いつか
留学
する。
To some day study abroad.
Word Note: The following is wrong: 日本 の 大学 で 留学 する. 留学 する is used with に. So, 日本に 留学 する is correct. 日本 の 大学 で 勉強 する is correct, though.
9. 誰
もが
彼
の
商才
を
認
めている。
Everyone recognizes his business ability.
10. 私
の
英語
の
講座
はどれも
文法
を
扱
った。
Every one of my English courses dealt with grammar.
11. あなたのコンピューターはどこも
悪
くありません。
There's nothing wrong anywhere with your computer.
12. 食
べ
物
が
何
もない。
I have nothing to eat.
13. 彼女
は
何
も
答
えませんでした。
She answered nothing.
14. アクセルに
何
かおかしいところがあります。
There's something wrong with the accelerator.
15. 今日の彼はどうかしている。
He's not himself today.
16.
色々
どうもありがとうございます。
Thank you very much for everything.
17.
昨日
はどうも。
Thanks for yesterday.
18. 今日は魚がどうも
食
わない。
The fish won't bite for some reason today.
19. 何
かの
拍子
でケイタイを落としたんです。
By some chance, I dropped my cellphone.
20.
何
か
趣味
はありますか。
Do you have any hobbies?
21. 彼
らはワープロにいつも
手
を
焼
いている。
They're always having trouble with their processor.
Phrase Note:
手
を
焼
く is a set phrase similar to "not know what to do/be at a loss with; to be put out".
When an interrogative is followed by でも, it creates an "any" indefinite pronoun. These phrases are only used as adverbs. So, you can't follow them with particles like が.
なん | + でも | Anything |
だれ・どなた | + でも | Anybody/anyone |
いつ | + でも | Anytime |
どこ・どちら | + でも | Anywhere |
どれ | + でも | Anything (out of many) |
22. いつでもいい。
Anytime is OK.
23. この
棚
の
商品
はどれでも千円です。
Whichever item on this shelf is 1,000 yen.
24. どこでも好きなところへ行く。
I will go anywhere I like.
25.
論評
の
結果
はいつでも悪いことだ。
The effect of criticism is always a bad thing.
26. 彼は
何
でも
高価
な
物
を
好
む。
He likes anything expensive.
Word Note: 好む is similar to "to prefer".
Interrogative + ~ても
When a question word is used with ても, it creates a "no matter..." statement.
27.
阿蘇山
はいつ見てもきれいですね。
Mount Aso is beautiful no matter when you see it, isn't it?
28. 僕は何を食べても、太らない。
No matter what I eat, I don't get fat.
29. どこに行っても僕は君の
側
にいるよ。
No matter where you go, I will be by your side.
30. 誰の
鍵
がドアを開けても、僕がいるから君はこの部屋に
安全
だよ。
No matter whose key opens the door, you are safe in this room because I'm here.
31. 何度見ても面白いです。
No matter how many times I see it, it's funny.
This lesson will be about two interesting usages of の. The first will be about its unique role in attribute clauses in which it is sometimes interchangeable with が. We will then learn how の can even be used like a noun!
の may be used to mark the thing or person carrying out an action that is the attribute of something. In other words, it may replace が. This is only seen in attributive expressions.
1. 雪の
降
る夜
A snowy night
2. 書類の入ったかばんは?
(What about) the bag with the documents?
3. 本当も本当、
嘘偽
りのない
話
だよ。
It's really really true, it's a story without any lies.
Particle Note: Sometimes の is required when there is still a sense of possession. This is the case for Exs. 4 and 5.
4. 公園で子供の遊んでいる声が聞こえる。
I can hear the voices of kids playing in the park.
5. 地面の緩い状態が続いています。
The ground's instability continues.
Grammar Note: Japanese usually allows the use of either が or を in an attribute clause, and length doesn't have much to do with the decision unless the phrase is excessively long, in which case が is often obligatory. One case, though, in which が is clearly obligatory is when a dummy noun is used to attach to an otherwise independent clause.
Think of patterns involving こと. You can't say ~XのYことができる. Below, [] brackets enclose attribute phrases. The nouns they modify will be right outside the right bracket.
6. [[北部の人口の少ない]自治体など作業が完了した]ところから[順に開票結果が発表される]見通しです。
With the northern municipalities with little population completing operation, voting results are planned to be announced one by one.
From NHK on September 9, 2014.
7. 独立への賛成が反対を上回れば、投票率に関係なく、[スコットランドのイギリスからの独立が決まる]ことになり、 イギリスの公共放送BBCは終夜、開票速報番組を放送するなど、関心の高さを示しています。
From NHK on September 9, 2014.
In disregard to voter turnout, if supporters for independence surpass the opposition, the decision for whether Scotland receives independence from England is made, and the British public broadcasting network BBC is showing its heightened interest in the matter by airing a voting result program all night.
Practice (1): Translate the following. You may use a dictionary.
1. A mother that likes video games. 2. A rainy day. 3. Her pencil. 4. Apartment in New York.
The Nominalizer の
It may also be used as a nominalizer. 読むのが 好 きだ = I like reading; の makes 読む a noun. This usage of の is very interesting grammatically as it is treated like a dumby noun. So, it may be best to not think of it as a particle in this context.
8. 私は泳ぐのが好きです。
I like to swim/I like swimming.
9. 私は歌うのが好きではありません。
I don't like to sing.
10. それを買うのはだめだ。
Buying that is useless.
Practice (2): Translate the following. You may use a dictionary.
1. I don't like movies.
2. I don't like to go to the movie theater.
3. The blue one.
One
の can be used to make indefinite pronouns by nominalizes things. With things other than the non-past form a verb, the result of の-nominalization is an indefinite pronoun. An indefinite pronoun has the same properties as a noun. So, although we're using a particle to make it, other particles may follow including の. Now, the doubling of particles is usually unnatural. However, it is sometimes inevitable.
11. 私が買ったの
The one I bought
12. あれは
緑色
のです。
That over there is a green one.
13. この
傘
はだれのですか。
Whose umbrella is this?
14. どっちの本が
僕
のですか。
Which book is mine?
15. 刺身は{新しい・
新鮮
な}のがおいしい。
As for sashimi, fresh ones are delicious.
Grammar Note: If you were to have something nominalized with の and then made possessive, you get two の in a row.
16. 白っぽいのの二種類がある。
They have two kinds of the whitish ones.
17. 足が臭いのを治す方法を教えてくれませんか。
Could you tell me of ways to fix my feet from stinking?
18. 死んだのが馬鹿だったということは間違いない。
There is no doubt that the one who died was an idiot.
11. この
傘
はだれのですか。
Whose umbrella is this?
12. どっちの本が
僕
のですか。
Which book is mine?
11. この
傘
はだれのですか。
Whose umbrella is this?
12. どっちの本が
僕
のですか。
Which book is mine?
Practice (1)
1. ビデオゲームの好きな
母親
。
2. 雨の降る日; 雨降りの日。
3. 彼女の
鉛筆
。
4. ニューヨークのアパート。
Practice (2)
1.
映画
が好きじゃない。
2.
映画館
に行くのが好きじゃない。
3. 青
This lesson will finish our coverage on the most fundamental uses of the particle で. They are really different from the one's you've already learned. So, try not to confuse them with each other! This lesson will conclude with an exercise that will challenge you to use all your knowledge of the combined four uses covered in this lesson and the previous lesson on で.
1. で shows the basis of an action/event not of one's volition--”due to". It's used with nouns that indicate things such as natural phenomena, events, illnesses, etc. The verb should not show any will of someone. This is because nothing and no one can cause natural phenomena.
1. 彼は
心不全
で
死
んだ。
He died due to heart failure.
2.
被害者
は
出血多量
で
死
にました。
The victim died from loss of blood.
3. その
火事
はマッチでの
火遊
びが
原因
で
起
こりました。
The fire was caused by playing with matches.
4.
武士
は
怪我
で
死
んだ。
The warrior died from his wounds.
5. 学校
はクリスマスで
休
みになりました。
The school has closed for Christmas/the holidays.
6. 寒
さで
震
える。
To shake from the cold.
7. 私
は
宿題
で
忙
しいです。
I'm busy with homework.
8.
喜
びで
我
を
忘
れました。
I forgot myself from joy.
Pronoun Note: 我 is used here like a set phrase. Normally, you just don't get to use 我 whenever you want.
9. 悲しい気持ちでいっぱいです。〇/△
I'm filled with sad emotions.
Naturalness Note: Not all speakers like this phrase, but 〇〇(という)気持ちでいっぱい is becoming very common these days. Speakers who find this phrase unnatural would replace it with something like 悲しいです or とても悲しく思っています.
2. で shows an extent which may create juncture. Juncture deals with a point in time or place. However, it is not definite in nature as the particle に. This does not mean phrases like 一秒で are impossible. The purpose of に is to show exact time. Think of the difference as "The ice fully melted in 3 hours, 4 minutes, and 32 seconds" vs "The ice fully melted in three hours". Juncture could also be used to show at what point something happens. The vagueness of this comment is on purpose. For instance, you'd use で to show at what temperature something boils or melts.
Translation isn't really important to focus on, but it usually translates to "at" or "for". As for other specific instances this で can be used in, it can show summation, which helps with stating prices like in Ex. 15 (this sentence would be said by say a person who knows you rather than a clerk).
Examples
10.
世界
で
一番高
い
山
はエベレストです。
The tallest mountain in the world is Mount Everest.
11. 母
は
二十歳
で
結婚
した。
My mother got married at age 20.
12. 明日
でお
別
れだ。
I leave you tomorrow.
13. 自分
で
考
えてください。
Please think for yourself.
14. チームで
担当
するのが
好
きじゃない。
I don’t like managing with the team.
15.
全部
で
500
円
ですよ。
It's 500 yen with everything.
16. 10
時
で
閉店
です。
We will close at 10.
17a. 彼
は
百歳
で
亡
くなりました。
17b. 彼は
享年
100
歳
でした。
He passed away at 100 years old.
18. 水
は0
℃
で
凍
る。
Water freezes at 0℃.
19. 一秒で分かった!
I found out in a second!
Practice: Translate the following. If it's in English translate it into Japanese (polite speech). If it's in Japanese, translate it in English.
1. In a week it becomes summer vacation.
2. あなたの
時計
では
何時
ですか。
3. You make butter with milk.
4. その
本
を3
千円
で
買
いました。
5. ガラスで
指
を
切
る。
6. 2つで500
円
です。
7. Can you do it in 20 minutes?
8.
学校
に
自転車
で
通
う。
9. He broke it due to carelessness.
10. Please write in pen.
11. 10
時
になった。
12. To end with sadness.
13.
雨
で
中止
になりました。
14.
雪
でバスが
来
ませんでした。
15. I went by myself.
The conjunction で is a contraction of それで, which utilizes usage 4 from above from the sense of juncture (connecting sentences) in a sense related to reasoning. This makes it very similar to the particle ので, which may also be found starting a sentence in なので. The use of なので in this manner is relatively new, and a lot of people think it is wrong. So, keep this in mind as well.
However, unlike で, the speaker is not intending on simply responding and or trying to change the topic. なので is "so" as in "so, this happened" because of what is stated before it.
20. で、
君
は
大丈夫
?
So, are you alright?
21.
皆
その
法案
に
同意
しませんでした。なので、
政治家
は
代案
を
出
しました。
Everyone didn't agree to the bill. So, the politicians proposed an alternative plan.
22. で、どうなったん(っ)すか。(Colloquial)
So, what happened?
Practice
1.
後一週間
で
夏休
みになります。
2. What's the time on your watch?
3. バターはミルクで
作
ります。
4. I bought that book for 3,000 yen.
5. To cut a finger on glass.
6. It is 500 yen for two.
7. 20
分
でできますか。
8. I commute to school by bicycle.
9.
彼
は
不注意
でそれを
壊
しました。
10. ペンで
書
いてください。
11. It became 10 o' clock.
12.
悲
しみで
終
わる。
Note: Remember that the predicate function is the 終止形. -ます would change the definition.
13. It was postponed due to the rain.
14. The bus didn't come due to (the) snow.
15. 一人 で 行 きました。
I might do this. That might be the case. As you can see, this lesson is about how to say might as in these contexts in Japanese. Be sure to say this phrase with pitch rising on か.
かもしれない means "might" as in there is a possibility of something. The predicate that it follows should be in the plain form, but だ is deleted when directly before it. It may also be seen as やも知れない or contracted to かも in casual speech. It is typically just written in かな.
Phrases like ひょっとして (maybe/possibly) and もしかしたら・もしかすると・もしかして (perhaps/possibly) are almost always used with かもしれない.
1. まだ
家
へ
帰
っていなかったかもしれない。
He might have not been going home yet.
2. あんたにとっては、
些細
なことかもけどな、でも
俺
には
大切
な
問題
だぞ。(Masculine; Vulgar)
For you, it may like be trivial, but to me it's a like a big deal!
3. 彼はもう
帰
ったかもな。
He might have already come home.
4.
人間
が
全
ての
石油
を
使
いきってしまう
時
が{
訪
れる・
来
る}かもしれません。
The time may come when man will have used up all oil.
5. なるほど、
君
のいう
通
りかもしれんね。
Well then, you may be right.
6. 彼はひょっとしてまだ
外
にいるでしょうか。
Might he still be outside?
7. ひょっとしたら
彼女
はここへ
来
るだろう。
She will possibly come here.
8. 前の
試験
が難しかったなら、
今度
の試験も難しいかもしれません。
If the previous exam was difficult, the next exam may also be difficult.
9. それだけの意味はあろうかもしれない。
There might just be that much meaning.
By 堀辰雄.
Grammar Note: かもしれない{だろう・でしょう} would be weird because of doubling more or less the same thing, but it turns out that reversing this as such in the example is possible. However, this speech style is older.
10. もしかしたら
彼
は
気
が
変
わるかもしれません。
He might change his mind.
11. ひょっとすると
雨
に
遭
うかもしれません。
Chances are that we'll meet rain.
Alternative Note: Possible as in "possible to do" is expressed with the adjective 可能 な.
12. 計画
の
実行
が
可能
だ。
The plan's execution is possible.
In English and most other Indo-European languages, grammatical number is expressed with inflections such as –s. However, Japanese grammar does not have grammatical number. This fact is very hard for beginners to grasp, but given now that you have had more experience in Japanese, it is time to look at this serious issue in greater detail.
Terminology Note: Indo-European (インド・ヨーロッパ祖語) simply refers to the ancestral language that ties English with most languages from Europe to India.
However, the fact that Japanese doesn't have grammatical number doesn't mean that Japanese lacks the ability to differentiate between something that is singular and something that is plural. After all, if you use quantity qualifiers such as 多くの or 少しの, there isn't any problem in telling whether someone is referring to just one thing or more than one of something.
1. 花がたくさん咲いている。
There are a lot of flowers blooming.
Noun classification differs considerably between English and Japanese. In English, when we sense that something is more than 1, we attribute that to being plural and unconsciously use a form of –s, ignoring instances where the singular and plural form are the same and other such irregularities. All Japanese nouns are 全部 抽象 名詞. So, there is a vague feeling in comparing it to English. So, if you were to want to say 2 pens, you would say 2本のペン. There is no reason to ever have any inflection on ペン.
In English, there are also nouns that are countable and others that are not countable. For example, chalk isn't countable. “Chalks” would refer to different kinds of chalk, not there being two pieces of chalk. In Japanese, no such distinctions are made. There are counter phrases that help bridge this gap.
Grammatical number in English also has a direct correlation with numbers themselves. In Christianity, Judaism, and Islam, there is but one God. However, in Japanese, you have the well-known yet often misunderstood phrase 大和 には 八百万 の神がある. This is not saying that there is some exact number of 神 in Japanese, but that there is a lot. 8, 9, 10, and 10,000 were often used in the ancient period to refer to a lot.
Thus, the items that do express plurality in Japanese are different from grammatical number in the sense that added nuances are attributed to particular endings, and these particular endings are used with particular nouns.
Form Note: There are rare instances in Japanese that hint that Japanese did have a clearer distinction of plurality in some words. For instance, ひ becoming か in counters after 1. 1 day used to be ひとひ. Then, 2 days is ふつか. Notice the change? The same thing goes for people. You get ひとり but then ふたり, みたり, よたり. This とり → たり is of the same vein as ひ → か. In fact, there's even an old phrase 日並べて (かなべて) that refers to days one after another.
More frequently written in 漢字 in literature, the suffix ~たち is the closest thing in Japanese to the “-s” in English. However, it typically indicates a group of things. For instance, when you say 石田君たち, 石田君 is pointed out as the head of a group of a multitude of people, which could be his family or his group of friends. Thus, correct interpretation of a phrase with ~たち is heavily sensitive to context.
2. 私たちは賛成します。
We agree.
3. 山田君たち、頭が悪いね。
Yamada's group isn't smart.
4. 理事たちは、大島理事長排斥に手をつけると言った。
The directors said that they would start work on the boycott of Board Chairman Ohshima.
From 混声の森 (下) by 松本清張.
5. 数々のすばらしいヒット曲をまだまだたくさんの方たちに届け続けてほしかったです。
I wanted [her] to still continue delivering many wonderful hit songs to a lot of people.
From the words of the singer 八代亜紀 upon hearing the death of singer 藤圭子.
Another related issue is something like 犬たち. Although this could very well mean “dogs”, depending on context, it could also comprehensively refer to a multitude of all sorts of (similar) animals.
Grammar Note: Unless if something that could be viewed as belonging in a group like a boat in a fleet, plural suffixes are rarely ever used with inanimate nouns.
Word Note: 友達, note the voicing of ~たち, can still be used even if you are referring to just one friend. This shows how fragile the nuances of these endings are. This is all possible due to the lack of grammatical number. This is of the same vein as 子供, which will be touched on later in this lesson. However, 友たち is possible, which would refer to there being a plurality in friends.
Classical Japanese Note: ~達 started out as a very respectful suffix used with 神・貴人 “aristocrat” ( 公達 = Kings; children of nobles; nobleman/noblemen). It eventually lessened to being used with light respect, and in Modern Japanese it is no longer honorific. Notice how the ambiguity in plurality has existed when the suffix is voiced.
~ら is casual, so it should not be used with わたくし. However, it does get used with わたしら. This, though, is not that common in 標準語. For the most part, both ~ら and ~たち attach to basically any pronoun or person noun.
They are also used a lot with 3rd person pronouns, but 彼女ら is oddly not near as common as 彼女たち. To make things more weird, 彼ら is far more common than 彼たち. For nouns of person, ら is the ideal choice in formalized speech. Nothing or たち would be more common in more spoken-language speech.
6. 私らには分かりません。
We don't understand.
7. 夏は、私らみたいな、いわゆる家出少女が溢れる季節だ。
Summer is a season where so-called runaway girls like us overflow.
From 冷たい誘惑 by 乃南アサ.
8. 僕らは強くないさ。
We aren't strong.
~ら also attaches to これ, それ, and あれ. However, it is not actual obligatory to express these words in a plural sense.
9. これらをXと呼びます。
We call these X.
10. これらの手掛かりを繋ぎ合わせてみよう。
Let's try to link these clues together.
漢字 Note: This suffix is also sometimes spelled as 等.
Rarely written in 漢字, the suffix ~ども is typically used as a humble plural marker for pronouns. For instance, わたくしども is quite common for “we” in this group sense. It may also be used to refer to groups condescendingly. So, you can see it with わたくし, やつ, 手前, etc. It should not be used 僕, あなた or titles such as 先生 .
11. 私どもにお任せください。
Please leave it to us.
12. 野郎ども (You have seen nothing)
Bastards
13. 自分のことを男は「俺」ということが多いが、俺共は「オレドー・オイドー」になり単数に使われることも多い。
Men often call themselves "ore", but "us" becomes, "oredō/oidō", and these are used a lot for the singular.
Dialect Note: This sentence comes from 大分方言 by 高田和彦. 俺共 is a rather interesting combination, but 俺 is being used in a more casual sense while being qualified with 共 to be somewhat humble. In this dialect, the dialectical form of 俺共 ends up becoming singular again, which happens in 子供 too.
14. 「
邑人
どもにはわたしが
永
の病で
湯治
に来たといつわっていたのだ。...」
The villagers are lying that I’ve come to get a hot-spring cure for an eternal illness.
From
軽王子
と
衣通姫
by 三島由紀夫.
In older Japanese, ~ども can be seen with 事. Thus, you get 事ども. Another well studied example of ~ども is 子供・子ども. The character for it in 子供 is あて字. However, again, the problem about 子供 is that it is usually used in the singular sense. Thus, the suffix has lost its original meaning. Thus, you often see 子どもたち.
~がた is a very polite plural suffix that denotes a high status. One of the most common examples is 方々, from which it came. Thus, it is often spelling in 漢字 as 方. It is not compatible with first person pronouns, degrading second person pronouns, or titles that suggest a lower status. It may be used with words such as 先生 meaning "teacher" and 皆様 meaning "everyone".
The following pronouns in their plural forms are listed from most formal to least formal.
1st | 私共 | 我々 | 我ら | わたくしたち | 私[達・ら] | 僕[達・ら] | あたし[たち・ら] | 俺[たち・ら] |
2nd | 皆様(がた) | 皆さん | み(ん)な | あなたがた | あなたたち | 君[達・ら] | あんた[たち・ら] | お前[たち・ら] |
3rd | 彼達 | 彼女達 | 彼ら | 彼女ら |
Speech Note: みんな is casual. みな also has the form 皆々様, which is a more emphatic yet very honorific form used a lot in New Years cards, 年賀状, and other situations when honorific speech is expected.
15. 私たちは
高一
です。
We are 10th graders.
16. 俺らはいる。
We're here.
17. 我々の
問題
です。
It's our problem.
18, 皆々様のご多幸をお祈り申し上げます。(Very Humble).
I pray that you all may be very fortunate (in the new year).
19. 自分らの手で書いたらしく、下手な字で、行も乱れていた。
It seemed to be written by them, and the handwriting was bad, and the lines were messed up.
From 混声の森 (下) by 松本清張.
Word Note: The use of 自分 refers to a person in the story being accused of a relationship with another person in the academy, and so the reason why the author chose to pluralize 自分 was to refer to the two as a group in a condescending way, though the post being talked about was written by one person.
20. その点われわれも同感です。あるいは、ほかの理事の方に逆効果を与えるかも分かりませんな。
We are sympathetic as well with that point. Perhaps, it may give the opposite effect to the other directors.
Grammar Note: Here, 理事の方 is being used in the plural sense, and this is obvious from context. So, again, remember that although there are plural suffixes in Japanese, you must be aware that in situations such as this and in many instances, using them is not necessary and could at the very worst be wrong.
Note: It’s not fair to say that English perfectly distinguishes singular and plural forms, though. After all, we have words like “fish” and deer” that are both. So, thinking about how we overcome such ambiguity in English with these words may help you understand what is going on in Japanese.
Overall, there are several methods of pluralization or structures resembling pluralization in Japanese. Consider the following:
This lesson will focus on ~たち as it is arguably the most difficult to master as its necessity is also something that is not straightforward. If it were simply a plural marker, we could just end there, but it isn't.
タチの性質(たち)
Historically, ~たち started out as a suffix for the nobility and the gods, but from this historical note alone, we know that it has never been just for simple pluralization purposes. In fact, when it is used today, whether it is used with nouns of living things or non-living things, it is OK not to use it. However, using ~たち often shows a sense of empathy.
1. 男性(たち)が4人銃で撃たれて病院に搬送された。
Four men were shot and taken to the hospital.
2. 色々な人(たち)が物理学学会に出席した。
A lot of interesting people attended the physics convention.
3. テキサス州の州都、オースティン市には数多くのホームレスの人(たち)がいる。
In Austin, the state capital of Texas, there are many homeless people.
In the next set of sentences, though, ~たち is not optional.
4. 私たちは今年も、全国各地から集まってきました。
We have gathered this year as well from all over the country.
5. 池田さんたち3人は連帯意識が強い。
Ikeda and his group of three have a strong common bond.
6. あなたたちがいないと、私は生きていけないのです。
I can't live on without you all.
The plural meanings of these phrases cannot be supplemented by the basic phrases themselves without ~たち. For phrases like 池田さんたち, one is no longer just using a typical third person pronoun phrase, but as Makino (1996) has stated, but a part of one's 'uchi'. Thus, the term ウチ人称 becomes appropriate.
We continue to see that an emphatic role is present in ~たち’s use. It may be clearly obligatory with pronouns, but why? Is it because we have a keen emotional awareness towards the number of pronouns? This is likely the case, and this factor appears to be what controls when ~たち is used regardless of what kind of noun is being used.
Example Sentences
Now it's time to look at example sentences. To be fair and objective, all example sentences will be from Google searches. The reason for this is that example phrases in isolation may be deemed ungrammatical without context, and native speakers themselves may not agree with whether any given expression is used or not.
7. 30年の眠りから
覚
めた木々たち
These trees which have awoken from a 30 year slumber
8.
不揃
いのリンゴたち
Uneven apples
9. そこの
片隅
に咲いているバラたちも
枯
れていくのでしょう。
Those roses which have bloomed in the corner will also surely fade away.
10. 遠くの星々たちは誰にも知られずとも
輝
く。
The stars far away will shine despite being not being known by anyone.
11. 私の住む京の地で、様々な場所から
捉
えた
桜
たちの
表情
をご
覧
ください。
Look at the expressions of cherry blossoms I took from various places at my home place, Kyoto.
12.
奈良
公園
の
鹿
達
は
大胆
に道路を
占領
して過ごしている!
The deer in Nara Park have boldly taken over the roads!
13.
狐
たちの
宮
へ
To the temple of foxes
14.
狸
たちの
抵抗
と
敗北
の物語です。
This is a story about the resistance and defeat of the tanuki.
15. 猫たちの
集団
がやってきました。
A group of cats have arrived.
16.
雀
たちは
一斉
に鳴き始めた。
The sparrows began to cry at once.
17. 我が
家
の
鶏
たちを
撮
ってみました。
I took pictures of the chickens at my home.
18. 春にやって来て
繁殖
する鳥たちを
夏鳥
と呼びます。
We call birds who come to reproduce in the spring “summer birds”.
19. 蝉たちが死にかけている。
The cicadas are dying.
20. 強風に巻き上げられた
蛍
たちが光の水しぶきのように
降
り
注
ぐ。
The fireflies caught up in the gale wind are raining down like a mist of light.
21. 池の
鯉
たちが元気に泳いでいます。
The coy fish in the pond are swimming lively.
22. 高級な日本酒を飲みながら、思い
存分
魚たちを見ることができます。
You can watch the fish to one’s heart’s desire as you drink high class sake.
23. 絵のような雲たち
Group of clouds which resemble a painting
24. この雪たちのように、
溶
けてなくなってしまって欲しい思い出たち。
These memories which I wish would melt and disappear like this snow.
A lot of other nouns may require a lot of personification to work. A built-up sense of empathy is needed in such a situation.
25. あたしが大好きな本たちを紹介しますわ。
I'm going to introduce you to my precious books!
参照文献:認知世界の窓としての日本語の複数標示‐たち by 牧野成一
In Japanese, pluralization is not grammatically imposed in the way it is in English. It is not that Japanese people do not conceptualize the difference between singular and plural entities. Rather, this distinction rarely needs to be verbalized because the language provides context clues to make such a distinction unnecessary. Of course, this means individual sentences may be ambiguous in this regard if put in isolation, but this would not be reflective of actual conversation.
Nevertheless, there are in fact plural phrases in Japanese. Each means of creating such phrases brings about nuance distinctions unique to each construct. In English, we make the following distinctions in demonstrative words for singular and plural forms.
Singular Form | Plural Form |
This | These |
That | Those |
It | They |
In this lesson, we’ll learn how Japanese usually doesn’t explicitly make these distinctions, and when it does how it differs from English.
Nouns
・リンゴ Ringo – Apple
・値段 Nedan – Price/cost
・家族 Kazoku – Family
・写真 Shashin – Picture
・オレンジ Orenji – Orange
・アプリケーション Apurikēshon – Application
・画面 Gamen – Screen
・場合 Ba’ai – Case/situation/event
・国々 Kuniguni – Countries
・大麻 Taima – Hemp/cannabis
・テロ Tero – Terrorism
・対策 Taisaku – Measure/provision
・強化 Kyōka – Enforcement
・一環 Ikkan – Link
・対象 Taishō – Target/object
・根拠 Konkyo – Evidence
・情報 Jōhō – Information/news
・ミサイル Misairu – Missile
・発射 Hassha – Firing/discharge
・領土 Ryōdo – Territory
・領海 Ryōkai – Territorial waters
・可能性 Kanōsei – Possibility
・避難 Hinan – Evacuation
・呼びかけ Yobikake – Call/appeal
・名前 Namae – Name
・過去 Kako – Past
・履歴 Rireki – Background/personal history
・決まり Kimari – Rule/agreement/custom
・疑問 Gimon – Question/doubt
・改正 Kaisei - Revision
・提案 Teian - Proposal
・町 Machi – Town
・海 Umi – Sea/ocean
・空 Sora – Sky
・満月 Mangetsu – Full moon
・季節 Kisetsu – Season(s)
・電車 Densha – (Electric) train
・公園 Kōen – Park
・遊園地 Yūenchi – Amusement park
・動物 Dōbutsu – Animal
・スーパー(マーケット) Sūpā(māketto) – Supermarket
・おもちゃ Omocha – Toy
・子 Ko – Child
・将来 Shōrai – Future
・こと Koto – Thing/event/circumstance/affair
・不安 Fuan – Anxiety
・頭 Atama – Head/mind
・恋愛 Ren’ai – Love/affections
・余裕 Yoyū – Leeway/margin
・机 Tsukue – Desk
・鉛筆 Empitsu – Pencil
・中 Naka – In(side)/middle
・内 Uchi – Inside/within/among
・サッカー Sakkā – Soccer
・選手権 Senshuken – Championship
・人 Hito – Person
・トランク Toranku – Trunk/suitcase
・鞄 Kaban – Bag/briefcase/basket
・山 Yama – Mountain
・子猫・仔猫 Koneko – Kitten
・本 Hon – Book
Proper Nouns
・米国 Beikoku – America (country only)
・アメリカAmerika – America
・フランス Furansu - France
・ドイツ Doitsu - Germany
・トランプ大統領 Torampu-daitōryō – President Trump
・日本 Nihon/Nippon – Japan
Adjectives
・青い Aoi – Blue/green/pale
・高い Takai – Tall/expensive
・美味しい Oishii - Delicious
・多い Ōi – Many/a lot
・無い Nai – Nonexistent
|
Demonstratives
・これ Kore – This (noun)
・この Kono – This (adj.)
・これら Korera – These
・それ Sore – That (noun)
・その Sono – That (adj.)
・それら Sorera – Those
・あれ Are – Those (over there)
・あの Ano – Those (over there)
・どれも Dore mo – Either/none
・それだけ Sore dake – Just that
・あちら Achira – That way/that one/that person
Adverbs
・(お)いくつ (O-)ikutsu – How many?
・いくら Ikura – How many?
・全て Subete – All
・初めに Hajime ni – Firstly/to begin with
・一杯 Ippai Full of
・やがて Yagate – At last
・更に Sara ni – Furthermore/moreover
Number Phrases
・二、三個 Ni, sanko – Two, three things
・7か国 Nanakakoku – Seven countries
・一つ Hitotsu – One thing
・一位 Ichi’i – First place
・5人 Gonin – Five people
・三匹 Sambiki – Three creatures
・五つ Itsutsu – Five things
Interrogatives
・何故 Naze – Why?
・誰 Dare – Who?
Prefixes
お~ O- – Honorific prefix
ご~ Go- – Honorific prefix
Suffixes
・~産 -san – Product of
・~屋 -ya – Shop/someone who sells/works as…
Ichidan (ru) Verbs
・見る Miru – To see/look
・閉じる Tojiru – To close
・伝えるTsutaeru – To convey/report/transmit/communicate
・流れる Nagareru – To stream/flow/be carried
・考える Kangaeru – To think about/ponder
・詰める Tsumeru – To stuff into/cram/pack
Godan (u) Verbs
・開く Hiraku – To open
・成る Naru – To become
・示す Shimesu – To demonstrate/indicate
・手放す Tebanasu – To let go
・ある Aru – To be/have (inanimate objects)
・奪う Ubau – To steal
・産む Umu – To give birth
・飼う Kau – To raise (an animal)
・持っていく Motte iku – To take with
Suru Verbs
・強調する Kyōchō suru – To emphasize
・落下する Rakka suru – To fall/drop
・判断する Handan suru – To judge/conclude
・申請する Shinsei suru – To apply/request
Kuru Verb
・来る Kuru – To come
Set Phrases
・ご入り用 Go-iriyō – Need
・~下さい Kudasai – Please ・~について Ni tsuite – About Adjectival Nouns ・他{の}Ta/hoka [no] – Other
・違法{な}Ihō [na] – Illegal/invalid
・具体的{な} Gutaiteki [na] – Concrete/tangible
・緊急{の・な} Kinkyū [no/na] – Urgent/emergency
・屋内{の}Okunai [no] – Indoor
Adnominal Adjectives ・大きな Ōkina – Large/great
Pronouns ・私 Wata(ku)shi – I
・彼女 Kanojo – She |
As English speakers, the forms above are so ingrained into our minds that it is often difficult coping with the seemingly drastically simplified Japanese template. In Japanese, the singular and plural usages of the equivalents of these words are not distinguishable. In other words, they look the same.
1. 「このリンゴを
下
さい。」「おいくつご
入
り
用
でしょうか。」
“Kono ringo wo kudasai.” “O-ikutsu go-iriyō deshō ka?”
“Please give me these apples.” “How many is it that you need?”
Orthography Note: Ringo may also be seldom spelled as 林檎.
In this exchange, the customer (Speaker A) is physically next to what’s presumably an apple stand at a market and is directing attention somehow to a certain kind of apple. If Speaker A were pointing specifically at a certain apple in the bunch, Speaker B (the store clerk) may have potentially asked something else, but just as English speakers use phrases like “I want this one,” Speaker A would have somehow indicated clearly through his/her actions that the one apple was all he/she wanted. With that being the case, if what all Speaker B perceives is that Speaker A wants Aomori Prefecture grown apples, then the next logical question is “how many?” In other words, kono この simply replaces the description that would otherwise go with “apple” to merely indicate its position to Speaker A.
In other sentences, we can clearly see how kono この can and very frequently stand for “these.”
2. このリンゴは
青
くて
値段
が
高
い。
Kono ringo wa aokute nedan ga takai.
These apples are green and pricey.
Sentence Note: Of course, this sentence could be interpreted in the singular form. Context is everything. If the speaker is holding an apple that he bought from the store and is merely describing it to someone, there’s no reason why the listener would think he’s talking about more than one apple that happen to be present. However, it is logical to think that the statement can be true for apples of that kind. This would make sense especially if the sentence were preceded by something like “This apple from America is delicious.” Saying that would make it sound like he’s now making a general statement about such apples. Now, say the speaker is with someone at a supermarket and happen to go to the produce section and see apples that are both really green and really pricey. In which case, this statement would need to be translated in the plural sense.
3. このリンゴはどれもおいしそう。
Kono ringo wa dore mo oishisō.
Each of these apples looks delicious.
4. これ、いくらですか。
Kore, ikura desu ka?
How much [is this/are these]?
In general conversation, kore/kono これ・この, sore/sono それ・その, and are/ano あれ・あの are used in both the singular and plural sense. These words, as you know, are used in various set phrases with almost the same capacities as their English equivalents and then some. The reason why this is possible is because these words refer collectively to things. If only one thing is part of the collective, then we interpret that in the singular sense. If the collective has more than one thing in it, we just refer to the collective as a whole and interpret that in the plural sense.
5. これは
私
の
家族写真
です。
Kore wa watashi no kazoku shashin desu.
[This is a/these are] picture(s) of my family.
6. それだけじゃない。
Sore dake ja nai.
That’s not all.
Using ーra ら
It just so happens that korera これら, sorera それら, and arera あれら exist for the plural sense. However, they refer to things at the individual level. This means they can be translated as “(each of) these,” “(each of) those,” “(each of) those (over there).” These words are largely used in the written language unless ignoring the individuality of what “these” and “those” refer to would be illogical. It’s important to note that arera あれら is actually not used at all aside from Japanese directly translated from English.
To unpack all this, we will now look at several example sentences utilizing these words so that you can see exactly when they’re used.
7.(2、3個のオレンジを見て)「これらのオレンジは米国産です。」
(Ni, sanko no orenji wo mite) “Korera no orenji wa beikoku-san desu.”
(Looking at 2, 3 oranges) “These oranges are America imported.”
Sentence Note: Using korera これら instead of kono この allows the speaker to emphasize how each of the oranges at the individual level are America imported.
8. ほかのアプリケーション画面を開いている場合、それらをすべて閉じてください。
Hoka no apurikēshon gamen wo hiraite iru ba’ai, sorera wo subete tojite kudasai.
In the case you have other application screens open, please close all of them.
9. アメリカ、フランス、ドイツ、これらの国々では大麻は違法ですか。
Amerika, Furansu, Doitsu, korera no kuniguni de wa taima wa ihō desu ka?
In America, France, Germany, and all these countries, is marijuana illegal?
10. トランプ大統領は、テロ対策強化の一環であることを強調していますが、なぜこれらの7か国が対象となったのか、具体的な根拠は示していません。
Torampu-daitōryō wa, tero taisaku kyōka no ikkan de aru koto wo kyōchō shite imasu ga, naze korera no nanakakoku ga taishō to natta no ka, gutaiteki na konkyo wa shimeshite imasen.
President Trump emphasizes that it is linked to strengthening measures against terrorism, but he hasn’t provided concrete evidence as to why these seven countries became targeted.
11. これらの緊急情報は、はじめに「ミサイル発射情報」が伝えられ、ミサイルが日本の領土・領海に落下する可能性があると判断された場合、「屋内避難の呼びかけ」という情報が流れることになっています。
Korera no kinkyū jōhō wa, hajime ni “misairu hassha jōhō” ga tsutaerare, misairu ga Nihon no ryōdo/ryōkai ni rakka suru kanōsei ga aru to handan sareta ba’ai, “okunai hinan no yobikake” to iu jōhō ga nagareru koto ni natte imasu.
As for these (means of) emergency information, at first “missile launch information” will be transmitted, and in the event that it’s concluded there exists the possibility a missile could come down on Japanese territory/waters, information calling for “indoor evacuation” will play.
12. 名前も過去も履歴も、それらすべてを手放した。
Namae mo kako mo rireki mo, sorera subete wo tebanashita.
My name, my past, my background, I let go of all those things.
Phrase Note: Korera これら and sorera それら are frequently followed by subete すべて. In this situation, you can't drop the /ra/.
13.
決
まりに
疑問
があれば、それも
改正提案
を
申請
できる。
Kimari ni gimon ga areba, sore mo kaisei teian wo shinsei dekiru.
If you have any questions about the rules, you can submit them in a reform proposal.
Sentence Note: Sore それ is used because there is no context that implies individuality to potential problems with the rule(s) in question.
14.
町
も、
海
も、
空
も、
山
も、
満月
も、
季節
も、
電車
も、
公園
も、
遊園地
も、
動物
も、スーパーマーケットも、おもちゃ
屋
も、
私
はこの
子
からそれらをすべて
奪
ってきたんだ。
Machi mo, umi mo, sora mo, yama mo, mangetsu mo, kisetsu mo, densha mo, kōen mo, yūnchi mo, sūpāmāketto mo, omochaya mo, watashi wa kono ko kara sorera wo subete ubatte kita n da.
Towns, the sea, the sky, mountains, the full moon, the seasons, trains, parks, amusement parks, animals, supermarkets, toy stores, I’ve stolen all those things from this child.
15. 将来のこととか不安が多いよ。これらのことで頭が一杯で、恋愛について考える余裕は無い。
Shōrai no koto toka fuan ga ōi yo. Korera no koto de atama ga ippai de, ren’ai ni tsuite kangaeru yoyū wa nai.
I have a lot of anxiety about the future and all. My mind has been full of these things, and I don’t have time to think about love.
16. この机にたくさんの鉛筆があるけど、これらの中から一つだけ持っていっていいよ。
Kono tsukue ni takusan no empitsu ga aru kedo, korera no naka kara hitotsu dake motte itte ii yo.
There are many pencils in this desk, but it is okay for you to take only one out of these with you.
Sentence Note: This first kono この can't be interpreted in the plural sense in context. Although korera no naka これらの中 could be rewritten by using kono この instead, the individuality of the pencils the listener could choose from would not be emphasized.
17. これらの5人のうち、サッカー世界選手権で一位となった人は誰でしょう。
Korera no gonin no uchi, sakkā sekai senshuken de ichii to natta hito wa dare deshō.
Of these five individuals, who will become number one in the soccer championship?
18. 彼女は猫を三匹飼い出して、これらがやがて子猫を産んだ。
Kanojo wa neko wo sambiki kaidashite, korera ga yagate koneko wo unda.
She began to raise three cats, and at last these cats have given birth to kittens.
19. トランクが五つあって、それらは更に大きなカバンに詰められて一つになった。
Toranku ga itsutsu atte, sorera wa sara ni ōkina kaban ni tsumerarete hitotsu ni natta.
There were five trunks, and these trunks become one by being crammed into a much larger briefcase.
20. {あちら・あれら △}の
山
は
高
いですね。
[Achira/arera] no yama wa takai desu ne.
The mountain(s) over there are tall.
Sentence Note: As stated, arera あれら doesn't really exist outside the world of translations from Western languages, particularly English. In this sentence, achira あちら would be far more natural. Ex. 21 and Ex. 22 are further examples of how arera あれら might come about in translated material, but something else will always be what would actually be used.
21. {あれ・あれら}を
見
てください。
[Are/arera] wo mite kudasai.
Look at those.
22. {あの・あれらの}
本
は
誰
のですか。
[Ano/arera no] hon wa dare no desu ka?
Whose books are those?
These endings normally get taught rather quickly in most textbooks despite the fact that there is so much that can be said about them. Many of the mistakes from students are caused by the lack of guidance. In an attempt to cover the essential information that can be obtained at this level without adding new grammar structures, this lesson will help you explore the differences that cause students the most trouble.
The giving verbs show favor when used with the particle て. Though the following summary may seem easy enough, we will go to compare and contrast to see where exactly the limits to these expressions lie.
~てあげる, more polite than ~てやる, shows that one('s in-group) gives a favor to another person/party. It's generally used towards equals or even (non-)living things. In certain situations, it may be patronizing when "giving the favor" involves demoting of status.
~てくれる may show that someone does something for another person's benefit or even disadvantage. It is to note that its 命令形 is normally ~てくれ rather than ~てくれろ.
~てもらう shows that someone received a favor or disfavor from someone. ~てもらえませんか can be used to politely ask for favor. The honorific forms ~ていただけませんか and ~ていただけないでしょうか are also very important. To see how から is used with this, click link. For now, we will only see agents marked with に.
漢字 Note: These endings do have 漢字, but they are usually not used. ~ていただく is more common in 漢字 than the others, and its spelling is ~て頂く.
Variant Note: The respectful variants replace them in the appropriate environment.
Examples
1. 知らない人たちに道を教えてあげた。
I showed the way to strangers.
2a. ピザを
宅配
してもらえます。(Rather literary)
2b. ピザを
配達
してもらえます。(More natural)
You can have pizza delivered to you.
3. 友だちはプレゼントを贈ってくれました。
My friend sent me a gift.
漢字 Note: 贈る is used over 送る because of the bestowing/giving of something special, in this case a present.
4. 知っていて教えてくれないものは本当に
自己中心的
だ。
A person that knows but doesn't tell anyone is really self-centered.
Suffix Note: ~的 is like "-like; -ic(al)" and is used to make nouns, mainly Sino-Japanese, into adjectives. Other examples include 日本的 (Japanese-like), 男性的 (masculine), 経済的 (economical), etc.
Word Note: 教える is used instead of 言う because the context shows that information is being withheld and not transmitted/taught/informed to others.
漢字 Note: もの could be written as 者, which is a meaning that further downgrades "person".
5a. 医者に
診
てもらう。
5b. 医者に見られる。 △
To be seen by the doctor.
Grammar Note: The second option would literally mean that you were seen/spotted by the doctor.
6. この
分
は
償
ってもらうから。
You'll pay for this.
7. あいつをとっちめてやる!(Vulgar)
I'll teach him a lesson!
8. 友達に手紙をフランス語に
翻訳
してもらった。
I had my letter translated into French by my friend.
9. どうか静かにしていただけませんか。
Would you kindly stop making that noise?
Literally: Could I have you somehow get quiet?
10. もっと上の階の部屋にしていただきたいんですが。
Could you give me a room on a higher floor (if it is possible)?
11. もうすこし時間をいただけないでしょうか。
Could you please give a little more time?
Could I please have a little more time?
12. 「シングル・ダブルルームを
予約
したいんですが。」「
何泊
ですか。」「
二泊
です。」「いくらですか。」「4万円です。」「今部屋を見せてもらえますか。」「すみませんが、今は
満室
です。」「そうですか、分かりました。」「お名前をお
願
いします。予約の
確認
もお願いします。」
“I'd like to reserve a single/double room.” “How many nights?” “Two, how much is it?” “It's 40,000 yen.” “Can I see the room now?” “Sorry, but we are full now.” “Oh, that's alright.” “Your name please. Please also confirm your reservation.”
13. もう一度歌っていただけませんか。
Could you sing once more?
14. 彼女に新しい
洋服
を買ってやった。
I bought a new dress for her.
Vocab Note: 洋服 = Western clothing. 衣服 ="garments". You buy 衣料 ( 品 ). Japanese style clothes = 和服 . 服 is clothes as in dresses or suits. 衣類 = article of clothing (caps, robes, etc.). 服装 = "clothes; dress: appearance". 服装規定 = "dress code". "Dress; outfit" can also be 衣装. "Outfit; costume" = 扮装 . The original word for clothes is 衣 . Now, it refers to a "priest's robe", which can also be 僧衣 or 法衣 .
ちょうだい
ちょうだい can be used as a "humble verb" to mean "to receive" or "to eat and drink". By women and children, either with て or not, it makes a request. In 漢字 it's 頂戴. It is not written as such with て.
15. 僕にもちょうだい。
Give me some too.
16. ちょっと待ってちょうだい。
Please wait a bit.
17.
結構
な
品
を頂戴いたしましてありがとうございます。
Thank you so much for giving me this nice gift.
18. 「もっと
召
し上がりませんか」「ありがとう、もう十分頂戴しました」
“Would you like some more?” “Thank you, but I have had enough”.
Word Note: The person serving used the respectful form of "to eat", 召し上がる. The recipient didn't just say something like 結構です. They appear to be both high rank.
19. キャンディーをちょうだい。
Candy, please.
~てあがる・~て(い)やがる
Although this looks similar to ~てあげる, it's not the same thing. Rather, this is a vulgar and rather offensive version of ~ている.
20. してあがる・しやがる・していやがる・しやがる = している (Not 1st Person)
21. いつからそこにいやがった!?
Since when have you been there!?
Word Note: いやがった is not as in the past tense of 嫌がる (to detest). The verb いる・居る is being used.
Having seen several sentences of ~てくれる and ~てもらう, it superficially looks like so long as you address particle differences, you can rephrase a sentence with each other. This for many cases is true, but there are many important things to keep in mind. First, consider the following.
22a. 道に迷った旅行者は、父に、駅までの道を教えてもらいました。〇
22b. 父は、道に迷った旅行者に、駅までの道を教えてくれました。X
The lost traveler was told the way to the station by my father. )
In 「XがYにAてくれる」, X is a person other than the speaker, Y is the speaker or someone in the speaker’s in-group, and A is an action being done that is a plus or minus to one’s in-group. Even without context to set up the dialogue, there is some relationship with X and Y. So, although the sentence above with ~てくれる was marked as wrong, if the traveler happened to be someone with a close relationship, or if a strong sense of intimacy/familiarity were to be felt from that person, then it and similar sentences would be OK.
23. 友だちはプレゼントを贈ってくれました。
My friend sent me a gift.
24. 隣の赤ちゃん、よく泣いてくれるね。
The baby next door is crying a lot, isn't it?
25. 兄が友達にアイスクリームを買ってくれた。
My big brother bought my friend ice cream.
Sentence Note: Your brother and friend may be in your in-group, but the brother is not necessarily in the in-group of your friend.
As for「YがX{に・から}Aてもらう」, in the case of an unrealized event, a certain person Y, shows a command/request/hope of something A that is a plus to Y to another person X. In the past tense, this command/request/hope is realized. In other words, Y has it that Y will receive a plus action A from X.
If the Y in 「YがX{に・から}Aてもらう」is the speaker, it can be reworded to 「XがYにAてくれる」, but if the action is not a plus to the speaker, the opposite doesn’t work. Even though there are situations where the two patterns are interchangeable, there will always be a difference in feeling in respect to the speaker.
26. 僕と
踊
ってくれる?
Will you dance with me?
27.
女優
は
鼻
を
整形
してもらいました。
The actress had her nose remodeled.
One of the first things we’ll now look at are the person restrictions with ~てくれる. First, consider the following sentences.
28. ランスさんは、友達にフランス語を教えてくれます。
Lance will teach my friend French.
29. 今日、赤ちゃんが歩いてくれたのよ。
The baby walked (for us) today.
30. 恋人への思いを、風が運んでくれました。
The wind carried my thoughts to my lover.
The restriction is that Y is the speaker or a person in the speaker’s in-group and X is not the speaker. When what follows X is a request or sentence of confirmation, anything can follow whether X be a person, animal, thing of nature, etc.
When ~てくれる is used with ~のだ/~よ, you are showing a promise with a third person. At the same time, the speaker is showing an expectation and a promise from someone/something. Although you can't make a promise with a something, in this case, the X is being personified, and if the benefit/convenience is carried out, it feels as if X has promised to do so. Of course, you can make this the topic of question and negation. When negated, there is disappointment. Of course, there are similar patterns where this nuance is implied.
31. 友達がWiiを貸してくれないんだよ。
My friend won't lend me the Wii.
32. お母さんが誕生日にニンテンドウ3DS を買って{くれます・くれるのです・くれないのです}か。
~Is your mom going to buy you a Nintendo 3DS for your birthday?
33. ねえ、ねえ、見ててね。このかわいい子犬が、2本足で歩いてくれるわよ。(Feminine)
Hey, hey, look! This cute puppy will walk on two legs (for us)!
Though more so an understanding of how to use ~か and ~のか rather than ~てくれる, it’s important to know how they are used together in requesting and confirming. You may see ~てくれるか, ~てくれ, or ~てくれるのか.
34. 何かヒントになることを教えてくれないか。
Could you give me some hint?
35. ねえ、母さん、今度の誕生日、DS買ってくれる(の)?
Hey, mom, you'll buy me a DS my next birthday, right?
36. ちょっとそのハンマーを取って{〇 くれるか・〇 くれ・ X くれるのか}。
Could you get/get the hammer for a bit (?)
37a. ちょっとそのハンマーを取ってくれた(の)か。X
37b. ランスさんがあなたにフランス語を教えてくれた。X
If it is a benefit for you, why would you be asking if it happened? The second sentence is problematic because of a potential in-group requirement violation. It could, however, be worded to something like the following.
38. ランスはお前にフランス語を教えてくれたんじゃない?
Didn't Lance teach you French?
Here, the listener is clearly part of the speaker’s in-group due to the language used. Furthermore, there can be an in-group benefit of the listener having been taught French.
A huge thing to understand is that 「くれる」is a verb of non-volition. Although we haven’t studied the following items, for future reference, they must never be used with it: つもりだ, Volitional form, たい. だめですよ!
From this it may seem odd that there is a command form of くれる. However, 「A+くれ」 unlike the command form of a verb of volition like 貸せ, 取れ, etc., it shows not a request for the listener to obey but a request in which the listener will make the decision as to whether to comply or not.
Now, we will switch to restrictions on ~てもらう. First, consider the following sentences.
39. {私・友達}はランスさんにフランス語を教えてもらいます。
I/my friend will have Lance teach me/him French.
40. 私はランスさんに辞典を買ってもらったんですよ。
I had Lance buy me a dictionary.
41. 忘れたの?俺はこのWiiをお前に貸してもらったよ。(Masculine yet casual)
Have you forgotten? I had you lend it to me.
42. 忘れたのか。お前はそのWiiを俺に貸してもらったんだよ。(Rough; masculine)
Have you forgotten? You were lent this Wii by me.
43. 地図で
示
してもらえますか。
Can you show me on the map?
44a. ねえ、今日、赤ちゃんに、歩いてもらったのよ。X/???
44b. 桜の花が咲き始めるのを待ってもらっている。 X
There isn't any grammatical person restrictions for what can be X and Y in the pattern "YがXにAてもらう”. However, both X and Y must be someone/something that displays willful action. If the person or "it" does not have the inherent free will to not do the role provided in context, the sentence becomes invalid. 44a is given ??? along with X because grammatically is iffy when dealing with infants. It is unclear whether you can have a baby make the conscious choice to walk for your benefit. It's also not completely far-fetched. 44b, though, is undoubtedly wrong as the agent is non-human. Personification can certainly change things, but there is no personification in this example.
Remember that A is an action with a benefit to Y, and there is usually a cost (not necessarily in the fiscal sense). Even when there isn't a cost, something balances the situation out.
Between X and Y there is a sense of responsibility. The action that is requested by Y to X is from a sense of returning the favor, duty, and depending on the time and circumstance, can be in a relation where “responsibility” is being shared. There is no sense of trouble following when X is doing it out of thanks for something Y has already done in return before. This explains most situations. Even if you have someone do something that you don't have a close relationship with, there are numerous situations where the other person is deemed to have a duty to give you a favor. For instance, say you are an old woman in an airport. You will probably have someone carry your luggage.
45. 荷物を運んでもらえませんか。
Could I have you carry my luggage?
46. わたしは従業員に荷物を運んでもらいました。
I had an employee carry my luggage.
47. ちょっと
手伝
っていただけませんか。
Could you help me?
48. 彼を
電話口
にお呼びいただけませんか。
Would you mind calling him to the phone?
~てもらう also adds to the speech modals that have the ability to show commands. The speaker has X do A. This is carried out by stating that you will receive the action by X. It is the speaker that is the requester, and it is that the listener that is the person being requested to do A. Things balance out, however. Things are done out of a borrowing of responsibility.
49. 自分で出したゴミが、自分で持って帰ってもらいます。
I will have people go home with their own trash.
50. 自分で出したゴミが、自分で持って帰ってもらうんです。
You get (him) to go home with (his) own trash.
The ~んだ in「YがXにA~てもらうんだ」shows a command has the same meaning as ~もらえ. The speaker, in regards to the listener is ordering to demand a third person A. Y = the listener. X = a third person. This is different from the roles of the basic form!
YがXにAてもらう → | 話し手が聞き手にAてもらう |
YがXにAてもら{うのだ・え} | 聞き手が第三者にAてもら{うのだ・え} |
The confusing thing is that のだ with this pattern does not always show command. That’s because the pattern has several usages itself, and above is just what happens for that. When use to emphasize, it merely emphasizes the hope or will of Y receiving the action of someone for his/her benefit. As we've seen, Y could be the listener, speaker, or a third person depending on the situation. As you should have figured out by now, もらう, unlikeくれる, is a verb of volition.
51. ぼく、お母さんに、Wii買ってもらう(んだ)。
I’m going to get a Wii from my mom.
52. お母さんに、Wiiを買ってもらう(の)か。
Are you getting a Wii from your mom?
53. お姉さんはお父さんに、ドレスをもらいますか。
Will your sister get a dress from your father?
Things that you should not do are 「私があなたにA+もらう」 and「あなたが私にA+もらう」. They are both very rude and should be replaced. Consider the following.
54. トイレを貸していただけますか。
Could you let me use your bathroom?
55. 車をお貸しします。(Humble speech)
I will lend you my car.
To understand the difference between 知る and 分かる, you have to consider a lot of things. First, there is the basic definition of both and how they differ. There are also fundamental grammatical differences. Let’s get started.
First, consider the following basic definitions of 知る and 分かる.
Just from this introductory explanation, we can see that 分かる implies a more serious state of comprehension than知る.
Consider the difference between よく知らない人 and よく分からない人. The first sounds like it’s a person you’ve not actually been acquainted with and or a mysterious individual from somewhere. The latter sounds like a mysterious person but one you’ve been acquainted with, or perhaps the person has changed somehow. So, when you go from 未知 (not yet known) to 既知 (already known), you use 知る. Reaching the true essence of this 既知の事実 is within the realm of 分かる. 分かる also implies an effect not involving one’s volition.
1. その時に、ラーメンの味を知った。
I was then acquainted with the taste of ramen.
2. ああ、分かった。
Ah, I get it.
3. 出席するかどうか分かりません。
I don't know whether I will attend or not.
4. 検索してみれば分かるよ。
You'll understand once you look it up.
5. 歌詞の意味なんて分からないように出来てるよ。
The meaning of lyrics are crafted so that you don't understand them.
6. 最初から読まないと分からないんだから、悪い日本語だよ。
If you can't understand it without reading from the beginning, it's bad Japanese.
7. 日本語でも何言ってるか分からなくて理解できなかった。
I couldn't comprehend it because I didn't even know what was being said even in Japanese.
8.
旦那
が分かってないのに録音してるからって適当に受け答えして帰ってきちゃったの。
Although my husband couldn't understand, he recorded and came home after giving replies.
9. わからない単語があったから辞書を引いたのに、日本語でも英語でも分からないから、笑っちゃった。
Despite looking up words that I didn't know, I laughed with the fact that I don't get the Japanese or the English.
10a. 考えれば、分かります。 〇
10b. 考えれば、知ります。 X
If you think about it, you'll understand.
11. ゴルフやったことないから何のことか分からない。
I've never played golf, so I don't know what that is.
12. ググってフェアウェーとグリーンの違いを知った。
I learned of the difference between a fairway and a green when I googled.
13. 青信号っていう言葉が出来上がっちゃってるから青じゃない場合になんて言ったらいいか分からないや。
Since we have this phrase "aoshingo", even when the light is not blue, I don't know what's best to say.
14. 彼女はその人が日本人であることも知っていたはずなんだけど。
Though she should have known that that person was Japanese.
15. これは本当かどうか分からないけど、ベトナムでも犬を食べる習慣があって、彼らはペットの犬も食べるらし い。
I don't know whether this is true or not, but it seems that there is a tradition even in Vietnam of eating dogs and that they also eat dogs meant as pets.
16. アメリカではタコも
珍
しい?知らなかった!
Octopus is also rare in America? I had no idea!
分かる is intransitive in Japanese and so you must use が to mark what in English would be the direct object. However, you do occasionally see を分かる due to Western influence. Nevertheless, other things like わかりたい, わかられる, and わかりえる are wrong with only 分かりたい being sometimes acceptable as a more emphatic way of saying知りたい, which to some speakers is still just wrong.
17a. 日本語が分かりたい。?
17b. 日本語を理解したい。〇
I want to know Japanese.
18. 分かりたいなら、よく調べなさい。
If you really want to know, go look into it.
知る can be conjugated into forms such as 知りたい, 知られる, and 知り得る, but it has a tense restriction that 分かる does not have. Asking 知りますか would be very weird. It would mean that you’re asking whether someone is responsive to information, which would be very weird to ask another human being. You can, though, use 分かりますか to ask about comprehension. 知っていますか is perfectly fine for asking whether someone knows something. So, if you were to ask 「大統領を知っていますか」, the person is asking whether you know anything about the president. 知っていない is almost always wrong, but saying it is always impossible is a fallacy that will be addressed in depth shortly in this lesson.
19. もっと深く知りたい。
I want to know deeper about it.
20.
朝鮮
半島
の
事情
をよく知ることが大切です。
It's important to know well of the conditions in the Korean Peninsula.
Finally, it's important to quickly think of the difference between 知っている and 分かっている.
21. 知っていますが、今はちょっと分かりません。
I know of it, but I don't actually know it at the moment.
22. 差別と区別すら解ってない。
(He/someone) doesn't even understand the difference between "discrimination" and "differentiating".
The standard negative form of 知っている is 知らない. However, 知っていない does exist. 知っていない often appears whenever the affirmative and negative of 知っている are contrasted. 知っていない is possible when the negative is being used for affirmative conjecture, which we've seen already before with things like じゃないか, 遊びに行かない? It's also possible in the following contrast.
知っている + ば → 知っていなければ = If you don't know
知らない + ば → 知らなければ = If you don't realize
Essentially, 知らない denotes attention to a static condition of not knowing whereas 知っていない denotes attention to the completeness of knowing in the negative sense. 知っていない is inconstant and denotes an objective view from the outside in regards to a lack of knowledge, which is exactly why students are rightfully told they are wrong when they try to apply it as meaning "I don't know". 知らない involves denoting a lack of knowledge from the inward perspective of the thing at hand.
There are still instances when 知っていない is seen, but it is almost completely avoided. The single instance where it is in imperative is still used, but many simply avoid it as there are synonymous phrases like 理解できない and 腑に落ちていない. Derivatives are most common, which is the most important thing to keep in mind.
23a. 知っていても知っていなくても 〇
23b. 知っていても知らなくても 〇
Even if you do or do not know
24. そのことを知っているか否かではない。
It's not whether [they] know or do not know that.
Grammar Note: Notice how in this situation the use of 知っていない is avoided by using 否.
25a. 知っていようが知っていなかろうが 〇
25b. 知っていようが知らなかろうが 〇
Whether you know or not
26. この問題は、日本語を知らなければ答えられない。??
Intended: If you don't know Japanese, you can't answer this question.
27. この試験に合格するためには、日本語をよく知らなければならない。X
Intended: In order to pass this exam, you must know Japanese well.
Otherwise, 知っていない is probably a mistake or dialectical because there are dialects where the same thing is acceptable.
28. 「田中君はこのことについて、何か知っていたか」「いや、まだ何も知っていませんでした」 〇
"What did Tanaka know about this? "No, he still didn't know anything."
In previous lessons, we learned about the native numbers that are still used a lot in Modern Japanese. As a recap, here are these numbers once more.
1 | Hito ひと | 2 | Futa ふた | 3 | Mi み | 4 | Yo(n) よ(ん) |
5 | Itsu いつ | 6 | Mu む | 7 | Nana なな | 8 | Ya や |
9 | Kokono ここの | 10 | Tō とお | ? | Iku いく |
Usage Note: The use of iku- いく to create “how many…” phrases with native counters is limited to set phrases and/or neo-classical grammar. As such, you will not see it in the charts of this lesson.
When you strip away -tsu つ, you get the actual numbers. These numbers are used most with native vocabulary. However, they are not restricted to native vocabulary. Oddly enough, though, for the counters they’re used with, they’re hardly used to their full extent. Many counters only use the numbers for 1-3 or even just 1-2. This isn’t all that surprising considering how the native number system is practically limited to 1-10. In this lesson, you will formally be introduced to counters that involve native numbers for the first time. The ones to be covered in this lesson are as follows.
Counters Covered in this Lesson
1. –(mo)ji (文)字
2. -kurasu クラス
3. -shina/-hin 品
4. -keta 桁
5. -kire 切れ
6. -tama 玉
7. -fusa 房
8. -kabu 株
9. -fukuro/-tai 袋
10. -hako 箱
11. -mune/-tō 棟
12. -kumi 組み
13. -sara 皿
14. -taba/-soku 束
15. -tōri 通り
Lesson Note: Just as in prior lessons on counters, reading charts will have readings listed from most to least used. The most used variant will be in bold.
-moji 文字 & -ji 字
If you are instructed to write a report within 300 characters, you will likely use a word processor and see how many characters—with or without spaces—are in what you’ve written. This would include punctuation marks and any other non-letter symbols. If you were instead instructed to write a report within 300 letters, you would interpret this to mean not including non-letter symbols. Therefore, that extra comma won’t make you go over like it would in a Twitter post.
In Japanese, this same distinction is made by having two separate counters for “characters” and “letters.” They also conveniently correspond to the actual words for these things. To count characters, you use -ji 字. To count letters Kanji 漢字 and Kana かな, you use -moji 文字. Of these two counters, only -moji 文字 uses more native numbers by using them for 1, 2, 4, and 7.
-ji 字
1 | いちじ | 2 | にじ | 3 | さんじ | 4 | よんじ |
5 | ごじ | 6 | ろくじ | 7 | ななじ | 8 | はちじ |
9 | きゅうじ | 10 | じゅうじ | 100 | ひゃくじ | ? | なんじ |
-moji 文字
1 | ひともじ | 2 | ふたもじ | 3 | さんもじ | 4 | よんもじ |
5 | ごもじ | 6 | ろくもじ | 7 | ななもじ | 8 | はちもじ |
9 | きゅうもじ | 10 | じゅうもじ | 100 | ひゃくもじ | ? | なんもじ |
1.
字数制限
を
1
万字
に
拡大
しました。
Jisū seigen wo ichimanji ni kakudai shimashita.
I/we expanded the character limit to 10,000 characters.
2. その
内容
を
英語
の
100
字
で
纏
めてください。
Sono naiyō wo eigo no hyakuji de matomete kudasai.
Please summarize the content in 100 English characters.
3.
英語
では、
曜日
や
月
を
3
文字
で
省略
して
書
くことがあります。
Eigo de wa, yōbi ya tsuki wo sammoji wo shōryaku shite kaku koto ga arimasu.
In English, you often abbreviate the days of the week and the months to three letters when writing.
4.
1
分
で
読
める
300
文字
Ippun de yomeru sambyakumoji
300 letters that can be read in a minute
1 | ひとくらす いちくらす |
2 | ふたくらす にくらす |
3 | さんくらす | 4 | よんくらす |
5 | ごくらす | 6 | ろっくらす ろくくらす |
7 | ななくらす | 8 | はちくらす |
9 | きゅうくらす | 10 | じゅっくらす じっくらす |
? | なんくらす |
5.
皆
さんのお
子
さんが
通
う
小学校
は
何
クラスありますか。
Mina-san no o-ko-san ga kayou shōgakkō wa nankurasu arimasu ka?
How many classes do the elementary schools that everyone’s children go to have?
6.
私
は
私立高校
ですが、
15
クラスあります。
Watashi wa shiritsu kōkō desu ga, jūgokurasu arimasu.
I (go to) a public school, but there are/I have fifteen classes.
Counter Note: When referring to individual home rooms, the counter -gakkyū 学級 may be used instead. There are no sound changes with this counter.
-hin/-shina 品(ひん・しな)
The counter -hin/-shina 品counts “dishes of food.” For the most part, either set of readings are permissible. However, in the restaurant business, the -shina しな readings are preferred. This is largely because ippin 一品 (1 dish/item) is homophonous with ippin 逸品 (rarity/excellent article). In set phrases, however, there is no flexibility as to which set of readings is used.
・-hin ひん
1 | いっぴん | 2 | にひん | 3 | さんぴん さんひん |
4 | よんひん |
5 | ごひん | 6 | ろっぴん | 7 | ななひん | 8 | はっぴん はちひん |
9 | きゅうひん | 10 | じゅっぴん じっぴん |
100 | ひゃっぴん | ? | なんぴん |
・-shina しな
1 | ひとしな | 2 | ふたしな | 3 | みしな | 4 | よしな よんしな |
5 | ごしな いつしな |
6 | ろくしな むしな |
7 | ななしな | 8 | はっしな はちしな やしな |
9 | きゅうしな ここのしな |
10 | じゅっしな じっしな としな |
100 | ひゃくしな | ? | なんしな |
Reading Note: -shina 品 is one of a handful of counters where many speakers remain acutely aware of the traditional readings for 1-10. These speakers tend to use native numbers for the entirety of the 1-10 series. However, they are in the minority. For most speakers, native numbers are not used after 4 with exception to 7.
7. これとこれを
二品
下
さい。
Kore to kore wo futashina kudasai.
Please give me these two.
8. お
豆腐料理
を
10
品
作
りました。
O-tōfu ryōri wo juppin/jusshina tsukurimashita.
I made 10 tofu dishes.
9.
一品料理
を
注文
しました。
Ippin ryōri wo chūmon shimashita.
I ordered à la carte.
-keta 桁
The counter -keta 桁 counts numerical digits.
1 | ひとけた | 2 | ふたけた | 3 | みけた さんけた |
4 | よけた よんけた |
5 | ごけた | 6 | ろっけた | 7 | ななけた | 8 | はっけた はちけた |
9 | きゅうけた | 10 | じゅっけた じっけた |
100 | ひゃっけた | ? | なんけた |
10.
下
3
桁
は
456
です。
Shita miketa wa shii gō roku desu.
The last three digits are 456.
Pronunciation Note: When reading out numbers, 4 and 5 are typically pronounced with long vowels as seen in Ex. 10.
11.
値段
を
一桁
(
見
)
間違
えました。
Nedan wo hitoketa (mi)machigaemashita.
I mistook the price by one digit.
12.
二桁万円
の
時計
の
良
さを
実感
しました。
Futaketaman’en no tokei no yosa wo jikkan shimashita.
I really felt the merit of a watch in the six-figure range.
Word Note: Because man 万 means “ten thousand,” futaketaman 二桁万 refers to any value between 100,000 and 999,999.
-kire 切れ
The counter -kire 切れ counts slices.
1 | ひときれ | 2 | ふたきれ | 3 | みきれ さんきれ |
4 | よんきれ よきれ |
5 | ごきれ | 6 | ろっきれ | 7 | ななきれ | 8 | はちきれ はっきれ |
9 | きゅうきれ | 10 | じゅっきれ じっきれ |
100 | ひゃっきれ | ? | なんきれ |
13. サンドイッチにチーズを
2
切
れ
挟
みます。
Sandoitchi ni chiizu wo futakire hasamimasu.
(I’ll) put two slices of cheese in the sandwich.
14.
長男
にケーキを
1
切
れ
切
り
分
けてあげました。
Chōnan ni kēki wo hitokire kiriwakete agemashita.
I cut my oldest son a piece of cake.
15.
鮭
を
10
切
れの
切
り
身
にして、パック
入
りにしました。
Sake wo jukkire no kirimi ni shite, pakku-iri ni shimashita.
I cut the salmon into ten slices and packed them.
-tama 玉
The counter -tama 玉 is used to count spherical food items such as tomatoes (tomato トマト), heads of lettuce (retasu レタス), melons (メロン), watermelons (suika スイカ), garlic (nin’niku ニンニク), cabbage (kyabetsu キャベツ), onions (tamanegi 玉葱), portions of noodles such as udon (udon うどん), etc.
1 |
ひとたま |
2 |
ふたたま |
3 |
さんたま・みたま |
4 |
よんたま・よたま |
5 |
ごたま |
6 |
ろくたま |
7 |
ななたま |
8 |
はちたま |
9 |
きゅうたま |
10 |
じゅったまじったま |
100 |
ひゃくたま |
? |
なんたま |
16.
大
きめのメロンを
1
玉
買
いました。
Ōkime no meron wo hitotama kaimashita.
I bought one large-sized melon.
17. あの
象
はスイカを
2
玉
丸
ごと
食
べましたよ。
Ano zō wa suika wo futatama marugoto tabemashita yo.
That elephant ate two watermelons whole.
Spelling Note: Suika is frequently spelled as 西瓜.
18.
生
うどんを
5
玉
買
いました。
Nama udon wo gotama kaimashita.
I bought five things of fresh udon.
Spelling Note: Udon is only seldom spelled as 饂飩.
19. ハワイ
産
のパパイヤを
3
玉
売
りました。
Hawai-san no papaiya wo mitama urimashita.
I sold three papayas from Hawaii.
-fusa 房
The counter -fusa 房 counts produce that are in bunches like grapes (budō ブドウ) or bananas (banana バナナ).
1 | ひとふさ | 2 | ふたふさ | 3 | みふさ さんふさ |
4 | よんふさ |
5 | ごふさ | 6 | ろくふさ | 7 | ななふさ | 8 | はちふさ |
9 | きゅうふさ | 10 | じゅうふさ とふさ |
100 | ひゃくふさ | ? | なんふさ |
20.
店
に、
1
房
に
8
本
付
いたバナナを
1
房
100
円
で
20
房
仕入
れました。
Mise ni, hitofusa ni happon tsuita banana wo hitofusa hyakuen de nijūfusa shiiremashita.
For the store, I procured 20 bunches of bananas for 100 yen per bunch with 8 bananas in each bunch.
21.
器
にミカンを
2
房
入
れました。
Utsuwa ni mikan wo futafusa iremashita.
I put two bunches of mandarin oranges into the bowl.
Spelling Note: Mikan is occasionally spelled as 蜜柑.
22.
青
いブドウを
3
房
冷蔵庫
に
入
れました。
Aoi budō wo mifusa reizōko ni iremashita.
I put three bunches of green grapes into the refrigerator.
Spelling Note: Budō is only seldom spelled as 葡萄.
-kabu 株
The counter -kabu 株 can count heads of produce such as cabbage (kyabetsu キャベツ), Chinese cabbage (hakusai 白菜), broccoli (burokkorii ブロッコリー), cauliflower (karifurawā カリフラワー), or bok choy (chingensai チンゲン菜), spinach (hōrensō ほうれん草), Japanese mustard spinach (komatsuna 小松菜), etc. connected at the stem, or stocks as in the stock exchange (kabushiki shijō 株式市場).
1 |
ひとかぶ |
2 |
ふたかぶ |
3 |
みかぶ |
4 |
よんかぶ |
5 |
ごかぶ |
6 |
ろっかぶ |
7 |
ななかぶ |
8 |
はちかぶ |
9 |
きゅうかぶ |
10 |
じゅっかぶ |
100 |
ひゃっかぶ |
? |
なんかぶ |
23.
1
株
8
万円
の
株
を
6
株買
いました。
Hitokabu hachiman’en no kabu wo rokkabu kaimashita.
I bought six stocks for 80,000 yen a piece.
24.
自家製
の
坦々麺
にチンゲン
菜
を
2
株
入
れて
食
べました。
Jikasei no tantanmen ni chingensai wo futakabu irete tabemashita.
I added two things of bok choy into the homemade dandan noodles I ate.
25. ほうれん
草
を
3
株
収穫
しました。
Hōrensō wo mikabu shūkaku shimashita.
I harvested three bundles of spinach.
-fukuro/-tai 袋
The counter -fukuro/-tai 袋 counts bagfuls. The former reading is more colloquial, but the latter reading is used as the proper unit in industrial/business settings. This counter is frequently used with words like tea (ocha お茶), cement (semento セメント), wheat flower (komugiko 小麦粉), etc.
・ -fukuro ふくろ
1 | ひとふくろ | 2 | ふたふくろ | 3 | みふくろ | 4 | よふくろ |
5 | ごふくろ いつふくろ |
6 | ろくふくろ ろっぷくろ |
7 | ななふくろ | 8 | はちふくろ はっぷくろ |
9 | きゅうふくろ | 10 | じゅっぷくろ じっぷくろ とふくろ |
100 | ひゃっぷくろ ひゃくふくろ |
? | なんふくろ |
・-tai たい
1 | いったい | 2 | にたい | 3 | さんたい | 4 | よんたい |
5 | ごたい | 6 | ろくたい ろったい |
7 | ななたい | 8 | はちたい はったい |
9 | きゅうたい | 10 | じゅったい じったい |
100 | ひゃくたい ひゃったい |
? | なんたい |
26.
炒
め
玉葱
を
一袋入
れました。
Itame-tamanegi wo hitofukuro iremashita.
I put in a bagful of sautéed onions.
27. ポテチを
一袋食
べました。
Potechi wo hitofukuro tabemashita.
I ate a bag of potato chips.
28.
土
のうを
100
袋くらい
貯
めています。
Donō wo hyakutai/hyakufukuro kurai tamete imasu.
We have about 100 sandbags stored.
Spelling Note: Donō is seldom spelled as 土嚢.
-hako 箱
The counter -hako 箱 counts boxes. It itself is the noun for box. Its readings are in flux, but focus on the ones that are most common. This counter is one of a handful of native counters with which native speakers are more likely to be acutely aware of the traditional readings for it. The native series is possible for 1-10, but it is rare for a speaker to follow the entire series.
1 | ひとはこ いっぱこ |
2 | ふたはこ にはこ |
3 | さんぱこ さんはこ みはこ さんばこ |
4 | よんはこ よんぱこ よはこ |
5 | ごはこ いつはこ |
6 | ろっぱこ ろくはこ むはこ |
7 | ななはこ | 8 | はっぱこ はちはこ やはこ |
9 | きゅうはこ ここのはこ |
10 | じゅっぱこ
じゅうはこ |
100 | ひゃっぱこ ひゃくはこ |
? | せんぱこ せんはこ |
1万 | いちまんはこ いちまんぱこ |
29.
好
きな
本
を一箱に
詰
め
込
みました。
Suki na hon wo ippako/hitohako ni tsumekomimashita.
I crammed the books I liked into one box.
30.
彼
は
一日
にタバコを{2箱・2パック}吸っている。
Kare wa ichinichi ni tabako wo [futahako/nipakku] sutte iru.
He smokes/two packs of cigarettes a day.
Counter Notes: The counter -pakku パック counts packs. For the number 1, it can be used with the forms “ichi いち,” “ip いっ,” “hito ひと,” and “wan ワン.” For 2, it can be used with “ni に,” “futa ふた,” and “tsū ツ―.” For other numbers, it behaves just like the counter -pēji ページ. Also, the counter phrase ichinichi 一日 uses the counter -nichi 日 which counts days. This counter will be looked at later in IMABI.
31.
引
っ
越
しで
段
ボール
箱
を
10
箱
くらい
発送
しました。
Hikkoshi de dambōrubako wo juppako kurai hassō shimashita.
I shipped about ten cardboard boxes in moving.
-mune/-tō 棟
The counter -mune/-tō 棟 counts buildings. Historically, only the former reading existed. Nowadays, many people use the latter reading when counting very large structures like high-rises and use the former for any smaller sized building. This, though, is not set in stone. In the news, only -mune むね is used. This practice is commonly seen in all kinds of formal situations. In the spoken language, -mune むね is still largely the reading of choice. However, a decent minority still use -tō とう instead, especially when referring to large buildings.
・-mune むね
1 | ひとむね | 2 | ふたむね | 3 | さんむね | 4 | よんむね |
5 | ごむね | 6 | ろくむね | 7 | ななむね | 8 | はちむね |
9 | きゅうむね | 10 | じゅうむね | 100 | ひゃくむね | ? | なんむね |
・-tō とう
1 | いっとう | 2 | にとう | 3 | さんとう | 4 | よんとう |
5 | ごとう | 6 | ろくとう | 7 | ななとう | 8 | はちとう はっとう |
9 | きゅうとう | 10 | じゅっとう じっとう |
100 | ひゃくとう ひゃっとう |
? | なんとう |
32.
住宅
1
棟
が
全焼
しました。
Jūtaku hitomune ga zenshō shimashita.
One home burned down.
33. マンションが10棟
立
ち
並
んでいる。
Manshon ga jūmune/juttō tachinarande iru.
Ten apartment complexes are lined in a row.
34.
菊川
はオフィスビル
3
棟
を
所有
している。
Kikukawa wa ofisu biru sammune wo shoyū shite iru.
Kikukawa owns three office buildings.
-kumi 組み
The counter -kumi 組み counts sets of something as well as what “class” one is in in school. In Japan, homerooms will be referred to by #組. For this latter meaning, it is spelled without み. This spelling is also used when it counts “groups of people.”
1 | ひとくみ | 2 | ふたくみ | 3 | さんくみ みくみ |
4 | よんくみ |
5 | ごくみ | 6 | ろっくみ | 7 | ななくみ | 8 | はっくみ はちくみ |
9 | きゅうくみ | 10 | じゅっくみ じっくみ |
100 | ひゃっくみ | ? | なんくみ |
35. コーヒー
茶碗
一組
みを
購入
しました。
Kōhiijawan hitokumi wo kōnyū shimashita.
I purchased a coffee cup set.
Reading Note: 茶碗 can also be read as “chawan ちゃわん.”
Spelling Note: Kōhii is only seldom spelled as 珈琲.
36.
10
チームを
3
組
に
分
けました。
Jutchiimu wo sankumi/mikumi ni wakemashita.
I split ten teams into three groups.
Counter Note: The counter -chiimu チーム counts “teams.” For 1, you can use “it いっ” or “hito ひと.” For 2, you can use “ni に” or “futa ふた.” For other numbers, it behaves like -tō 頭.
37.
私
は
3
組
です。
Watashi wa sankumi desu.
I’m in Class 3.
-sara 皿
The counter -sara 皿 is used to count plates of food. When plates don’t have any food on them, however, the counter -mai 枚 should be used instead. Incidentally, the word for plate is sara 皿.
1 | ひとさら | 2 | ふたさら | 3 | みさら さんさら |
4 | よんさら |
5 | ごさら | 6 | ろくさら | 7 | ななさら | 8 | はっさら はちさら |
9 | きゅうさら | 10 | じゅっさら じっさら |
100 | ひゃくさら | ? | なんさら |
38.
私
は
炙
りサーモンの
握
り
寿司
を
16
皿食
べきりました。
Watashi wa aburisāmon no nigirizushi wo jūrokusara tabekirimashita.
I completely ate 16 plates of seared salmon nigirizushi.
39. きのう、
100
円
の
回転寿司
を
8
皿食
べましたよ。
Kinō, hyakuen no kaitenzushi wo hassara tabemashita yo.
I ate eight plates of 100-yen conveyor belt sushi yesterday.
40.
回転寿司店
で
寿司
を
何皿食
べることが
多
いですか。
Kaitenzushi-ten de sushi wo nansara taberu koto ga ōi desu ka?
How many plates of sushi do you eat the most at conveyor belt sushi restaurants?
41. お
持
ち
帰
りの
方
はエビ
天巻
を
10
{
皿分
・
貫
}
注文
しました。
O-mochikaeri no kata wa ebiten-maki wo [jussara-bun/jukkan] chūmon shimashita.
The person ordering takeout ordered 10 plates worth/10 pieces of shrimp tempura rolls.
Counter Note: The counter -kan 貫 counts pieces of sushi. Its sound changes are the same as -kabu 株.
-taba 束
The counter -taba 束 counts leafy vegetables (yōsairui 葉菜類/ha(mono)yasai 葉(物)野菜/nappa 菜っ葉) that are in bundles. It may also be read as -soku そく, but this reading tends to be used to indicate quantities of a hundred for vegetables, bamboo (take 竹), rice plants (ine 稲), firewood (maki/takigi 薪), etc. This comes from bundles being treated as units of ten and -soku そく being ten of those bundles. Not all speakers know this, but this distinction is still used in several industries. Because different places can assign different numerical values to how much a 束 is, it is usually always stated how much one is.
・-taba たば
1 | ひとたば | 2 | ふたたば | 3 | みたば さんたば |
4 | よんたば |
5 | ごたば | 6 | ろくたば | 7 | ななたば | 8 | はちたば |
9 | きゅうたば | 10 | じゅったば じったば |
100 | ひゃくたば | ? | なんたば |
・-soku そく
1 | いっそく | 2 | にそく | 3 | さんぞく さんそく |
4 | よんそく |
5 | ごそく | 6 | ろくそく | 7 | ななそく | 8 | はっそく |
9 | きゅうそく | 10 | じっそく じゅっそく |
100 | ひゃくそく | ? | なんぞく なんそく |
42. このお
味噌汁
1
杯
で、ほうれん
草
1
束分
の
鉄分
が
摂
れます。
Kono o-misoshiru ippai de, hōrensō hitotaba-bun no tetsubun ga toremasu.
You can get the iron content of a bundle of spinach with one cup of this miso soup.
43.
業務用
の
味付
け
海苔
を
100
束
発注
しました。
Gyōmu-yō ajitsuke nori wo hyakusoku hatchū shimashita.
I put in an order for 100 bundles of business use, seasoned nori.
44.
長
ネギ
2
本
と、
水菜
1
束
、
鍋
つゆ
1
袋
、ポン
酢
少
しで
作
りました。
Naganegi nihon to, mizuna hitotaba, nabetsuyu hitofukuro, ponzu sukoshi de tsukurimashita.
I made it with two Japanese leeks, one bundle of potherb mustard, a bag of hot pot soup, and a little ponzu sauce.
Counter Note: Long items like leeks are counted with -hon 本, which will looked in greater detail later in IMABI.
45.
下
の
写真
のお
浸
しで
春菊
3
束分
です!
Shita no shashin no ohitashi de shungiku mitaba-bun desu!
In the ohitashi in the picture below, there is three bundles worth of edible chrysanthemum!
Culture Note: Ohitashi is boiled greens like spinach, mustard spinach, edible chrysanthemum, etc.
-tōri 通り
The counter -tōri 通り counts ways. The phrase hitotōri ひととおり is not only used to mean “one way/method,” but it also means “in general/generally/roughly.”
1 | ひととおり | 2 | ふたとおり にとおり |
3 | さんとおり みとおり |
4 | よんとおり |
5 | ごとおり | 6 | ろくとおり | 7 | ななとおり | 8 | はちとおり |
9 | きゅうとおり | 10 | じゅっとおり じっとおり |
100 | ひゃくとおり | ? | なんとおり |
46.
必要
な
道具
は
一通
り
揃
っています。
Hitsuyō na dōgu wa hitotōri sorotte imasu.
There’s a full lineup of needed tools/instruments.
47.
大学受験
が
一通
り
終
わりました。
Daigaku juken ga hitotōri owarimashita.
I’m generally done with taking my college exams.
48.
読
みが
2
通
りある
熟語
がたくさん
存在
します。
Yomi ga futatōri aru jukugo ga takusan sonzai shimasu.
There are many compound words that have two readings.
49.
3
通
りの
男性
の
誘
い
方
を
紹介
していきます。
Santōri no dansei no sasoikata wo shōkai shite ikimasu.
I am going to introduce to you three ways to lure men.
50.
組
み
合
わせは
何通
りあるか
教
えてください。
Kumiawase wa nantōri aru ka oshiete kudasai.
Please tell me how many combinations there are.
In this lesson on counters, we will learn about fifteen more counters used very frequently. With a total of fifteen more counters in your repertoire, you’ll be closer to properly counting most of what you’d need to count in daily conversation.
Counters Covered in this Lesson
1. -wa 羽
2. -bu 部
3. -ko 戸
4. -hatsu 発
5. -ken 軒
6. -nimmae 人前
7. -chō 丁
8. -hon 本
9. -ten 点
10. -haku 泊
11. -tsū 通
12. -bi 尾
13. -eki 駅
14. -oku 億
15. -chō 兆
-wa 羽
The counter -wa 羽 counts birds and rabbits. This includes large birds and small birds that don’t fly such as ostriches and penguins. However, large birds are sometimes counted with -tō 頭.
Rabbits can alternatively be counted with -hiki 匹 but can be counted with -wa 羽 due to being treated as rabbits in traditional Buddhist beliefs so that their meat along with poultry wouldn’t be outlawed.
1 | いちわ | 2 | にわ | 3 | さんわ さんば |
4 | よんわ よんば |
5 | ごわ | 6 | ろっぱ ろくわ |
7 | ななわ しちわ |
8 | はちわ |
9 | きゅうわ | 10 | じゅっぱ じゅうわ じっぱ |
100 | ひゃっぱ ひゃくわ |
1000 | せんば せんわ |
10000 | いちまんば いちまんわ |
? | なんわ なんば |
Reading Note: There are some expressions with set readings that utilize one reading over other options (Ex. 千羽鶴 : String of 1000 paper cranes).
1. ニワトリ
合
わせて
68
羽
が
死
んでいるのが
見
つかりました。
Niwatori awasete rokujūhachiwa ga shinde iru no ga mitsukarimashita.
A total of 68 chickens were found dead.
Spelling Note: Niwatori is occasionally spelled as 鶏.
2.
電線
に
鳥
が
10
羽
止
まっていました。
Densen ni tori ga juppa tomatte imashita.
Ten birds were stopped on the electric lines.
3. カモメが
6
羽
並
んで
止
まっていました。
Kamome ga roppa narande tomatte imashita.
There were six seagulls stopped and lined up together.
Spelling Note: Kamome is occasionally spelled as 鴎・鷗.
4.
建物横
の
堀
には、アヒルが
3
羽
いました。
Tatemono yoko no hori ni wa, ahiru ga sanwa imashita.
There were three ducks in the ditch on the side of the building.
Spelling Note: Ahiru is only seldom spelled as 家鴨.
-bu 部
The counter -bu 部 counts copies of printed materials such as magazines and newspapers. It may also count packets of paper.
1 | いちぶ | 2 | にぶ | 3 | さんぶ | 4 | よんぶ |
5 | ごぶ | 6 | ろくぶ | 7 | ななぶ | 8 | はちぶ |
9 | きゅうぶ | 10 | じゅうぶ | 100 | ひゃくぶ | ? | なんぶ |
Phrase Note: Ichibu 一部 is commonly used to also mean “one part/portion.”
5.
一日
で
1000
部
売
りました。
Ichinichi de sembu urimashita.
I sold 1000 copies in a day.
6.
履歴
の
一部
だけ
削除
した。
Rireki no ichibu dake sakujo shita.
I deleted only a part of my history.
7. パンフレットを
10
部
送
りました。
Panfuretto wo jūbu okurimashita.
I sent ten copies of the pamphlet.
-ko 戸
The counter -ko 戸 counts houses.
1 | いっこ | 2 | にこ | 3 | さんこ | 4 | よんこ |
5 | ごこ | 6 | ろっこ | 7 | ななこ | 8 | はっこ はちこ |
9 | きゅうこ | 10 | じゅっこ じっこ |
100 | ひゃっこ | ? | なんこ |
8.
10
戸
はまだ
空
いています。
Jukko wa mada aite imasu.
Ten homes are still empty.
9. およそ
60
戸
が
停電
していました。
Oyoso rokujukko ga teiden shite imashita.
Approximately sixty homes had experienced a power outage.
-hatsu 発
The counter -hatsu 発 counts bullets, explosions, attacks, sneezes, and anything that can colloquially be described as explosive.
1 | いっぱつ | 2 | にはつ | 3 | さんぱつ | 4 | よんぱつ |
5 | ごはつ | 6 | ろっぱつ | 7 | ななはつ | 8 | はっぱつ |
9 | きゅうはつ | 10 | じゅっぱつ じっぱつ |
100 | ひゃっぱつ | ? | なんぱつ |
10. アメリカ
軍
が
原爆
を
2
発
投下
した。
Amerika-gun ga gembaku wo nihatsu tōka shita.
The U.S army dropped two nuclear bombs.
11.
彼
は
弾
を
10
発撃
った。
Kare wa tama wo juppatsu utta.
I shot ten bullets.
12. あのアライグマを
2
、
3
発
蹴
った。
Ano araiguma wo ni, sampatsu ketta.
I kicked that raccoon two, three times.
13. くしゃみを
5
発
した
後
で、
鼻血
を
出
した。
Kushami wo gohatsu shita ato de, hanaji wo dashita.
I had a nosebleed after sneezing three times.
The counter -ken 軒 counts individual houses that are not connected to each other. This is different from -ko 戸, which generically counts homes.
1 | いっけん | 2 | にけん | 3 | さんけん さんげん |
4 | よんけん |
5 | ごけん | 6 | ろっけん | 7 | ななけん | 8 | はっけん |
9 | きゅうけん | 10 | じゅっけん じっけん |
100 | ひゃっけん | ? | なんけん なんげん |
14.
3
軒
に
1
軒
が
空
き
家
になっている。
Sanken ni ikken ga akiya ni natte iru.
One in three houses are vacant.
15.
昨日
の
地震
で、
10
軒
中
4
軒
壊
れました。
Kinō no jishin de, jukken-chū yonken kowaremashita.
Four out of ten houses were destroyed in yesterday’s earthquake.
16.
四川大地震
で
7
万軒以上
が
倒壊
して
2
人
が
死亡
しました。
Shisen Ōjishin de nanamanken ijō ga tōkai shite futari ga shibō shimashita.
Over 70,000 houses collapsed and two people died in the Great Sichuan Earthquake.
-nimmae 人前
The counter -nimmae 人前 counts food portions. Despite beginning with 人, its readings are all regular.
1 | いちにんまえ | 2 | ににんまえ | 3 | さんにんまえ | 4 | よにんまえ |
5 | ごにんまえ | 6 | ろくにんまえ | 7 | しちにんまえ ななにんまえ |
8 | はちにんまえ |
9 | きゅうにんまえ くにんまえ |
10 | じゅうにんまえ | 100 | ひゃくにんまえ | ? | なんにんまえ |
17.
3
人前
の
量
を
作
りました。
San’nimmae no ryō wo tsukurimashita.
I made three portions worth.
18.
餃子
を
10
人前買
ってきました。
Gyōza wo jūnimmae katte kimashita.
I’ve come back with ten portions of gyoza.
19. (お)そばを
2
人
前注文
しました。
(O-)soba wo ninimmae chūmon shimashita.
I ordered two portions of soba.
Spelling Note: Soba is only seldom spelled as 蕎麦.
-chō 丁
The counter -chō 丁 counts the following items: Tofu, guns, konnyaku, servings at a restaurant (especially ramen), scissors, candles on a candlestick, saws, town blocks, violins, guitars, ink sticks, palanquins, photo attempts, rickshaws, etc.
1 | いっちょう | 2 | にちょう | 3 | さんちょう | 4 | よんちょう |
5 | ごちょう | 6 | ろくちょう | 7 | ななちょう | 8 | はっちょう |
9 | きゅうちょう | 10 | じゅっちょう じっちょう |
100 | ひゃくちょう | ? | なんちょう |
20.
警察
は
拳銃
6
丁
と
実弾
250
発
を
押収
しました。
Keisatsu wa kenjū rokuchō to jitsudan nihyakugojuppatsu wo ōshū shimashita.
The police confiscated six handungs and 250 live bullets.
21.
私
は
今日
、
豆腐
を3
丁
も
食
べました!
Watashi wa kyō, tofu wo sanchō mo tabemashita!
I ate three things of tofu today!
22. こんにゃく
1
丁
をタオルにくるみました。
Kon’nyaku itchō wo taoru ni kurumimashita.
I tucked one block of konnyaku into a towel.
Spelling Note: Kon’nyaku is only seldom spelled as 蒟蒻.
23. ハサミは
1
丁
も
持
っていません。
Hasami wa itchō mo motte imasen.
I don’t own a single pair of scissors.
24. ノコギリを
2
丁
買
ってきました。
Nokogiri wo nichō katte kimashita.
I bought two saws.
Spelling Note: Nokogiri is occasionally spelled as 鋸.
-hon 本
The counter -hon 本 counts long, thin items: pencils, string, laces, cans, roads, movies, train lines, phone calls, home runs, rivers, moves in martial arts, etc.
1 | いっぽん | 2 | にほん | 3 | さんぼん | 4 | よんほん |
5 | ごほん | 6 | ろっぽん | 7 | ななほん | 8 | はっぽん |
9 | きゅうほん | 10 | じゅっぽん じっぽん |
100 | ひゃっぽん | ? | なんぼん |
25.
鉛筆
を
3
本取
ってください。
Empitsu wo sambon totte kudasai.
Please three pencils.
26.
道一本隔
てた
寺
に
参拝
した。
Michi ippon hedateta tera ni sampai shita.
I visited a temple a road away.
27. アニメを
10
本見
ました。
Anime wo juppon mimashita.
I watched ten anime.
28.
彼
は
指
を
5
本折
った。
Kare wa yubi wo gohon otta.
He broke five fingers.
-ten 点
The counter -ten 点 counts points, commodities, or merchandise.
1 | いってん | 2 | にてん | 3 | さんてん | 4 | よんてん |
5 | ごてん | 6 | ろくてん | 7 | ななてん | 8 | はってん はちてん |
9 | きゅうてん | 10 | じゅってん じってん |
100 | ひゃくてん | ? | なんてん |
29.
彼
は
十点満点
(を)
取
りました。
Kare wa juttenmanten (wo) torimashita.
He got a perfect ten.
30.
10
万円
の
商品
を
月
(に)
100
点売
っています。
Jūman’en no shōhin wo tsuki (ni) hyakuten utte imasu.
I sell 100 pieces of merchandise worth 100,000 yen a month.
31. ノート
5
冊
と
万年筆
2
本
と
消
しゴム
3
個
、
合
わせて
10
点
のお
買
い
上
げですね。
Nōto gosatsu to man’nenhitsu nihon to keshigomu sanko, awasete jutten no o-kaiage desu ne?
You're buying five notebooks, two fountain pens, and three erasers for a total of ten items, yes?
-haku 泊
The counter -haku 拍 counts nights of a stay.
1 | いっぱく | 2 | にはく | 3 | さんぱく | 4 | よんぱく |
5 | ごはく | 6 | ろっぱく | 7 | ななはく | 8 | はっぱく |
9 | きゅうはく | 10 | じゅっぱく じっぱく |
100 | ひゃっぱく | ? | なんぱく |
32.
税別
で
1
泊
15
万
ウォンでした。
Zeibetsu de ippaku jūgomanwon deshita.
It was 150,000 won for one stay excluding tax.
33.
料金
は
管理費
など
全
て
込
みで
1
泊
1
名様
(につき)1
万円
です。
Ryōkin wa kanrihi nado subete komi de ippaku ichimei-sama ni tsuki ichiman’en desu.
The charge is 10,000 yen per person for one with with all-fees-in-price including management costs.
34. ツインルーム
1
部屋
で
3
泊
です。
Tsuin rūmu hitoheya de sampaku desu.
Three nights in 1 twin-sized room.
35. フランスのマルセイユに
5
泊
しました。
Furansu no maruseiyu ni gohaku shimashita.
I stayed five nights in Merceille, France.
-tsū 通
The counter -tsū 通 counts letters as in tegami 手紙, e-mails, notes, and written reports.
1 | いっつう | 2 | につう | 3 | さんつう | 4 | よんつう |
5 | ごつう | 6 | ろくつう | 7 | ななつう | 8 | はちつう はっつう |
9 | きゅうつう | 10 | じゅっつう じっつう |
100 | ひゃくつう | ? | なんつう |
36.
同
じ
内容
の
文書
を
3
通送
りました。
Onaji naiyō no bunsho wo santsū okurimashita.
I sent three documents with the same content.
37.
LINE
を
1
通送
りました。
Rain wo ittsū okurimashita.
I sent one LINE (message).
38.
返事
の
手紙
を
2
通送
りました。
Henji no tegami wo nitsū okurimashita.
I sent two letters in reply.
39.
受信
メールを
何通
か
消
した。
Jushin mēru wo nantsū-ka keshita.
I deleted several received e-mails/texts.
-bi 尾
The counter -bi 尾 counts small fish and shrimp. It is also used in industries to refer to high-quality fish or simply when fish go from being caught to now being treated as ‘food.’
1 | いちび | 2 | にび | 3 | さんび | 4 | よんび |
5 | ごび | 6 | ろくび | 7 | ななび | 8 | はちび |
9 | きゅうび | 10 | じゅうび | 100 | ひゃくび | ? | なんび |
40.
魚
の
名前
を
5
尾書
いてください。
Sakana no namae wo gobi kaite kudasai.
Please write the names of five fish.
41.
今回
は
特大
(サイズ)の
冷凍
むき
海老
6
尾
使
いました。
Konkai wa tokudai (saizu) no reitō mukiebi rokubi tsukaimashita.
This time, I used six extra-large shelled shrimp.
42.
外国産
のウナギも20尾売れました。
Gaikokusan no unagi mo nijūbi uremashita.
Twenty foreign-produced eels also sold.
Spelling Note: Unagi is often spelled as 鰻.
43. メバルの
稚魚
を(
1
)
千尾
ほど
川
に
放流
した。
Mebaru no chigyo wo (is)sembi hodo kawa ni hōryū shita.
(They/we) stocked into the river around a thousand rockfish juveniles.
Spelling Note: Mebaru is only seldom spelled as 眼張.
Counting Fish
Counting fish is no easy task. Dead or alive, most fish are counted with -hiki 匹. However, when fish are lined up from head to tail fin, then they’re counted with -hon 本. If referring to slices of fish, then you use -mai 枚. When presented as sashimi 刺し身, however, you then use -kire 切れ. When fish are dried out, they’re counted with -mai 枚. When fish are gutted with their heads and spines taken out, they’re counted with -chō 丁.
Cuts of fish cut into rectangular shapes are counted with -saku 冊 (which uses native number for 1 and 2). Simply from their appearance, certain fish are counted with -hon 本 by default for being long: amberjack (buri ブリ・鰤), Pacific saury (samma サンマ・秋刀魚), bonito (katsuo カツオ・鰹), tuna (maguro マグロ・鮪), etc. Flat fish are counted with -mai 枚: flounder (hirame ヒラメ・平目), right-eye flounder (karei カレイ・鰈), etc. Similarly, very thin fish are often counted with -jō 条: halfbeak (sayori サヨリ 細魚), icefish (shirauo シラウオ ・白魚), etc.
Eel (unagi ウナギ・鰻) are counted with either -hiki 匹 or -hon 本. However, when broiled into kabayaki 蒲焼, you use -mai 枚. When served on a skewer, you’d count them with -kushi 串 (which uses native numbers for 1-4, 7). This works for other fish as well. Although seldom done so today, very large fish may be counted with -kon 喉. This character means “throat” and in this context, it refers to large fish being carried whilst hanging from rope through their throats. Then, moreover you have -bi 尾, which is used for fish being used as bait, high-class fish, or fish when (being sold and or used) for cooking.
Lesson Note: For counters mentioned here that have not been formally introduced, it is okay not to memorize them until they are properly discussed.
-eki 駅
Eki 駅 means “stations” and also happens to be the counter for stations.
1 | ひとえき | 2 | ふたえき | 3 | さんえき | 4 | よんえき |
5 | ごえき | 6 | ろくえき | 7 | ななえき | 8 | はちえき |
9 | きゅうえき | 10 | じゅうえき | 11 | じゅういちえき | ? | なんえき |
44.
私
は
名古屋駅
から
2
駅離
れたところに
住
んでいます。
Watashi wa Nagoya-eki kara futaeki hanareta tokoro ni sunde imasu.
I live somewhere two stations away from Nagoya Station.
45.
JR
は
今年
、
3
駅
を
廃止
した。
Jeiāru wa kotoshi, san’eki wo haishi shita.
JR went away with three stations this year.
46.
埼玉県
の
人気
の
100
駅
に
限定
しています。
Saitama-ken no ninki no hyakueki ni gentei shite imasu.
It's limited to the 100 stations popular in Saitama Prefecture.
-oku 億
The numbers 10, 100, 1,000, 10,000 are technically counters themselves. After 10,000, each number for ever fourth power is also treated as a counter. The next such unit after 10,000 is for 100 million, which is -oku 億.
100 million | いちおく | 1 billion | じゅうおく |
10 billion | ひゃくおく | 100 billion | (いっ)せんおく |
? | なんおく |
47.
日本
は
人口規模
を
1
億人
に
維持
することを
目指
している。
Nihon wa jinkō kibo wo ichiokunin ni iji suru koto wo mezashite iru.
Japan is aiming to maintain its population scale at 100 million people.
48.
中国語
は、
10
億人
に
通
じる
言語
のひとつです。
Chūgokugo wa, jūokunin ni tsūjiru gengo no hitotsu desu.
Chinese is one language that is understood by a billion people.
-chō 兆
The next power to be treated as a counter is -chō 兆, which stands for trillion.
1 | いっちょう | 2 | にちょう | 3 | さんちょう | 4 | よんちょう |
5 | ごちょう | 6 | ろくちょう ろっちょう |
7 | ななちょう | 8 | はっちょう |
9 | きゅうちょう | 10 | じゅっちょう じっちょう |
100 | ひゃくちょう | Quad. | (いっ)せんちょう |
? | なんちょう |
49.
美容整形
の
世界市場
は
1
兆円
に
達
しています。
Biyōseikei no sekai shijō wa itchōen ni tasshite imasu.
The world cosmetic plastic surgery market has reached one trillion yen.
50.
人
の
腸内
には、
100
兆匹以上
の
菌
が
棲
んでいます。
Hito no chōnai ni wa, hyakuchōhiki ijō no kin ga sunde imasu.
There are over 100 trillion bacteria living inside the human intestines.
Counter Note: Incidentally, despite not being animals, bacteria are also frequently counted with -hiki 匹.
Your wants and feelings are different from those of your friends'. This seemingly obvious difference is distinguished in Japanese. In English, both "Steve seems mad" and "Steve is mad" are grammatically correct and commonly used, but the same cannot be said for Japanese.
In this lesson, we'll learn how to express first and second person wants, meaning you'll be able to say things like "I want to go the park" and "Do you want to?"
~たい is used to show one's own want to do something, to ask about someone's wants, or to show what people in general want. Because this is about wanting to do something, though, the verb needs to express an action that involves willpower of the person in question.
漢字 Note: ~度い is an old and rare 漢字 spelling of ~たい. You may find it if you read older stuff.
Conjugating ~たい
As is the case for most endings, it attaches normally to the 連用形 of verbs.
一段 | 食べたい | I want to eat | 見たい | I want to see | 信じたい | I want to believe |
五段 | 飲みたい | I want to drink | 行きたい | I want to go | 知りたい | I want to know |
する | したい | I want to do | 見物したい | I want to sightsee | 買い物したい | I want to shop |
来る | 来たい | I want to come |
~たい conjugates as a 形容詞. Although it may be strange to associate volition to act as an adjectival phrase, "want" is still a state, and so this is how you can rationalize this oddity of grammar.
Plain Speech | Polite Speech | |
Non-Past | ~たい | ~たいです |
Negative | ~たくない | ~たくないです・~たくありません |
Past | ~たかった | ~たかったです |
Negative Past | ~たくなかった | ~たくなかったです・~たくありませんでした |
が Or を?
Whenever a verb has a direct object, we know to mark it with を. However, because ~たい makes a verb an adjective regardless of whether it has a direct object or not, a direct object can consequently be marked with either が or を. Whenever を is used, though, a lot more emphasis is placed on one's volition. Of course, if we're referencing different kinds of verbs like travel verbs which would use に・へ instead, neither would be applicable.
が OK? | を OK? | |
飲みたい | ○ | ○ |
見たい | ○ | ○ |
行きたい | x | x |
成りたい | x | x |
1. コーヒーを飲みたくない。
I don't want to drink coffee.
2. 邪魔になりたくありません。
I don't want to become a bother.
3. ピザ{が・を}食べたいです。
I want to eat pizza.
4. キス(が・を)したいだけ!
I just want to kiss!
Particle Note: As demonstrated, が and をcan be dropped in casual speech.
5. 映画
を
観
に
行
きたいです。
I want to go see a movie.
Particle Note: In this sentence, を cannot be replaced by が because it is part of the verb phrase 映画を観に行く which is being modified by ~たい as a whole.
Second Person
Second person is normally used in questions. Things like ~たいでしょう could be used to indirectly express second person want without sounding rude or too direct.
6. 東京に行きたいですか。
Do you want to go to Tokyo?
7. 日本に旅行したいですか。
Do you want to travel to Japan?
8. 何{が・を}食べたい? (Plain)
What do you want to eat?
~たい{の・ん}ですが: Asking for Advice
When you are asking for advice on something you would like to do, it is best to use ~たい with ~のですが・んですが to be more polite. It is also more indirect, and what may or may not follow is something like 何がいいでしょうか.
9. お
土産
を買いたいんですが、何がいいでしょうか。
I'd like to buy a souvenir, but what would be good?
10. テレビを買いたいんですが、どちらがいいでしょうか。
I'd like to buy a TV, but which would be good?
11. 温泉に行きたいのですが、どこがいいでしょうか。
I'd like to go to a hot spring, but where is good?
When showing first person "want for something," use the adjective ほしい, alternatively sometimes written in 漢字 as 欲しい. We'll learn later about how to express someone else's want for something, but just as reminder, below are ほしい's basic conjugations.
Plain Speech | ほしい |
Negative | ほしくない |
Past | ほしかった |
Negative Past | ほしくなかった |
Particle Note: Although informal and somewhat improper, ~をほしい is also sometimes seen.
Person Note: As was the case for ~たい, showing second person want for something is normally used in the form of question.
12. 新
しいプリンターがほしいです。
I want a new printer.
13. この本、ほしいでしょう?
You want this book, right?
14. このCDはどうしてもほしいから、買ってくれない?
I want this CD no matter what, so could you get it for me?
~てほしい shows that you "want something done/to happen". The person you want to do the action for you is marked by the particle に.
15. 彼女 にきれいでいてほしい。16. (あなたに)毎日チャレンジしてほしい。
I would like for you to challenge yourselves every day.
17. (僕に)山田さんと話してほしいんですか。
Do you want me to talk with Mr. Yamada?
18. 何
かアドバイスしてほしいのですが...
We'd like you to give us some sort of advice, but...
~てほしかった
When ほしい is in the past tense, it shows regret that something didn't happen.
19. 彼氏にだけは分かってほしかった。
I only wanted my boyfriend to understand.
20. もっと早く来てほしかった。
I wanted you to have come earlier.
In showing someone's wish for something to happen, ほしい is followed by ~と思う or ~と思っている with the latter imperative for third person.
21.
親
は私に大学へ行ってほしいと思っています。
My parents are wishing for me to go to college.
22. 復活してほしいと思う。
I wish for it to revive.
~てもらいたい・いただきたい
~てほしい, even when polite, is not the most polite way to tell someone that you would like them do to something for you. In this case you are implying that you are to be receiving a favor, and therefore, ~てもらいたい (~ていただきたい being more honorific) would be most appropriate.
23. 銀行へ行ってきてもらいたいんですが。
I would like you to go to the bank.
24. 先生に参加していただきたいんですが。
We'd like you to attend, Professor.
25. 彼らは私に出て行ってもらいたいと思っています。
They would like for me to leave.
26. 私たちに何か
忠告
してほしいのですが。
We would like you to give us some advice.
With the Negative
For ほしい, you may see ~ないでほしい or ~ほしくない. The first gives an explicit request. ~てほしくない just states implicitly that you don't want something to be done or happen. Consequently, the latter sounds much softer. ~ないでほしい places emphasis on what you don't want to hear, see, etc. The first is like "I want you to not..." and the second is like “I don't want...to...”.
27.
政治家
にならないでほしい。
I want you to not become a politician.
28. 誰にもできたと知らせないでほしい。
I want you to not inform anyone that I was able to do it.
29. 雨が降ってほしくない。
I don't want it to rain.
30. 家族がいることを忘れてほしくないわ。(Feminine)
I don't want you to forget that you have a family.
More Examples
31a. そんなことまでしたくはないよ。
31b. そんなに
遠
くまで
行
きたくはないよ。(With the literal definition of "to go")
I don't want to go that far.
32. 彼
らは
登山
しに
行
ったかが
知
りたい。
I want to know whether they went mountain climbing.
33. イギリスまでこの
手紙
を
出
したいんです。
I want to mail these letters to England.
34. もっと自由が欲しい。
I want more freedom.
35. これに
何
を
書
きたいんですか。
What do you want to write on this?
36. 彼
に
政治家
になってもらいたい。
I want him to be a politician.
37. 彼女
に
来
てもらいたくない。
I don't want her coming.
38.
普通預金
を
始
めたいんですが。
I'd like to start an ordinary savings account.
Culture Note: Money may be deposited and withdrawn anytime you like with a 普通預金 . 定期預金 is a fixed deposit and a savings deposit is a 積 み 立 て 預金 .
39.
報告書
は
今度
はもうすこし
早
く
出
してほしいのよ。
聞
いてる? (Feminine)
I want you to turn in your report a little earlier next time, you hear?
40. 5
万3千円降
ろしたいんですが。
I want to withdraw 53,000 yen.
41. 私たちは
三泊
したいです。
We want to stay three nights.
42. もし私が
金持
ちなら、
城
を買いたい。
If I were rich, I would want to buy a castle.
43. ソウルに
行
ってみたい。
I want to try to go to Seoul.
Grammar Note: ~てみたい should be used instead of ~たい when you are trying to say that you want to attempt to do something.
44a. クリントン前大統領と
会
いたいです。
I want to meet with Former President Clinton.
44b. クリントン前大統領に
会
ってみたいです。
I would like to try and meet Former President Clinton.
It wouldn't be surprising for another politician very close to Former President Clinton to say this. On the other hand, if they're on opposing sides and proximity isn't granted, ~てみたい may still be better.
~がる is an extremely important suffix to overcome restrictions on person with phrases of emotional/physical state in Japanese.
Adjectival phrases of emotion in Japanese cannot take third person subjects. Meaning, you cannot say things like.
1a. 鈴木さんは失恋して悲しいです。X
1a. Suzuki is heartbroken and sad.
To overcome this grammatical restriction, the suffix ~がる is needed.
1b. 鈴木さんは失恋して悲しがっています。
1b. Suzuki seems sad from being heartbroken.
To conjugate, you simply attach ~がる to the stem of adjective regardless of class. Although we haven't gotten into what ~がる means, it is conveniently similar to "seem" in English. There are important differences that we'll get to later, so pay close attention!
Sad | 悲しい | To seem sad | 悲しがる |
Happy | 嬉しい | To seem happy | 嬉しがる |
Embarrassing | 恥ずかしい |
To seem embarrassed | 恥ずかしがる |
Scared | 怖い | To seem scared | 怖がる |
New | 新しい | To be fond of new things | 新しがる |
Rare | 珍しい | To seem rare | 珍しがる |
Want to... | ~たい | To seem to want | ~たがる |
Conjugation Note: Be careful to note confuse ~たかった and ~たがった or ほしかった and ほしがった, especially when listening as it may be tricky. Note that ~がる behaves like any other verb phrase. So, if ~ている is needed, you'll need to use ~がっている.
Usage Note: It's also interesting to note that there are many adjectival phrases that ~がる is never used with for whatever reason. Some include 好きだ, 涼しい、軽い, きれいだ, etc. One restriction is that it can't be used with adjectives that show no emotional aspect of someone. There is also a subjective/objective aspect to adjectives that mustn't be ignored. When you "like" someone, that isn't a one time thing. But, いやだ could be temporary. This is one reason why you can say 嫌がる but not 好きがる.
Although this suffix is one method of getting around third person restrictions on emotion phrase.
2. わたしがアイスクリームを食べたがると、母が食べさせてくれた。
Whenever I wanted to eat ice cream, my mother would let me eat it.
Phrase Note: An easy example of debunking the claim that ~がる is used only in third person is the pattern ~がり屋, which is used to describe people's natures. So, if you're hot-nature, you're an 暑がり屋.
Using 食べたい would present an even worse grammatical error, which is using the conjunctive particle と (conditional form) with an adjective. So, what does ~がる mean? In most cases, it assesses the outward appearance or overall knowledge of something and relates the situation with the internal state of the person in question.
3. 遼太朗は顔には出さなかったが、心の中では悔しがっていた。
Ryotaro didn't let out, but he was regretting inside.
It may also be the case that it is used to help show an internal state not shown outwardly, and this can be referring to an attitude being floated by the person in question or an attitude grasped by someone else.
4. 遼太朗は表面上は悔しがったが、心の中では喜んでいた。
Ryotaro was regretting outwardly, but he was rejoicing inside.
Examples
5. 俺だけが面白がってたのか。
Was I the only one who thought (that) was funny.
Note: This example shows how ~がる may be used to show a situation different than everything else.
6. 弟はおもちゃを見ると、いつもほしがる。
My little brother always wants a toy when he sees it.
Note: This example shows how ~がる may be used to show someone being unreasonable.
7. 人はみな他人の事情を知りたがる。
People want to know about everyone else's situation.
8. 生徒は新しい単語や言い回しを知りたがりますが、まずは基本を教えることが大事です。
Students want to know new words and expressions, but it's important to first teach the basics.
9. 寒がり
屋
だから、カナダの
暮
らしは
辛
かった。
Because I'm cold-nature, life in Canada was harsh.
10.
暑
がり屋だから、テキサスの暮らしはひどく辛かったよ!
Because I'm hot-nature, life in Texas was extremely harsh!
11. べつにすまながらなくてもいい。
You really don't have to feel sorry.
From 海辺のカフカ by 村上春樹.
12. 子供が食事を食べたがらない。
My child doesn't want to eat dinner.
13. 彼女
はアイスクリームを
食
べたがっている。
She wants to eat ice cream.
14.
誰
でも
神
を
信
じたがります。
Everyone wants to believe in God.
Grammar Note: ~たがる is used here because this is a general statement that may not be 100% true. ~がる gives a sense that someone/ feels or thinks that way.
参照: https://www.lang.nagoya-u.ac.jp/nichigen/menu7_folder/symposium/pdf/8/06.pdf
Aside from ~がる
Of course, there are other things you can use. For instance, ~そうだ after the stems of adjectives means "seems....". You may use かもしれない (might) or だろう・でしょう (probably). Of course, there are many other things. At the individual phrase level, however, you will see that some things should just never be used for oneself and others that should only be used in reference to others.
15a. 私は怒っている。 △
15b. 私は腹が立っている。〇
I'm angry.
16. 彼女は私のことを怒っていた。
She was angry at me.
17. いや、(彼は)僕のことを怒ってるかもね。(Casual)
Well, (he) might actually be angry at me.
18. 山田さんはとても悲しそうですね。
Yamada-san seems so sad, doesn't she?
Attribute: No Restrictions
Words that refer to someone's wants, feelings, or likes don't need another pattern when used as an attribute/general knowledge (総合的な知識). Thankfully there are situations where the first/second and third person grammatical distinctions aren't necessary. This also goes for with situations reflecting on the past where something is already known.
19. 母が好きな食べ物は寿司です。
The food my mother likes is sushi.
20. 若い人たちは海外に出たいのだ。
Young people want to go overseas.
21. 弟はそのごろ韓国に行きたかったです。
My younger brother wanted to go to Korea then.
22. 参加したい人は図書館に行ってください。
Those that want to participate, please go to the library.
23. 日本では
占
い
師
に
運勢
をみてもらいたい人が多いみたいです。
In Japan, it seems that a lot of people want their fortunes read by fortune-tellers.
24. すぐやりたがる人はいやだ。
People that want to immediately do it are a pain.
Grammar Note: This doesn't give you a 100% free pass to not use ~がる when the situation calls for it.