今日 IMABI - Classical Japanese

     Historical Kana usage ( 歴史仮名遣 れきしかなづか い) was the orthography system used up until Kana simplification in the early 1900s. Historical Kana orthography typically refers to Kana spelling standards from when they were first established in the Heian Period to the early 1900s. Spelling variation and bad spellers during all of this time does cause orthography to be even more difficult to understand. 

In addition to odd spellings with existing Kana, in original texts, you will also encounter obsolete Kana, which are called 変体仮名・異体仮名. However, due to the fact that they can't be typed without the aid of special programs, they are typically ignored in studying Historical Kana Orthography. 

 The Traditional 五十音図

Below is the traditional 五十音図. This, again, does not include variant Kana that would have existed for these basic sounds. However, see if you can find Kana in this chart that have become obsolete and are not shown in modern renderings of this table. Lastly, as pronunciation has changed over the centuries, no sound correspondences will be given in this chart. 

Chart Note: Notice that ゐ and ゑ are obsolete. They will be looked at more closely later in this lesson. 

 Old Japanese

万葉仮名   まんようがな is the predecessor of かな. This is the basis, then, for the Kana spellings to come once subsets of the 漢字 that composed 万葉仮名 were simplified to create Kana. As far as what 万葉仮名 can tell us about Old Japanese (上古日本語; 347~794 A.D?) pronunciation, to most scholars, the system suggests that during and some time before the Nara Period, Japanese had approximately 8 vowels. As this would simplify into the 5 vowel system of today, the original vowel structure would leave an impression on the language's vocabulary and burgeoning spelling system. 

Below is Poem 707 from the 万葉集, a compilation of poems in Old Japanese that begin the literary history of Japanese. Notice also that unsimplified Kanji are used. Using resources if necessary, try matching the Kanji with the Kana associated with them. In going through this example, consider the following questions.

Question 1: What can you discern from this one example how 万葉仮名 was used?
Question 2: Are there any apparent archaic grammar structures that you can point out?  
Question 3: What Kanji are unsimplified? How can you tell? 

万葉仮名: 思遣　　　　爲便乃不知者　　片垸之　　　底曽吾者　　　　戀成尓家類　注土垸之中
歴史仮名遣い: おもひやる　すべのしらねば　かたもひの　そこにぞあれは　こひなりにける Potential Pronunciation: Omopiyaru subenos(h)iraneba katamopino soko ni zo are pa kopi narinikeru Note: This does not take into account different o and e vowels that more than likely existed at the time.

 Middle Japanese

It is generally believed that the vowels "e" and "o" up until Early Middle Japanese (中古日本語; 794~1185 A.D?) were pronounced as [je] and [wo]. This is demonstrated in transliterations done in the mid-1500s by the first foreigners from Europe to transcribe Japanese. Consider place name spellings such as Yedo for Edo, the original name of Tokyo.

This is also verified by remote dialects in various parts of Japan. There are still 東北 dialects that retain the sound [je]. For instance, in  津軽語 つがるご , which has evolved so much that it is often deemed its own language, you see examples such as はやい　→　はーいぇ [ha:ye]. Though this can be accounted for the vowel combination /a.i/ contracting to /e/, therefore producing /ye/, it is not an isolated example.   

In Middle Japanese, the vowel combination /a.u/ contracted to [ɔː], which is like the o in the American English pronunciation of "bore". This suggests that there were still two o sounds for quite some time despite what spelling might suggest. It's just that one was preserved in a diphthong, which would then simplify to [o:]. 

The differences between Middle and Modern Japanese pronunciation can be summarized with this table. The arrows indicate what the original pronunciation(s) have become in Modern Japanese. As we do not have time machines, transcriptions for Middle Japanese are merely highly probably guesses on how they did originally sound. 

Other Vowel Notes:

1. The vowel a was likely more like the o in "stock" rather than the a in "car" as it is today for much of Japanese history.

2. It is also not certain whether u was ever compressed in the same way it is in Standard Modern Japanese pronunciation before modern times.  

Long Vowels

Long vowel contrast in Modern Japanese is extremely important, but it's important to realize that at one point in Japanese history, there was no such system in the sense that there is today. Many long vowel spellings are simplifications. These unsimplified spellings tell us what previous pronunciations were and what changes occurred to lead to modern pronunciations. 

For instance, in the chart below, you see the old spellings of long vowel combinations. It also shows probably pronunciations of them.

Chart Note: Again, vowel pronunciation in particular environments in far older stages of Japanese is largely uncertain. Thus, the first column of pronunciations is greatly simplified. For clarity, the second column starts at the 室町時代.

*: The one exception is the verb 言う, which is spelled in a somewhat old-fashioned way although it was originally spelled as いふ. 

 Sino-Japanese words greatly influenced Japanese pronunciation. The Chinese languages from which these words came did affect the vowel structure of Japanese. To what extent the Japanese assimilated these sounds to the existing phonology system and to what extent these words had on later developments to Japanese phonology are uncertain. Nevertheless, it is safe to say that thanks to Chinese, Modern Japanese has heavy short-long consonant and vowel contrasts. 

Consonants tend to not change much over time, but over the course of 2,000 years, significant shifts can be seen. Unless there is significant evidence for consonants having different pronunciations in Old Japanese than Early Modern Japanese, no column will be provided for Old Japanese. As for the Modern Japanese columns in the charts, know that the pronunciations chosen are based off of Standard Japanese pronunciation, and these pronunciations may not reflect the pronunciation of natives from other parts of Modern Japan.  

S-Sounds

Symbol Note: ʃ is the sh-sound found in English.

In Old Japanese, we see that there were no variant pronunciations of t. The modern pronunciations emerge after the Nara Period.

The only significant note of Old Kana Orthography that contrasts Modern Kana Orthography in respect to t-sounds is that つ at one point started to represent the 促音 (っ) with the onset of contractions that have led to the existence of the 促音.　However, distinguishing it from a つ standing for "tsu" is difficult.

The size distinction between つ and っ was not standardized until simplification. ち・ひ・り → つ was first, and there is evidence that people did pronounce this contraction as "tsu" rather than making the next sound a double consonant. Eventually, though, this contraction did result in double consonants. Knowing what things have become, then, becomes essential. 

H-sounds

     [ɸ] came from Old Japanese /p/, the ancient pronunciation. [ɸ] would then became /h/, except in the soundふ. However, it is not certain whether ふ ever did become /hu/ in any variety of Japanese or not. 

     By Late Middle Japanese, when these sounds were inside of a word, /ɸ/ became [w]. An exception to this is へ, which had become [(j)e] by this time but would have at one point been pronounced [we]. Another thing to know is that /wu/ never existed, so /ɸ/ would have been dropped entirely. See 笑ふ below. 

Historical Notes:

1. As Early Modern Japanese came closer to fruition, え, ゑ, and へ became e altogether and the distinctions that they once had become either dialectical or obsolete. 

2. It is not clear to what extent and when the sounds wi, we, and wo were used. So, this is why most w's are in parentheses in the Late Middle Japanese pronunciation column. 

3. Medial w's originating from /ɸ/ which came from /p/ are only preserved with [wa]. Thus, 川 is still [kawa] and not [ka:].  

4. There are some compound words like 河原 [kawara], which is a contraction of kawa and hara with the medial h of hara being pronounced as a w. For most compound verbs, though, the は行 → わ行 sound change has disappeared. 

 Palatal-Sounds

There are no small y-sound かな. So, all of the palatal sounds that are now written with it were originally spelled with full-sized かな. Whether or not a y-かな was used or not depends on the sound changes leading to long vowels mentioned at the beginning of this lesson. 

The exact pronunciation of r is not certain. Even in Modern Japanese, there are plenty of varying pronunciations, none of which are used to contrast meaning in any words. But, it is fair to assume that the r-sounds of older stages of Japanese had all or some of the allophones, /ɽ/, /ɾ/, /ɺ/, and /r/, found in Modern Japanese.  

W-sounds

     It is not certain whether the exact manner of pronunciation of /w/ in older stages of Japanese was the same as it is today. However, it is certain that the ワ行 has had significant change over the centuries. 

*: ゐ and ゑ have been substituted in Modern Japanese with い and え respectively. They are only seen in purposely old-fashioned spellings, especially in place and personal names.    

　　を started many words in Classical Japanese and it is not certain if it was pronounced as wo or o. ゑ was in many words and was pronounced as [(j)e]. The y sound is retained depending on how far back in time you go. Words with ゐ, as the chart implies, were probably pronounced as wi until Late Middle Japanese. 

The Uvular ん

     The uvular nasal consonant N' appeared in the Heian Period due to the influence of Sino-Japanese words. This sound in Modern Japanese has various pronunciations depending on what it is followed by. It is often mispronounced by students as [n], which ignores this property of ん along with the fact that it is moraic. So, it is pronounced with the same amount of time as any other かな. 

In Classical Japanese, ん was most likely pronounced across the board as a syllabic [m]. It was written as either む or ん, with the original pronunciation for both being [mu]. む was either [mu] or [m] depending on context. Over time. [m] would change into the various pronunciations in Modern Japanese (Lesson 193).   

It is believed that the origin of [N] was caused by sound changes in words like emperor てんわう, which would have likely been pronounced as [temuwa.u] at one point. Then, it would become [te.m.wɔ] and then eventually [ten:oː].

Sokuon　促音

     Double consonants started to appear in Late Middle Japanese and were either never written out or written with a full-sized つ. Below is a Modern Japanese example of Old Orthography. 

いまだ夢多くして、異國の文學にのみ心を奪はれて居つたその頃の私に、或日この古い押し花のにほひのするやうな奥ゆかしい日記の話をしてくだすつたのは松村みね子さんであつた。
It was Matsumura Mineko who one day told me, who was just enchanted in foreign literature and still had many dreams, of this elegant and scented like an old pressed flower diary.
From 姨捨記 by 堀辰雄.

Voiced Sounds

G-Sounds

Chart Note: The superscript n before g in the Late Middle Japanese columns denotes pre-nasalization.

Pronunciation Note: G within words in Modern Japanese may alternatively be pronounced as [ŋ]. 

Z-Sounds

Symbol Note: ʒ stands for the English j sound.

D-Sounds

Distinguishing Yotsugana (四つ仮名), じ・ぢ・ず・づ, was very important in Classical Japanese pronunciation. Though their pronunciations have slightly changed over the centuries, it is not until Modern Japanese that we see the great simplification in their pronunciations, which has rendered じ and ぢ and ず and づ  respectively homophonous.

B-Sounds

     B-sounds are the same as in Modern Japanese. However, there is evidence that there was pre-nasalization before b in Late Middle Japanese. So, as you should have already noticed by now, voiced sounds were more than likely systematically pronounced with pre-nasalization. 

KW/GW-Sounds

     As you can see, only kwa and gwa remained in Late Middle Japanese. Even these sounds would disappear by Modern Japanese in most dialects, which is why these unique spellings were ultimately erased. 

For a relatively extremely example, consider the following words with the same Modern Japanese pronunciation but different traditional 仮名 spellings. 

1. Show instances where pronunciation of かな differ from Modern Japanese in Classical Japanese.

2. What かな become obsolete in 現代仮名遣い.

3. What role does 四つ仮名 play in Classical Japanese?

4. What role does 四つ仮名 play in Modern Japanese?

5. What rules were scrubbed in the change from Historical to Modern Kana Orthography?

6. How were palatalized sounds written in Classical Japanese?

7. What long vowel combinations in 歴史仮名遣い were actually long palatalized sounds?

8. Research what the historical spellings were for 後胤, 行員, 公印, and 光陰. 

     Way back in Lesson 7, we learned about the ten major aspects that define Modern Japanese. These principles come into play in Classical Japanese as well. However, this does not mean that Japanese did not behave differently. As you will continue to see throughout the lessons to come, a lot of change has occurred in Japanese over the two thousand or so year it has been written down. 

     Classical Japanese is referred to as 文語 or 大和言葉. These terms, though, are not exactly the same. The first refers to older Japanese prose and can refer to words that may still be used in Modern Japanese but in very literary contexts. For the purpose of these lessons, it will refer to texts written in Japanese before the 明治時代. 大和言葉 often refers to the language before the influx of loanwords from Chinese, but it may also refer to "native words". To be more linguistically correct, the terms Old Japanese, Early Middle Japanese, Late Middle Japanese, Early Modern Japanese, and Modern Japanese will be used to more accurately define which language an example sentence is written in. 

1: The basic word order of Classical Japanese is SOV. Other aspects of word order are more or less the same as in Modern Japanese.

2: Just like Modern Japanese, the ordering of phrases in a sentence is based upon a hierarchy of importance determined by the speaker. This is why, just like Modern Japanese, Classical Japanese is said to be a macro-to-micro language. 

1. おほかた  ものの音には  笛 ( ふえ ) 篳篥 ( ひちりき )     常 ( つね ) に聞きたきは 琵琶 ( びわ ) 和琴 ( わごん )
With the sounds of most things are the (elements of the) flute and hichiriki. What I always want to hear   are the and koto.
From the 徒然草. 

3: Classical Japanese relatively has more inflectional endings than Modern Japanese. A single auxiliary verb in Modern Japanese may correspond to several different ones in Classical Japanese. The use of bases has also changed slightly for some endings. Also, the overall frequency of all the bases is much higher in Classical Japanese than today.  

4: The eleven parts of speech of Modern Japanese are slightly more complex in Classical Japanese. Nouns tend to have little change. However, the original pronunciation, meaning, and frequency of usage may be different on an individual bases. For instance, pronouns continue to come and gone in the language.  

     Verbs and adjectives are more complex as there are nine and four classes respectively instead of five and two respectively as there is in Modern Japanese. As for the other parts of speech, similar changes in form, meaning, and usage have changed on a case by case basis. Otherwise, the overall structure of Japanese has remained constant over time. 

5: In regards to etymology, the majority of words in Classical Japanese are of native origin. However, when you begin to turn back the clock of time, you start running into problems as to what is truly native or not. For general purposes in this curriculum, traditional classifications of words will be looked at first. If any important doubt of a word's etymology status is important to a discussion, it will be appropriately noted.

Foreign words, which at this time would have primarily been from Chinese in the form of the thousands of Sino-Japanese words, mainly come into play in Middle Japanese. However, they were not completely absent in Old Japanese texts. Sino-Japanese words would over time heavily influence the phonology of Japanese as well as the grammar in some respects.  

6: Dialects have always existed, and they are present even in the 万葉集. As there is only a limited amount of written material and because the birthplaces of the authors of the poems are largely unknown, there isn't much to say about dialectical features of Old Japanese as there is for Modern Japanese. However, attested dialectical differences will frequently become important in future discussions.  .

     The speech levels of Classical Japanese have a different feel than in Modern Japanese. Honorifics becomes more important and more organized as time goes by as well as vulgar speech.

7: There are no articles nor number in Japanese.

8: There are words in Classical Japanese just as in Modern Japanese that were used by a particular sex.

9: Quality in emotion and sound certainly mirror to what is the case today. Dialects as well as isolated villages likely had distinct pitch as well as intonation patterns.

10: Punctuation is inconsistent and different depending on time period. 

1. What does every sentence in Classical Japanese have?

2. What is the word order of Classical Japanese?

3. What is the language of Japan in the Classical Period referred to as?

4. How are the parts of speech in Classical Japanese more different and more difficult than in Modern Japanese?

5. 幽玄 (いうげん) "mystery and depth" is what kind of word in terms of etymology? How frequent is its category in Classical Japanese?

6.  The auxiliary verb ず becomes ぬ when attached before a nominal phrase. What does this demonstrate?

7. Below is a simple Classical Japanese sentence. What is different?

山いと高し
やまいとたかし
Modern Japanese: 山がとても高い。

8. The Modern Japanese form of the Meireikei ends in -ろ, but the Classical Japanese form of the Meireikei ends in -よ. Modern Standard Japanese is based off of the Tokyo Dialect. Most Classical Japanese text is based off of the dialect region of the Kansai Region. If told that these differences have always been the case, what does this mean overall?

     The copula なり may be archaic, but this hasn't stopped anyone from using it from time to time. You will also see another copula verb, たり, that was used to follow nominals. Also, unlike the modern である, all of the bases are used for the copula verbs in Classical Japanese. 

     The copula verb なり comes from the fusion of the case particle に and the ラ-変 irregular verb あり "to be". The bases of the copula verb as as follows. 

     Before we learn about the differences between the two 連用形 bases, we will take a look at the six bases of conjugation. 

未然形: The 未然形 is the "irrealis form" and is associated with endings that indicate actions that have not yet taken place: negation, desire, and hypothesis. 

連用形: The 連用形 is the "continuative form" and is used with endings that indicate actions that are in the process of being carried out and the verb is either taken or taking place. This is why the 連用形 is used with conjunctive particles such as て and auxiliary verbs that express tense and politeness. 

終止形: The 終止形 is the "terminal form" and is used to mark the end of a complete sentence. Actions are in the present if and only if there is not a temporal noun that tells otherwise. The 終止形 may still be followed by final and interjectory particles. 

連体形:  The 連体形 is the "attributive form" is used when you want to use something as a participial when modifying a nominal phrase with an inflectional part of speech. So, as all endings have a 連体形, any state of time and purpose is possible. It is also used as the nominalized form of a verb. 

已然形: The 已然形 is the "hypothetical form" but is viewed as the "perfective form" in Classical Japanese because it is with conjunctive particles such as ば to show reason. Thus, unlike now the 已然形 typically describes actions that have already occurred. 

命令形: The 命令形 is the "imperative/command form": this is pretty much explanatory. 

Using なり

なり's main usage is making declarative sentences. In the なる-連体形 it either shows location or name. When showing location, it indicates the place or direction that something is "located" at. This equivalent to にある. When showing name, it is equivalent to the Modern という. This last usage appeared in the 漢文訓読 style of writing during the 江戸時代.    

1. 吉野尓有　夏實之河乃　川余杼尓　鴨曾鳴成　山影尓之弖
    吉野にある 夏実の 河 かは の 川淀 かはよど に 鴨そ鳴くなる  山影にして
    In the river pool of the Natsumi River in Yoshino, you can hear ducks cry in the shadowy mountains.
From the 万葉集.

Orthography Note: Notice in the 万葉仮名 that basic words such as 山影, 鴨, and 川 are written semantically whereas almost everything else is written phonetically.

2. この　西なる 家 ( いへ ) には　 何人 ( なにびと ) の住むぞ。
    What kind of person lives there as for this house located in the west?
From the 源氏物語.

Morphology Notes: この is not viewed as a single word in Classical Japanese. The particle ぞ is used as a rhetorical final particle. 

The なり-連用形 is typically used, but there are two major instances where it isn't. With the particle て, に is used.

3. 誰 たれ もいまだ都なれぬほどにて　え見つけず。 
    It was a time when no one was still used to the capital and none could find it.
From the 更級日記.

Grammar Notes:

1. なれぬ is the verb なれる "to get used to" with ～ず in the ぬ-連体形.
2. なり is again seen in the に-連用形 with て to show parallelism and is then followed by the pattern for negative potential in Classical Japanese, え...-ず. 

4. 父はなほ人にて　母なん 藤原 ( ふぢはら ) なりける。
    The father was a normal person, and the mother was a Fujiwara.
From the 伊勢物語.

Grammar Notes:

1. In this sentence, にて is the に-連用形 of なり with て, and なりける is the なり-連用形 of なり with the recollection auxiliary verb けり in the ける-連体形.
2. Although sentences should end in the 終止形, there has always been a trend to end with the 連体形 for special emphasis which eventually lead to the fusion of the two bases. 

Unlike Modern Japanese, conjugation is not as straightforward, and there are more auxiliary verbs. The primary thing that you should notice in the example sentences in this lesson is how the copula verbs are used in terms of meaning and bases and what they are used with. With that in mind, consider the following additional examples.

5. 天地之 分時従 神左備手 高貴寸 駿河有 布士能高嶺乎 天原 振放見者 度日之 陰毛隠比 照月乃 光毛不見  天地 あめのつち の別れし時ゆ 神 かみ さびて 高く 貴 たふと き 駿河 するが なる 富士 ふじ の 高嶺 たかね を 天 あま の原振り 放 さ け見れば 渡る日の影も隠らひ
   照る月の光も見えず
    Looking afar into the wide sky at Mount Fuji of Suruga, which has been a highly exalted and divine           peak since the division of heaven and earth, you cannot even see the shining moon light for even the     shadow of the passing sun is hidden.
From the 万葉集.

Word Notes:

1. There is no Sino-Japanese word in this poem. Although read as てんち today, 天地 was read with 訓読み as あめつち.
2. The particle ゆ is an old case particle meaning "from".
3. 天の原 is a 雅語.
4. 振りさく is a somewhat archaic verb equivalent to 遥かに仰ぐ.
5. The verb 隠らふ, 未然形 of 隠る (the Classical form of 隠れる) + the auxiliary verb -ふ, shows that the place is repetitively covered by clouds. 

6. 我が敵は我にあり。
    My enemy is myself.

7. たましきの 都 ( みやこ ) のうちに 棟 ( むね ) を 並 ( なら ) べ　 甍 ( いらか ) を 爭 ( あらそ ) へる高き 賤 ( いや ) しき人のすまひは　 世々 ( よよ ) を 經 ( へ ) て 盡 ( つ ) きせぬものなれど  これをまことかと 尋 ( たづ ) ぬれば　昔ありし 家 ( いへ ) は稀なり。
In the jewel-strewn capital the houses lined up with the abodes of the noble and base competing with their roof tiles pass the generations everlastingly; however, when you ask if this is true, houses (that appear) from long ago are (actually) rare. 
From the 方丈記

Word Note: たましき is an epithet word that embellishes 都 which is used here to refer to 京都.

Particle Note: なれど is the 已然形 of なり with the conjunctive particle ど. 

Historical Note: なり became だ as such. にて gave rise to で by first dropping the vowel "i", which led to voicing of で. As voiced sounds were believed to have had pre-nasalization, it would have been treated as a single mora. Thus, で was born. Once あり changed to ある, である was formed. Then, である contracted to だ in the East and じゃ in the West. When 東京 became the capital, 東京弁 became standard and so did だ. 

As for です, etymology is a little unclear. It's clear that the で must have derived from にて, but the latter element has been interpreted in two primary ways. One theory of thought suggests that the predecessor of です was でございます, which is easy for Modern Japanese speakers and learners alike to understand. If one knew that でござんす was used a lot in the Edo Period in East Japan and that dialects in this region of Japan are known for truncating long phrases drastically, this relation is quite logical.

Another theory proposes that the predecessor is actually で候. 候, which is rendered as そうろう in Modern Orthography and さうらふ in Old Orthography, was a formal auxiliary used primarily in texts now understandably called 候文. There are truncated forms of 候 such as そろう. However, there needs to be a reason for why it is further truncated and why a vowel change happened after the truncation. Vowel changes on the individual word level are not uncommon in Japanese dialects. So, this is not impossible. However, the fact that です has always been associated with the "spoken language" makes the connection implausible from a social linguistic standpoint. 

     The copula たり, from the particle と + あり, appeared in the 平安時代 and was often used to emphasize the qualities of someone. It originally appeared in 漢文 and eventually become more influential in 軍記物 (warrior narratives), 説話 (anecdotes), and 和漢混淆 (Japanese-Chinese mixed style). The bases of たり are:

     The 連用形 to is seen when used to make adverbial phrases. This is still this case in Modern Japanese with words such as 堂々と (magnificently).

     Like なり, たり may be used for showing declaration. There are also four important patterns that involve たり when it is used in the 連体形.

Examples 

8.  教師 けうし たる者が 賄賂 わいろ を 要求 えうきう するとは！
    A person in the capacity of a teacher seeking a bribe!

9. 団体、または、公人たると私人たるとを問わず 遵守 ( じゆんしゆ ) すべき。 
    (This) body, again, regardless of whether you are an officeholder or a private citizen, you should              comply. 

Modern Application Note: This example is an example how Classical Japanese grammar can still be applied today. So, the second line for かな shows it in 歴史仮名遣い simply for exposure. 

10. その姿たるや、実に悲惨なものだった。
      Speaking of the appearance (of it), it truly was a pitiful thing. 

11. 君たれども 臣 ( おみ ) たれども、だかひにこころざし深く 隔 ( へだ ) つる思ひのなきは
      Whether you are the lord or the vassal, if it were not feelings that mutually one's motives are deeply         distant
From the 十訓抄 (The Miscellany of Ten Maxims) 

Nuance Change Note: 君 in Classical Japanese means "lord" and not the informal you as it does today. The opposite of 君 is 臣which is an old term that is equivalent to the modern 家臣 ( かしん ) , which is less degrading. 

12. しかるを 忠盛 ( ただもり ) 備前守 ( びぜんかみ ) たりし時
      Well, when Tadamori was the Governor of Bizen 
From the 平家物語.

Name Note: 備前 was a former province of Japan and is now a part of Okayama Prefecture.

13. その 故 ( ゆゑ ) はいにしへ清盛公 未だ安芸守たりしとき
      The reason is that long ago when Lord Kiyomori was still the Governor of Aki
From the 平家物語.

Name Note: 安芸 is the former name of the 広島県. 

14. かの 隆海律師 ( りうかいりつし ) の 魚 ( いを ) つりの 童 ( わらは ) とありけるとき
      When the Buddhist Priest Ryuukai was a child working in fishery
From the 今昔物語. 

15. 五日 いつか のあかつきに せうとたる人 ほかより来て
      On the dawn of the fifth day people that were brothers came from other places
From the 蜻蛉日記.

16. 清盛　 嫡男 ( ちやくなん ) たるによって　 其跡 ( そのあと ) をつぐ
      Since Kiyomori was the first son, he inherited that position. 
From the 平家物語.

Word Note: 跡 is used to refer to inheritance, which is why it is translated as "position". 

HISTORICAL NOTE: Once the copula だ became the main copula verb, both なり and たり fell out of use. たり, as mentioned earlier, is sometimes used in modern contexts as the auxiliary verb -たる in some lasting patterns. 

Archaism Note: There are still instances where the auxiliary copula verb たり is still used in Modern Japanese. As it is more emphatic, it often serves a role in formal yet serious situations. One instance is 日本よ国家たれ! (Japan, be a nation!) and its derivations.  

1. Make a chart of the bases of the copula なり.

2. Make a chart of the bases of the copula たり.

3. Create a sentence with たるや.

4. In the following example sentence, find the copula verb and tell what base it is in. 

はやても龍の吹かするなり
はやてもりうのふかするなり

Note: The copula verb is used like the Modern Japanese "no da" in the sentence above.

5.  When did たり first appear and in what kind of writing?

6. How is 何たる used?

     ク活用形容詞 get their name from the fact that their 連用形 is く-. ク adjectives are known for describing physicality. Things like shallow 浅し, black 黒し, etc. are all ク活用形容詞. So what's different about Modern 形容詞 and ク活用形容詞? First, we need to understand what Modern 形容詞 are.

 In Modern Japanese

     In Modern Japanese 形容詞 are all adjectives that end in ～い and that can naturally be conjugated without assistance from だ. The bases of 形容詞 are:

     The かろ-未然形 is used with the volitional ～う. In actually, ～う attaches to the から-未然形, the true 未然形. Remember, the combination あ＋う becomes pronounced as "おお". When spelling reform took place, the spelling became おう. The two 連用形 are actually the remnants of an entire two base system from Classical Japanese. The 終止形 and 連体形 are the same in Modern Japanese, and the 命令形 is almost never used. 

 In Classical Japanese

     In Classical Japanese ク活用動詞 circumference only adjectives that end in ～し, that can naturally be conjugated into two sets of bases without the assistance of the copula なり, and that have meaning that is specific to physicality. There are two bases of ク活用動詞: く stem and かり stem. The two sets of bases of ク活用動詞 are: 

     The く stem bases are the original bases, and かり stem bases are あり + the く-連用形. When this finally gave way in the 平安時代 to produce the かり stem bases, bases became available for 形容詞 with a ラ変 irregular conjugation--あり was an irregular verb. So, before the 平安時代, only く stem conjugations existed. As most of Classical Japanese literature was written from the 平安時代 and afterward, you need to know how they differed. 

     The く stem bases are with conjunctive particles such as て and do as well as with nominals, but the かり stem bases are not. The かり stem bases are used with auxiliary verbs, but the く stem bases are not. Before the 平安時代, あり was used to compensate the limitations of the く stem bases, the true reason why the かり stem bases formed.

     The から-未然形 is used for negation, volition, or desire. Before the 平安時代, you had to use ある in the negative after the く-連用形. In Classical Japanese the 終止形 and 連体形 are different. As for the 已然形, it is viewed as the perfective form because it is used with endings such as ば. ば wasn't used like today until the 室町時代 and centuries went by before it became only used like today. In Classical Japanese the 命令形 is actually used. 

*: The かり stem 終止形 and 已然形 are only used for two adjectives which are considered exceptions because of this. These adjectives, 多し and 無し, which may also be referred to as 多かり and 無かり,are seen with these かり stem conjugations often in writings from the 平安時代 onward in poetry, tales, and other sorts of writing. 

Summary

1.  Modern 形容詞 end in ～い and account for all adjectives that can naturally conjugate  whereas ク活用形容詞 end in ～し and account for adjectives of physicality that can naturally conjugate .
2. The bases are significantly different between Modern 形容詞 and ク活用形容詞.
3. The 終止形 and 連体形 are not the same in Classical Japanese.
4. The 未然形, 已然形, and 命令形 are used slightly different between the two eras.

1. 所も変はらず　人も多かれど　いにしへ見し人は　 二三十人 ( にさんじふにん ) が中にわづかにひとりふたりなり。    
Places too don't change, and although there are many people, of the 20 or 30 people that I have seen in the past, there are (now) merely one or two.
From the 方丈記. 　

Grammar Note: The particle が before なか is used in Classical Japanese as the possessive case particle.

2. 甍 いらか を争へる高き 賤 いや しき人のすまひは
    The houses of both the noble and the base competing with their roof tiles
From the 方丈記.

3. 消えずといへども　 夕 ( ゆふ ) を待つ事なし。
    Even if (the dew) doesn't vanish, there is never a case where it waits for evening. 
From the 方丈記.

4. 目も 當 ( あ ) てられぬこと多かり。
    There are many things that one couldn't cast one's eyes on.
From the 方丈記.

5. この吹く風は　よきかたの風なり。
    This wind that is blowing is wind from a good direction. 
From the 竹取物語.

6. よからぬ物
    Things that aren't good

7. 上は 鞘巻 ( さやまき ) の黑く 塗 ( ぬ ) りたりけるが
    As for the surface, it was varnished black with a sayamaki. 
From the 平家物語.

Definition Note: A 鞘巻 is a part of a short sword.

8. 善かれ。
    Be good!　

Archaism Note: Sometimes old forms of adjectives show up in Modern Japanese phrases. For instance, the usage of the 連体形 as a nominal form is very common in set phrases such as proverbs even today. 

9. 弱きを助け、強きを挫く。
    Help the weak, and crush the strong.  

     シク活用形容詞  in Modern Japanese are 形容詞 that end in しい or じい. These adjectives are typically subjective. These also tend to have different meanings than now. For example,　をかし in Classical Japanese is equivalent to "zestful", but its modern form おかしい means "funny". The bases of シク活用形容詞  are the same as ク活用形容詞 with the only difference being that -し is present. This, of course, is -じ whenever the adjective ends in -じ.

　　　　　Common シク活用形容詞 in Classical Japanese include the following.

Grammar Note: 同じ has two alternative 連体形 aside from the かり-stem 同じかる, おなじ and おなじき. The first is used in 和文 (classical) texts while the second is used in 漢文. 

使用例 

10. ゆめうれしからず。
      I would not be happy at all.
From the 土佐物語.

11. また、これに同じかるべし。
      Again, it should be the same as this.
From the 徒然草. 

12. さりければ　 大臣 ( おとど ) いときよらに　 蘇芳襲 ( すをがさね ) などきたまうて　 后 ( きさき ) の宮にまゐりたまうて　 院 ( ゐん ) の 御消息 ( おほむせうそこ ) のいとうれしく 侍りてかくいろゆるされて侍こと　などきこえ給ふ。
With that the reason, the minister was very elegant and handsome, and he wore suoagasane and came to the palace of the empress and said he was very happy to receive a message from the retired emperor and that he was allowed to wear the restricted colors.
From the 大和物語.

Cultural Note: 蘇芳襲 were layered clothes with light brown on front and dark red underneath.

13. いみじううれしかりしものかな。
      What an extremely pleasant thing it was!
From the 枕草子.

Contraction Note: いみじう　is a contraction of いみじく.

14. 柳などをかしこそさらなれ　それもまだまゆにこもりたるはをかし。
It's needless to say that the (blossoming of the) willow tree is zestful, and the willow tree still covered in a cocoon(-like bud) is also zestful.
From the 枕草子.

15. おもしろく咲きたる 櫻 ( さくら ) を長く折りて　大きなる 瓶 ( かめ ) にさしたるこそをかしけれ。
Picking up beautifully blossomed cherry blossoms and placing them in a big vase is precisely zestful.
From the 枕草子.

16. うれしきもの　　まだ見ぬ物語の一を見て　いみじうゆかしとのみ思ふが　残り見いでたる。
Pleasing things. You looked at a volume of a story you still hadn't read, and just as you were thinking that it was only extremely attractive, you found the remaining volume.
From the 枕草子.

17. 同じ心ならん人としめやかに物語して　をかしき事も　世の 儚 ( はかな ) き事も　うらなく言ひ慰まんこそうれしかるべき
にさる人あるまじければ　つゆ違はざらんと向ひゐたらんは　たゞひとりある心地やせん。
If there is a person of the same heart, I will solemnly talk (with that person) about the zestful things, the vain things, and if we certainly comfort (each other) without hiding things it will be a happy thing. Yet, without there being supposed to be such a person, in order to not differ even slightly with one and other, if we confront each other, we will have the feeling of one.
From the 徒然草.

18. 同じき三年 太宰大 ( だざいふ ) 弐になる。
      He became the Daini of the Dazaifu in the same third year.
From the 平家物語.

Important Contraction Rules

     The k in the き・しき-連体形 and the k in the く・しく-連用形 is sometimes dropped in Classical Japanese. As for the contraction in the 連体形, this is how the modern form of 形容詞 developed. The contraction in the 連用形 is maintained in many dialects today.  As for the 連用形 contraction, be cautious in pronunciation as 歴史仮名遣い applies. 

1. Conjugate the シク活用形容詞  口惜し（くちをし） meaning "regrettable" into its bases.

2. Conjugate the ク活用形容詞  青し（あおし） meaning "blue" into its bases.

3. What do most ク活用形容詞 describe?

4. What do most シク活用動詞 describe?

5. Illustrate the difference between the 終止形 and 連体形 and show what they became in Modern Japanese for both types of adjectives.

     Adjectives in Classical Japanese look similar to their modern counterparts, but the differences in the usage of bases is quite different. ナリ型形容動詞 are cognate to Modern Japanese 形容動詞. タリ型形容動詞 are cognate to 連体詞 that end in ～たる are adverbs that are end in to. 

形容動詞 can be created by adding ～か, ～やか,　and ～らか to more morphemes that for the most part all appear to have been nominal phrases. The original nouns are normally not used, but these adjectives make up the majority of 形容動詞 in Modern Japanese and ナリ型形容動詞 in Classical Japanese.

Another important ending used to make 形容動詞 is ～げ. Of course, there are other 形容動詞 that don't end in these sounds. In fact, these endings are only for native words. So, there are a ton of Sino-Japanese words that can be used adjectivally, just as in Modern Japanese. 

     One of the main differences that you will notice about ナリ型形容動詞 is that the bases are different and that the adjectives are used differently altogether. Rather than saying ばかじゃない you would say ばかならず.  The bases for 形容動詞 all have a ラ変 conjugation. This means that they have the same conjugation as the irregular Classical Japanese verb あり. Below are the bases.

     Similar to 形容詞, the に-連用形 is used with conjunctive particles and may be used adverbially. Since all but one base is a ラ-変 conjugate, the なる-連体形 may follow nominals whereas the かる・しかる-連体形 cannot.

Curriculum Note: Tenses and politeness for Classical Japanese have not been covered yet.

 Examples

1. 三、四 町 ( ちやう ) を吹きまくる 間 ( あひだ ) に、こもれる 家 ( いへ ) ども、 大 ( おほ ) きなる小さきも、一つとして破れざるはなし。
   There was not a single house big or small not destroyed in the fire that blew away three, four towns.  
From the 方丈記.

Grammar Notes:

1. ども is used frequently to pluralize items in Classical Japanese.
2. The 連体形 can be used to show nominalization. 
3. ざる is the 連体形 of the negative auxiliary verb -ず. 

2. 心も 静 ( しづ ) かならず。
    The heart is unsettled.
From the 徒然草.

3. あまねく 紅 ( くれなゐ ) なる中に
    Throughout the completely red sky
From the 方丈記.

4. 心おのづから静かなれば　
    Since the heart was naturally quite, 
From the 徒然草.

Particle Note: The particle ば is seen after the 已然形 in Classical Japanese to mean "since".

5. 風 烈 ( はげ ) しく吹きて　静かならざらし夜　 戌 ( いぬ ) の時 許 ( ばかり ) 　 都 ( みやこ ) の 東南 ( たつみ ) より火 出 ( い ) で来て　 西北 ( いぬゐ ) に至る。
    In the night at around eight o' clock where the wind blew fiercely and did not settle down, a fire came       from the southeast of the capital and went northwest.
From the 方丈記.

Contraction Note: The modern contraction rules of Modern Japanese are not reflected throughout the Classical Japanese era.

Auxiliary Note: The auxiliary verb ～き, in the し-連体形, shows retrospective past.

Word Note: いぬゐ is an old word for northwest as well is たつみ for southeast. 

6. 心は 縁 ( えん ) にひかれて移るものなれば　 閑 ( のど ) かならでは　道は 行 ( ぎやう ) じ 難 ( がた ) し。
    Since one's heart is something that can be dragged and changed into another, if one's mind is not           quite, it is difficult to practice. 
From the 徒然草.

Contraction Note: ～では is the contraction of ～ずには. 

7.つれづれなるままに
   Just as at one's leisure
From the 徒然草.

8. 中御門京極 なかみかどきやうごく のほどより大きなる 辻風 つじかぜ 起こりて
    A large wind from Nakamikado Kyougoku occurred, and
From the 方丈記.

Meaning Notes:

1. ほど as a noun in Classical Japanese can mean "direction". 
2. Remember that the particle より can be used to mean "from". 

9. いみじく静かに 公 ( おほやけ ) に 御文 ( おんふみ ) たてまつり給ふ。
    She offered the letter to the emperor very quietly. 
From the 竹取物語.

10. これをまことか 尋 ( たづ ) ぬれば、昔ありし家は 稀 ( まれ ) なり。
      When I asked if this was true, I (was told that) old houses were rare.
From the 方丈記.

Classical Form Note: The verb 尋ねるis 尋ぬ in Classical Japanese. 

11. なかなか 様変 ( やうが ) はりて 優 ( ゆう ) なるかたもはべり。
      It was rather eccentric, and it was also elegant. 
From the 方丈記.

敬語 Note: はべり is the honorific form of あり (to be) and is used here as an honorific variant of the copula. 

Evolution Note: Not all ナリ型形容動詞 became 形容動詞 in Modern Japanese. Some became -なる ending 連体詞. 

     There are not that many タリ型形容動詞 in Classical Japanese, and there are not that many that have survived as 連体詞 in Modern Japanese. タリ型形容動詞 come from Sino-Japanese compounds. These kind of adjectives were rarely ever seen in 平安時代 works, but they became very frequent in military tales and 江戸時代 Chinese-style writing. Below are the bases for タリ型形容動詞.

Base Note: These bases are also ラ-変 conjugate, and the 連用形 are used just as before with the other adjectival classes.

 Examples

12. さつさつとよをわたるべし。
      You should get along in the world refreshingly. 
From the 副王百羽.

13. 涼風颯々 りやうふうさつさつ たりし 夜 よ なか 半 ば に
      In the middle of the night with a refreshing cool breeze
From the 平家物語.

14. 茫々 ばうばう とした 大草原 だいさうげん
        An expansive large grassland

15. 王宮 わうきう の体を見るに、 外郭渺々 ぐわいくわくべうべう として、 其内曠々 そのうちくわうくわう たり。
      Looking at the state of the lord's palace, the outer walls appear unending, and the grounds within           are expansive.
From the 平家物語.

16.  已 すで に 朦朧 もうろう たり。
      It is already misty.

17. 荒涼 くわうりやう たるその景色
      The bleak landscape
From 或る女 by 有島武郎.

18. かの 滋藤漫々 ( しげふぢまんまん ) たる 海上 ( かいしやう ) を 遠見 ( ゑんけん ) して
      The aforementioned Shigefuji looked afar over the vast sea.
From the 平家物語.

1. Conjugate 索々（さくさく）たり meaning "rustling" into its bases.

2. What did most ナリ型形容動詞 become. Give an example.

3. How do you decide what 連用形 to use in respect to adjectives?

4. Conjugate 清（きよ）らなり meaning "beautiful" into its bases. 

     Verbs are by far the most difficult part of learning Classical Japanese. For those that have excelled in controlling the inflectional parts of speech in Modern Japanese, there will be a lot of initial struggle in getting used to Classical Japanese conjugation.

     One of the most obvious differences about verbs in Classical Japanese is that there are more verbal classes than there are in Modern Japanese. In Modern Japanese there are 上一段, 下一段, 五段, サ変, and カ変 verbs. In Classical Japanese there are 上一段, 下一段, 上二段, 下二段, 四段, サ変, カ変, ラ変, and ナ変 verbs. 

     These verbal classes all differ in how their bases look and in the frequency that they appear. Later, we will learn how these 9 verbal classes condensed to the 5 that exist today. For the mean time, we will begin coverage of Classical Japanese verbs with the 四段 class, the predecessor of the modern 五段 class. 

     We are looking at the Japanese language over a period of 1000+ years. It would be anachronistic if not completely wrong to assume verbs never changed classes. For now, it is up to you to learn how to identify the class of a verb, conjugate any given verb into its bases, and recognize the modern equivalent of a given verb that you have. The material will be given to you in order to figure this out. 

     四段 verbs are the most common kind of verbs in Classical Japanese, and it is still so today. 四段 verbs are called such because they have a four-grade conjugation. Meaning, they have four different vowel grades. In other words, out of the six bases, at least one of them ends with one of four vowels. These four vowels, in other of the bases, are a, i, u, u, e, and e. Below are the bases for 四段 verbs with the verb 逢ふ. 

Grammar Note: ～けり shows recollection. 

2. けふは 都 ( みやこ ) のみぞ思ひやらるる。
    I found myself turning my thoughts to just the capital today. 
From the 土佐日記.

Grammar Notes:

1. ぞ is used in Classical Japanese as a bound particle where it is very emphatic.
2. ～るる is the 連体形 of the auxiliary verb ～る, the predecessor of the Modern Japanese ～れる. 

3. 風も吹きぬべし。
    The wind will also blow for sure.
From the 土佐日記.

Grammar Note: ～ぬ is similar to "end up" and is used frequently with ～べし (should). 

4. 夏は 郭公 ( ) を聞く。
    I listen to the cuckoo in the summer.

5.  汝 なんぢ 、よく聞け。
    Listen well you！
From the 今昔物語集.

6. 我は、さやは思ふ。
    Do I think that way?
From the 徒然草.

Grammar Note: さ is like そのように in Modern Japanese and や is used here to make an emphatic rhetorical question. 

7. 今 一度 ( ひとたび ) 聲 ( こゑ ) をだに聞かせ給へ。
    No, let me hear your voice at least one time.
From the 源氏物語.

8. 鳴く鹿の聲聞く時ぞ秋はかなしき。
    Oh when I hear the voice of the crying deer, autumn is just sad!
From the 古今和歌集.

Grammar Note: The 連体形 may end a sentence instead of the 終止形 for emphasis. It is this that causes the confusion between the two and the inevitable fusing of them.

9. 信濃奈流　須我能安良能尓　保登等芸須　奈久許恵伎気婆　登伎須疑尓家里 
    信濃 ( しなの ) なる　 須賀 ( すが ) の 荒野 ( あらの ) に　ほととぎす　鳴く聲聞けば　時すぎにけり
     In the vast Suga Plain of Shinano, when I heard the call of the cuckoo, I felt that time had passed.  
From the 万葉集.

Grammar Notes:

1. The particle ば may be used like the particle to in Modern Japanese to mean "when".
2. The combination ～にけり is ～ぬ and ～けり put together. ～ぬ in this case shows the perfective--なってしまう.

1. Conjugate 思ふ into its bases.

2. Conjugate 聞く into its bases.

3. Conjugate 知る with -ず.

4. Conjugate 読む with the auxiliary verb -ども.

5. Complete the phrase with the right base of the verb. 

人こそ知＿。

6. What are Yodan verbs called in Modern Japanese?

     上一段 and 下一段 verbs are very large verbal classes in Modern Japanese. In Classical Japanese, however, there are only around 11 of them when excluding compound verbs.　As we will see in 第258課, the 二段 classes collapsed and became 一段 verbs.

     上一段 verbs are called such because they have an upper one-grade conjugation. In other words, their stem ends in い. Let's use the verb 見る to illustrate the bases. 

Form Note: Notice how the 命令形 is みよ and not みろ. This is because みろ was used in Eastern Japan and did not become standard until 東京弁 became the basis for 標準語.

All of these verbs are compounds or different meanings of the words ひる, いる, ゐる, きる, みる, and にる. There are less than 20 of such verbs. 

 Examples

1. 春は 藤波 ( ふぢなみ ) を見る。
    We look at the waves of wisteria in the spring.
From the 方丈記.

2. 月な 見給 ( みたま ) ひそ。
    Don't look at the moon.
From the 竹取物語.

Grammar Notes:

1. The pattern な...～そ makes a negative command. そ is the non-voiced form of ぞ and was commonly used from the 奈良時代 to the平安時代初期.
2. ～給ふ is an honorific supplementary verb. Its usage is extremely common in Classical Japanese. 

3. また、いさゝかおぼつかなく覚えて、頼むにもあらず、頼まずもあらで、案じゐたる人あり。
    Again, there are those that can think somewhat uneasily, and it's not even trusting, and even without       trusting, there are still people that think uneasily.
From the 徒然草.

Grammar Notes:

1. ～たる in this sentence functions like the modern pattern ～ている. This usage is still common in certain dialects today.
2. ～で is the contraction of ～ずに. 

4. まして、明らかならん人の、 惑 ( まど ) へる我等を見んこと、 掌 ( てのひら ) の 上 うへ の物を見んが如し。
    Much less, as far clear-headed people, as for trying to do things such as look at our bewildered               selves, it is just like looking at something in the palm of one's hands.
From the 徒然草.

Grammar Note: ～ん is the contraction of the volitional auxiliary verb ～む, the predecessor of ～よ(う). 

5.  魚 いを と鳥とのありさまを見よ。
    Look at the appearance of fish and birds.
From the 方丈記.

6. その 澤 ( さは ) のほとりの木の陰におりゐて、
     They got (their horses) and sat down in the shade of a tree on the edge of the marsh, and they...
From the 伊勢物語.

      There is only one 下一段 verb in Classical Japanese. The single verb is 蹴（け）る meaning "to kick". What is odd is that it is a 五段 verb in Modern Japanese. Its bases are shown below and is followed by example sentences. 

Base Note: The 命令形 is けよ because the r in the modern 命令形 was and still is a feature of Eastern Japanese dialects. As Classical Japanese is predominantly written in Western Dialects, it wasn't until the capital was moved to 東京 when the shift occurred. 

7. かの 典薬 ( てんやく ) の 助 ( すけ ) は 蹴 ( け ) られたりしを
    That assistant director of the Medical Ministry was kicked, and
From the 落窪物語.

Grammar Note: The particle を in this sentence is a final particle that shows exclamation.

8. この 尻 ( しり ) 蹴よ。
    Kick these buttocks!
From the 宇治拾遺物語.

9. 頭 かしら 蹴わられ
    Their heads were kicked and split open, and
From the 平家物語.

10. 鞠 まり を蹴る事か。
      Do you mean kick the football?
From the 浮世物語.

11. 尻蹴んとする 相撲 すまふ
      The sumo wrestler trying to kick the buttocks
From the 宇治拾遺物語.

12. 蹴れども
      Even though you don't kick

13. さと寄りて 一足 ( いつそく ) づつ蹴る。
      He quickly approached and kicked with each foot.
From the 落窪物語.

14. 円子川 まりこがわ 蹴ればぞ波はあがりける。
     When I kicked through Mariko River, a wave rose.
From the 源平盛衰記.

1. List the 上一段 verbs in Classical Japanese.

2. What is the only 下一段 verb in Classical Japanese.

3. Where is the source for the plethora of 一段 verbs in Modern Japanese?

4. Conjugate the verb 用ゐる into its bases. 

5. Contrast the bases of 蹴る in Modern Japanese to Classical Japanese.

6. Conjugate 蹴る and 居る with the auxiliary verb む・ん.

7. Conjugate 見る with the auxiliary verb けり.

     In this lesson we will learn about 二段 verbs. There are several single mora verbs as well as verbs that end in ゆ and づ. As the two classes of 二段 verbs look the same in the 終止形, you will have to memorize what class a verb is in, which is easy when you know what a given verb is in Modern Japanese. 上二段 and 下二段, each of which are only different in what two vowels are involved in their bases as the names suggest, have become 上一段 and 下一段 verbs respectively in Modern Japanese.

     There are a lot of 上二段 verbs in Classical Japanese. These verbs are those that end in -iru as 上一段 verbs in Japanese. Unlike Modern Japanese verbs which can only end in 9 certain morae, 二段 verbs can end in any う-vowel かな. There are three verbs in particular that are y-row verbs.

     The upper two-vowel grade conjugation for 上二段 verbs consists of the verbs i and u. Below are the bases of 上二段 verbs illustrated by the verb 落つ meaning "to fall". 

 Examples

1. 清見が関を過ぐ。
    We pass the barrier at Kiyomi.
From the 十六夜.

2. 木の葉の落つるも、まづ落ちて芽ぐむにはあらず。
    As for the falling of the tree leaves, it's not that they fall and then bud.
From the 徒然草. 

3. たけき者もつひには滅びぬ。
    Even the brave will eventually parish.
From the 平家物語.

4. おのづから、このほど過ぎば、見直したまひてむ。
    Naturally, if one passes this period, one will no doubt look over it again.
From the 源氏物語.

Grammar Note: ～てむ is the combination of the auxiliary verb ～つ and the auxiliary verb ～む to in this situation to show speculation with confidence.

5. むなしく過ぐる事を惜しむべし。
    You should regret passing your life in vain.
From the 徒然草. 

6. はやく過ぎよ。
    Pass it quickly!
From the 枕草子.

7. 良頼の 兵衛督 ( ひやふゑのかみ ) と 申 ( まう ) しし人の 家 ( いへ ) を過ぐれば、それ 桟敷 ( さじき ) へ渡り給ふなるべし。 
    When we passed the house of a person named Hyouenokami of Yoshiyori, he was supposed to have      just passed the balcony.
From the 更級日記.

     下二段 verbs are those that now end in -える. There were even verbs like 得(う) "to get" and 経（ふ） that were only one mora long. The distinction between its bases and its stem is blurred. You can find 下二段 verbs  that end in any う-vowel かな. This at times makes it hard to distinguish them from 四段 verbs. However, 四段 verbs, just like in Modern Japanese, only end in う, く, す, つ, ぬ, む, る, ぐ, or ぶ. Below are the bases of 下二段 verbs with the verb 植う.

Examples

8. 雨降り日暮る。
    The rain fell, and the sun set.
From the 奥の細道.

9. 心かしこき 関守 ( せきもり ) 侍りと聞こゆ。 
    They say that there is a clever barrier guard.
From the 枕草子.

10. 諫 いさ めをも思ひ入れず
      Not even trying to accept counsel
From the 平家物語.

11. 都を出でて
      We left the capital
From the 平家物語.

Base Note: The bases for a verb like 出づ are 出で、いで、いづ、いづる、いづれ、and いでよ.

12. 朝 あした に死に、 夕 ゆふべ に生まるるならひ
      The pattern of dying in the morning and being born in the evening
From the 方丈記.

13. 近き火などに逃ぐる人は、「しばし」とやいふ。
      Do people fleeing a nearby fire say, "wait a minute"?
From the 徒然草.

14. 日も 疾 ( と ) く暮れよかし。
      May the sun set soon!
From the 今昔物語集.

Particle Note: The particle かし creates great emphasis and frequently follows the 命令形.

15. かくて 今日 ( けふ ) 暮れぬ。
      Thus, today came to an end.
From the 土佐日記.

Grammar Note: ～ぬ shows the perfective.  

1. What did 二段 verbs become in Modern Japanese?

2. How did 二段 verbs evolve to what they are today?

3. Give the bases for 上二段 verbs.

4. Give the bases for 下一段 verbs.

5. Give the bases for 下二段 verbs.

6. Conjugate the 下二段 verb 經　（ふ） meaning "to pass (time)" into its bases.

7. Conjugate 捨つ with the endings べし, む, and ど.

8. Conjugate 恥づ into its bases and then use it with the noun 事. 

9. Categorize the following verbs.

10. For the verbs mentioned in exercise 9, give the modern form of the verb. If it is already modern, say so. 

     The verbs する and 来る have always been irregular. The first thing to know is that they were once す and 来 respectively. Their meaning have changed little, so we don't have to worry about much semantic change. 

     The primary verb in this irregular verbal class is す. Its bases are by no means normal, and it can be used in both transitive and intransitive contexts. As a transitive verb, it's like "to do". In intransitive contexts, it's like "to exist" or "to occur". 

     The other verb in this class is おはす, which is a very honorific verb meaning "to be/go/come". Like in Modern Japanese, す may attach to (Sino-)Japanese nouns to create 'new' verbs. At times, it may be voiced as ず. When the 終止形 and 連体形 became the same for verbs, ずる and じる became possible 終止形 for these "ず-すverbs". The verbs that end in -っする when する attaches to a (Sino-)Japanese word ending in する may also have つ contracted in Classical Japanese. However, it is debatable when the contraction started to reflect in the spoken language.

     Originally, す was the only サ変 verb. As it is such a dynamic word, it just had to be added to other words to create even more verbs. So, when did す become する? This change started to take place as early as the end of the 平安時代; both す and する hence began being used as interchangeable 終止形. The bases for サ変  verbs are: 

Bases Notes:

1. The alternative 未然形 and 命令形 that are present in Modern Japanese are due to the evolution of the bases.
2. As you can see, the 連用形, 連体形, and 已然形 are the same. When the 未然形 became し, it caused the 命令形 to take the form of しろ, which is essentially like the 命令形 of an 一段 verb. せい comes from the contraction of せよ itself. 

 Examples

1. 今日 けふ にのぼりて 宮仕 みやづか へをせよ。
    Go to the capital and serve for the imperial court!
From the 大和物語.

2. 昔、 惟喬 これたか の 親王 みこ と 申 まう す親王おはしましけり。
　　Long ago, there was a prince named Prince Koretaka.
From the 伊勢物語.

3. 昔の人の 袖 ( そで ) の 香 ( か ) ぞする。
    It had the scent of the sleeve of a person from the past (whom I knew very well).
From the 古今和歌集.

4. 死なむ藥も何かはせむ。
    What would I do with death preventing medicine?
From the 竹取物語.

5. 鬼 おに のやうなるもの 出 い で 來 き て殺さむとしき。
    Things that looked like demons came out and tried to kill us.
From the 竹取物語.

6. いとどあはれとご 覽 ( らん ) じて。
    (The emperor) looked with increasing pity (on the Kiritsubo consort).
From the 源氏物語.

7. 人々あまた 聲 ( こゑ ) して 來 ( く ) なり。
    It sounds as if a lot of people are coming and raising their voices.
From the 宇治拾遺物語.

Grammar Note: The auxiliary verb ～なり shows aural supposition in this example.

8. 妻戸 つまど をやはらかい 放 はな つ音すなり。
    It sounds like (someone) quietly opened up the chamber doors.
From the 堤中納言物語.

9. 秋の野に 人松 ( ひとまつ ) 蟲 ( むし ) の聲すなり。
    You can hear the voice of the pine cricket while waiting for someone in the autumn fields.
From the 古今和歌集.

Grammar Note: It is common to have two homophonous words intended at the same time. This is the case with the word まつ in the above example sentence.

10. われ 朝 ( あさ ) ごと 夕 ( ゆふ ) ごとに見る 竹 ( たけ ) の中におはするにて知りぬ。
       I know because she was inside the bamboo I had looked at each and every morning and evening.
From the 竹取物語.

11.  镸雨 ながあめ 、例の年よりもいたくして。
      The long rains were more intense than in usual years.
From the 源氏物語.

     The only verb throughout the history of the Japanese language that has been a カ変 verb is 来る. In Classical Japanese, its 終止形 was 来. For the most part, its translation is on the lines of "to come" or "to visit". The bases for 来 are:

     The bases for the most part are very similar to what they are in Modern Japanese. The contraction of 来よ, of course, lead to the modern 来い-命令形.

12. かの 唐船 ( もろこしぶね ) 來 ( き ) けり。  
      That Chinese boat came.
From the 竹取物語.

13. 春 來 ( く ) れば 雁 ( かり ) かへるなり。
      Since spring has come, I hear the wild geese returning.
From the 古今和歌集.

14. ひとびとたえずとぶらひにく。
      People endlessly came to visit.

Grammar Note: You may have noticed that the 終止形 can be used to represent the past tense. This is actually also so in Modern Japanese, although the practice is not that common outside of literature. So long as the context has temporal words that suggest anything but the present or future tense, auxiliary verbs are not necessary to show the preterit.

15. 山の方より人あまた來る音す。
      A sound was made from many people coming from the direction of the mountain.
From the 更級日記.

16. 秋風吹かむをりぞ 來 ( こ ) むとする。
      I'll come when the autumn winds blow.
From the 枕草子.

17. 「その 兒 ( こ ) こち 率 ( ゐ ) て 來 ( こ ) よ。」
      Bring that kid here!
From the 大和物語.

18. 龍 たつ の 頚 くび の取りえずは 歸 かへ り 來 く な。
      If you are unable to obtain the jewel from the dragon's neck, do not come back home!
From the 竹取物語.

Grammar Note: ～ずは is like しないなら and may also be seen as ～ずば or ～ずんば. 

19. かた時の 間 ( あひだ ) とて、かの 國 ( くに ) よりまうで 來 ( こ ) しかども 
      Thinking that it would be but for a short time, I came from that country, but...
From the 竹取物語.

20. 春過而 夏来良之
      春過ぎて夏來たるらし。
      It seems that spring has passed and summer has come.
From the 万葉集.

21. 世にある物ならば、この國にも持てまうで 來 ( き ) なまし。
      If it were something that existed in the world, they would've brought it and come to this country also.
From the 竹取物語.

Grammar Note: ～まし, which follows the 未然形, shows counter-factual speculation in this example. 

1. Compare and contrast the bases of す and する.

2. Compare and contrast the bases of 来 and 来る.

3. What would 信じる be in Classical Japanese and what would its bases be?

4. True or False: The す-終止形 and する were interchangeable from as early as the 奈良時代.

5. Conjugate the following verbs into their bases.

愛す拝すおはす来音す　

6. True or False: す and する are only limited to being attached to Sino-Japanese nouns to create 'new' verbs.

7. Create a simple sentence with す. You may model your sentence after any of the examples given in this lesson.

8. Why has the verb "to do" been so dynamic throughout the history of the Japanese language? Is this not also the case in other languages?

9. What are the conditions needed to use the 終止形 as the preterite?

10. Conjugate す and 来 with the auxiliary verbs -む, -て, and -べし. 

     There are four basic ラ変 irregular verbs in Classical Japanese: あり, をり, はべり, and いまそがり. And, there are two ナ変 irregular verbs: 死ぬ and 往ぬ.

ラ変 verbs that we have already seen before include あり, をり, and はべり before. あり is the primary ラ変 verb and is also a supplementary verb that tends to fuse with other things. をり is an alternate variant of ゐる. はべり, a contraction of 這 は いあり, means "to serve a superior" and is very honorific. It too can be used as a supplementary verb. Another ラ変 verb is いまそがり, a contraction of 座 いま す 処 か あり, which means "to be" and is very honorific.

     These verbs end in い rather than う in the 終止形 to signify a state of existence and or continuing state as do ある and いる in Modern Japanese. These verbs became 四段 verbs during the 鎌倉時代 when the 連体形 began to replace the 終止形 altogether.

     あり means "to be" and does not necessarily have the animate v. inanimate object distinction as its modern form ある does. As it is the most common of the four ラ変 verbs, we will use it to demonstrate the bases of ラ変 irregular verbs. Below are its bases. 

     Notice how the conjugations for ラ変 irregular verbs are almost identical to that of 四段 verbs as both have a four-vowel grade. 

Examples 

1.  義景 よしかげ は、 切戸 きりど の 脇 わき にかしこまりてぞはべりける。
　　Yoshikage waited by the side of the side door and was ready to be of service.
From the 増鏡.

2. その 帝 ( みかど ) のみこたかい子と 申 ( まう ) すいまそがりけり。
     There was a child of that emperor called Takaiko.
From the 伊勢物語.

3. 月の都の人にて、 父母 ちちはは あり。
     I am a person of the capital of the moon, and I have a father and mother.
From the 竹取物語.

4. この 國 ( くに ) にある物
    Something that exists in this country
From the 竹取物語.

5. いづくにもあれ
    Where it may be
From the 徒然草.

6. さすがに住む人のあればなるべし。
    As expected, it is definitely because there are people living there.
From the 徒然草.

7. 深き 故 ( ゆゑ ) あらん。
    There is a probably a deep reason.
From the 徒然草.

8. 昔 男 をとこ ありけり。
    There was a man long ago.
From the 伊勢物語.

9. 世の中にある人
     A person who exists in the world
From the 古今和歌集.

10. かの白く咲けるをなん「 夕顏 ( ゆふがほ ) 」と 申 ( まう ) しはべる。
      That flower blooming white is called the "evening face".
From the 源氏物語.

11. 二人 ふたり して打たんには、 侍 はべ りなむや。
      If two people were to hit (the dog), would it still live?
From the 枕草子.

12. 人倫 じんりん にあらず。
      One would not be human.
From the 徒然草.

13. かかる所に住む人、心に思ひ 殘 ( のこ ) すことはあらじかし。
      A person living in this kind of place would probably not have anything to regret.
From the 源氏物語.

14. 立礼杼毛 居礼杼毛 
      立てれども 居 ( を ) れども
      Whether standing or sitting
From the 万葉集.

Modern Remnant Note: You can still find あり as is in a few set phrases like 忙中閑 ( ぼうちゅうかん ) あり which means "to enjoy a moment of relief through one's work". 

Further Study Note: Other ラ変 verbs formed by the fusing of あり with other things to consider include 然 ( さ ) り "to be like" and 然 ( しか ) り "to be so". 

     The two ナ変 verbs in Classical Japanese are 死ぬ and 往ぬ, which mean "to die" and "to go" respectively. Their bases are just like 四段 verbs with exception to the 連体形 and the 已然形. In fact, this class eventually dissimulate quickly starting in the 江戸時代. We will use the verb 死ぬ to illustrate the bases.

 Examples

15. 死なば 一所 ( いつしよ ) で死なん。
      If we are going to die, let's die in one place.
From the 平家物語.

16. 北の方、 憎 ( にく ) し、とく死ねかしと思ふ。
      The principal wife thought, "Despicable, die quickly!"
From the 落窪の細道.

17. 焰 ほのほ にまぐれてたちまちに死ぬ。
      They are engulfed in the flames and immediately die.
From the 方丈記.

18. 水におぼれて死なば死ね。
      If we're going to drown in the water, let's die!
From the 平家物語.

19. 「 往 ( い ) ね」といひければ
      Since she said, "Leave", 
From the 大和物語.

1. What is the significance of ラ変 verbs ending in い?

2. What differentiates ラ変 and 四段 verbs?

3. What differentiates ナ変 and 四段 verbs?

4. When did the ナ変 class begin to disappear?

5. What is いまそがり a contraction of?

6. Give the bases of 居り.

7. Create a simple sentence with 死ぬ.

8. What is the only 五段 verb still used today that ends in -ぬ?

9. Give the bases for 往ぬ.

10. When did the 終止形 and the 連体形 begin to fuse for あり?

     The auxiliary verb ～ず follows the 未然形 to show the negative. This is the easiest part about it. ～ず has three sets of bases. This is the hardest part about it. Throughout this lesson we'll study ～ず by using the chart below. The base sets will be referred to by their respective 連用形.

     The first base sequence of the negative auxiliary verb was な-, に-, X, ぬ-, ね-, and X. The な-未然形 and the に-連用形 faded away and the 連用形 was replaced with ～ず. This in turn became the 終止形. A third set of bases was created with the fusion of ～ず with あり. The base sets are interchangeable. For example, ～ぬ and ～ざる are both common.

Temporally speaking, although ず ultimately comes from にす, Old Japanese already had ず as the終止形. The third column most definitely appears later on in Middle Japanese. 

    The な-未然形 was used in the speech modal ～なくに, which meant "because...isn't". It was also a 語尾 meaning "how...isn't?". 

1. み 山 ( ) には 松 ( まつ ) の 雪 ( ) だに 消 ( き ) えなくに  都 ( みやこ ) は 野辺 ( のべ ) の 若菜摘 ( わかなつ ) みけり。
As even the snow on the pine trees hasn't disappeared in the mountains, the (people in the) capital gathered young greens from the fields! 

From the 古今和歌集.

Nuance Note: The prefix み- in this poem is used as a beautifier.  

     The に-連用形 was used in the Nara Period (奈良時代) in the same way as the modern ～なくて.

2.  去方乎不知 舎人者迷惑　 行 くへを 知 らに 舎人 とねり はまどふ
Not knowing the way to go, the low-ranking officials working for the nobility wander about.
From the 万葉集.

Culture Note: A とねり was a low-ranking official who worked for the nobility.

3. たづきを知らに
    Not knowing the livelihood

     The 連体形 and the 已然形 weren't lost like the 未然形 and 連用形.

4. 人 ( ) こそ 知 ( ) らね。
    Though people don't know.

Grammar Note: The particle こそ has the following verb be in the 已然形 in Classical Japanese. 

5. 京 みやこ には 見 えぬ 鳥 なれば
    Since it was a bird not seen in the capital
From the 伊勢物語.

Grammar Note: The 連体形 is used because the verb 見 ( ) ゆ, the Classical form of 見える, is used as negative participle. 

6.  八重葎茂 やえむぐらしげ れる 宿 やど の 寂 さび しきに 人 こそ 見 えね 秋 は 来 にけり
Although you could see no person in the loneliness of the lodge thickened with mixed weeds, autumn ended up coming.
From the 新日本古典文学大系.

Grammar Note: This sentence is in the 已然形 because of the particle こそ. Don't mind other Classical grammar items. 

7. いとやむごとなき 際 ( きは ) にはあらぬがすぐれて 時 ( ) めき 給 ( たま ) ふありけり
    The person didn't have very high regards in status and found favor in particular. 
From the 源氏物語.

Grammar Note: The 連体形 is used with conjunctive particles such as が. 

8. 人 ( ) の 歌 ( ) の 返 ( かえ ) しとすべきをえ 詠 ( よ ) み 得 ( え ) ぬほども 心許 ( こころもと ) なし
You should respond quickly to a person's poem, and when you're unable to write one, it (the situation) is precarious. 
From the 枕草子.

Grammar Note: え...-ず is the negative potential. The 連体形, 読み得ぬ, modifies the noun ほど. The particle を in this sentence is interchangeable with the particle が.

9. 法師 ほふし ばかり 羨 うらや ましからぬものはあらじ
    Nothing/none is probably as unenviable as a priest.
From the 徒然草.

How did ～ず come from n-sounds? The incomplete first column of bases is the primary reason for the evolution that brought forth three sets of bases. To make a 終止形, the 連用形 combined with す, the Classical する, to create ～にす which became ～んす which became ～んず which became ～ず. ～ず's 連用形 and 終止形 are still very important in Modern Japanese grammar.

10. 連絡 ( ) が 取 ( ) れず、 心配 ( ) しました。
      Without having contact, I got worried.

Grammar Note: The above sentence uses ～ず in the 連用形.

11. 分 ( ) らず 屋 (Set Phrase)
      An obstinate person.

12. 君 や 来 こ し 行 きけむ 思 ほえず
      Did you come? Did I even go? I can't think naturally.
From the 伊勢物語.

13. 新都 しんと はいまだ 成 な らず。
      The new capital has still not materialized.
From the 方丈記.

14. 慈悲 じひ の 心 なからむは 人倫 じんりん に 非 あら ず
      If someone didn't have a heart of compassion, he wouldn't be human.
From the 徒然草.

Grammar Note: ～ず follows the verb あり (ある in Modern Japanese) normally. 

15. 飽 あ かずして 別 わか るる 袖 そで の 白玉 しらたま
       The white jewel of your sleeve which parted from you despite being unsatisfied.
From the 古今和歌集.

16. 悪所 あくしよ におちて 死 し にたからず
      I don't want to die falling into a dangerous place.
From the 平家物語.

17. つゆまどろまれず
      I couldn't doze off at all.
From the 日本古典文学大系.

18. 昔 ( ) のごとくにもあらず
      It's not even like it was in the past.
From the 大和物語.

19. ゆく 川 の 流 れは 絶 た えずしてしかももとの 水 みづ にあらず
       The flowing of the passing water is endless at the same; moreover, it is not the original water.
From the 徒然草.

20. 住 ( ) まずして 誰 ( たれ ) かさとらむ
      Without living there, who would understand (the pleasure)?
From the 大和物語.

21. 逢 あ はずして 今宵明 こよひあ けなば 春 の 日 の 長 くや 人 をつらしと 思 はん
      Without meeting, and then the evening ending up dawn, I will surely think of you as long as a spring day as being cruel.
From the 古今和歌集. 

      The ざり- bases came from the fusion of ず- and the supplementary verb あり. The ざり- bases are interchangeable with the other sets but become prevalent in later Classical texts.

     At the point of inception, the first and second base sets were essential one as "X, ず-, ず, ぬ, ね-, X". Both 連用形 were acceptable with ざり- being preferred. The 連体形 were completely interchangeable. As for the 已然形, ね- was preferred when used with bound particles and ざれ- was preferred when used with an ending.

     In the 室町時代 the ぬ-連体形 became an interchangeable variant of the 終止形. ～ぬ eventually replaced ～ず as the negative auxiliary verb and evolved into ～ん in the West and into ～ない in the East. When this happened, all of the bases were scrubbed for 形容詞 bases.

Examples 

22. つひにゆく 道 ( ) とはかねて 聞 ( ) きしかど 昨日今日 ( きのふけふ ) とは 思 ( ) はざりしを。
      I had heard before of the path we will eventually go, but I didn't think that it would be yesterday or today!
From the 古今和歌集.

23. 絶 ( ) えざる 不安 ( )
      Anxiety that won't cease

24. 何 ( ) も 書 ( ) かん。
      I won't write anything.

25.  夢 ゆめ と 知 し りせば 覚 さ めざらましを
      If I had known that it was a dream, I would've never woken up.
From the 古今和歌集.

26. 山高 ( ) きと 知 ( ) らず。
      To not know the mountain is tall.

27. 怖 ( ) いものもあらず。
      To not even have things one is scared of.

28. 自らの信条を吐露せざれ。
      Express one's beliefs.  

～ずに & ～ずにはいられない

～ずに and ～ずにはいられない mean "without" and "cannot help but..." respectively and are formed with the ず-連用形. 

29. 勉強 ( ) せずに、 受験 ( ) したから、 落第 ( ) してしまった。
      Because I took the exam without studying, I ended up failing it.

Grammar Note: You must use the せ-未然形 of する for all Classical Japanese auxiliary verbs.

29. 心配 ( ) せずにはいられない。
      I couldn't help but worry.

30. 懲 こ らしめてやらずにはおかない。
       I couldn't help but give him punishment.

31. 霞立 長春日乃 晩家流 和豆肝之良受
      霞立   かすみた つ 長 き 春日 はるひ の 暮 く れにける わづきも 知 らず
      I also don't know of the moon setting in the overshadowing long spring day.
From the 万葉集.

32. 怒 おこ らせずにはすまないでしょう。
      You probably can't help but get angry, right?

33. 泣 ( ) き 出 ( ) さずにはすまさない。
      I cannot help but cry profusely.

Variation Note: ～ずにはいられない variants include ～ずにはすまない, ～ずにはおかない, and ～ずにはすまさない.

～ずは・ずば・ずんば

The main usage of ～ずは is to show negative hypothesis and is equivalent to しないなら in Modern Japanese. So, ～ずは means "if...had not". In the late 奈良時代 it was also used like ～ずに to mean "without...". In the medieval era ～ずは was seen as ～ず（ん）ば.

34. 虎穴 こけつ に 入 い らずんば 虎子 こし を 得 え ず。
      Nothing ventured, nothing gained.
      Literally: Without entering the tiger's den, you won't get the tiger's cub.

35. 降伏 こうふく せずば、 命 はない。
      If you don't surrender, you will not live.

36. 雉 きじ も 鳴 かずば 撃 う たれまい。
      If the green pheasant doesn't cry, let's not shoot.

37. まろ 格子上 ( かうし ) げずば 道 なくてげにえ 入 ( い ) り 來 ( こ ) ざらまし
      If I hadn't raised the lattice, there would have been no path and it would have truly not have been able to come in.
From the 源氏物語.

38. 行 ( ) かずばなるまい。
      We have no choice but to go.

Grammar Note: ～ずばなるまい is the predecessor of ～なければならない. 

39. 火 ( ) に燒かむに燒けずはこそ 真 ( まこと ) ならめ
      When we try to burn it by fire and it cannot burn, it's definitely the real thing.
From the 竹取物語.

～ずて

    The speech modal ～ずて means "not..." and is equivalent to ～ないで. 

40. 麻都我延乃 都知尓都久麻掾 布流由伎乎 美受弖也伊毛我 許母里乎流良牟
      松 が 枝 ( ) の 土 ( ) に 着 ( ) くまで 降 ( ) る 雪 ( ) を 見 ( ) ずてや 妹 ( いも ) が 隠 ( こも ) り 居 ( を ) るらむ
      How could you not see the snow that falls up to the earth of the pine tree branches and stay indoors dear?
From the 万葉集. 

41. 比等未奈能 美良武麻都良能 多麻志末乎 美受弖夜和礼波 故飛都々遠良武
      人皆 ( ) の 見 ( ) らむ 松浦 ( ) の 玉島 ( ) を 見 ( ) ずてや 我 ( われ ) は 恋 ( こ ) ひつつ 居 ( を ) らむ
      Not looking at Matsu'ura no Tamashima that everyone is said to see, I was homesick.
From the 万葉集.

1. Illustrate the bases of -ず.

2. What base does -ず follow?

3. Create a sentence using the first column of bases of -ず. Use the example sentences in this lesson to model your sentence.

4. How did -ず come about?

5. Create a sentence with -ず being in the 連用形 or 終止形.

6. Create a sentence with a speech modal utilizing -ず.

7. Create a sentence using the third column of bases of -ず.

8. Create a sentence using -ぬ, the evolved form of -ず.

9. Create a sentence with -ずんば.

     The auxiliary verb ～き indicates (personal) past and shows direct recollection. However, the auxiliary verb ～けり indicates hearsay past and shows transmitted recollection. 

     ～き indicates a past that is distant and separate from the present; ～けり looks retrospectively at the past. This, though, is speculative and not necessarily the case in each instance. However, this is typically how it is described. So, this site will go with the traditional explanation.

     ～き has an irregular conjugation and follows the 連用形; however, when used with サ変 or カ変 verbs, it may instead follow the 未然形. Its bases are:

Conjugation Note: ～き neither has a 連用形 nor a 命令形, and it is rarely ever seen in the 未然形.

Examples 

1. 京 きやう より下りし時に、みな人、子どもなかりき。
    When we left the capital, no one had children.
From the 土佐日記.

2. つひにゆく道とはかねて聞きしかど 昨日今日 ( きのふけふ ) とは思はざりしを。
    I had heard before about the path that we go in the end, but I didn't think that it would be yesterday or     today. 
From the 古今和歌集.

3. 片時 かたとき の 間 あひだ とて、かの國よりまうで 來 こ しかども、かく、この國にはあまたの年を 經 へ ぬるになむありける。
    Thinking that it would be momentary, I came from that country, but I ended up like this in this country       spending several years.
From the 竹取物語.

Particle Note: The bound particle なむ in the example above is used for emphatic purposes. 

4. 鬼 おに のやうなるもの 出 い で來て殺さむとしき。
    Demon like things came out and tried to kill us.
From the 竹取物語.

5. 一夜 ひとよ のうちに 塵灰 ちりはい となりにき。
    In one night, (the buildings) ended up becoming dust and ashes.
From the 方丈記.

6. よべもすずろに起きあかしてき。
    Somehow or other, I also got up last night and ended up staying up until dawn.
From the 源氏物語.

7. 和歌の 上手 ( じやうず ) 、 管弦 ( くわんげん ) の道にもすぐれ 給 ( たま ) へりき。
    He had been a master of poetry, and he had also excelled in music.
From the 大鏡.

8. きし 方行 ( かたゆ ) く 末 ( すゑ ) も知らず海にまぎれむとしき。
    Not knowing the direction I had come from nor where I was going, it seemed that I'd get lost.
From the 竹取物語.

9. 雨のいたく降りしかば、え 參 ( まゐ ) らずなりにき。
    Since the rain fell hard, I wasn't able to visit.
From the 大和物語.

10. この寺にありし 源氏 ( げんじ ) の 君 ( きみ ) こそおはしたなれ。
      They say that Lord Genji, who was at this temple, came.
From the 源氏物語.

Fossilization Note: You can still see this auxiliary verb in a few expressions in Modern Japanese such as in 在 ( あ ) りし日 which means "the olden days". Another one is 聞きしに 勝 ( まさ ) る which means "to go beyond one's expectations". 

     ～けり follows the 連用形 and has a ラ-変 conjugation. As said before, it is important in showing hearsay past and direct past (recollection perspective). ～けり also has an exclamatory element to it where it can be viewed as the modern だったな. This, in turn, can show discovery. Both of these functions can overlap, especially in poetry. Its bases are:

Conjugation Note: The bases are limited for the same reasons the bases for ～き are.

 Examples

11. 行かずなりにけり。
      I ended up not going.
From the 伊勢物語.

12. 枯 か れ 枝 えだ に 烏 からす のとまりけり秋の 暮 く れ。
      A crow has stopped on a withered branch, an autumn evening!
From 芭蕉.

13. むかし、をとこ、身はいやしくて、いとになき人を思ひかけたりけり。
     They say that long ago there was a man who was of low status who fell in love with a person of high        status. 
From the 伊勢物語. 

14. このをとこ、かいまみてけり。
      This man ended up looking through the hedge (at the sisters).
From the 伊勢物語.

15. その人の名忘れにけり。
       I ended up forgetting that person's name.
From the 伊勢物語.

16. 「ここやいどこ」と問ひければ、「土佐の 泊 ( とまり ) 」と言ひけり。
       When I asked, "Where is this place", they said, "The landing at Tosa".
From the 土佐日記.

17. その人、ほどなく 失 ( う ) せにけりと聞き 侍 ( はべ ) りし。
      I heard people say that person passed away before long.
From the 徒然草.

18. 見渡せば 柳櫻 ( やなぎさくら ) をこきまぜて 都 ( みやこ ) ぞ春の 錦 ( にしき ) なりける。
      When I looked across the willow and cherry blossom trees mix together, the capital was a brocade of       spring!  
From the 古今和歌集.

19. わたりし時は 水 ( みづ ) ばかり見えし田どもも、みな刈りはててけり。
      I found that even the rice fields that had appeared filled with water when I came here had all been           completely harvested.
From the 更級日記.

20. 今は昔、 竹取 ( たけとり ) の 翁 ( おきな ) といふものありけり。
      Now in the distant past, it is said that there was a person called "Old Man the Bamboo Cutter".
From the 竹取物語.

21. うちおどろきたれば、夢なりけり。
      When I suddenly woke up, I realized that it was just a dream!
From the 更級日記.

22. 昔、 男 ( をとこ ) ありけり。身はいやしながら、母なむ宮なりける。
      It is said that long ago there was a man. While his status was low, his mother was a princess.
From the 伊勢物語.

23. まことかと聞きて見つれば、 言 ( こと ) の 葉 ( は ) を 飾 ( かざ ) れる玉の枝にぞありける。
      He listened, wondering if it was real, and when he looked closely, he discovered that it was a 　　　　 　　 jeweled branch.
From the 竹取物語.

24. 仁和 にんな のみかど、みこにおはしましける時に、人にわかなたまひける 御 おほむ うた。
      An honorable poem from when Emperor Ninna was a prince and bestowed young herbs on a 　　　　 　　 person.
From the 古今和歌集.

25. 野を見れば春めきにけり。
      When I look at the wild field, it has become spring-like.
From the 拾遺集.

26. 今夜 こよひ は 十五夜 じふごや なりけり。
      Tonight is the fifteenth night!
From the 源氏物語.

27. 鳴く 声 ( こゑ ) 、 鵺 ( ぬえ ) にぞ似たりける。
      The crying voice resembled that of the nue.
From the 平家物語.

28. 櫻花 あうくわ 咲き染めにけり。
     The cherry blossoms have blossomed and tinted.

29. その根のありければ、きりくひの 僧正 ( そうじやう ) といひけり。
      Since that tree stump was there, people called him "Archbishop Tree Stump".
From the 徒然草.

30. 一來 法師打死 ( ほふしうちじ ) にしてんげり。
      Priest Ichirai ended up dying in battle.
From the 平家物語.

31. 在原なりける 男 ( をのこ ) 。
      The man who was of the Ariwara Clan.

32. 七夕 たなばた まつるこそなまめかしけれ。
      Celebrating Tanabata is indeed elegant.
From the 徒然草.

33. 蛇 くちなは をば 大井川 おほゐがは に流してけり。
      He ended up throwing the snake into the Ooi River.
From the 徒然草.

Historical Note: ～けり came from the combination of the ～き and あり.

Modern Remnant: ～けり survives in poetry today. The particle け actually comes from ～けり. It can also be seen in けりをつける meaning "to put an end to". It can also strength the verb 因る in よりけり to mean "depend on". 

34. ことと次第によりけりだ。
      That all depends.

35. 話は条件によりけりだよ。
      The discussion all depends on the conditions.

1.Describe the difference between -き and -けり.

2. What base(s) does -き follow?

3. What base(s) does -けり follow?

4. Create a simple sentence or phrase with -き.

5. Create a simple sentence or phrase with -けり.

6. List the bases for -き.

7. List the bases for -けり.

8. The 未然形 is seldom used for both き and けり. Why?

9. The 連用形 and 命令形 are not used for both き and けり. Why?

10. こしかば, what base of the verb and auxiliary verb is used in this expression?

     No, this lesson is not about the negative auxiliary verb ～ぬ that follows the 未然形. Rather, this lesson is about auxiliary verbs that show the 完了形 (perfective), ～ぬ and ～つ. 

     The perfective refers to an action that has been realized or completed . ～ぬ and ～つ are parallel in basically every way and have the same usages. What makes them different is that ～ぬ is used intransitively and ～つ is used transitively. They both follow the 連用形.  

     The auxiliary verb ～ぬ shows that an action not only has been completed but was also of natural occurrence. It may also show certainty where it is often followed by other auxiliary verbs that show intention or speculation such as ～べし (should). ～ぬ may also show back-and-forth parallel action like the particle たり today. 

     ～ぬ conjugations as a ナ変 verb. Its bases are below. 

 Examples

1. みな 紅 くれなゐ の 扇 あうぎ の日いだしたるが、 白波 しらなみ の 上 うへ にただよひ、 浮 うき きぬ 沈 しづ みぬ 揺 ゆ られければ
    Since the fan with the sun drawn with gold in the crimson land floated on top of the white wave and           swayed while floating and sinking
From the 平家物語.

2. 嶺 みね の 櫻 さくら は散りはてぬらむ。
    The cherry blossoms at the peak have probably completely scattered.
From the 新古今和歌集.

3. 舟 ふね こぞりて泣きにけり。
    Everyone at once ended up crying in the boat.
From the 伊勢物語.

Grammar Note: ～にけり is a common combination with ～ぬ. Crying is intransitive, but it is also something that people do. 

4. 盛 さか りにならば、 容貌 ようばう もかぎりなくよく 髪 かみ もいみじく長くなりなむ。
    When I reach my prime, my features will be exceedingly good, and my hair will also no doubt become        extremely long.
From the 更級日記.

5. 晴れたる空は 夜 ( よる ) に 入 ( い ) りて雨となりぬ。
    The bright sky went into night, and it ended up raining.
By 田山花袋.

6. けぶりあふにやあらむ、 清見 ( きよみ ) が 関 ( せき ) の波も高くなりぬべし。
    I wonder if the ocean spray will raise a lot. The waves in Kiyomigaseki will surely get high. 
From the 更級日記.

7. 果 は たし 侍 はべ りぬ。
    It was finally carried out.
From the 徒然草. 

     You should expect ～ぬ to follow intransitive verbs, passive auxiliary verbs such as ～る and ～らる. There is no volition as everything occurs naturally on its own, the true definition of being intransitive. Keep this in mind because ～つ will share ～ぬ's three usages but differ in how it is used. 

     As stated earlier, ～つ is the same as ～ぬ with the exception that it is used with transitive verbs. ～つ generally indicates deliberate action. Like ～ぬ, it can be in various patterns to show confidence. As they show confidence, they are never followed by negative auxiliary verbs. ～つ does survive today as a conjunctive particle in set phrases such as 矯めつ眇めつ. ～つ has a 下二段 conjugation and has the following bases. 

 Examples

8. そこに日を暮らしつ。
    They ended up passing the day there.
From the 更級日記.

9. 僧都 そうづ 、乗っては降りつ、降りては乗っつ。
    The priest went aboard, fell off, and came aboard.
From the 平家物語.

10. 年ごろ思ひつること 
      What I had been thinking for years
From the 徒然草.

11. とまれかうまれ、とく 破 ( やぶ ) りてん。 
      Whatever the case may be, I will definitely tear it up.
From the 土佐日記.

Contraction Note: とまれかうまれ is a contraction of とまれかくまれ.

12. この事をばまづ言ひてん。
      This should end up being said above all.
From the 徒然草.

13. 命限りつと思ひ 惑 ( まど ) はる。
      I couldn't help but panic thinking, "my life has definitely come to an end".
From the 更級日記. 

14. なよ竹のかぐや 姫 ( ひめ ) とつけつ。
     He ended up naming her Shining Princess of Supple Bamboo.
From the 竹取物語.

15. これにて 魯西亜 ( ロシア ) より帰り来んまでの 費 ( つひ ) えをば支えつべし。
     With this, he should end up sustaining the wasteful expenses up to coming home from Russia.
By 鷗外.

1. Give the bases of -つ.

2. Give the bases of -ぬ.

3. What is different about -ぬ and -つ.

4. How would you express the perfective in Modern Japanese?

5. What would be a good definition of -てん・てむ?

6. Explain the elements of the example sentence 果たし侍りぬ.

7. How is the usage of emphasis and certainty enumerated more clearly in respect to -ぬ and -つ?

8. Back-and-forth action began to be a declining usage of -ぬ and -つ. What takes that role today? Give an example.

9. Translate the following.

雪のうちに春はきにけり。

10. 日も暮れぬ。What function of what auxiliary verb was used?

11. 散りぬ and 散らしつ differ how?

12. -ぬ and -つ generally follow verbs based on transitivity. But, there are some verbs such as 出づ （いづ） "to leave" and 寝ぬ （いぬ） "to sleep" where both are OK. However, there is a nuance difference. What would this be? 

     The auxiliary verbs ～き and ～けり are about recollection. ～ぬ and ～つ are about the perfective. The auxiliary verbs ～たり and ～り are about results, continuation, and the past tense. ～たり is the ancestor of ～た, the all for one ending that replaced all of these endings. Although ～り came first, we will start this discussion by talking about the most important of two endings, ～たり. 

     ～たり comes from ～てあり. In Modern Japanese, there is a difference between ～てある, ～ている, and ～た. However, in Classical Japanese, ～たり served all three of these purposes. ～たり first appeared way back in the 奈良時代, when the ending -り was prevalent for the same functions ～たり has. So, why did ～たり come to be? It is because ～り could only follow 四段 and サ変 verbs. As no such restriction was placed on ～たり, it led to its prevalence after the 奈良時代, resulting in ～た dominating over several other endings relating to the past. 

     ～た began being used as early as the 鎌倉時代. However, it took until the 江戸時代 for the continuative and resultative functions of ～たり to be replaced by ～てある and ～ている. Now, let's go into more detail about what these functions are. 

     First and foremost, the bases of ～たり, which follow a ラ変 conjugation, are as follows. 

 The Six Functions of ～たり

1. Continuative: This is "-ing" in English and ～ている in Modern Japanese.
2. Resultative: This is "has been" in English and ～てある in Modern Japanese. This indicates that someone has already done something and that the result continues.
3. Past Tense: This is "-ed" in English and ～た in Modern Japanese.
4. Back-and-forth: This is classified as a conjunctive particle usage in Modern Japanese.
5. Future realization: "when...occurs".
6. Urgent Command: This is now also carried out by ～た in Modern Japanese. 

   ---

 Examples

1. みな 人 ( ひと ) はおもき 鎧 ( よろひ ) のうへに、おもき物を負うたり、 抱 ( いだ ) ひたりして 入 ( い ) ればこそ 沈 ( しづ ) め。
    On top of their heavy armor, they were bearing heavy things on their backs and holding them in their     hands, so when they entered the water they sank.
From the 平家物語.

Sound Change Note: Two noticeable sound changes can be found in this sentence. ～たり follows 負う instead of 負ひ-, which is still common for ～た after similar verbs in Western Japan, and it follows 抱ひ- instead of 抱き-. This sound change is still used for all 五段 verbs that end in く in Modern Japanese. Also, the particle こそ makes the verb of the clause/sentence it is in in the 已然形. 

2. 橋をひいたぞ。
    They pulled up the bridge!
From the 平家物語.

3. いづくにもあれ、しばし旅立ちたるこそ、目 覚 ( さ ) むる心ちすれ。
    When one is on a trip for a while, it doesn't matter where as one will certainly feel being awakened.
From the 徒然草.

4. 上 うへ は 鞘巻 さやまき の黒く塗りたりけるが
    As for the surface, it was varnished black with a sayamaki. 
From the 平家物語.

5. おもしろく咲きたる 櫻 ( さくら ) を長く 折 ( を ) りて　大きなる 瓶 ( かめ ) にさしたるこそをかしけれ
    Picking up beautifully blossomed cherry blossoms and placing them in a big vase is precisely zestful.
From the 枕草子.

6.  瓜 うり にかきたる 稚児 ちご の 顔 かほ
     The face of a child scratched onto a melon
From the Makura no Soushi. 

7. さあ、どいたり、どいたり。(Old-fashioned Modern Japanese example)   
    Well, move it, move it!

     As ～り is much older than ～たり, it never evolved in usage to be able to show parallel action nor future realization. ～り comes from あり, which attached itself to the 連用形 of verbs. This caused a merging of "-i+a" which lead to "e". It was then treated as an auxiliary verb that followed the 已然形・命令形 of 四段 verbs as well as the 未然形 of サ変 verbs. It was very common in works from the 奈良時代 such as the 万葉集. 

     ～り wasn't completely abandoned however. It still survived in Japanese-Chinese style writing. ～り has the same resultative, continuative, and past tense functions as ～り. It's just that its lack of versatility in the kind of verbs that could follow is what caused its demise overall. The bases of ～り are: 

8. 事すでに 重畳 ( ちようでふ ) せり。
    This has already piled up.
From the 平家物語.

9. おごれる心
    Proud heart
From the 平家物語.

10. 生ける 屍 ( しかばね )
      Living corpse

11. 去年 こぞ 焼けて、 今年 ことし 作れり。
      (A house) burned last year, and this year it has been built again.
From the 方丈記.

12. 公園 こうゑん の木の 間 あひだ に 小鳥 ことり をあそべるをながめてしばし 憩 いこ ひけるかな。
      Oh how I rested for a while looking at the small beard playing in the trees in the park.
By 石川啄木.

13. 金野乃 美草苅葺 屋杼礼里之 兎道乃宮子能 借五百礒所念　(原文)
      秋の野の、み草 刈 ( か ) り 葺 ( ふ ) き、宿れりし、 宇治 ( うぢ ) の 宮処 ( みやこ ) の、 仮廬 ( かりいほ ) し思ほゆ。
      I remember the thatching of the roof with grass only from the autumn field of the temporary inn we         stayed at in the capital.
From the 万葉集.

14. 宇良々々尓 照流春日尓 比婆理安我里 情悲毛　(原文)
　　 うらうらに、照れる 春日 ( はるひ ) に、 雲雀 ( ひばり ) 上がり、心悲しも。
　　 On a spring day when the sun is shining gently, my heart is sad though the skylark dances above. 
From the 万葉集.

Spelling Note: Notice the usage of 々 above in how the first doubled 宇 and the second doubled 良.

15. 人を遣りて見するに、おほかた逢へる者なし。
　　  He sent a man and made him look, but there wasn't a single person who had met (the demon).
From the 徒然草.

Modern Remnant Note: This item can be found alive in the set phrase 至れり尽くせり, which means "most gracious", using the particle の to be used as an attribute.

16. 至れり尽くせりの持て成し
　　 Most gracious hospitality 

1. Give the bases of -たり.

2. Give the bases of -り.

3. What is the difference between the copula verb たり and the auxiliary verb -たり? Illustrate.

4. Why did -り get replaced by -たり.

5. Why is it that you think -た replaced all of the other endings related to the past? 

6. Think of the functions of -たり and -り. How are they differentiated in modern grammar?

7. Translate the following.

吉野の里に降れる白雪

8. Detail the sound changes discussed in this lesson.

9. What are -ぬ and -つ used to represent?

        There are still four kinds of nouns in Classical Japanese as there is in Modern Japanese: proper, common, numerical, and nominal.

Note: Spelling and pronunciation are often different, of these differences time period places an important role. Also, common nominal nouns that Classical Japanese and Modern Japanese share are: こと, ため, ところ, もの, やう, よし, ゆゑ, and わけ.

     As numbers are going to be discussed separately in Lesson 146, the following chart will only have examples of the other three kinds of nouns. 

2. いつしか 梅 ( うめ ) 咲かむ。
    I wish that the plum would bloom as soon as possible.
From the 更級日記.

3. 月は 在明 ありあけ にて
    The moon was that of dawn,
From the 奥の細道.

4. いざ 給 ( たま ) へ、 出雲 ( いづも ) 拝 ( をが ) みに 
    Well, please come, in order to make a pilgrimage to Izumo.
From the 徒然草.

     There are quite a few pronouns in Classical Japanese that are no longer used in Modern Japanese, at least not in modern contexts. Below are the pronouns of Classical Japanese categorized by person with notes on how they are used.

Usage Note: Second person pronouns are more frequently used in Classical Japanese as their usages were honorific rather than insulting. This, of course, changed over time. So, it is still the case that a person's name was better to use. 

Historical Note: Other pronouns like 私・わたくし ( from the word private) and あなた (literally that direction) can still be seen. 俺 could also be used as a second person pronoun, and ore itself was neutral and it was the second person pronoun usage that was used contemptuously. This is because ore is a contraction of 己!

Demonstratives: Demonstratives such as こちら, そちら, and あちら (comparable to こなた, そなた, and あなた) are used as pronouns in Classical Japanese as well. In fact, これ can also mean "that person" and 彼 could also mean "that thing". 

Pluralization: 我, 君, お前, 貴様, 手前, 彼, and 彼女 are commonly pluralized. The same suffixes for pluralization are used, but ～ども is more common. 

5. かれは、人の許し聞こえざりしに。
    No one gave their approval of that person. 
From the 源氏物語.

6. 君や 来 ( こ ) し 我 ( われ ) や 行 ( い ) きけむ思ほえず。
    Did you come? Did I go? I don't remember.
From the 伊勢物語.

7. みな 鎧 ( よろひ ) の袖をぞぬらしける。
    Everyone wet the sleeves of their armor!
From the 平家物語.

8.  誰 たれ もいまだ都慣れぬほどにて、え見つけず。
    Since it was a time when no one was yet used to the capital, they were not able to find it.
From the 更級日記.

9. これはみかたぞ。
    I am an ally!
From the 平家物語.

10. わが宿は道もなきまで 荒 ( あ ) れにけり。
      My lodge has grown wild to the point where there is no longer a road.
From the 古今和歌集.

11. 吾人 ごじん の関知するところにあらず。
      It is not of our concern.

12. 君ならで誰にか見せん。
      If not to you, to whom would I show?
From the 古今和歌集.

13. 君も臣もさわがせ給ふ。
      Both the lord and the retainers panicked. 
From the 平家物語.

14. 私が二階にゐることを必ずいふまいぞ。
      Never say that I am on the second floor.
From the 冥土の飛脚.

15. 汝 なんぢ 殺すなかれ。
      Thou shalt not kill.

16. 某 それがし にお任せください。
      Allow me to do this.

1. 汝 was once なむち. Show how it changed over time.

2. How is 貴様 different from what it was in Classical Japanese?

3. How is お前 different from what it was in Classical Japanese?

4. 俺 comes from what?

5. How are demonstratives used as pronouns?

Before the influx of Sino-Japanese vocabulary into the Japanese lexicon, only numbers of native origin existed. Counters still existed at this time, as this is a grammatical feature common across many language families in Eastern Asia. Counters were naturally limited to native numbers, creating a very intuitive and easy-to-use system. 

Nonetheless, Sino-Japanese numbers have been used for most of Japan's written history, including most of the period associated with Classical Japanese. As such, it would be unwise to simply ignore how Sino-Japanese numbers would have been used up until modernity. For instance, 四百 at one point would have been read as しひゃく, despite that not being so today. This is evident in Modern Japanese in rare but extant four-character idioms such as  四百余州 しひゃくよしゅう  (all of China; literally "approximately 400 provinces") and  四百四病 しひゃくしびょう  (every kind of disease; literally "four hundred four" diseases). 

 Having said this, there are still two paradigms to thoroughly investigate in Classical Japanese: native numbers and Sino-Japanese numbers. Inevitably, the mixing of the two would have occurred in the spoken language well before this became evident in the written language. To this day, a lot of variation exists due to the mixing of the two. However, our first task will be to see how native numbers would have been used as a fully functioning numeric system when used in isolation. 

It may come as a surprise to you that the native numeric system of Japanese, or at least Old Japanese, could theoretically count from 0 to 99,999. Although it is unlikely any speaker would have actually counted that far, the patterns were in place to make such counting possible. 

    Very few cultures developed an actual number for 0, and one could say that Japanese was not one of those cultures, but the word なし, literally meaning "nothing", can be viewed as a close approximation to the concept of 0 when used in a numerical connotation. 

In the chart below, the most relevant numbers from 0 to 90,000 are listed along with their corresponding counter phrases. Note how the counter つ is used consistently from 1-9, that no counter is used for 10, and that 20/30 are used with the counter ち・ぢ. Outside these numbers, no actual counters are attached to numbers when using them as counter phrases.  

Notes: 

1. When counter-less, numbers were originally disyllabic.

2. The sounds in parentheses would drop out and or stay in some words. For instance, むゆか (six days; sixth day of the month), survives in Modern Japanese as むいか.  

3. It is posited by some that 5 was originally just い and that つ was added to make it disyllabic, but the sense of the word being two morphemes was lost, which gave way for いつつ to be formed.

  Counters

     As far as counters are concerned, the exceptions found in Modern Japanese with Sino-Japanese endings are the same for the most part. For example, the counter for people is -人（にん） for Sino-Japanese numbers and ～人（たり） for native numbers. ～人 is ～人（り） for ひと (1). In Modern Japanese, the native counter is normally only used for 1-2, but in Classical Japanese there was no such restriction. Native counters can be used with any native number, except 0 of course and likewise Sino-Japanese counters with Sino-Japanese numbers.

    There are some counters that are noticeably different. For example, the counter for year is とせ instead of とし. The counter for days was ～か too, but it was used with any number. For example, 100 days was ももか. The exceptions with ～か were minus small changes. っ found in some can't be attested throughout history because っ wasn't written until much later. But, they were probably pronounced with them. 6 days (of the month) and 7 days (of the month) in particular were むゆか and なぬか instead of むいか and なのか respectively. 

Examples

1. また、 治承 ( ぢしよう ) 四年 ( よとせ ) 水無月 ( みなづき ) のころ、にはかに 都 ( みやこ ) 遷 ( うつ ) りはべりき。
Again, around the sixth month and fourth year of the Jishou Era, there was a sudden capital move.
From the 方丈記.

2. おほかた、この 京 ( みやこ ) の 初 ( はじ ) めを 聞 ( き ) けることは、 嵯峨 ( さが ) の 天皇 ( てんわう ) の 御時 ( おんとき ) 、 都 ( みやこ ) と 定 ( さだ ) まりにけるより 後 ( のち ) 、すでに 四百 ( しひゃく ) 余歳 ( よさい ) を 経 ( へ ) たり。
To begin with, as for hearing about the rise of Heiankyou, it has already been four hundred years since the capital was determined in the reign of Emperor Saga.
From the 方丈記.

3.  十一日 ( じふいちにち ) の 月 ( つき ) もかくれなむとすれば
When the moon of the eleventh day was about to disappear
From the 伊勢物語.

4.  八雲 ( やくも )
Eight/a lot of clouds

5. 同 ( おな ) じき 七日 ( なぬかのひ )
On the same seventh day of the month
From the 平家物語.

6. 一坏乃 濁酒乎 可飲有良師
    一杯 ( ひとつき ) の 濁 ( にご ) れる 酒 ( さけ ) を 飲 ( の ) むべくあるらし。
It seems better to drink a cup of cloudy sake.
From the 万葉集.

7. 二人 ( ふたり ) して 打 ( う ) たんには、 侍 ( はべ ) りなむや。
 If two people hit (the dog), would it still live?
From the 枕草子.

8. 六日 むゆか 、きのふのごとし。
    The sixth. The same as yesterday.
From the 土佐日記. 

9.  官 ( つかさ ) ・ 位 ( くらゐ ) に 思 ( おも ) ひをかけ、 主君 ( しゅくん ) のかげを 頼 ( たの ) むほどの 人 ( ひと ) は、 一日 ( ひとひ ) なりとも 疾 ( と ) く 移 ( うつ ) ろはむとはげみ、 時 ( とき ) を 失 ( うしな ) ひ 世 ( よ ) に 余 ( あま ) れて 期 ( ご ) する 所 ( ところ ) なきものは、 愁 ( うれ ) へながら止まり 居 ( を ) り。
People who pinned their hopes on people of rank and relied on their favor, even for a day quickly try to use their energies to move, and people who were left behind by society and had nothing to hope for stay put and complain. 
From the 方丈記.

Reading Note: 一日 could also be read as ひとひ in the ancient period. Although つひたち and いちにち existed as well, this reading could also be used to mean "the other day" or "all day". The latter reading is actually acceptable today in more so written Japanese, but it is normally replaced with 終日 or 一日中.  

1. Give the Sino-Japanese numbers from 1-10 in 歴史仮名遣い.

2. Give the native numbers from 1-10 in 歴史仮名遣い.

3. Show a counter phrase different from Modern Japanese.

4. What is 101 in the native set of numbers?

       Adverbs, as you will find, are pretty much how they are in Modern Japanese. Many patterns, however, have changed or have lost currency over time. Nevertheless, don't let this get in the way of you understanding them. 

     The Japanese way to classify adverbs involves four categories.

      Condition adverbs are used with verbs whereas degree adverbs are used with adjectives. These are the easiest to use and to recognize. Consider とても (very) as an example. 

      When an adverb requires a sentence to be in a certain conjugation, it will always be a syntax agreement adverb. Another word for this is "correlated". Correlated adverbs are found in very common combinations. The instruction adverbs are similar, and we will look at them later.  

     This, though, causes a lot of ambiguity on what constitutes an adverb as far as where they come from. All adverbs in Japanese come from another part of speech. 

• True Adverbs: These adverbs are those that are purely adverbs and are found as such in the dictionary. 
• Varying Part of Speech: Some adverbs are used adverbially, but are classified as other parts of speech when used differently.
• From Grammatical Nouns: Most of these nouns are temporal nouns that describe time such as "now" and "today". They can either be used as nouns or adverbs. Counter phrases are also great examples.
• From Adjectives: The 連用形 of adjectives can also be used as adverbs. For ナリ型形容動詞 you use the に-連用形, for タリ型形容動詞 you use the と-連用形, for ク活用形容詞 you use the く-連用形, and for シク活用形容詞 you use the しく-連用形. These adverbs are normally translated with "-er" or "-ly". All adjectives may be changed into adverbs in Japanese whereas this is not the case in English.
• From the Gerund of Verbs: Verbs in the gerund can sometimes be used to make adverbs too. For example, 初めて can be used to mean "for the first time. 
• From Suffixes: Suffixes such as すがら in 夜もすがら (all night) can make adverbs.
• Onomatopoeia: There is a lot of variety in onomatopoeia just as in Modern Japanese.
  

      The majority of this lesson will be about what is not the same as in Modern Japanese. You already know the 連用形 of adjectives can be used adjectivally, and since the process is the same, you just need examples of Classical Japanese sentences with them. Many of the most common Japanese adverbs in Modern Japanese are common in Classical Japanese too. 

Correlated Adverb Combination Categories

• Negative
• Prohibition
• Interrogative
• Hypothetical
• Desiderative
• Appropriateness
• Suppositional

Warning Note: Some of the endings will not be familiar, but just focus on the adverbs. It will help you tremendously if you can remember the full patterns though. 

Set-Up Note: In order for better memorization, categories will be mixed. They will be labeled.

 Important Common Combinations (Not Exhaustive)

2. 安志比紀乃 夜麻保登等藝須 奈騰可伎奈賀奴　(原文)
    あしひきの山ほととぎすなどか来鳴かぬ。
    Why doesn't the mountain cuckoo come and sing? 
From the 万葉集.

3. けだし至言なり。
    I dare so it's a wise saying.

4. 山主者 盖雖有 吾妹子之 将結標乎 人将解八方　(原文)
   山守 やまもり はけだしありとも、 我妹子 わぎもこ が結ひけむ 標 しめ を人解かめやも
　 Even if by some chance the mountain guard were to be there, I wonder if a person could untie the      　sign you (my daughter) fastened?
From the 万葉集.

5. なほ奥つ方に 生 ( お ) ひ 出 ( い ) でたる人、いかばかりかはあやしかりけむを。
　  As a person who grew up in a far region of the country, how queer I must have been!
From the 更級日記.

6. いかで月を見ではあらん。
　  How is it that you not look at the moon?
From the 竹取物語. 

7. 念仏に勝る事 候 ( さうら ) ふまじとはなど 申 ( まう ) し給はぬぞ。
    Why don't you say that it is unlikely that it is superior to chanting the name of Buddha?
From the 徒然草.

8. 月な見給ひそ。
　  Do not look at the moon.
From the 竹取物語.

9. 春の鳥な鳴きそ鳴きそ。
　  Do not sing spring bird, do not sing.
By 北原白秋.

10. 誰もいまだ都慣れぬほどにて、え見つけず。
　　 Since it was a time when no one was yet accustomed to the capital, they weren't able to find it.
From the 更級日記. 

11. むべなるかな。
　　  It is quite plausible. 

12. あの国の人を、え戦はぬなり。
　　 It is said that one cannot fight the people of that country.
From the 竹取物語. 

13. 願はくは幸多からんことを。
　　 What I wish for is a lot of happiness.

Grammar Note: ～む is often contracted to ～ん in the 連体形. 

14.  猛 たけ き心つかふ人もよもあらじ。
　　 A person with a bold heart could not possibly exist.
From the 竹取物語. 

15. 昔ながらつゆ変はることなきも、めでたきことなり。
　　  Though there is not a thing at all changed from the past, it is still auspicious.
From an unnamed author.

16. ゆめ疑うことなかれ
　　 Absolutely do not doubt. 

17. さて 冬枯 ( ふゆが ) れのけしきこそ、秋にはをさをさ劣るまじけれ。
　　  Well, a withered winter landscape would not certainly be at all inferior to that of autumn!
From the 徒然草.

      This section will serve to show you more examples of adverbs used in Classical Japanese contexts. You should be very familiar with these adverbs, and if you are not, you can probably find them in Modern Japanese texts as well. 

18. いかにせまし。
　　 What should I do?
From the 堤中納言物語

19. 毎度ただ得失なく、この一矢に定むべしと思へ。
　　 Each time do not think of hitting or missing, just think that you will certainly hit if with a single arrow.

20. え読みえぬほども心もとなし。
　　 When you cannot compose a poem, it is nerve-racking.
From the 枕草子.

21. その沢にかきつばたいとおもしろく咲きたり。
　　　In that swamp, irises were blooming very beautifully.
From the 伊勢物語.

22. なべて心柔らかに、情けあるゆゑに、人の言ふほどのこと、けやけくいなびがたくて、よろづえ言ひ放たず、
　　 心弱くことうけしつ。
Since in all respects they are gentle in heart and have compassion, it is clearly hard for them to deny someone's favor, and without being able to assert all the circumstances, they ended up timidly took it upon themselves.
From the 徒然草.

23. 夜もすがら月を眺む。
　　 To gaze at the moon all night.

24. ほのぼのと春こそ空に来にけらし。
　　　Spring seems to have come faintly to the sky.
From the 新古今和歌集.

25. ちと承らばや。
　　 I would like to hear a little bit (about it).
From the 徒然草.

26. いつしか咲かなむ。
　　　I want the plum tree to bloom quickly!
From the 更級日記.

 Even More Adverbs

1. いかが...べき means "how (should one)?". Create a simple sentence with this.

2. Create a simple sentence with an adverb from an adjective. Make sure your verb or adjective is correctly

3. What kind of adverb would さばかり (that much) be?

4. Find an example in Modern Japanese with the adverb いと "very". 

5. な...そ is replaced by what in Modern Japanese?

6. え泳がず would mean?

7. Translate the following into either English or Modern Japanese.

たとひ耳鼻こそ切れ失（う）すとも

8. Translate the following into either English or Modern Japanese.

願はくは桜のもとにて死なむ。 

9. Translate the following into Modern Japanese.

とても寒し。

      This lesson will hopefully be much easier than the syntax we've been looking at thus far. Conjunctions are pretty much used the same as they are today in Classical Japanese. Some have changed in spelling, appearance, or have been replaced by other words. The most difficult ones will more than likely be the ones that you have never seen before. Try not to let this get the best of you though.

    Conjunctions, again, are dependent non-inflected words that connect things together. Conjunctions in Japanese can be categorized by the following six main types. By no means is the exclusive, and you may find that some words can have more than one interpretation depending on how it is used. 

      Many conjunctions in Japanese originate from different grammatical parts of speech. Many of these include some sort of verb or adverb which are fixated to a particle. Then, they are treated as one word. We have already studied adverbs such as されど (however). されど comes from the ラ変 verb さり, which comes from the contraction of さあり. さり means "to be that way". The conjunctive particle do means "though", and together it expresses the word "however; nevertheless; be that as it may".

     This next section will involve examples. The conjunction(s) in the examples will be made bold for identification along with their definitions in the translation. This will help you realize how they are supposed to be used in context.  

1. 枝の長さ七尺、あるいは 六尺 ( ろくしやく ) 。
    The length of the branch is either seven or six shaku. 
From the 徒然草.

Meaning Note: A 尺 is equivalent to 30.3 cm. 

2. ゆくの 河 ( かは ) の流れは絶えずして、しかももとの 水 ( みづ ) にあらず。
    The flowing of the passing water is endless, yet moreover it is not the original water.
From the 方丈記.

3. さらばゆるさむ。
    Then, I will let you go.
From the 紫式部日記.

4. ましてその外、数へ知るに及ばず。
    Besides, you can't much less count (the houses).
From the 方丈記.

5. 力を尽くしたること少なからず。しかるに、 禄 ( ろく ) いまだ 賜 ( たま ) はらず。
    The strength we expended wasn't small. Even so, we still haven't received our stipends.
From the 竹取物語.

6. 朱雀院 すざくいん ならびに村上の 御 おん をぢにをはします。
     He was the uncle of the retired Suzaku Emperor and Emperor Murakami.
From the 大鏡.

7. さて 冬枯 ふゆが れのけしきこそ、秋にはをさをさおとるまじけれ。
    Well, a withered winter landscape would not certainly be at all inferior to that of autumn!
From the 徒然草.

8. 淀 よど みに 浮 うか ぶうたかたは、かつ消え､かつ結びて、久しくとどまりたる 例 ためし なし。
     As for the bubble afloat on the pool, on the one hand, just as one thinks it disappears it reappears,          and there is never a case where it is ever the same shape.|
From the 方丈記.

9. 陸奥 みちのく のしのぶもぢずり誰ゆゑに乱れそめにしわれならなくに
    Like the clothing pattern "Shinobumojizuri" weaved in Michinoku, whom is it hence that it has begun       to be tussled, although it is not because of me.
From the 百人一首.

10. そも、 参 ( まゐ ) りたる人ごとに山へ登りしは、 何事 ( なにごと ) かありけん、ゆかしかりしかど、神へ参るこそ 本意 ( ほんい ) なれと思ひて、山までは見ずとぞ言ひける。
"Even so, all the people coming to worship climbing the mountain thought 'did something happen? We were eager to know, but worshiping the god(s) is our primary goal', and they did see up to the mountain" said (the priest).
From the 徒然草.

1. Create a sentence with しかし (however)

2. Create a sentence with しかして (moreover)

3. Create a sentence with したがって (therefore; as a result).

4. なほ is just like its modern なお. What two usages does it have, which are classified as different parts of speech? Look through this lesson and see which was used. Then, differentiate it with a simple example of the other in Classical Japanese to the best of your ability. 

5. Translate the following sentence into English.

はかばかしき後見しなければ、事あるときは、なほ拠り所なく心細げなり。
はかばかしきうしろみしなければ、ことあるときは、なほよりどころなくこころぼそげなり。

Hints: The particle し provides emphasis. Also, なければ in Classical Japanese means "since not have". 

     In Classical Japanese there are a lot of interjections that are no longer used today. However, they are by no means difficult words to remember. You can even find some that are still used today. "Aa!", for example, is pretty universal.

Curriculum Note: This lesson will not cover interjectory particles. They will be discussed later when we look at the wide range of final particles in Classical Japanese.

     In these example sentences, notice how the interjections are used in the sentence. The interjections will be pointed out in bold.

1. いな、さもあらず。
    No, that's not the way.
From the 竹取物語.

Word Note: いな can still be used as an interjection today; however, it is usually accompanied with slightly older speech patterns such as the auxiliary verbs ～ぬ and ～まい. 

2. のうのうわれをも舟に乗せて賜はり給へ。
    Hey you there, please allow me to board the boat as well.
From the Noh Play 隅田川. 

Word Note: のうのう is onomatopoeic and is still seen as a 擬声語 meaning "carelessly". It is used in this context to get the attention of the boat, perhaps being careless for not seeing him wanting to get on board?

Kanji Note: 舟 denotes a smaller vessel. 

3. あな、うらやまし。
    My! How enviable.
From the 徒然草.

Word Note: あな is still used as an interjection in some parts of Japan.

4. しかしか、さ 侍 はべ りことなり。
    Yes, yes, that is quite so.
From the 大鏡.

Word Note: しかしか is the modern equivalent of そうそう. 

5. 無期 むき ののちに「えい」といらへたりければ
    Since he responded "yes" after an indefinitely long time
From the 宇治拾遺物語.

Word Note: えい can still be used in this fashion. However, it is normally spelled as ええ because えい is used as an interjection when you're doing something with a lot of resolution. 

6. あないみじのおもとたちや。
    Ah! What wonderful women. 
From the 枕草子.

7. これ乗せて行け、具して行け。
    Hey, go pick them up and take them along!
From the 平家物語.

Word Note: これ can still be used in this same fashion.

8. やや、もの 申 まう さむ。
    Hello, I have something that I would like to speak about. 
From the 大鏡.

Word Note: やや is like today's もしもし. 

9. すは、しつることを。
    There, we did it!
From the 平家物語.

10. あつばれ、よからうかたきがな。
      Ah, it would be nice if there were a good opponent. 
From the 平家物語.

11. いかに夢かうつつか。
      Well, is this a dream or is this reality?
From the 平家物語.

12. いで、いと 興 きやう ある事いふ 老者 らうしや かな。
      Well, aren't you old men that say such interesting things!
From the 大鏡.

13. あはやと目をかけて飛んで掛かるに
      Wow, just when I had my eyes on it and sprang...
From the 平家物語.

Word Note: This interjection survives as the adverb あわやと which can be found in expressions like "あわやというところで" meaning "just in time". 

14. 「さはれ、道にても」などといひて、みな乗りぬ。
      He said something like, "Still, but even in the road (isn't it fine)?", and everyone ended up riding. 
From the 枕草子.

15. すはや宮こそ 南都 なんと へ落ちさせ給ふなれ。
      There! It looks like the palace is to flee to the southern capital (Nara). 
From the 平家物語.

16. まことや、 法輪 ほふりん は近ければ
      Yes that's so, and since Hourin (Temple) is close,
From the 平家物語.

17. なんでふ、さやうのあそび者は、人の 召 め ししたがうてこそ 参 まゐ れ。
      No kidding, that prostitute is called upon by people and comes. 
From the 平家物語.

1. What is an interjection?

2. いさ　＝　いいえ. Translate the following into English or Modern Japanese.

いさ、人のにくしとおもひたりしが

3. を was an interjection meaning "はい". Make a sentence with it.

4. あなめでたや = ?

5. いざ is in Modern Japanese too. What does it mean, and how is it used?　

Demonstrative words can't be simply defined as starting with these four sounds in Classical Japanese. So, we will simply refer to them as 指示詞, which means "demonstratives". 

         There are four different types of 指示詞. This is just like in Modern Japanese; it's just appearance that doesn't make this clear sometimes. These four types differ in terms of distance because they are, again, demonstratives. 

1. Close to the speaker
2. Close to the listener(s)
3. Far away from both the speaker and listener(s)
4. Indeterminate

　　　　　　As the title says, this section is about demonstrative pronouns. This section will be dominated by a chart with notes and examples after it. More Japanese is to be implemented in charts, so get ready.

Usage Notes:

1. The れ in the first row is not seen most often in older works.
2. The use of か words for 3rd person is limited. We all know that 彼 means "he" in Modern Japanese, but this is a rather recent development. Words such as かれ and かなた could originally also refer to other people. 
3. -ら is like "-abouts".  Before the arrival of どこ, いづこ・いづく was just used for the indefinite column.
4. The second person pronoun 其（し） also existed. 
5. Of course, not all of these originate at the same time, and not all of them have survived to the present. All of this comes with the course of language. However, when you see one of these, you should have a pretty good idea what it's being used for. Again, some of these are ancient.  
6. The words かすか and かそけし share origin with かしこ. 
7. In Modern Japanese これの, それの, あれの, and どれの are not used as alternatives to この， その， etc. They are very limited. かれの VS かの is more productive. The difference can be ascertained from the chart. The first is now used to mean "his". The second is used to mean "that" which is distant/unfamiliar to both the speaker and listener(s).
8.  この, その, etc., were deemed as two words put together, a demonstrative word + の.   
9. こなた、そなた、Etc. could also be used as direction words.
10. For those that can be used as pronouns, the 1st person pronouns such as こちら can refer not necessarily to oneself but someone in one's in-group just like in Modern Japanese. So, rather, you can view the demonstratives こちら and そちら referring to one's in-group and out-group respectively.  
11. Of course, there are other demonstratives in Japanese. Another includes 遠近(をちこち), which is equivalent to あちらこちら. 

 Examples

1. あの 男 ( をのこ ) 、こち 寄 ( よ ) れ。
　　Man over there, come here!
From the 更級日記.

2. わが 妹 いもうと ども
　　My own sisters
From the 源氏物語.

3.  知 し らず、 生 う まれ 死 し ぬる 人 ひと 、いづかたより 来 き たりて、いづかたへか 去 さ る。
　  I know not where people who are born and die come and go.
From the 方丈記.

4. 原文：篭毛與 美篭母乳 布久思毛與 美夫君志持 此岳尓 菜採須兒 家吉閑名 告<紗>根 虚見津 山跡乃國者 押奈戸手 吾許曽居 師<吉>名倍手 吾己曽座 我<許>背齒 告目 家呼毛名雄母
訓読： 篭 ( こ ) もよ み 篭持 ( こも ) ち 堀串 ( ふくし ) もよ み 堀串持 ( ぶくしも ) ち この 岳 ( おか ) に 菜摘 ( なつみ ) ます 児 ( こ ) 　 家聞 ( いへき ) かな 告 ( の ) らさね そらみつ 大和 ( やまと ) の 国 ( くに ) は おしなべて 我 ( わ ) れこそ 居 ( ゐ ) れ しきなべて 我 ( われ ) れこそ 座 ( いま ) せ 我 ( わ ) れこそば 告 ( の ) らめ 家 ( いへ ) をも 名 ( な ) をも
Hey, young girl with the basket, the wonderful basket, and the hand shovel the wonderful hand shovel picking grasses, tell me where you live but not its name. For I rule all of the land of Yamato filled with the spirits of the Gods. Though I rule everything, show me where you’re from, your house and your name.
From the 万葉集.

5. かの花は失せにけるは。
　　That flower has ended up disappearing!
From the 枕草子.

Word Note: か words are weaker in their demonstrative nature, and かの can be interpreted as being "usual/certain", which would make this sentence all the more exclamatory. 

6. 誰か知らまし。
　  Who would know?
From the 古今和歌集. 

7. それを見れば、三寸ばかりなる人。
　　When he looked at it, it was a person of around three sun.
From the 竹取物語. 

Word Notes: A　寸 is approximately three centimeters. Also note that it is often easy to translate それ as "it", but remember in Japanese that these demonstrative words have a dimension of distance in their interpretation.  

8. 生きとし生けるもの、いづれか歌を詠まざりける。
　  Of all living things, which does not recite poetry?
From the 古今和歌集.

Word Note: 生きとし生けるもの is actually still used as a set phrase today.

9. 「これなむ都鳥」と言ふを聞きて
　　Hearing him say, "This is the capital bird"...
From the 伊勢物語.

10. こちへおはいりあそばせ。
　　　Please come in here.
From the 菅原伝授手習鑑. 

11. そこに日を暮らしつ。
　　　They ended up passing the day there.  
From the 更級日記. 

Word Note: Even self-reflexive pronouns like おのれ・おのが are demonstrative pronouns.  

     Demonstrative adverbs have much more variation. Today, there is こう, そう, ああ, and どう. However, way back when, there was かく, さ, しか, と, and いか along with many other expressions based off of them, many of which are still used today. 

 Expressions

 Not all phrases are simple translations to modern Japanese. Some are worded differently today. There are also many phrases with 指示副詞 ＋ あり in Classical Japanese. Some of these become 連体詞, 接続詞, and other 副詞. 

Examples 

12. いかばかり恥ずかしう、かたはらいたくも候ふらむ。
      How embarrassing and awkward it must have been.
From the 平家物語.

13. 命は天に在り。然れば時を待つのみ。
      Life is in heaven. So, we must only wait for that time.
By 福沢諭吉.

14. しかるに禄いまだに賜はらず。
      Even so, we still haven't received our rewards.
From the 竹取物語.

　　　To begin coverage with particles in Classical Japanese, we'll start with perhaps the two easiest to relearn in Classical Japanese.

　　　An amazing feature of が in Classical Japanese is that it is for most of its history interchangeable almost completely with の as a case particle. Yes, even の was seen for the function of marking the subject. Another odd thing was that the simple sentence did not need が. This is because in the ancient period this usage didn't exist. The first usage of が was to mark an attribute like の. From there it began being used as a subject marker, and then it started taking on conjunctive usages. 

              Remember that a case particle shows some sort of relationship between the preceding NOMINAL phrase that it modifies and the rest of the sentence. Have you noticed that they are always nominal phrases? Well, what may cause you confusion with Classical Japanese is how these particles seemingly follow right after a verb. However, the 連体形 was able to be used as a nominalized part of speech. Thus, the only difference here is how this relation is marked. This phenomenon is called 連体形の準体法. It is no longer done today for the most part. However, you can still see things like ～するのがいい. Even then the pattern is considered old-fashioned.

 　　Just as が can mark the subject (主格), it can also mark an attribute just like の ( 連体修飾格 ( れんたいしゅうしょくかく ) ). There are still cases where が does this today. This usage is very common in place names, and it is seen in older expressions like 我が国. As far as names are concerned, you might not recognize that its が because it is often spelled as ヶ. For example, think of places like 関 ( せき ) ヶ ( が ) 原 ( はら ) , which was where a crucial battle in 1600 marked the start of the 徳川幕府 ( とくがわばくふ ) .

 　　　Two other usages that differ from Modern Japanese are showing an implied nominal, similar to what の can do today, and show apposition (同格). This usage is rather odd from appearance if you were brand new to Classical Japanese. It should not be confused as "but". Remember that all of the usages up to now are classified as case particle usages. After all, the conjunctive usages were the last to evolve, as is the case for other particles as well. 

Examples 

1. 清見 きよみ が 関 せき を 過 す ぐ。
    We pass the barrier at Kiyomi.
From the 十六夜 いざよひ . 

2. すずめの 子 ( こ ) を、 犬 ( いぬ ) きが 逃 ( に ) がしつる。
    Inuki let the baby sparrow escape.
From the 源氏物語.

3. 君之行 氣長成奴 山多都祢 迎加将行 待尓可将待　(原文)
    君が行き 日 ( け ) 長くなり山たづね 迎 ( むか ) へ行かむ待ちにか待たむ
     It's been a while since he left. I wonder if he will cross the mountains to visit, or is he waiting as is? 
From the 万葉集.

4. 舎人 とねり が寝たる足を狐にくわる。
    The feet of the servant who was asleep were eaten by a fox.
From the 徒然草.

5. 観音 くわんおん 、我ガ身ヲ助けたまへ。
    Kannon, please save me!
From the 今昔物語集. 

The Conjunctive Particle が

Similar to the conjunctive particles を and に that you will learn about later in this lesson, this が can be used to mean "but/although" like it still does in Modern Japanese, or, like in Modern Japanese, it an be used to show a sequential connection.  

6.  清盛公其比 きよもりこうそのころ いまだ 大納言 だいなごん にておはしけるが、大きに恐れ騒がれけり。
    At the time, Minister Kiyomori was still a senior counselor, and he gained quite a lot of attention.
From the 平家物語. 

7. 昔よりおほくの 白拍子 ( しらびやうし ) ありしが、かかる舞はいまだ見ず。
    There have been many shirabyoushi dancers from the past, but we had never seen this kind of               dance. 
From the 平家物語. 

　　　Most of what を does should not be big news. Like today it marks direct objects. This, though, is not deemed as much of a grammatical necessity is today. It is often dropped just as it is in Modern Japanese.

With intransitive verbs it can mean "through" as in through a point of transit as we ll as show point of origin meaning "from" as in 脇道を入る. Of course, these definitions are rather vague. It can be used in situations like showing the surroundings through which something is being done, show an event or place one isn't at like in 授業を休む, the time through which one spends in a certain condition, like in 時を経る. It can also be used with the causative. All of these examples are in Modern Japanese, but they're usages that were also used in Classical Japanese. Notice that all but the first were used with intransitive verbs. 

 　　　There are a few usages of を that are not so in Modern Japanese. There are two patterns such patterns. 

　　...を...み

This pattern shows cause or origin. It is rather old. In fact, most of the occurrences of this pattern were in the 奈良時代. Many sources actually classify this as an interjectory particle. A problem with this theory is how similar み is to a 連用形 of a verb. Although you can't just make a verb out of any adjective by sending it to the stem and adding む, there are some that appear to be made as such. For example, 惜しい　= regrettable and 惜しむ = to regret. It's not uncommon for a language to have a construction be limited. So, when you treat み as a 連用形, it makes the pattern a lot easier to remember. 

Particle Note: Remember that を＋は ＝　をば. This combination is extremely common in Classical Japanese. In some dialects this pattern resulted in the object marker becoming ば altogether, having dropped the initial を. This is extremely common in dialects of 九州.

Examples

8. そこに日を暮らしつ。
    They ended up passing the day there.
From the 更級日記. 

9. 滷乎無美　葦辺乎指天　多頭鳴渡　(原文)
    潟 ( ) を無み 葦辺 ( あしなべ ) をさして 鶴 ( たず ) 泣き渡る
    Since the tideland was gone, the cranes cried and flew, aiming for the reed shore.
From the 万葉集

10. 秋の田のかりほの 庵 ( いほ ) の 苫 ( とま ) を荒みわが 衣手 ( ころもで ) は露にぬれつつ。
      Since the autumn rice field's temporary thatch is rough, my robe sleeves are drenched in dew. 
From the 百人一首. 

11. かたじけなき 御心 ( おんこころ ) ばへの、たぐひなきを頼みにて、まじらひたまふ。
      She entered the court relying on the unprecedented depth of the affections (of the Emperor). 
From the 源氏物語.

Particle Note: The particle の shows apposition here just like が here, showing that かたじけなき and たぐひなき are both in reference to 御心ばへ.  

12. 遙 はる かなる 苔 こけ の細道をふみわけて
      Cutting through the long moss covered path
From the 徒然草 

13. 奥浪 邊波安美 射去為登 藤江乃浦尓 船曽動流　(原文)

      沖つ 浪 ( なみ ) 邊波 ( へなみ ) 静 ( しづ ) けみ 漁 ( いさ ) りすと藤江の浦に舟そ動ける
      The waves in the offing and the surging waves were calm, so when I attempted to fish, my fishing           boat got stuck in Fujie Bay.
From the 万葉集.

14. 空をも飛ぶべからず。
      They couldn't fly in the air.
From the 方丈記.

Particle Note: Notice that the combination をも, which is now considered quite old-fashioned, is, as to be expected, very common in Classical Japanese.  

15. 偽りても 賢 ( けん ) を学ばんを、賢といふべし。
      A person who deceives yet studies the wise should be called wise.
From the 徒然草. 

16. かの白く咲けるをなん「 夕顔 ( ゆふがほ ) 」と申しはべる。
      That (flower) blooming white is called the "evening face".
From the 源氏物語.

Particle Note: As you can see, there is some sort of noun that is implied before を. This is a common property of 連体形の準体法. 

17. 頼朝が首をはねて、わが墓の前に 懸 ( か ) くべし。
      Cut off Yoritomo's head and hang it in front of my grave!
From the 平家物語.

18. 在管裳 君乎者将待 打靡 吾黒髪尓 霜乃置萬代日　(原文)
      在りつつも君をば待たむ打ち 靡 ( なび ) く 吾 ( わ ) が黒髪に霜の置くまでに
      I will wait for you all the time as is up until my waving hair has white mixing with the black.
From the 万葉集

19. 秋田之 穂上尓霧相 朝霞 何時邊乃方二 我戀将息　(原文)
      秋の田の 穂 ( ほ ) の 上 ( へ ) に 霧 ( き ) らふ 朝霞何処邊 ( あさかすみいつへ ) の方にあが恋ひ止まむ 
      The morning mist draped over the ripened ears of corn in the autumn field: when will my love, which       is like the mist which will never clear, ever cease? 
From the 万葉集.

20. 居明而 君乎者将待 奴婆珠能吾黒髪尓 霜者零騰文　(原文)
      居明かして君をば待たむ 烏珠 ( ぬばたま ) の吾が黒髪に霜は降るとも
       I will wait as is till dawn, no matter if the dew falls into my black hair.
From the 万葉集.

Orthography Note: Since を was commonly in nouns and could start words and be inside words, do not confuse word boundaries. So, をとこ ＝　男 and is one word.  

The Conjunctive Particle を

 　　　Here is a usage unlike anything in Modern Japanese of を. を ＝のに as a conjunctive particle in Classical Japanese. It follows the 連体形 and can be used to show causation, concession, or sequence. These usages are all interchangeable with the conjunctive particle に. Both conjunctive particles emerged in the 奈良時代 but became in full use in the 平安時代. This usage of を already began to fade away by the 室町時代. and now the concession usage of these particles survives with the particle のに.

21. 名を聞くより、やがて面影は押しはかるる 心地 ( ここち ) するを、見る時は、かねて思ひつるままの顔したる人こそなけ         れ。
      If you hear the name, you'll be able to guess the person's features automatically, but when you               actually see the person, he is not going to look like the person that you had thought.
From the 徒然草.

22. わが弓の力は強きを、 龍 ( たつ ) あらば、ふと射殺して、首の玉は取りてむ。
      Since the power of my bow is strong, if there is a dragon, I'll immediately shoot and kill it, and I'll             definitely get the jewel in its neck. 
From the 竹取物語. 

23. 或 ある 者、 小野道風 おのてうふう の書ける 和漢朗詠集 わかんらうえいしう とて持ちたりけるを、ある人、「 御相伝 ごさうでん 浮ける事には侍らじなれども、四条大納言選ばれたる物を、道風書かん事、時代や違ひ 侍 はべ らん。...」
It seems that a certain person had Ono Toufuu's Wakan Rouei Shuu, but as another person said, "although it isn't that there is no proof in this that it's Toufuu's writing, doesn't Toufuu writing about something compiled by Shijou Dainagon conflict time periods?...”...
From the 徒然草.

24. 藁一束 わらひとつかね ありけるを、夕べにはこれに 臥 ふ し。
      He had a bundle of straw, and in the evening he slept on it. 
From the 徒然草. 

25. 大殿油 おほとなぶら 消えにけるを、ともしつくる人もなし。
       The light burned out, but there was no one to relight it.
From the 源氏物語.

The Interjectory Particle を

 　　This を is just like よ. 

26. いか 許 ( ばかり ) かはあやしかりけむを。
      How countrified I must have been!
From the 更級日記.

27. 夢と知りせばさめざらましを。
      If I had known it was a dream, I wouldn't have woken up!
From the 古今和歌集. 

28. 如此許 戀乍不有者 高山之 磐根四巻手 死奈麻死物呼　(原文)
      かくばかり恋ひつつあらずは高山の 磐根 いはね し 枕 ま きて死なましものを
      If I'm going to feel love sick like this, then I'd rather make a pillow of the rock on that tall mountain           and die!
From the 万葉集.

You can't just assume that particles are completely the same in Classical Japanese. Although all three of these particles are very similar to what they are in Modern Japanese, there are quite a few things that make a big difference. For example, where's で? It evolves from にて. So, way back when, に showed all of the functions now allotted to just で!

        Just as in Modern Japanese, に has a lot of usages! In Classical Japanese it has both case and conjunctive usages. Let's start with what's different. 

1. It can be used like the particles で and にて to show the location of an action. It may also show method by which something is done as well as cause. All of these usages have been given to で in Modern Japanese. In Modern Japanese you would be counted wrong for this. However, for a very long time up until and even a whiles after the contraction of にて to で was made, に was still used in this way.

1. この 皮衣 ( かはぎぬ ) は、火に焼かむに焼けずはこそ、 真 ( まこと ) ならめ。
    When we try to burn this leather robe with fire and it doesn't burn, then it's probably the real thing.
From the 竹取物語.

Particle Note: Remember the 連体形の準体法? This examples why に is after 焼かむ. The implied noun is 時.  

2. 在京荒有家尓 一宿者 益旅而 可辛苦　(原文)
    都なる荒れたる家にひとり寝ば旅にまさりて苦しかるべし
    Sleeping by myself in my ruined home in the capital is perhaps more trying than sleeping in travel.
From the 万葉集.

3. 烏玉之 夜之深去者 久木生留 清河原尓 知鳥數鳴　(原文)
    ぬばたまの夜の更けゆけば久木 生 ( お ) ふる清き 川原 ( かはら ) に千鳥しば鳴く
    As the pitch black night grew late, the plovers constantly chirped at the pure riverbank where the             hisaki grows.
From the 万葉集.

Word Note: It's not exactly known what plant the 久木 was. 

2. The conjunctive particle に is interchangeable with the conjunctive particle を. As we learned in that lesson, this に can be used to show causation, concession, as well as sequence. The usages in order in Modern Japanese are ので, のに, and が respectively. 

4. 命のあるものを見るに、人ばかり久しきはなし。
    When you look at things that have life, nothing (lives) as long as people. 
From the 徒然草. 

3. So, what are all of those usages in Modern Japanese that are in Classical Japanese? The most important usage still in this time is doing all of what we learned way back in Lesson 19. Although most of this is the same, some things have been expanded upon, so don't just glance through it. 

              に compensates the establishment of an action or state. に shows deep establishment. In doing so, it plays this role in many crucial situations. It is for the most part equivalent to "at". The following five points describe に very well. 

• Shows the place of where a state (of action) deep establishment. It may show the place of existence or occurrence or person of possession (彼には子どもがいる）.
• Shows destination/direction/target! It's the indirect object marker as well.  
• Shows the effect, condition, state, or goal of an action. Verbs like "to become" come to mind. This may also show pretext. For example, "you make your hands as a pillow". It is also the "as" of comparison and capacity. 
• Shows the standard of action, condition, or state. Ex. "to lack in creativity".
• Shows what brings about some sort of measure, feelings, situation, or work. 

      More specifically, other applications of all of this that you have to keep in mind are how it is used with the passive and causative to mean "by". Of course, you can't forget how it is used to show time of action.

Examples

5.  朝 あした に死に、夕べに生まるるならひ。
     The pattern of dying in the morning and being born in the evening.
From the 方丈記. 

6. 葦北乃 野坂乃浦従 船出為而 水嶋尓将去 浪立莫勤　(原文)
    葦北の野坂の浦ゆ船出して水嶋に行かむ浪立つなゆめ
    Let's set sail from Ashikita's Nozaka Inlet to Mizushima. Waves, never roll!
From the 万葉集.

7. 狩りに往にけり。
　　He went hunting (with falcons).
From the 伊勢物語. 

8. 白波の上にただよひ
　 Since it floated on top of the white waves
From the 平家物語.

Historical Note: Remember that the copula verb なり comes from にあり.

9. まことかと聞きて見つれば、言の葉を飾れる玉の枝にぞありける。
    He listened, wondering if it was real, and when he looked, he found that to his surprise that it was a          jeweled branch decorated with words!
From the 竹取物語.

10. 妹之家毛 継而見麻思乎 山跡有 大嶋嶺尓 家母有猿尾　(原文)
      妹 が家も継ぎて見ましを大和なる 大島 おほしま の 嶺 ね に 家 いへ もあらましを
　　(If we can't meet), at least it would be nice to see your house. If only my house were on top of the 　　  　　peak of the great island of Yamato(, then I could always see your house). 
From the 万葉集.

11. 京に入り立ちてうれし。
　　 We were happy to enter the capital.
From the 土佐日記. 

12. 淀 よど みに浮かぶうたかたは
　　　Bubbles floating in a pool (of water)
From the 方丈記.

      This particle can follow both nominals and the 連体形. It is the ancestor of で. It is the combination of the case particle に and the conjunctive particle て. Just like で can be used to indicate place of action, means of action, what something is made of, age, cause, and condition. In showing condition it is often like として. When used as a conjunctive particle, it is just like ので. Remember that there was no need to have something nominalize verbs because of 連体形の準体法. で first appears in the Late 平安時代. However, it was probably in local vernaculars much earlier. Whatever you do, don't confuse it with the て form of なり. 

13. 後生でだに悪道へおもむかんずる事のかなしさよ。
      Ah, the sadness of heading toward hell even in the next life!
From the 平家物語.  

14. 芝の上にて飲みたるもをかし。
      Drinking on top of the grass is also charming.
From the 徒然草.  

15. 應還 時者成来 京師尓而 誰手本乎可 吾将枕　(原文) 
      帰るべく時はなりけり都にて誰が手本をか我が枕かむ
      I at last may go home, but whose sleeves of someone in the capital shall I sleep on for I no longer           have a wife.
From the 万葉集. 

16. いみじう寂しげなるに、
      He seemed very lonesome, but
From the 源氏物語. 

 There is nothing different about this particle. One thing that you should keep in mind, though, is that originally it was meant to indicate movement going (far) away. However, it has ever since the 平安時代 been used with any direction like it is used today. The particle most likely comes from the noun 辺.

17. 住む館より出でて、舟に乗るべき所へ渡る。
      We left the fort where we had lived and crossed to the place where we were to board a boat.
From the 土佐日記.   

There should be little surprise about these particles. Not much has changed. Both follow the same kinds of words: nominal and things in the 連体形. They even share most usages with each other. より came first, and から was once a noun. We will begin by looking at より first.

より can mean "than". However, it can also be used just like から to show point of origin—“from”. This can also be used to show point of transit. This usage today is quite formal, but it was far more commonplace in classical times.

1. みそかなる所なれば、門よりもえ 入 い らで、 童 わらは べの踏みあけたる 築地 ついひぢ のくづれより通ひけり。
    In order to not be seen and not being able to enter from the gate, he went back and forth through a       tumbled part of an earthen wall that children had tread upon and opened. 
From the 伊勢物語.

2. 大津 おほつ より 浦戸 うらど をさして 漕 こ ぎいづ。
    From the 土佐日記.

3. その人、かたちよりは心なむまさりたりける。
    As for that person, her heart was superior to her looks.
From the 伊勢物語.

4. 前 まへ より 行 ゆ く 水 みづ をば、初瀬川といふなりけり。
    The water that passes through the front is called the Hatsuse River.
From the 源氏物語. 

5. もとより友とする人ひとりふたりしていきけり。
    He went out together with one, two people that were his friends from the beginning.
From the 伊勢物語. 

6. いづくより来つる猫ぞと見るに 
    While I was looked and thinking where the cat turned up from,
From the 更級日記. 

7. 東路 あづまぢ の 道 みち の 果 は てよりも、なほ 奥 おく つ 方 かた に 生 お ひ 出 い でたる人
    A person who has grown in a more remote place than the end of the road of Azuma.

Word Note: Azuma is an old name for the 関東地方. 

Method 

It used to also be used just like で to show method.

8. ただ一人、 徒歩 ( かち ) よりまうでけり。
    (He) made a pilgrimage alone by foot.
From the 徒然草.

よりほかに

よりほかに is also still used to mean “except for” or “aside from”.

9. ひぐらしの鳴く山里の 夕暮 ( ゆふぐ ) れは風よりほかに 訪 ( と ) ふ人もなし。
    Except for the wind, no one visits on evenings when the cicadas sing in the mountain villages.
From the 古今和歌集. 

Phrasing Note: As you can see, 人もなし was quite acceptable in Classical Japanese.

Reason

You can also see より showing reason. Some people think that this is a conjunctive usage.

つはものどもあまた具して山へ登りけるよりなむ、その山をふじの山とは名付けける。
The mountain was named "the mountain rich in soldiers” due to many being sent and having climbed it.
From the 竹取物語.

 As Soon As

より can also mean "as soon as", which is a usage that is not used today. It is just like やいなや.

10. 名を聞くより、やがて面影は推しはからるる心地するを。
As soon as one hears the name, one immediately imagines the face.
From the 徒然草.

Historical Note: より was extensively used in the 平安時代. It most certainly shares origin with other particles from the ancient period which include よ, ゆ, and ゆり. 

Like より, から can also follow nominals and the 連体形. They share many functions. から can be used to show point of origin, means, passage, rapid sequence, and show reason. This reason function would eventually expand into the conjunctive particle we know and use all the time today in the medieval period. 

One other grammar point that is special about it was the combination からに, which was truly the predecessor of the conjunctive particle as this could show cause as a result of something, just like today, and also show the meaning of "even if" and rapid sequence. Today, the grammar point からには, which means "so long as".

 Examples

11. 浪の花沖から咲きて散り来めり。
      The flowers of the waves appear to bloom offshore and then come shatter on the shore.
From the 古今和歌集.

12. 月夜好三　妹二相跡　直道柄　吾者雖來　夜其深去來　(原文)
      月夜良み妹に逢はむと直道から我は来れども夜そ更けにける。
      A moonlit night is good. Down a straight path I came to meet my wife though night had fallen.
From the 万葉集. 

13. 浪の音の今朝からことに聞こゆるは春の調べやあらたまるらむ
      I wonder if the waves heard this morning have put in order the start of spring and its new tune?
From the 古今和歌集.

14. 惜しむから恋しき物を  白雲の立ちなむ後はなに心ちせむ
      As soon as I regret something, I longing for it. Right after the white clouds depart, what kind of                 feeling does one have?
From the 古今和歌集.

15. 吹くからに秋の草木のしをるればむべ山風邪をあらしといふらむ。
      As soon as the wind blows, the grasses and autumn trees wither; consequentially, one can indeed         say that the mountain wind is a storm.  
From the 古今和歌集.

Historical Note: から actually has its roots as a nominal phrase, and examples can be found occasionally used as such in the 万葉集.  

This lesson will be about the particles の and と as they were used in Classical Japanese. 

The case particle の has been interchangeable with が from the onset. Although this is so, it appears that が was originally limited to noun phrases with an emotional connection, particularly human nouns. This leaves everything else to の. This can explain why even today Japanese say 我が国, although 我の did exist at one point when this distinction faded away. 

They were both used as attribute markers and after the subject(s) of a sentence. Differentiating between these two different usages is a matter of looking at the logical relationships found in the sentence. If the next word is the object of the sentence but の is clearly after the subject, then you wouldn't interpret it as the attribute marker の.

 Examples

1. 思ひあまり 出 ( い ) でにし 魂 ( たま ) のあるならん。
    It must have been my soul that ventured out in an excess of love...
From the 伊勢物語. 

2. 山崎の橋見ゆ。
    The Yamazaki Bridge appeared.
From the 土佐日記. 

3. 秋芽者 可咲有良之 吾屋戸之 淺茅之花乃 散去見者　(原文)
    秋萩は咲くべくあらし　吾がやどの浅茅が花の散りゆく見れば
    There is no doubt that the clovers have bloomed. If you look at the cogon grass flowers that have           scatter in my yard...
From the 万葉集.

4. 風のをとにぞおどろかれぬる。
    It is by the sound of the wind that I find myself startled.
From the 古今和歌集. 

5. 久方のひかりのどけき春の日にしづ心なく花の散るらむ。
    In this spring day with the sun beaming tranquilly, why have the cherry blossoms not yet calmed?  
From the 古今和歌集.

6. 山の 端 ( は ) に日のかかるほど、住吉の浦を過ぐ。
    When the sun reached the edge of the mountain, we passed through the Sumiyoshi Bay.
From the 更級日記.  

7. 女 をんな の女らしからざる、男の男らしからざる、共に天然の道に背きて醜き事の 頂上 ちやうじやう なり。
    Women not acting like women, men not acting like men, both contrary to nature, are the zenith of           ugly things.
By 幸田露伴.

8. 雪のおもしろう降りたりし 朝 ( あした ) 、人のがり言ふべき事ありて 文 ( ふみ ) をやるとて、雪のこと何とも言はざりし 返事 ( かへりごと ) に、この雪いかが見ると、一筆のたまはせぬほどのひがひがしからむ人の 仰 ( おほ ) せらるること、聞き入るべきかは。
On a morning when the snow fell elegantly, I had something to say to a certain person, and in writing the letter, I in the reply to which I mentioned nothing of the snow, how must one even comply to such a request from an unrefined, perverse person who doesn't even ask about what one thinks of this snow!?
From the 徒然草. 

Just like in Modern Japanese, の can stand in the place of another nominal. This usage remains a very important function in Japanese and can become very context dependent quickly.

9. 草の花なでしこ。唐のはさらなり、大和のもいとめでたし。
   As for grass flowers, the pink (are the best). The Chinese ones go without saying.
   The Japanese ones are also very splendid.
From the 枕草子. 

A usage that is not seen any more is showing apposition, the indication that the subject of the preceded phrase and that of the following are the same. This is replaced in Modern Japanese with であって or （もの）で. 

10. 白き鳥の、 嘴 ( はし ) と脚と赤き、 鴫 ( しぎ ) の大きさなる、 水 ( みづ ) の 上 ( うへ ) に遊びつつ魚を 食 ( く ) ふ。
      It was a white bird, and it had a red beak and legs; this bird, which was as big as a snipe, was eating       fish as it played on top of the water.
From the 伊勢物語. 

Other usages that you might find is in making similes just like のような. A usage that has been limited to rarer 美化語・雅語 speech but was far more common in Classical Japanese was the usage of の after the stems of adjectives. This was far more productive. Compare the first two examples and then the rare modern examples. This grammar pattern is a relic now and was actually more common some 100 years ago in literature. 

11. 露の命、はかなきものを朝夕に生きたるかぎりあひ見てしがな。
      Life like dew, oh how I would like to watch and confront this vain thing till death.
From the 続後撰集.

12. 逢ふと見て　ことぞともなく　明けぬなり　はかなの夢の　忘れがたみや
      I met the person (in a dream), and it was like the night broke oh too soon. That vain dream is a               memento to make me remember that person.  
From the 新古今和歌集.

13. 永の別れ
      Eternal separation

14. 愛しの君へ
      To you, my dear

15. 麗しの富士
     Lovely Mt. Fuji 

 Just like in Modern Japanese, the case particle と can be used to show actions done "with" someone as well as parallel items--"and". For the "and" function, it is often seen in the pattern XとYと rather than just XとY. It also has the citation function, and the citation verb is often dropped. Just like Modern Japanese, it shows the result of change with verbs like 成る.

16.  魚 いを と鳥とのありさまを見よ。
      Look at the appearance of the fish and birds.
From the 方丈記. 

17. 「よさり、このありつる人たまへ」と。
      (He) said, "take this person from a while ago (into my room) once it becomes night!". 
From the 伊勢物語.

18. 唐土とこの國とは、言異なるものなれど
      Although the languages of China and this country differ
From 土佐. 

19. 「長き御世にもあらなん」とぞ、思ひはべる。 
       She thought, "May she have long life".
From the 源氏物語. 

20. 野干玉之夜者須柄尓此床乃比師跡鳴左右嘆鶴鴨　(原文)  
      ぬばたまの夜はすがらにこの床のひしと鳴るまで嘆きつるかも
      All throughout the pitch-black night I sighed to the point that the floor rang sharply.
From the 万葉集.

21. 声絶たず鳴けや鶯ひととせに再びとだに来べき春かは。
     Cry and don't stop bush warbler! If spring went by now, there wouldn't be another time this year!
From the 古今和歌集.

Sentence Note: Ex. 21 shows how that even way back when と could be after an adverb like 再び in a sentence with negative implications. 

22. 遊士跡吾者聞流乎屋戸不借吾乎還利於曽能風流士　(原文)  
      遊士とわれは聞けるを屋戸貸さず吾を還せりおその風流士
      Although you heard that I was a man of elegance, you didn't lend me lodging and made me go               home, saying I was a foolish, elegant man.
From the 万葉集. 

Reading Note: 遊士 and 風流士 are both read as みやびを in this poem.

23. 一声にあくると聞けど郭公まだ深き夜の月に鳴くなり。
      I've been hearing that voice since dawn broke, but even still in the deep of night, the cuckoo cried           because of the moon light.  
From the 続後拾遺.

Usage Note: Starting in the 鎌倉時代, と often became used after the 連体形 as in Ex. 23.

           と may also be used like ～のように often with verbs like 聞こゆ. You can also see it used like として. It can also be used to show a comparison. 

24. 笛の音のただ秋風と聞こゆ。
      The sound of the flute sounds just like the autumn wind.
From the 更級日記. 

25. 奥波　 来依荒礒乎　 色妙乃 　枕等巻而 　奈世流君香聞　(原文)
      沖つ波来寄る荒磯をしきたへの枕とまきて寝せる君かも
      Oh you who are sleeping making a pillow of the reef coast which the offing waves are washing over
From the 万葉集.

26. 中〃尓人跡不有者酒壺二成而師鴨酒二染甞　(原文)
      なかなかに人とあらずは酒壺に成りにてしかも酒に染みなむ
      I would like to turn into a sake jar without being a rash person so I can be immersed in as much             sake as I want.
From the 万葉集.

Development Note: と＋あり　→　the copula auxiliary verb たり after the 平安時代.

 とて

              と, often in the form of とて, with a citation verb implied with とて, can be used to show objective.

27. 牟佐々婢波　 木末求跡　 足日木乃 　山能佐都雄尓　 相尓来鴨　(原文)
     むささびは　木末求むと　あしひきの　山のさつ男に　あひにけるかも
     The giant flying squirrel was aiming to climb to the tips of big trees and got found by a hunter.
From the 万葉集.

28. からすの寝所へ行くとて、みつよつ、ふたつみつなどとびいそぐさへあはれなり。
     Just the sight of the crows, three or four, two or three, and such, hurrying for a rest place is moving.
From the 枕草子.

29. 山吹はあやなな咲きそ花見むと植ゑけむ君がこよひ来なくに。
      The kerria mustn’t bloom in vain, though the one who planted and aimed to see the flowers won’t           come tonight.
From the 古今和歌集.

 連用形 ＋ と

と can be seen after the 連用形 of a verb and then be followed again by that verb to give a meaning of "without exception". This usage is still commonly seen in the phrase 生きとし生けるもの (all living things).

30. 生きと生けるものいづれかうたをよまざりける。
      Every living thing, which will not recite a song?
From the 古今和歌集. 

31. 家の中にありとあるもの、声を調へて泣かなしむ。
      All in the house massing their voices together bewailed. 
From the 平家物語.

Origin Note: The particle と has its roots as an adverb in phrases like とある (a certain) and とかく (apt to; anyhow; this and that). 

This lesson is about three important conjunctive particles in Classical Japanese. Be cautious of what they follow and how they are used because everything is not like now.  

Both てand してfollow the 連用形. して is often seen after ず and auxiliaries and so is て. They can show sequential ordering and imply reasoning in a causal relationship. In Modern Japanese して can still show an existing condition--の状況で. This is often seen with adjectives. て had this function too. Just as in Modern Japanese, て can be seen in the middle of the 連用形 and a supplementary verb to connect the two together.

1. 珠匣　　見諸戸山矣　　行之鹿齒　　面白四手　　古昔所念　(原文)
    玉櫛笥 たまくしげ 見諸戸山 みもろとやま を行きしかばおもしろくしていにしへ思ほゆ
    When you go through Mimoroto Mountain, it seems to be like the mystic, distant ages of the gods.
From the 万葉集.

Word Note: 玉櫛笥 is an epithet attached to Mimoroto Mountain, which is in 奈良県 with the modern spelling of 御室処山. 

2. 住まずして 誰 たれ かさとらむ。
    Without living there, who would understand?
From the 方丈記.

3. 老いらくの命のあまり長くして君にふたたび別れぬるかな。
    In my old age that has become too long, it seems that I have parted from your majesty again.
From the 千載集.

4. 或 ( ) は露落ちて花殘れり。
    Sometimes, the dew falls and the flowers remain.
From the 方丈記.

5. あはずして 今宵 ( こよひ ) 明けなば春の日の長くや人をつらしと思はん。
    If we don't meet and this evening turns to dawn, I'll probably think of you as a cold person for a long       time, as long as a spring day.
From the 古今和歌集.

6. 六月 みなづき のころ、あやしき家に 夕顔 ゆふがほ の白く見えて、蚊遣火ふすぶるもあわれなり。
    About the sixth month, the yugao (flower) appears white in poor residences and the smoldering of the     mosquito burners is also very moving.
From the 徒然草.

7. 目二破見而　手二破不所取　　月内之　　楓如　　妹乎奈何責　(原文)
    目には見て手には取らえぬ月の内の桂のごとき妹をいかにせむ　
     What ever shall you do, you who can't hold onto and draw near like the katsura trees on the moon          that one can see yet can't obtain.
From the 万葉集.

8. 中将 ちうじやう 病いと重くしてわづらひける。
   The middle captain was in pain being severely ill.
From the 大和物語. 

9. 春過而　　夏来良之　　白妙能　　　衣乾有　天之香来山　(原文)
    春過ぎて夏来るらし 白 しろ たへの衣乾したり天の香具山
    It appears that spring has passed and summer has come because Mount Kaguyama is said to dry         pure white clothing in summer.
From the 万葉集.

10. 説法 せつぽふ いみじくして、みな人なみだを流しけり。
      Since the sermon was so powerful, everyone shed tears.
From the 徒然草.

11. これを皇子聞きて、「ここらの日ごろ思ひわび侍る心は、今日なん落ちゐぬる」とのたまひて、返し、わが袂今日乾ければわびしさのちぐさの数も忘られぬべしとのたまふ。
The prince upon hearing this said, "for a long time my heart has been bitter, and today it is at rest", and in ode to this he said, "and (the feelings towards Princess Kaguya and my wet sleeves from the sea), it has dried today, so the endless number of pain I have naturally forgotten".  
From the 竹取物語.

Translation Note: Always remember that things are deleted out because of the context of the overall piece. It is reiterated in translation as to not make the sentence sound disjoint.

When used with the negative or a sentence with negative implication, て and して may show a concession, which is only an application of the reasoning function stated above.  

12. 都の人は、ことうけのみよくて、 實 まこと なし。  
      Though the people of the capital are good at just accepting things, they don't have sincerity.
From the 徒然草.

奈良時代: A Case Particle て? 

The ancient dialects of 東国方言 in the 奈良時代 did noticeably use て as a case particle with the same function(s) of と and can be found extremely rarely in the 万葉集. This, though, is a matter of regional vowel sound changes in words and not suggestive of the origins of the conjunctive particle て begin discussed here. The one example in question comes from it being used after the 命令形 of a verb used with the citation function.

13. 知々波々我 可之良加伎奈弖 佐久安<例弖> 伊比之氣等<婆>是 和須礼加祢<豆>流　(原文)
　　　父母 が頭かき 撫 な で 幸 さ くあれて言ひし 言葉 けとば ぜ忘れかねつる
　　　My parents caressed my head and told me to be able-bodied, and that I just cannot forget.
From the 万葉集.

It is also important to note that we would not have such examples of these ancient dialects had it not been for 防人（さきもり） existing from this region. Thus, the poet was actually being stationed as a protector and he is referring to his parents telling him to be safe and strong in order for him to eventually come safely home. 

～ずて

～ずて　＝　～ないで. The grammar is quite parallel. ～ずて can be then contracted to the conjunctive particle で. Therefore, don't mistake it for something is. 

14. 君ならで誰にか見せん。
      If not to you, to whom would I show?
From the 古今和歌集. 

15. 老いもせず死にもせずして
      Without knowing aging or death
From the 難波の浦島五郎の物語. 

16. 麻都我延乃 都知尓都久麻弖 布流由伎乎 美受弖也伊毛我 許母里乎流良牟　(原文) 
      松が枝の土に着くまで降る雪を見ずてや妹が 隠 こも り 居 を るらむ。
      Dear, how could you not see the snow that has reached the pine branches and be indoors?
From the 万葉集.

17. さらに潮に濡れたる衣をだに脱ぎかへなでなん、こちまうで来つる。
      Without even changing his clothes completely soaked in sea water, he visited here.
From the 竹取物語.

18. 橘之　　　　蔭履路乃　　　　八衢尓　　　物乎曽念　　　　妹尓不相而　三方沙弥　(原文)
橘 たちばな の 蔭 かげ 踏む 路 みち の 八衢 やちまた に物をぞ 念 おも ふ 妹 いも にあはずて
　 Not meeting you, I worry as if I were going back and forth on a fork in the road covered by tachibana.
From the 万葉集.

19. 丹生乃河　　瀬者不渡而　　　由久遊久登　戀痛吾弟　　　　乞通來祢   (原文)    
      丹生の河瀬は渡らずてゆくゆくと恋痛し吾が背いで通ひ來ね
      Oh brother, I have an earnest yearning; come here hastily without crossing the Nyuu Rapids. 
From the 万葉集.

20. 難波潟みじかき葦のふしのまも逢はでこの世をすぐしてよとや
      Just a node length of a Naniwa reed away would be fine, yet you say you'll spend this life without           me?
From the 新古今和歌集.

～ては

Similar to its usage in ～てはいけない in Standard Japanese, ～ては was used to make a conditional statement under preceding conditions. Aside from this, it is used in the pattern XてはYては in which X and Y stand for verbs meaning "constantly...and...".

21. さりともうち捨ててはえ行きやらじ。
      Even so, if you abandon me, you will not probably be able to go (to the other world).
From the 源氏物語.

22. 月満ちては欠け、物盛りにしては衰ふ。
     The moon constantly becomes full and fades, and as such things constantly flourish and deteriorate.
From the 徒然草.

23. これぞ求め得てさうらふ。
      I sought and found this.
From the 徒然草. 

 History

て comes from the 連用形 of the perfective つ. When this function was lost, て was then able to show connection between phrases. て, as would be expected due to its origin, is thought to establish that in a sequence that the continuative statement it modifies is completed. 

24. もろとんにしもわらいてき。
      We laughed together (about it).
From the 蜻蛉日記.

25. はや船出してこの浦を去りね。
      Hurry and take out your boat and leave this shore!
From the 源氏物語.

What all can て follow? 

In looking at the various usages of て, it's hard to say that all of its usages truly come from the auxiliary つ and that all of them truly are conjunctive particle usages. For instance, what do you call it when it attaches to adverbs such as かくて (このように), などて (なぜ), and さて.

Word Note: なぜ is the result of a contraction of などて. 

This leads to the question of what does て actually attach to. For the て that attaches to the 連用形 of a conjugatable part of speech (verbs, adjectives, auxiliaries), it not only attaches to just these things but it can subsequently follow something with continuative modifying words. This is what leads to the problem of going so far as to say that there are indeed usages that can't be called conjunctive anymore. It is suffice to say that the course of modernization of these various usages is remarkable.

Examples 

26. 乎等賣良我 多麻毛須蘇婢久 許能尓波尓 安伎可是不吉弖 波奈波知里都々　(原文)
      をてめらが 裳裾 もすそ びくこの庭に秋風吹きて花は散りつつ
      The flowers scatter constantly by the blowing autumn wind in this yard in which young women play         as they hold up the hems of their skirts.
From the 万葉集. 

27. 池めいて 窪 ( くぼ ) まり水漬ける所あり。
      There is a place where like a lake the earth sinks and water soaks in.
From the 土佐日記.

28. やまとうたは人の心を種としてよろづのことのはとぞなれりける。
      Waka is akin to the source of a person's heart and thence from it is an endless amount of words.
From the 古今和歌集.

In the first two examples, it is without a doubt that we are dealing with the conjunctive て. Although it is not necessarily wrong to say the same for として, the verbal quality of し from す essentially gets fossilized and the whole expression is best thought of as a separate particle of its own. This is why we treat it as a compound particle expression today.

て VS して 

When following adjectives as well as the particles と and に, て was used and is still used a lot. However, して was far more prevalent in 漢文・訓読 styled writing. The fact that these expressions still exist with huge overlap with just differences on when and why they're used today is still evidence of how they were so interchangeable in Classical Japanese.

Sound Changes 

Sound changes become more common as time progresses and first show up in the 平安時代. When followed by マ行バ行四段動詞, it would get voiced and be preceded by the 撥音, ん. Ex. 飛ぶ　→　飛びて　→　飛んで. This sound change would eventually extend to ナ変動詞 in the 室町時代.

Grammar Notes:

1. In the 江戸時代, くて begins to sometime take the form くって, and this is still occasionally done in Modern Japanese.
2. て would follow the k-drop changes of the 連用形 for adjectives but not for the かり-stem bases! 

Pronunciation Notes:

1. The resultant combination of あう →　おー even today in certain dialects, and likewise いう sounds as ゆう.
2. Remember that the 促音 spelling wasn't standardized until Modern times.

 Examples

29. その 返事 ( かへりごと ) はなくて、屋の上に飛ぶ車を寄せて
      Having no response, he approached the cart flying to the top of the building...
From the 竹取物語.

30. 三寸 さんずん ばかりなる人、いとうつくしうてゐたり
     A percent of just three sun was sitting in a very cute figure.
From the 竹取物語.

31. 内輪の茶書こそ。。。。おもしろくッていいけれど
      Our tea ceremony book is certainly.......interesting, but...
From 滑・ハ笑人

形容動詞: に＋て & と＋して

Also note that the combination に＋て, with this に being the 連用形 of the copula なり, would give rise to the case particle で with the same functions it has today.　You also see this for ナル形容動詞. For タル形容動詞, though, you must use として--と being the 連用形 of the copula たり--instead of とて.

32. 殿 との も渡り給へる程にて、「かくなむ」と女別当御覧ぜさす。
      Genji too when he came, saying "in these circumstances", met with the head lady.
From the 源氏物語.

33. 南を望めば、 海漫々 ( かいまんまん ) として、雲の波、 煙 ( けぶり ) の浪深く、北をかへりみれば、また山岳の 峨々 ( がが ) たるより、
      百尺の 瀧水 ( りうすい ) みなぎり落ちたり。
When you gaze to the south, the sea spans endlessly, the clouds undulate, the (volcano) smoke deeply heaves, and when you look back to the north, again from the steep mountain you can see water flowing down from a big waterfall.
From the 平家物語.

Historical Note: At the end of the 室町時代, にて began being contracted to で, and にても　would become でも, and just like today, では would become じゃ. The original forms from then on became part of the literary language. The conjunctive で that arose in phrases like それで (thereupon) was here to stay by the 江戸時代.  

と＋て 

34. 「のたまひしに違はましかば」とて、この花ををりてまうできたるなり。
      Thinking that it was contrary to what (Princess Kaguya) had said, he dressed up and came to her.
From the 竹取物語.

These particles even in antiquity were still almost the same. So, hopefully this will be one of the easiest lessons concerning Classical Japanese.

The conjunctive particle つつ follows the 連用形 of a verb to show repetitive or continuous action or simultaneous action. This latter usage is shared with ながら, which eventually replaces it altogether in the spoken language by the 室町時代. You may sometimes see it combined with the perfective ぬ (につつ). This is still used in some schools of poetry. Also be aware that this can be seen at the end of a sentence where an auxiliary like たり or り would be to give a big emotional pull. This is seen a lot in 和歌.

1. 春花能 宇都路布麻泥尓 相見祢婆 月日餘美都追 伊母麻都良牟曽　(原文)
    春花のうつろふまでに相見ねば月日よみつつ妹待つらむぞ
    Since we won’t meet till the spring flowers have scattered, my wife will wait as she counts the days.
From the 万葉集.

2. 於保吉宇美能　美奈曽己布可久　於毛比都〃　毛婢伎奈良之思　須我波良能佐刀　(原文)
    大き海の水底深く思ひつつ裳引きならしし菅原の里
    Oh Sugawara Village with the foot of the mountains drawn and flat, I adore as deep as the bottom of       a great sea.
From the 万葉集.

3. 野山にまじりて竹を取りつつ、よろづの事に使ひけり。
    Repeatedly entering the fields and hills and gathering bamboo, he used it for thousands of things.
From the 竹取物語. 

4. 多都多夜麻　見都〃古要許之　佐久良波奈　知利加須疑奈牟　和我可敝流刀尓　(原文)
    龍田山見つつ越え来し桜花散りか過ぎなむわが帰るとに
    I wonder if the cherry blossoms I came to see as I cross Tatsuta Mountain will fall while I’m not home.
From the 万葉集. 

5. 角障経　　　石村毛不過　　　泊瀬山　　　何時毛将超　　　夜者深去通都　(原文)
    つのさはふ 磐余 いはれ も過ぎず泊瀬山いつかも越えむ夜は更けにつつ
    Still having not passed Iware, and though the night is already going to get late, I wonder when I’ll             cross Hatsuse Mountain?
From the 万葉集.

Word Note: つのさはふ is an epithet word for 磐余.

The particle ながら comes from the combination of the ancient attribute marker な, which is still seen fossilized in some words such as 水底 from above, and から, which was once a noun as has been demonstrated from passages from the 万葉集.

Like つつ, it can be used to show simultaneous action, but in doing so it might also show a concessive connection. ながら can and does follow nominals often. In doing so, it shows that something is in the same state as it has been. The not-so-common meaning of "all" came about during the 平安時代. 

Orthography Note: You can sometimes see this particle spelled as 乍（ら）.

 Examples

1. 波利夫久路 應婢都々氣奈我良 佐刀其等邇 天良佐比安流氣騰 比等毛登賀米授　(原文)
    針袋帯び続けながら里ごとに照らさひ歩けど人もとがめず
    Lowering a needle bag on the waist, I walked and showed off through each town, and no one could       find fault.
From the 万葉集.

2. さざなみや滋賀の都は荒れにしを昔ながらの山桜かな。
　  The capital of Shiga has been ravaged, but the mountain cherry blossoms are blowing just as in the 　　distant past!
From the 千載集.

3. 身はいやしながら、母なむ宮なりける。
　  Though his position was low, his mother was a princess.
From the 伊勢物語.

4. 膝元に置きつつ、食ひながら文をも読みけり。
　  Placing it at the foot of his knees, he ate while lecturing over the texts.
From the 徒然草. 

5. 取りつきながら、いたう睡りて、落ちぬべき時に目を醒ます事、度々なり。
　 While clinging, he went into a deep sleep, and he frequently woke right as he was about to fall down.
From the 徒然草  

The particle ば in Classical Japanese is far from what it is like today. In Modern Japanese we know it as one of the "if" expressions, in fact the strongest of the four options. How and when did it get this way?

To look at the history of this particle we first need to address the obvious. If you only knew Japanese grammar and orthography at a bare minimum, you would probably thing that ば and は look so much like each other that they had to have a common origin. Your hunch would be right. It is unclear when this voicing occurred and made the two particles contrastive, but if we consider their usages in the larger spectrum of the history of the Japanese language, there are more similarities. After all, は can be contrasting structures as well as hypotheticals, ～てはいけない.

Focusing on everything starting from the written record, we will divide the usages of ba according to what base was involved. Unlike any ending you've seen, this particle went after two different bases, and it took centuries for only one to be the victor, the 已然形. This particle in Classical Japanese could be after the 未然形 and the 已然形. Both were conjunctive, but they clearly reflected the original purposes of the two bases respectively. 

You would be surprised to know that there are a handful of archaisms that utilize this grammar structure. とあらば is not just some random typo. This reflects the original usage of showing hypothesis. A hypothetical statement just like a negative statement refers to an event that is not realized. The only difference between the two is simply nuance. So, if you view the 未然形 as "the base for unrealization", things should begin to make a lot more sense. 

As stated, you often see this pattern in old expressions, proverbs, etc. These are the obvious places to look for how things were once used constructively. You can't simply replace 急げば with 急がば without someone telling you that you're either wrong or extremely old-fashioned.  

 Examples

1. いつわりのなき世なりせばいか許人の事の葉うれしからまし。
    If this were a world without falsehood, how pleasing would people's words (like yours) be!
From the 古今和歌集.

2. 若し 急 ( とみ ) の事有らば、この袋の口を解きたまへ。
    If there is an emergency, undo the mouth of this bag.
From the 古事記. 

3. 盛りにならば、 容貌 ( かたち ) も限りなくよく、髪もいみじく長くなりなむ。
    If I reach my prime, my looks will be without comparison, and my hair will become very long. 
From the 更級日記.

4. 徳をつかんと思はば、すべからく、まづその心づかひを 修行 しゆぎやう すべし。
    If you intend to obtain virtue, you ought to definitely first discipline the heart.
From the 徒然草.

5. 君為　手力労　織在衣服斜　春去　何色　摺者吉　
    君がため 手力 ( たぢから ) 疲れ織りたる衣ぞ春さらばいかなる色に 摺 ( す ) りてば 好 ( よ ) けむ。
    This is a kimono that I've threaded by my hands for you. In spring, what color shall we dye it in?
From the 万葉集。

Base Note: よけ is what an ancient く-stem 未然形 would have looked like for adjectives. The conditional here would be translated with the particle たら today. This kind of usage where the conditional and temporal usage to be discussed seem to be mixed would eventually lead them to become one by the 室町時代. 

6. 笑わば笑え。
    If you're going to laugh, laugh!

7. 死なば諸共
    We die together.
Literally: If we are today, all together.

8. 遠慮会釈もあらばこそ　　(Archaism using the strong negative pattern ～あらばこそ　＝あろうはずもなく)
    Indeed not even with the thought of consideration for the others...  

When after the 已然形, ば shows causation (since) or means "when". This is still a part of the properties of the conditional ば. When something will happen, then something Y is going to generally happen. 

9. 命長ければ、辱多し。
    When you're life is long/if you live long, you have a lot of shame.
From the 徒然草.

10. 老いぬればさらぬ別れのありといへばいよいよ見まくほしき君かな。
      Since they say when we grow old an unavoidable parting awaits, I want to see you all the more!
From the 伊勢物語.

11. はべる所の焼け侍りにければ
      Since the place where I was ended up burning
From the 枕草子. 

Although the title may suggest that this lesson is going to be very complicated, it'll actually be quite easy. You are essentially looking at only two different topics. 

These are both conjunctive particles that follow the 終止形 of verbs but the 連用形 of adjectives, and the shorter version is a rarer alternative and should not be confused with the conditional conjunctive particle と in Modern Japanese. Both show hypothetical concession and equate to "though" or "even if". The usage of this particle became quite restricted in the spoken language after the 江戸時代, but even in Modern Japanese, there are instances like 少なくとも (at the least) and 遅くとも (at the latest) where it is still quite productive. However, given that the shortened form was already uncommon in Classical Japanese, it is unlikely that you'll ever see it in Modern Japanese.

1. 玉藻苅　海未通女等　見尓将去　船梶毛欲得　浪高友　(原文) 　　 玉藻 たまも 刈る 海人 あま をとめども見に行かむ 船楫 ふなかぢ もがも波高くとも
　　If only there were a boat or turret to go see the fishermen's daughters harvesting seaweed.
From the 万葉集.

2. 千年 ちとせ を過ぐすとも、一夜の夢の心ちこそせめ。　(原文)
　　Even if a thousand years were to pass, it would undoubtedly feel like a dream of a single night.
From the 徒然草. 

3. 消えずはありとも
　  Even if they're still there and not yet disappeared...
From the 古今和歌集. 

4. よろづ代 経 ( ふ ) とも色はかはらじ。
    Even if ten thousand generations passed, its color would probably not change.
From the 古今和歌集.

5. さはありとも、などか宮仕へをしたまはざらむ。
    Even so, why aren't you doing your court service?
From the 竹取物語. 

6. 花の色は霞にこめて見せずとも香をだにぬすめ春の山風
     Although there's no help but hiding the flower colors with mist, at least steal their scent!
From the 古今和歌集. 

7. 穂に出でたりとかひやなからん。
    Even if it were to come into ear, it would probably be to no avail.
From the 蜻蛉日記.

8. さと人のことは夏ののしげくともかれ行くきみにあはざらめやは。
    Even if the rumors of the villagers were to grow rampant like the summer grass, would I not be able       to stand seeing you who runs away from (those rumors)? 
From the 古今和歌集.

9. 尓保杼里乃 於吉奈我河波半 多延奴等母 伎美尓可多良武 己等都奇米也母　(原文)
    にほ鳥の息長川は絶えぬとも君に語らむ言尽きめやも
    Even if the Okinaga River were to cease, would the words I want to speak to you ever run out!?
From the 万葉集.

Noun Note: にほ鳥・鳰鳥 means "grebe" and is an epithet word. 

10. わが身は女なりとも敵の手にはかかるまじ。
      Though I may be a woman, I shall not fall into the hands of the enemy.
From the 平家物語. 

Word Note: It was also common to see the verb 見る shortened to just 見 with と（も）.

11. 徃廻　雖見将飽八　名寸隅乃　船瀬之濱尓　四寸流思良名美 (原文) 往き還り見とも飽かめやも名寸隅の船瀬の浜にしきる白波 Going and coming, no matter how much I see, will I ever get tired of seeing them, the white wave 　　 incessantly crashing into the Nakisumi Harbor's bay? From the 万葉集.

Although it still exists in Modern Japanese, the conjunctive ど（も）, which attaches to the 已然形 of a conjugatable part of speech and is quite productive just as much in either variant, it is largely replaced in Modern Japanese with け（れ）ど（も）, which is clearly  けり＋ど（も）. This also means "although" but it creates a direct concession from existing conditions. So, it is never hypothetical.

12. 残るといへども明日に枯れぬ。
      Although they say that it remains, it ends up withering in the morning sun.
From the 方丈記.

13. かくて明けゆく空の気色、昨日にかはりたりとは見えねど、ひきかへめづらしき心地ぞする。
      As for the sky's appearance such as this with the day breaking, although one can't see that it has           really changed since yesterday, one can certainly feel refreshed at heart. 
From the 徒然草.

14. 鶴 つる は、いとこちたきさまなれど、鳴く声の 雲井 くもゐ まで聞こゆる、いとめでたし。
　　　Though the crane has a very overbearing appearance, it is very admirable that its singing voice can 　　　be heard as far as the clouds.
From the 枕草子.

15. 男、血の涙を流せども、とどむるよしなし。
　　 Though the man shed tears of blood, there was no way to keep her (alive).
From the 伊勢物語. 

16. よきほどにて出で給ひぬれど、なほ事ざまの優におぼえて、物のかくれよりしばし見ゐたるに、妻戸を今少し
　　  おしあけて、月見るけしきなり。
       At the right moment, the person came out, though I was in awe of the home, I looked in cover and          saw the lady of the house from the gazing at the moon with the door opened.
From the 徒然草. 

Historical Note: As far as frequency is concerned, starting in the 平安時代 the particle ど became associated with women's literature and ども became associated with 漢文-style writing. By the 鎌倉時代, ど essentially disappeared leaving only ども, which by the  室町時代 was almost completely replaced with けれども as is the case to this day.  

Just like in Modern Japanese, there are combination particles with もの and they are all conjunctive particles. The particles to be discussed in this lesson are ものを, ものから, ものの, and ものゆゑ（に）.

Although some have come and gone or changed in nuance, back in Classical Japanese, these four combination particles did the same thing. So, don't let this be a reason to be confused. All of these particles follow the 連体形. they all may show a concession based on existing conditions. So, they mean "although". Though ものを and ものの survive today with modified nuances, you have to think in more simplistic terms for this. That should be easy enough to do. 

1. 鳴く声も聞こえぬものの悲しきは忍びに燃ゆる蛍なりけり。
    Although I couldn't hear their cries, the sad things were the fireflies hidden and burning.
From the 詞花集.

2. 都出でて君に会はむと来しものを来しかひもなく別れぬるかな。
    Although I left the capital, there was no avail in thinking about meeting you, and we ended up parting.
From the 土佐日記.

3. いつはりと思ふ物から今さらにたがまことをか我はたのまむ
    Although I think that (that person's word) is a lie, who's truth am I to entrust in now?
From the 古今和歌集.

4. 頼まぬものの恋ひつつぞ経る。
    Though I rely on you, I pass time longing for you.
From the 伊勢物語.

5.  空蝉 うつせみ の世の人ごとのしげければわすれぬもののかれぬべらなり。
    The rumors of the world are so annoying; though I'll never forget, I may naturally leave them behind. 
From the 古今和歌集.

6. 雖念　知僧裳無跡　知物乎　奈何幾許　吾戀渡　(原文)
    思へどもしるしも無しと知るものを何かここだく我が恋ひ渡る
    Although I think of you to know avail, why is that I still long for you like this?
From the 万葉集.

7. 春の野に若菜つまむと来しものを散りかふ花に道はまどひぬ。
    I came for young greens in the spring field, but scattering flowers blew and obscured my path. 
From the 古今和歌集.

8. 将来云毛　不来時有乎　不来云乎　将来常者不待　不来云物乎　(原文)
    来むと言ふも　来ぬ時あるを　来じと言ふを　来むとは待たじ　来じと言ふものを
    You say you'll come and don't, but I wait not for you to say you won't since you may as you won't.
From the 万葉集.

10. 毎年尓　来喧毛能由恵　霍公鳥　聞婆之努波久　不相日乎於保美　毎年謂之等之乃波　(原文)
      年のはに　来鳴くものゆゑ　 霍公鳥 ほととぎす 　聞けばしのはく　逢はぬ日を多み
      Every year when I hear the cries of the cuckoo as they come singing, I get this unexplainable                 feeling. There are too many days I can't meet them.
From the 万葉集.

11. 月は在明にて光をさまれるものから、不二の峰幽かに見えて。
      The moon was that of dawn, and since the light was in check, Mount Fuji's peak appeared faint.
From the 奥の細道.

12. ふるさとにあらぬ物からわがために人の心のあれてみゆらむ。
      You may say a man's heart is not in his hometown, but why is it that his heart goes to ruin for me? 
From the 古今和歌集.

Historical Note:

1. ものを is a combination of the noun もの and the interjectory--not the case particle--を. This explains why even in Modern Japanese it can be seen as a final particle showing a concessive exclamatory statement. Though not normally the case anymore, it did at one point become a causal connector similar to the conjunctive が during the 江戸時代. Nowadays, it shows concession with a sense of the speaker's discomfort and or dissatisfaction. 

13. よど河のよどむとひとは見るらめど流れてふかき心あるものを。
      (You probably think that I haven't been coming and going a while),
      although just like that Yodo River's current is deep I too in my heart think much of you with no end. 
From the 古今和歌集.

14. 雀の子を、 犬君 いぬき が逃しつる、 伏籠 ふせご の中に、こめたりつるものを。
      Inuki let the baby sparrow escape even though I had kept it in the cage!
From the 源氏物語. 

15. かたみこそ今はあだなれこれなくばわするる時もあらましものを。
      This memento is a resentment that has hurt me even up till now. If I just didn't have it, I would                 have time to forget that person.
From the 古今和歌集.

2. ものから came into existence during the 奈良時代 was one of the first phrases where から became a true conjunctive particle. As から became used even more heavily in the spoken language, it eventually made people confused to the point that it turned into a particle with similar meaning to ので. Today you would just use から or ので.

16. 心をぞわりなき物と思ひぬる見るものからや恋しかるべき。
      I thought that emotion was irrational. Since I've met you, I feel such longing; is this supposed to be?
From the 古今和歌集. 

3. ものの got to survive unscathed into Modern Japanese. It's not used frequently, but you see it often in literature. 

4. ものゆゑ（に） has such a good ring to it, yet the only place it has is in 古典. It too could be used to show reason like から. In fact, it can be seen doing this way back in the 万葉集.

Bound particles (係助詞) might as well be called emphatic particles. Most of them have become adverbial and or final particles. Their functions range from emphatic to interrogative usages, and this is often determined by careful attention to context.

Bound particles require that the final verb phrase in their clause to be in a particular form. Most require the final verb phrase to be in the 連体形 because, as we've seen, that can make verbs function as nominalized phrases in Classical Japanese. 

Though the particles discussed in this lesson may not be exhaustive in accounting for all such particles in Classical Japanese, it will enable you to have a decent understanding of the some times very complex grammar rules that go with them.  

The particles to be discussed are the following: