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ホーム文法imabi → imabi intermediate 1

今日 IMABI - Intermediate I


     Building on what was taught in Beginner's IMABI, grammatical concepts are greatly emphasized with new material added on. New conjugations are discussed and honorifics are looked at more seriously than before. By the end of the course, you should be able to move onto Advanced IMABI.

中級 ( ちゅうきゅう )

第101課: The Particle たり 

第102課: Nominalization

第103課: Expressions with こと

第104課: The Particle ながら

第105課: Daily Expressions II

第106課: Easy & Difficult: ~やすい, ~難い, & ~づらい

第107課: Too/Continue: ~すぎる, ~続ける, & ~急ぐ

第108課: The Particles しか & ほか

第109課: Conditionals: The Particles と, なら(ば), たら, & ば

第110課: Conditional Phrases

第111課: Must Not

第112課: Must

第113課: いかない vs いけない

第114課: Directions

第???課: The Particle に III: Agent Marker  

第115課: The Passive I

第116課: The Passive II: 不可抗力の受身

第117課: ニ格 VS カラ格

第118課: The Causative I

第119課: The Causative-Passive

第120課: The Volitional I

第121課: Family

第122課: 呼称: ~さん, ~さま, Etc.

第123課: Titles

第124課: Honorifics I: Nouns

第125課: Honorifics II: Adjectives & the Copula

第126課: Honorifics: III Light Honorifics: レル・ラレル敬語

第127課: Honorifics IV: Regular Verbs

第128課: Honorifics V: Irregular Verbs

第129課: What & When  

第130課: Who & Where: 誰, どなた, どちら, どいつ, & どこ

第131課: Why: なぜ, どうして, & なんで  

第132課: Which: どれ, どちら, どっち, & いずれ 

第133課: ~ていく & ~てくる

第134課: Best That: ~方 Patterns & ~に越したことはない

第135課: ~てしまう

第136課: Advanced Preparation: ~ておく

第137課: ~ために I: In Order To

第???課: ~ために II: Due To

第???課: ~ように: So That 

第138課:  ~とおりに

第139課: Try I: ~てみる・みたい・みせる

第140課: Try II: ~ようにする & ~ようとする

第141課: The Particles とか, など, & なんか

第142課: The Particle なんて

第143課: The Particles ほど & くらい

第144課: The Particle より

第145課: Similarity I: ~ようだ, ~みたいだ, & ~っぽい

第146課: Seem: ~そうだ

第147課: Hearsay: ~そうだ & ~らしい

第148課: Citation II: ~という, ということ, & というもの

第149課: The Superlative

第150課: The Imperative

第130課: The Particles とか, など, & なんか

第???課: The Particle なんて

第130課: The Particles とか, など, & なんか

第???課: The Particle なんて

第130課: The Particles とか, など, & なんか

第???課: The Particle なんて


第101課: The Particle たり

The particle たり shares the same changes in conjugation with ~た and ~て.

   Positive  Negative
 Verbs  見る → 見たり  見ない → 見なかったり
   変える → 変えたり  変えない → 変えなかったり
   行く → 行ったり  行かない → 行かなかったり
   書く → 書いたり  書かない → 書かなかったり
   泳ぐ → 泳いだり  泳がない → 泳がなかったり
   話す → 話したり  話さない → 話さなかったり
   待つ → 待ったり  待たない → 待たなかったり
   死ぬ → 死んだり  死なない → 死ななかったり
   呼ぶ → 呼んだり  呼ばない → 呼ばなかったり
   読む → 読んだり  読まない → 読まなかったり
   帰る → 帰ったり  帰らない → 帰らなかったり
 Adjectives  新しい → 新しかったり  新しくない → 新しくなかったり
   きれいだ → きれいだったり  きれいじゃない → きれいじゃなかったり
 だ  だ → だったり △  {では・じゃ}ない → {では・じゃ}なかったり △
 
Contraction Note: Sometimes the the negative form may be simplified to just なかったり. So, you may see ~たり~なかったり. 

The Conjunctive Particle たり

~たり is most known for being in the common pattern ~たり~たりする. The pattern usually always ends in する. Sometimes in speaking, the する may get cut off, but its existence is nevertheless implied. 

When used with verbs, the pattern shows two actions occurring back and forth. Or, with one or more verb or adjective, it shows examples of actions and or states. This pattern can also be used with the negative. 

1. 彼女は立ったり座ったりした。
    She stood up and down.

2. 「今週は何をしますか」「友達にメールをしたり、本を読んだりします」 
    "What will you do this week?" "I'll do things like mail my friends and read a book"

3. 月が雲の 合間 ( あいま ) に見えたり、 ( かく ) れたりした。
    The moon came in and out of sight in the clouds.

4. 休日は 読書 ( どくしょ ) をしたり 散歩 ( さんぽ ) をしたりして ( ) ごす。
    As for holidays, I do thing such as read books or take walks to pass time.

5. 男が泣いたりして 気持 ( きも ) ちが悪いなあ。
    It's a little creepy for a man to be crying.

6. 昼食の時間は早かったり遅かったりだ。 
    Lunch times goes from being early to being late. 

7. 近所のお店のコーヒーは日によって濃かったり薄かったりします。
    The neighborhood store's coffee goes from being strong to being thin.  

8. デパートに行ったり、ゲームをしたりした。 
     I did things like go to the department store and play games.

9. 掃除 ( そうじ ) (を)したり 洗濯 ( せんたく ) (を)したりしました。 
    I was cleaning, doing laundry, etc. 

10. 本を読んだりレポートを書いたりしていた。
      I was reading books, writing reports, etc.

11. 株を買おうか迷ってるけど、日によって高かったり安かったりでいつ買うべきかよく分からないなぁ。
I'm wavering on whether to buy the stock, and because the price is expensive and cheap from day to day, I don't know when I should buy. 

Grammar Note: 買おう is the volitional form of 買う.  

12. 500円といっても、人によって高く感じたり安く感じたりする。
    Even though it may be 500 yen, it may feel expensive or cheap depending on the person.

13. ガソリンの値段が場所によって高かったり、安かったりするのは何故ですか? 
   Why is that gas prices are high and low depending on the place?

14. 映画を たり、本を読んだり、 昼寝 ひるね したりする。
      I do things like watch movies, read books, take naps, among other things.

15. 一週間雨が ( ) ったり ( ) んだりしていた。
      The rain was intermittent throughout the week.

16.  日によって上手だったり下手だったりするのはプロとは言えない。 
      Going from awesome to bad makes you not a pro. 

17. 日によって絵があったりなかったりします。
      There are and aren't paintings depending on the day.

Grammar Note: As you can see, the negative can be used with たり. 

漢字 Note: 絵’s reading え is actually an 音読み. 

18. 高かったり安かったりで 安定 ( あんてい ) しない 価格 ( かかく )
      An unsteady price that goes back and forth from high to low 

Grammar Note: The sentence above shows how the conjunctive particle たり can be used without ending in する. The copula is often used, and aside from this, when you use する, it can be used in other conjugations like the て形.

19. 暑かったり寒かったりしていた。
      It was going from hot to cold.  

20. マンションの部屋は広かったり狭かったり{だ・する}。
   The condo rooms were wide and narrow.

Grammar Note: The use of だ injects more emotion whereas the use of する states things in a more objective fashion.  

21. クマはおりの中で行ったり来たりしていた。
      The bear was walking back and forth in its cage.

22. 女だと思ってよく見たら、男だったりする。
   You think the person is a woman, but when you look, the person is a man.  

23. 新品と思って買ったら、中古品だったりすることがよくある。 
   It's often the case that one buys something thinking it's new and finding out it's used. 

24. どれも似たり寄ったりだな。(Idiom)
      Nothing really stands out.

25.   ねが ったり かな ったり 好条件  (Set Phrase)   
       Favorable conditions that work out as desired

Grammar Note: You sometimes see ~たり~たりの in set phrases like above.  

26. 飲み食い
      Eating and drinking

Phrasing Note: The above phrase is an example of nominal phrases from verbs having similar meaning to ~たり. If 飲み食いする were paraphrased, you would get either 食べたり飲んだりする or 飲んだり食べたりする. Note that "drinking and eating" is far less frequent than "eating and drinking" in English, but in Japanese no such ordering other than in 飲み食い can be attested. But, for other pairings of verbs, certain orders may be expected, and they may not all be the same as in English. So, pay attention. 


第102課: Nominalization

     Nominalization is making another part of speech--verbs, adjectives, phrases, abstract nouns, etc.--noun-like. Nominalization is mainly done with the help of 形式名詞 けいしきめいし (nominal/dummy nouns).

The Nominalizers の and こと

     The nominalizers の and こと are both used to nominalize phrases to make them noun-like to an extent. At the most basic understanding, the main difference between the two is that the former is more subjective and the latter is more objective. This small yet important difference places a major role in how they are chosen and how they fit with other expressions. 

An objective perspective is one that is not influenced by personal emotions whereas a subject perspective is one that does involve emotion. こと literally means "matter/circumstance," and so it is used in grammatical situations where one needs to nominalize verbal/adjectival expressions and concretely talk about them as entities. For instance, if you want to talk about "new developments" or "dancing," こと would appear.

However, a more subjective circumstance will most likely call for の. It is a dummy noun, meaning it doesn't have all the freedoms of a true noun. That's why we see it in grammar patterns like のだ. When there is no need to portray an objective stance, の will also be the appropriate choice.  

Orthography Note: こと is frequently spelled as 事.  


Examples of こと & の 

1. 見ることは信ずることである。
Seeing is believing.  

Grammar Note: Whereas の is a dummy noun, こと is a true noun. Although Ex. 1 is a rather subjective thing to say, there is a sense of certainty that can be felt with the use of こと. However, at a more basic understanding of grammar,the use of こと is also necessary to set up the grammatical parallelism and comparison being made between "seeing" and "believing." These entities need to be expressed with true nouns, which is something that only こと can make possible. 

2. お二人が会うのは初めてですか。
Is this the first time you two have met?

3. カナダが寒いことに気づいた。(Objective)
I just noticed that Canada is cold.  

4. カナダがペンギンも生きれるほど寒いのに気づいたばっかりだわ。(Feminine)
I just realized that Canada is cold enough for penguins to even live. 

 Objectivity/subjectivity, although often a part of the equation, may not be the most important thing at work. In the following sentences, の just acts as a dummy noun for something else, but こと is more concrete, referring specifically to a situation. However, one can say that this is related to subjectivity being related to abstractness and objectivity being related to concreteness. 

5. どんなのを聞きましたか。 
What sort of thing did you listen to?    

6. どんなことを聞きましたか。  
What sort of thing did you hear/ask?

In the first sentence の replaces some noun such as 曲. In the second, こと refers to a situation (状態). The response could be something like the following.

7. 彼が京都に行った{と・か}きました。 
I heard/asked that/whether he went to Kyoto.


Noun + のこと 

At a basic understanding, there are two different yet intertwined functions of こと. The first is to focus on a certain action or state as the object of attention. The other is to expand the scope of something to encompass the situation surrounding it. In this latter sense, it abstracts. At face value, this seems like the opposite of focusing. However, this isn't really the case. 

When こと attaches itself to verbs and adjectives, which in both cases could involve an entire sentence, こと packs up these expressions into a noun phrase, making it refer to the action/state at hand. This is the focusing aspect. When it follows a noun, however, it's following something that is already concrete to some extent. By using こと, which literally means "matter/circumstance," you're no longer literally talking about the physical entity at hand. Rather, you're talking about its essence, which is truly the matter at hand. 

8. あの事件のことをよく覚えています。
I remember that incident well.

Sentence Note: In this example, the speaker remembers a lot about the incident. If のこと were omitted, the speaker would still remember that the incident happened, but it wouldn't necessarily sound that he/she knows much about the incident.  

9. ピザのことをピッツアーと言う人がいます。 
There are some people who pronounce "piza" as "pittsā."

10. この文は現在のことを言っています。
This sentence is talking about the present.

11. 誰の事を指しているんですか。
Who are you referring to? 

12. 私たちはまだまだこの大きな地球のことを理解していないのです。
We still do not understand this great planet of ours.  

13. 自分のことをどのくらい知っていますか。
How much do you know about yourself?

14. 僕のことがすき?
Do you like me?  

Sentence Note: In this example, the speaker is asking the listener not just that the listener likes "him" in the mere sense of physical attraction. The speaker is asking if that individual likes him at a personal level as well. In the case of 好きだ and 嫌いだ, the use of のこと also helps solve semantic ambiguity between two possible interpretations. If the sentence were just 僕が好き?, it would normally be interpreted as "do you like me?" but it could also mean "Do I like...?" depending on the context. The use of のこと, thus, helps bring clarity to what is the object at hand.  


More Examples

14. 彼 ( ) 有名 ( ゆうめい ) 音楽家 ( おんがくか ) だということを ( ) りませんでした。
I didn't know that he is a famous musician.

15. あたし、そんなことはいわんかったわ。(Feminine; dialectical)
I didn't say anything like that!

16. もう ( ) ( ) ( たず ) ねたいことがある。  (Male)
There's another thing I'd like to ask you about.

Speech Note: To a teacher say something more respectful like  先生、 もう ( ) ( うかが ) いたいことがあるんですけれども(よろしいですか)。 

17. (あなたが) ( ) たことを ( ) してくださいませんか。
Could you tell me what you saw?

18. 恋人 こいびと たちは 一緒 いっしょ にサンバを おど るのをやめました。
The couple stopped dancing the samba together.

19. 毎日散歩 まいにちさんぽ するのは 健康 けんこう にとてもいいようです。
It seems that going for a walk every day is very good for your health.

20. 彼女 ( ) 昨夜遅 ( さくやおそ ) ( ) ってきたことを ( ) ってた。
I've known that she came home late last night.

21. 彼女 ( ) のいうことを ( ) ( ) けたな。
You took her at her word, didn't you?

22. 何か 心配 ( しんぱい ) なことがあるんですか。
Is anything bothering you?

23. 新鮮 しんせん いき うことは 素晴 すば らしい。
Breathing fresh air is wonderful. 

24. これからのことを ( ) えるのは ( かしこ ) いですね。
It sure is wise to think about the future?

25. 容疑者 ようぎしゃ がその 部屋 から あわ てて てくるのを ましたよ。
I saw the suspect come out flustered from the room. 

26. 宿題 ( ) をしないで 授業 ( じゅぎょう ) ( ) るのはよくないです。
It's not good to come to class without having done our homework. 

27. まれたのも育ったのもニューヨークです。
I was born and raised in New York. 

Usage Note: It may be the case that の is used in place of a thing, person, or place. In this case の refers to the city that the speaker was raised in. 

28. 彼女の電話番号を調べるのに時間がかかった。
It took a lot of time to find her phone number.

29. 歌うことは ( あきら ) めていただけに 偶然 ( ぐうぜん ) (に) 初舞台 ( はつぶたい ) ( ) めたことはとても ( うれ ) しかったです。
Since I had given up singing, being able to debut by chance was very delightful.

30. 教育 きょういく を受けるのは 重要 じゅうよう です。
Receiving an education is important.

31. 警察 けいさつ が今ここにあることは うたが えない。
You can't doubt that there are police here now.

32. 日本語を話せる人の間では 常識 ( じょうしき ) のことだ。
It's common sense among Japanese speakers.

33. 日本が経済大国になれたのは、何と言ってもアメリカのおかげではないと思います。
No matter what they say, I don't think that Japan was able to become an economic power thanks to America. 

34. 単純労働でお金を稼ぐのは大変だ。
It is difficult to earn money by simple labor.

35. 生まれたのは中国だが、国籍はインドネシアだ。
I was born in China, but my nationality is Indonesian. 

36. あき らかに 情報 じょうほう をもう一度目を とお すのは 当然 とうぜん ですよ。
It's evident that we clearly look over the information once more. 

Phrase Note: 目を ( とお ) す = To look/scan over.

二人 うのは、 めてですか。
Is this the first time that you two have met?

Honorifics Note: お- makes the sentence more polite to the addresses. 

二人 うのは、 めてですか。
Is this the first time that you two have met?

Honorifics Note: お- makes the sentence more polite to the addresses. 

The Nominalizer もの

     もの nominalizes something to show that something is undoubtedly true. 

37. あぶら くものだ。
Oil floats on water.  

38. 子犬 ( ) になりたいものですわ!(Feminine)
I want to become a puppy!

39. よく 金曜日 ( ) ( ) ( ) いだものだね。
I used to swim in the sea on Fridays, you know.

Phrase Note: よく…たものだ = Used to.
Contraction Note
: もの may be seen colloquially as もん. 
Origin Note
: もの comes from the noun 物.


もの・物・者

    もの can be anything. This もの can be in particle constructions like above. 物 is a tangible and perhaps living thing. It can even be a spiritual force. It's in many set expressions. It can even be used as a prefix. 者 refers to a person humbly or in a condescending manner.

40. もの にとりつかれる。
To be possessed by an evil spirit.

41. 物 ( ) ( ) いようで ( かど ) ( ) つ。
People may be offended by the way you speak.

42. 物 ( ) の数分もしないうちに
In no more than a few minutes. 

43. 物言 ものい えば くちびる さむ し。(Proverb)
Least said, soonest mended.

44. 早 ( ) ( もの ) ( ) ち。
First come, first served.


第103課: Expressions with こと

There are many expressions with こと. Even though you may end up hating こと, you're going to have to use it a lot. 

こと Expressions

   The nominalizer こと is used in a lot of set expressions that involve nominalization. In these expressions, you should not replace こと with の.


1. ~ことがある: With the past tense it means "have done" as you have done something before. With the non-past tense it means that you "often" do something. Note that you can't use ~ことがある for the “have” in expressions like "I have done my homework". This would be the "past perfect," in which case you would just use the auxiliary ~た.

1. 富士山に登ったことがありますか。
    Have you climbed Mt. Fuji before?

2. 私は酒を飲んだことがあります。
    I've had sake before. 

3. 北海道では四月でも雪が降ることがある。
     In Hokkaido, it snows often even in April.

4. 彼はジョギングすることがある。
    He often jogs.  

5. 彼女を見かけることがある。
    I often catch a glimpse of her. 

6. 東京で道に迷うことがあります。
    I often get lost in Tokyo.

7. 私は買い物に行くことがある。
    I often go shopping.

8. そのバスは遅れることがある。
    The bus is often late.

9. 香港に行くことがある。
    I often go to Hong Kong.

10. 私はフィンランドに行ったことがある。
     I've been to Finland.

11. 何度も寿司を食べたことがあります。
      I have eaten sushi many times.

12. あなたは歌舞伎を観たことがありますか。 
      Have you seen Kabuki before? 

13. この映画は前に見たことがある。
      I have seen this movie before.


2. ~ことがない: To have not done before. 

14. 東京に行ったことがありません。
      I haven’t gone to Tokyo.

15. あんなにきれいな 日没 ( にちぼつ ) は見たことがありません。
      I've never seen such a beautiful sunset.

16. 飛行機で行ったことがない。
      I haven’t gone by airplane.

17. 秋葉原に行ったことがありませんが、一度行ってみたいです。
      I haven't been to Akihabara, but I would like to go once.

Culture Note: 秋葉原, often shortened to 秋葉, is a popular place in Tokyo known for cheap electronics as well as cafes that cater to オタク・ヲタク. In メイド喫茶 maids dress up in uniform.  


3. ~ことはない: It shows that something is not important/necessary or is an emphatic version of #2. 

18. 気にすることはない。
      There is no need to worry. 

19. 多分これからも外国に行くことはないでしょう。
      I probably won't go abroad from now on.

20. 彼の ほう では何ら こま ったことはない。
      There's no problem at his end.


4. ~ことにする・こととする: To decide. ~ことにしている shows that one makes a routine of doing something or that one is determined/has a strong commitment to doing something.

21. あいつを忘れることにしただけさ。(Very colloquial)
      I've just decided to just forget that guy.

22. 私はお酒を飲むのをやめることとしました。 (Slightly formal)
      I have decided to quit drinking liquor.

23. 毎日カルピスを飲むことにしています。
      I make it a rule to drink Calpis every day.

24. 英語では話さないことにしています。
      I am determined to not speak in English


5. ~ことになる・こととなる: To be decided

25. 今年日本に行くことになりました。
      It has been decided that I will go to Japan this year.

26. 新製品は5月10日に発表することになりました。
      It has been decided that we will announce the new product on May 10th.

Grammar Notes:

1. こと is not needed with ~にする or ~になる when these phrases are used with a concrete noun.

2. ~ことになっている shows that the decision has been made for you. It is equivalent to "am to". It is also important in describes rules, traditions, etc.

3. と gives a more formal and punctual feeling.


6. ~ということだ: It is said that

27. ロケットが打ち上げられたということだ。
     It is said that a rocket was launched.


7. ~ことだろう: Probably

28.. さぞかし無念{な・だった}ことだろう。  (やや書き言葉的)
        It was certainly regretful.


8. ~ことだし: Is, so

29. 子供の(した)ことだし、彼女を許してくれないか。
      It was a childish thing to do, so won't you forgive her?


9. ~ことこのうえない: There's nothing better than

30. ウケいいことこの上ない。
      Nothing is more popular than this.


10. ~ことに(は): In being

     With the negative it shows that when you don’t do X, Y is an undesirable result.

31. ありがたいことに、全員が無事だった。
      In being grateful, everyone was alright.

32. 早く出発しないことには、大変なことになる。
      In not departing early, it'll become an ordeal. 


11. ~ことと思う: Hope that

33. ご承知のことと思いますが。
      I hope you are aware, but...


12. ~のこと: Strengthens an adverb and is typically only used in certain expressions. 

34. もちろん(のこと)、あいつは失敗した。
      Of course that guy failed.


13. AことはAが:  It's (the case that)...but

35. おいしいことはおいしいが、ちょっと高すぎる。
      It’s delicious, but it’s a little too expensive.


14. Adj. + こと: Makes an adverb. It isn't really constructive and is only limited to certain phrases.

36. 長いこと待つ。
      To wait for a long time.


15. ~ってことよ: It creates an admonishing tone. Remember that って = という

37. いいってことよ。
      It's alright!


16. ~ことなく: Without

This pattern should not be used with habitual actions.

38. ためらうことなく、消防士は燃えている家に入った。
      The firefighters went into the burning house without hesitation.


17. ~ことなしに:  Not possible without

39. 福田社長はしょうことなしに謝罪をした。
      Company President Fukuda apologied with little choice. 

40. 試験に合格することなしに、この会社には入れません。
      It is not possible to get into this company without passing the exam.


18. ~に事寄せて: On the plea/context of

41a. 彼女は出張に事寄せて東京市内の観光をしました。
41b. 彼女は出張を口実に東京市内の観光をしました。
41c. 彼女は出張に託けて東京市内の観光をしました。
        She went sightseeing in Tokyo on the pretext of a business trip.


19. ~こともなげに:  Easily; as if nothing happened

42. 彼は仕事を事もなげにやってのけた。
       He pulled the job off as if nothing happened.


20. {どれだけ・どんなに}…ことか: Oh how….!

43. どれだけ雨が降ったことか。
      Oh how it rained!

44. どんなに料理がおいしかったことか。 
      Oh how the dish was delicious! 

45. どれだけ私が急いだことか。
      Oh how I was in a rush!

46. どれだけあなたが食べたことか。 
      Oh how you ate! 

Contraction Note: ことは as well as とは can be contracted to こ(っ)たぁ・こっちゃ and たあ respectively in slang. 


~だけ(のこと) 

~だけ(のことは)ある shows that something is as expected, and moreover, adequate and fulfills something. A worth, skill, capability, or action is demonstrated to be suitable. Potential ways to translate this include "it is worth", "it's not surprising that (as expected)". It is often used with adverbs like {さすが・流石}(に), which means "as expected".
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

47.  公費 こうひ 削減 さくげん するだけのことはある。
      Cutting public spending is worth it.

48. 高くても、買っただけのことはある。
      Although it was expensive, it has its worth for being bought.  

49. 高かっただけのことはあるよね。
      It was expensive, but it was worth it.  

50. さすが(に)大学に行っただけのことはある。
      As expected, he has worth from going to college.

      ~だけ(のことは)あって describes a circumstance that fulfills expectations. It is interchangeable with ~だけに, but there is a slight nuance difference. With ~だけに, the situation expected might not happen, making it an unexpected surprise. It may also be found in the pattern "AがAだけに". With A in mind, there is plenty of reason for a certain outcome.

51. ここは 有名 ( ゆうめい ) なだけに、 沢山 ( たくさん ) の人が ( おとず ) れます。
      Since this place is famous, a lot of people visit.

52. 母も書道もあまりに身近な存在だっただけに、客観視することができなかったのかもしれない。
Since mom also had too close of an existence with calligraphy too, she might not have been able to see (her work) from an objective point of view.
By 武田双雲 in the 文藝春秋 2008 (2).

53. よく勉強しただけに、いい成績で合格しました。
      Since I studied hard, I passed with good grades as expected.

Sentence Note: This student probably normally doesn't study, but this time he/she did and as expected from good effort, he/she got a just reward.

54. 彼は 政治家 せいじか だけに口が うま いでしょう。
      He's probably a good talker since he's a politician.

Word Note政治屋 ( せいじや )  would be a much more fitting word for this sentence, but it is a sensitive word to some due to implying the politician is in it for the money.  

55. 津波で町全体が荒らされただけに、一戸の建物さえ残っているのにびっくりしました。
Since the entire town was devastated by the tsunami, I was surprised that just one building remained. 

56. 民主党が勝手に頑固たる政策方針を結束して言い張り続けただけに、選挙戦に敗戦して自民党・公明党が当選を果たしたのであろう。(Literary)
Since the DJP continued to insist in solidarity on their stubborn policy stance as they pleased, they lost in the election battle and the LDP and Komeito won in the language (as expected).

History Note: On December 16, 2012 the Democratic Party of Japan lost to the Liberal Democratic Party, which won the majority of seats, and Komeito in a sweeping election, which would make 安部晋三(あべしんぞう) Prime Minister for the second time.  

57. 韓国は儒教文化が残るとされる国なだけに、パク・クネ氏が初めての女性として大統領選挙で選び出されたことは韓国社会の変化を象徴しているだけでなく、アジア諸国の社会変動も象徴しているのかもしれません。
Since South Korea is deemed to be a country where Confucian culture still remains, the election of Park Geun-hye as the first female president not only symbolizes change in Korean society, but it may also symbolize societal change in all of Asia. 

History Note: Park Geun-hye of the Saenuri Party of South Korea was elected with over 50% of the vote, a first for a presidential candidate in that country, as the first woman president on December 19, 2012. 

58. 敵の防壁を潔く突破しただけに、宮殿に入ってからすぐに殺されたという戦死の告知は母国に大嘘だと見なされた。
Since (he) had gracefully burst through the enemy bulwark, the notice of his death in war after being killed once he had entered the palace was taken as a big lie in his homeland. 

59. インドネシアは赤道に近いだけあって、うだるように蒸し暑いですね。僕の親友がジャワ島に住んでいますから、訪ねるために身軽な服装を持っていかないといけないでしょう。
Since Indonesia is close to the Equator, it's seething hot, isn't it? As my close friend lives on Java Island, I'll probably have to take light clothing to visit.  

60. ミス東大だけに美人だ。
      Since she's Miss Todai, she's a beauty.

Word Note: 東大 = 東京大学.

61. 明日はテストだけあってみんな眠そうだ。
      Since there is a test tomorrow, everyone is sleepy.  

62. 台風の被害が大きかっただけに、都市の 復興振 ふっこうぶ りには目を見張るものがあった。
Since the damage from the typhoon was large, there was quite something to behold in the state of reconstruction.

Usage Note: The usage of だけに to show something unexpected is becoming rarer nowadays. 

63. 被害が大きかっただけに、復旧も困難を極めた。
      Since the damage was large, restoration was extremely difficult.


結婚 ( けっこん ) することになりました VS 結婚することにしました

This is one time where definitions of a phrase don't help much. When students hear the first one, they think of an arranged marriage. That may be so, but it is just a euphemism that describes the current state. It's uncertain whether the person had say in it or not. It is more appropriate to use 結婚することになりました in situations where you are informing someone or talking to someone you haven't seen in a while. 結婚することにしました clearly shows you've chosen to and you are likely telling friends in a conversation. 

This is a rule of thumb, but Japanese themselves don't always follow through all the time. Some may purposely use the wrong one to make people laugh or what not. 


第104課: The Particle Nagara ながら I: Simultaneous Action

In this lesson, you will be introduced to the particle nagara ながら. This particle is a conjunctive particle that is typically used to mean “while” in the sense of doing two things at the same time or in the same time span. Because using it will require conjugation, we’ll look at that first before delving into how it’s used.

 Ichidan Verbs
 見る +ながら = 見ながら
Miru + nagara = Minagara
 Godan Verbs
 飲む + ながら = 飲みながら
Nomu + nagara = Nominagara
 Suru
 する + ながら = しながら
Suru + nagara = shinagara
 Kuru
 来る + ながら = きながら
Kuru + nagara = kinagara

As you can see, using nagara ながら from the point of conjugation is no different than using –masu ます.

Simultaneous Action

The primary use of nagara ながら is to show simultaneous action or in the same time span. The clauses of the sentence you make must have the same subject, and the main verb of the sentence is found in the latter clause.

1. テレビを ( ) ながらご ( はん ) ( ) べる。
Terebi wo minagara gohan wo taberu.
To eat one’s meal while watching TV.

2. ご ( はん ) ( ) べながらテレビを ( ) る。
Gohan wo tabenagara terebi wo miru.
To watch TV while eating one’s meal.

As you can see, nagara ながら stands for the “while” in these two sentences. The primary action is also clearly different. This is an incredibly important point because it is not always the case that switching the verb that has nagara ながら results in a sensible statement.

3a. ( ) きながら ( たま ) ねぎを ( ) っていました。○
 Nakinagara tamanegi wo kitte imashita.
     I was cutting up onions with tears streaming down.
3b.  ( たま ) ねぎを ( ) りながら ( ) いていました。??
 Tamanegi wo kirinagara naite imashita.
 
I was crying as I was cutting up onions.

You are cutting onions while crying because the onions are undoubtedly making you cry. In Japanese, this is expressed with 3a. Let's say, for some odd reason, your other half decided to break up with you over Facebook right before you began to prepare yourself a meal containing onion. Way before you cut into the first onion, you're already shedding a large volume of tears. In this situation, 3b. would make sense. Although the English could still imply cause-and-effect between "crying" and "cutting onions," the onions are not the cause of crying in 3b as is the case in 3a. 

4. 辞書 ( じしょ ) ( ) らない 単語 ( たんご ) 調 ( しら ) べながら、フランス ( ) ( ほん ) ( ) みたいと ( おも ) います。○
 Jisho wo shiranai tango wo shirabenagara, Furansugo no hon wo yomitai to omoimasu.
  
 I want to read a French book while looking up words I don’t know with a dictionary.
 フランス ( ) ( ほん ) ( ) みながら 辞書 ( じしょ ) ( ) らない 単語 ( たんご ) 調 ( しら ) べたいと ( おも ) います。??
 Furansugo no hon wo yominagara jisho de shiranai tango wo shirabetai to omoimasu.
   
I want to look up words I don’t know about as I’m reading a French book.

You've just received a French novel for the first time. Excited, you also realize that a dictionary will be your best friend to look up words you don’t know in said book. Because reading the book is the primary action, the first sentence is what makes sense. Now, say you are randomly looking up words you don't happen to know irrespective of the French book you’re reading. Maybe you decide to look up Spanish words randomly instead. In such an odd situation, the latter may make sense, but you’d best explain yourself.


More Examples 

5. 天津 ( てんしん ) ( はたら ) きながら 中国語 ( ちゅうごくご ) ( まな ) んでいます。
 Tenshin de hatarakinagara chūgokugo wo manande imasu.
    I’m studying Chinese while working in Tianjin.

6. ( ある ) きながら 読書 ( どくしょ ) をするのはとても 危険 ( きけん ) です。
 Arukinagara dokusho wo suru no wa totemo kiken desu.
    Reading a book while walking is very dangerous.

7. コーヒーを ( ) みながら、ゆっくりと 会話 ( かいわ ) しましょう。
 Kōhii wo nominagara, yukkuri to kaiwa shimashō.
    Let’s converse slowly while we drink coffee.

8. ( くるま ) 運転 ( うんてん ) しながら 電話 ( でんわ ) をしてはいけません。
 Kuruma wo unten shinagara, denwa wo shite wa ikemasen.
    You mustn’t talk on the phone while driving a car.

9. 先生 ( せんせい ) ( はなし ) ( ) きながら、ノートにメモを ( ) ります。
 Sensei no hanashi wo kikinagara, nōto ni memo wo torimasu.
    I take notes in my notebook while listening to my teacher.

10. ご 飯食 ( はんた ) べながら ( はな ) さないで、 行儀 ( ぎょうぎ ) ( わる ) いのよ! (Feminine)
   Gohan tabenagara hanasaide, gyōgi ga warui no yo!
      Don’t talk while eating your food; what bad manners!

11. 電話 ( でんわ ) ( はな ) しながらタバコを ( ) うのはマナー 違反 ( いはん ) だと ( おも ) いませんか。
   Denwa de hanashinagara tabako wo sū no wa manā ihan da to omoimasen ka?
      Don’t you think smoking while talking on the phone is a breach of etiquette?

12. 宿題 ( しゅくだい ) しながらピザを ( ) ってて ( ) づいたらなくなっていた。
   Shukudai shinagara piza wo kuttete kizuitara nakunatte ita.
      I was eating pizza while doing my homework, but once I noticed it was gone.

13. ( ) れた ( ) ( ) きな 音楽 ( おんがく ) ( ) きながらドライブ(を)するのって 至福 ( しふく ) のひと ( とき ) だと ( おも ) いません?
Hareta hi ni suki na ongaku wo kikinagara doraibu (wo) suru no tte shifuku no hitotoki da to omoimasen ka?
Don’t you think driving while listening to your favorite music on a clear day is a blissful moment?

14. ( わたし ) 新聞 ( しんぶん ) ( ) みながら、バスを ( ) っていました。
   Watashi wa shimbun wo yominagara, basu wo matte imashita.
     I was waiting for the bus while reading the newspaper.

15. ( まち ) 銀行 ( ぎんこう ) ( はたら ) きながら、 気象予報士 ( きしょうよほうし ) 勉強 ( べんきょう ) をしています。
   Machi no ginkō de hatarakinagara,  kishō yohōshi no benkyō wo shite imasu.
      I’m studying to be a weather forecaster while working at the town bank.

16. ともかく、 ( ひと ) ( なや ) みながら ( ) きるしかないんですか。
   Tomokaku, hito wa nayaminagara ikiru shika nai n desu ka?
      Anyhow, do people have no choice but to live in worry?

17. 聴衆 ( ちょうしゅう ) ( ひと ) たちも 笑顔 ( えがお ) ( ) せながら 熱心 ( ねっしん ) ( ) いていた。
  Chōshū no hitotachi mo egao wo misenagara nesshin ni kiite ita.
     The people in the audience were also listening with enthusiasm while showing smiles in their faces.

18. 部活 ( ぶかつ ) もやりながら、 ( じゅく ) ( かよ ) っていました。
   Bukatsu mo yarinagara, juku ni kayotte imashita.
      I was attended cram school while also doing club activities.

19. 大学 ( だいがく ) ( かよ ) いながら、 ( つき ) 60 ( ろくじゅう ) 万円 ( まんえん ) くらい ( かせ ) いでいました。
   Daigaku ni kayoinagara, tsuki ni rokujūman’en kurai kaseide imashita.
     I was earning about 600,000 yen a month while attending college.

20. 洗濯 ( せんたく ) ( ) わるのを ( ) ちながら、 明日 ( あす ) 準備 ( じゅんび ) をしています。
  Sentaku ga owaru no wo machinagara, ashita no jumbi wo shite imasu.
     I’m doing preparations for tomorrow while waiting for the wash to finish.

21. 乗客 ( じょうきゃく ) ( まえ ) でカップ ( めん ) ( ) べながら 運転 ( うんてん ) する。
  Jōkyaku no mae de kappumen wo tabenagara unten suru.
     To drive while eating cup noodles in front of passengers.

22. 料理 ( りょうり ) しながら、 同時 ( どうじ ) 片付 ( かたづ ) けも 出来 ( でき ) るんですよ。
  Ryōri shinagara, dōji ni katazuke mo dekiru n desu yo.
     It’s possible to clean up simultaneously while cooking, you know.

23. ( わたし ) 毎日 ( まいにち ) 図書館 ( としょかん ) 色々 ( いろいろ ) 資料 ( しりょう ) 調 ( しら ) べながら、 漢字 ( かんじ ) 文法 ( ぶんぽう ) など 勉強 ( べんきょう ) しています。
Watashi wa mainichi, toshokan de iroiro na shiryō wo shirabenagara, kanji ya bumpō nado benkyō shite imasu.
I’m studying Kanji and grammar in the library every day while examining various materials.

24. 電話 ( でんわ ) をかけながらや、LINEなどのテキストメッセージを ( ) ちながら 注文 ( ちゅうもん ) をすることは 店員 ( てんいん ) さんに ( たい ) して、あまりにも 失礼 ( しつれい ) 行為 ( こうい ) なんですよ。
Denwa wo kakenagara ya, Rain nado no tekisuto messēji wo uchinagara chūmon wo suru koto wa ten’intachi ni tai shite, amari ni mo shitsurei na kōi na n desu yo.
Ordering while being on the phone or typing text messages on LINE and such is beyond rude behavior toward employees.

Grammar Note: As this sentence demonstrates, nagara ながら can interestingly accept certain particles like ya や at times. This shows that it is somewhat noun-like. In this example, there is a need to refer to more than one ancillary verb phrase that is done with the same verb, and rather than repeating the same thing twice with slightly different context, just using nagara ya ながらや makes everything easier.


Instantaneous Verbs X 

Using nagara ながら with verbs that describe instant occurrences is incorrect. Therefore, it cannot be used with verbs like shinu 死ぬ, tsuku つく, kieru 消える, etc. For verbs that take hardly any time at all to take place, if the main action takes more time than the secondary verb in the first clause with nagara ながら, then the usage is incorrect.

25. ( すわ ) りながら ( はな ) しませんか。X
      Suwarinagara hanashimasen ka?
      ( すわ ) って ( はな ) しませんか。○
      Suwatte hanashimasen ka?
     How about we sit and talk?


Te て or Nagara ながら? 

Sometimes, using nagara ながら may resemble using the particle te て since the verb that goes with nagara ながら is a secondary action. However, ancillary actions described with te て tend to be means by which to do something or condition by which things happen. This difference means that te て and nagara ながら can indeed coexist in the same sentence. 

26. ( くるま ) での 通勤時 ( つうきんじ ) ( かなら ) ずテープを ( ) いて 英語 ( えいご ) 勉強 ( べんきょう ) しています。
      Kuruma de no tsūkinji ni kanarazu tēpu wo kiite eigo wo benkyō shite imasu.
     I’m studying English by always listening to tapes when I commute by car.

27. ( くるま ) 通勤 ( つうきん ) しているときは ( かなら ) 英会話 ( えいかいわ ) のテープを ( ) きながら 運転 ( うんてん ) します。
      Kuruma de tsūkin shite iru toki wa kanarazu eikaiwa no tēpu wo kikinagara unten shite imasu.
      I’m driving while always listening to English conversation times when commuting by car.

28. 文化 ( ぶんか ) も、 時代 ( じだい ) ( なが ) れに ( ) わせて 進化 ( しんか ) しながら ( ) わっていかなければなりません。
      Bunka mo, jidai no nagare ni awasete shinka shinagara kawatte ikanakereba narimasen.
     Culture must also change as it evolves along with the trends of the times.

29. ( いぬ ) 散歩 ( さんぽ ) をしながら ( ある ) きタバコをする ( ひと ) 迷惑 ( めいわく ) だ。
      Inu no sampo wo shinagara aruki-tabako wo suru hito wa meiwaku da.
      People who smoke and walk while walking their dogs are bothers. 

Grammar Note: Some nagara ながら expressions refer to two actions done in tandem so much so that they result in set phrases without nagara ながら. This explains aruki-tabako歩きタバコ.  Other examples include aruki-sumaho 歩きスマホ (using one’s smart phone while walking), tabearuki 食べ歩き (eating while walking), etc.


Nagara-zoku ながら族

Nagara-zoku ながら族 is a set phrase that refers to people who do all sorts of things while they’re supposed to be focusing on work or the like. As is the case in this sentence, it can be used as a nice context to string several nagara ながら phrases together.

30. ながら ( ぞく ) って、 大勢 ( おおぜい ) いるんじゃないですか。 ( おれ ) だって、 携帯電話 ( けいたいでんわ ) ( ) ながら、テレビを見ながら、お ( さけ ) ( ) みながら、お 菓子 ( かし ) ( ) べながら、 ( あたま ) ( ) きながら、パソコンでRedditの 質問 ( しつもん ) 回答 ( かいとう ) しています。
Nagara-zoku tte, ōzei iru n ja nai desu ka? Ore datte, keitai denwa wo minagara, terebi wo minagara,osake wo nominagara, okashi wo tabenagara, atama wo kakinagara, pasokon de reditto no shitsumon ni kaitō shite imasu.
Aren’t there lots of people who do all sorts of stuff while they’re working? Like even me, I’m answering questions on Reddit on my computer while looking at my cellphone, while watching TV, while drinking liquor, while eating sweets, while scratching my head, etc. 


第105課: Daily Expressions II

This lesson is a continuation of Lesson 25. Currently, coverage that was previously in the old versions of these lessons are being expanded. As this coverage is completed, this lesson will be moved next to Lesson 25. At which point, Lesson 105 will become one of the new offshoots. 

How are You?

Many Westerners are familiar with the phrase o-genki desu ka? お元気ですか, which translates as “how are you?” The word genki 元気 is an adjectival noun meaning “lively/healthy.” Because one can usually tell whether someone is doing alright in this regard, o-genki desu ka?お元気ですか is most often used over the phone or via letter where you aren’t able to directly ascertain how the person is (Ex. 1 and 2). Or, it is used in asking others about how people not present are doing.

1. お 元気 ( げんき ) ですか。 ( わたし ) 元気 ( げんき ) です。
O-genki desu ka? Watashi wa genki desu.
How are you? I’m fine.  

2. お ( ひさ ) しぶりです。お 元気 ( げんき ) ですか。
O-hisashiburi desu. O-genki desu ka?
It’s been a while. How are you?

3. ご 家族 ( かぞく ) はお 元気 ( げんき ) ですか。
Go-kazoku wa o-genki desu ka?
How is your family?

4. ご 両親 ( りょうしん ) はお 元気 ( げんき ) ですか。
Go-ryōshin wa o-genki desu ka?
How are your parents doing?

5. 木村 ( きむら ) さん、お 元気 ( げんき ) ですか。
( おく ) さんもお ( ) わりありませんか。
Kimura-san, o-genki desu ka?
Oku-san mo o-kawari arimasen ka?

Kimura-san, how are you?
Is your wife also doing well?

Phrase Note: お変わりありませんか literally means “have there been any changes?”

6. おかげで、お ( かあ ) さんも ( ぼく ) 元気 ( げんき ) です。
O-kage de, o-kāsan mo boku mo genki desu.
Thankfully, mother and I are also well.

If there is an existing relationship with who you are speaking and that individual need not be addressed with particularly formal language, then this may also be simply said as genki desu ka? 元気ですか. This is best used in situation where you’re addressing people informally.

7. みんな 元気 ( げんき ) ですか!
Min’na genki desu ka?
How is everyone!

Like the English equivalent, it is mostly used as a greeting. It is not used to mean “are you ok?” when you’re worried about someone. It is also not a greeting that is used every day. Even if It is used directly with someone, it wouldn’t sound like you really know the individual at a personal level. Although students use it as an everyday greeting, this usage is unnatural and not reflective of how it is actually used by native speakers.

Politeness Note: To make o-genki desu ka? お元気ですか  politer, replace desuです with deshō でしょう.

If you haven’t seen someone in a while and want to know how they’ve been, it’s best to ask (o-)genki deshita ka? (お)元気でしたか。Casually, this would become genki (datta)? 元気(だった)?

8. ( さっ ) ちゃん、 元気 ( げんき )
Satchan, genki?
Satchan! How are you?

In far more formal situations, other phrases may be appropriate.

9. ご 無事 ( ぶじ ) でいらっしゃいますか。
Go-buji de irasshaimasu ka?
Have you been safe and well?

Phrase Note: This phrase would be used in writing. De irasshaimasu ka? でいらっしゃいますか is a very formal, respectful form of the copula. You can alternatively make this not so formal by replacing it with desu です. In the spoken language, you can ask people buji desu ka? 無事ですか to ask about the safety of everyone, which is used frequently when disasters happen.

10. ご 機嫌 ( きげん ) いかがですか。
Go-kigen ikaga desu ka?
How are you?

Sentence Note: Kigen 機嫌 means “mood.” This phrase more so literally means “how do you do?” but it isn’t old-fashioned like this English counterpart. For the most part, it’s treated as a more formal, elegant replacement for o-genki desu ka? お元気ですか. However, it isn’t appropriate in business because it isn’t the case that clients/customers are always in high spirits, and it isn’t the right place to assume this.  

11. ご 無沙汰 ( ぶさた ) しております。お 元気 ( げんき ) でいらっしゃいますか。
Go-busata shite orimasu. O-genki de irasshaimasu ka?
I’m sorry for not hearing from you all this time. Are you doing well?

Sentence Note: Imagine if you haven’t spoken or heard from a superior or someone of high social status for a while. Although blame for this lack of communication could be on both sides, a very honorific opening such as this would be very appropriate.

12. ( なが ) らくご 無沙汰 ( ぶさた ) してすみません。
Nagaraku go-busata shite sumimasen.
I apologize for not hearing from you in so long.

13. ご 無沙汰 ( ぶさた ) {しました・いたしました}。
Go-busata [shimashita/itashimashita].
It’s been a long time.

Sentence Note: This phrase would be appropriate especially when you’re recognizing how long it’s been since you’ve updated people. Itashimashita いたしました is a more humble version of shimashita しました.

14. いかがお ( ) ごしでしょうか。
Ikaga o-sugoshi deshō ka?
How are things with you?

Sentence Note: This phrase is also quite honorific and is appropriate in very formal situations, both written and spoken.

15. しばらくでしたね。
Shibaraku deshita ne.
It’s been a while, hasn’t it?


Responding

In response to being asked how you are doing, use phrases like ē, o-kage-sama de ええ、おかげさまで. This is equivalent to “Yes, I’m fine. Thank you.” This can also be used in the sense of “It went fine/I did, thank you.”

16. 「ご 家族 ( かぞく ) ( みな ) さんはお 元気 ( げんき ) ですか」「ええ、おかげさまで、みんな 元気 ( げんき ) にしていますよ」
“Go-kazoku no mina-san wa o-genki desu ka?” “Ē, o-kage-sama de, min’na genki ni shite imasu yo”
“How is everyone in your family doing?” “They’re all doing fine, thank you.”

17. 「 試合 ( しあい ) はうまくいきましたか」「ええ、おかげさまで」
“Shiai wa umaku ikimashita ka?” “Ē, o-kage-sama de.”
“Did your match go okay?” “Yes, it did, thankfully.” 

Long Time No See

The Japanese equivalent of “long time no see” is  (o-)hisashiburi desu (ne)(お)久しぶりです(ね). The use of o- お at the beginning is determined by whether the person in question is someone you ought to give respect to. The use of ne ね at the end is determined by whether you wish to imply a mutual understanding that it’s been a while since you’ve last seen that person.

Casually, “long time no see” can be expressed simply as hisashiburi 久しぶり or alternatively as hisabisa da ne 久々だね.

18. 皆さん、お ( ひさ ) しぶりです。
Mina-san, o-hisashiburi desu.
Long time no see, everyone.

19. おお、 久々 ( ひさびさ ) だね!
Ō, hisabisa da ne!
Whoa, long time no see!

20. 調子はどうですか?
Chōshi wa dō desu ka?
How are you doing?

Sentence Note: This expression is frequently used when meeting someone after a while. Chōshi 調子 in this context means “state of health.” To say this casually, just drop desu ka? ですか.

21. 最近 ( さいきん ) どう?
Saikin dō?
How’ve you been recently?

Sentence Note: To make this polite, just add desu ka? ですか. A simple reply would be māmā (desu) まあまあ(です).

22. ずいぶんお 見限 ( みかぎ ) りでしたね。
Zuibun o-mikagiri deshita ne.
I haven’t seen you in ages.

Sentence Note: This phrase isn’t all that common, but whenever it is used, there is typically a slight amount of sarcasm implied, hinting at how the other person hasn’t been available to see.

23. おひさ! 
O-hisa!
Hey, long time no see!

Sentence Note: This expression is no longer really used—a shigo 死語—but it is still a notable contraction of o-hisashiburi お久しぶり.

Congratulations: O-iwai no Kotoba お祝いの言葉

The Japanese expression for “congratulations” is omedetō (gozaimasu) おめでとう(ございます). The full version is, of course, the polite form. This phrase is seen at the end of congratulatory phrases.

24. (お) 誕生日 ( たんじょうび ) おめでとうございます。
(O-)tanjōbi omedetō gozaimasu.
Happy birthday.

25. ( ) けましておめでとうございます。
Akemashite omedetō gozaimasu.
Happy New Year.

26. ご 入学 ( にゅうがく ) おめでとうございます。
Go-nyūgaku omedetō gozaimasu.
Congratulations on enrollment.

27. ご 結婚 ( けっこん ) おめでとうございます。
Go-kekkon omedetō gozaimasu.
Congratulations on your marriage.

28. ご 出産 ( しゅっさん ) おめでとうございます。
Go-shussan omedetō gozaimasu.
Congratulations on giving birth.

Please

The word for “please” as in “by all means” is dōzo どうぞ. It is often paired with the verbal ending -te kudasai ~てください, which creates a polite command/request.

29. どうぞ。
Dōzo.
Please, by all means.

30. どうぞ ( ) がってください。
Dōzo agatte kudasai.
Please, come in.

Sentence Note: This phrase is used when letting people into one’s home.

31. お ( さき ) にどうぞ。
O-saki ni dōzo.
Please go ahead.

32. どうぞお ( かま ) いなく。
Dōzo o-kamai naku.
Please don’t fuss over me.

33. どうぞこちらへ。
Dōzo kochira e.
This way, please.

34. どうぞ ( ) ( ) がってください。
Dōzo meshiagatte kudasai.
Please enjoy your meal.

If there is no sense of “by all means,” you should simply using -te kudasai ~てください.  Of course, in casual speech, you are free to drop kudasai ください.

 

35. 書類 ( しょるい ) ( まと ) めてください。
Shorui wo matomete kudasai.
Please compile the documents.

Meeting People

When meeting people for the first time regardless of the appropriate speech style for the occasion, Japanese people greet each other by saying hajimemashite 初めまして. Following this, most people state their name. At the end, speakers will tell each other to keep the other in good thought. The phrase that’s said for this is yoroshiku onegai [shimasu/itashimasu] よろしくお願い{します・いたします}. Although there is a lot that can be said about it, for now treat it as a set phrase set after introducing oneself. Typically, kochira koso こちらこそ (likewise) is added when you’re not the first to introduce oneself.

Intonation Note: はじめまして.

36.

はじめまして、 佐々木 ( ささき ) {と ( もう ) します・です}。
よろしくお ( ねが ) い{します・いたします}。
Hajimemashite, Sasaki [to mōshimasu/desu].
Yoroshiku o-negai [shimasu/itashimasu].
Nice to meet you. I’m Sasaki. Please keep me in good thought.

 

Sentence Note: The phrase to mōshimasu と申します literally means “am called.” 

Asking OK

There are two broad usages of the word “okay” that you will need to separate when speaking in Japanese. The first application of “okay” is asking if someone is alright. The second application is asking if something is alright. If you are concerned about the well-being of someone, use Ex. 37. If you are concerned about something being okay, use expressions as seen with Exs. 38-40.

37. 大丈夫 ( だいじょうぶ ) ですか。
Daijōbu desu ka?
Are you okay?
Is that alright/okay?

Sentence Note: To make this casual, just drop desu ka? ですか. The response, regardless of whether one is really okay or not, is usually daijōbu (desu) 大丈夫(です).

38. よろしいですか。
Yoroshii desu ka?
Is that alright/okay?

39. それでも{いい・大丈夫}ですか。
Sore demo [ii/daijōbu] desu ka?
Is it okay even if it’s that?

40. 本当 ( ほんとう ) にいいの?
Hontō ni ii no?
Are you sure it’s okay?

Sentence Note: To make this polite, follow ii いい with n desu ka? んですか.

第106課: Easy & Difficult: ~やすい, ~にくい, & ~づらい

Who knew that expressing easy and difficult could both in fact be slightly difficult in Japanese?  

Part of Speech Note: These endings are all adjectival.  

Easy and Difficult

~やすい, when used with transitive verbs, shows that something is easy to do.When used with intransitive verbs, it means that something is easy to occur.

1. このサンドイッチは小さくて、 べやすいよ。
    This sandwich is small and easy to eat.

2. そのペンはとても きやすいです。
    That pen is very easy to write with.

3. あの のぼ りやすくない。
   That mountain (over there) isn't easy to climb.

4. 白 いシャツは よご れやすい。
    White shirts easily get dirty.  

5. インターネットを 使 いやすくしたのは誰でしょうか。
    Who was it that made the internet easier to use.

6. 僕 にはこの 運転 うんてん しやすい。
    This car is easy for me to drive.

漢字 Note: The 漢字 spelling is no longer commonly used. It is usually found in older writing. 

Instead of ~やすい, the adjective よい may also be used. This, though, is very old-fashioned or unheard to speakers depending on where the person is from. Some natives may not even recognize it as being correct Japanese, but it does indeed exist. In fact, it is still extremely common even in the form ~いい in 関東弁. Its usage in the capital region is still prevalent in people 60 and older. 

7. 咳止 せきど ぐすり みよいはずである。(あまり使われていない)
    咳止 みやすいはずだ。(Natural)
    The cough medicine should be easy to take.

にく い shows either that something is difficult to do or to occur. ~ がた いonly shows the inability to do something, and it is usually restricted to writing and set expressions. Lastly, ~辛い may be used instead of ~にくい to describes undesirable circumstances. These endings attach to the 連用形 of verbs and conjugate as 形容詞. 

8  この ( ) ( ) みにくいです。
    This book is difficult to read.

9a. 歩 ( ) ( ) ( ) 坂道 ( さかみち ) だ。(ちょっと 不自然 ( ふしぜん )
9b. 坂道 ( ) は、 ( ) きづらい。(もっと 自然 ( )
      A road difficult to walk on is a hill.

10a. 書 ( ) きよい 漢字 ( ) 存在 ( そんざい ) するのかな? (Old-fashioned)
10b. 書 ( ) きやすい 漢字 ( ) 存在 ( ) するのかな?(Natural)
        I wonder if a Kanji that is easy to write exists.

11. 考 えにくいと ( ) います。
      I think that is difficult to consider.

12. この ( ) ( ) きにくい。
      This door is difficult to open.

13. 字 ( ) ( うす ) くて、 ( ) づら ( ) いです。
      The letters are faded, and it is difficult to read.

14. 生徒達 ( ) ( みな ) ( ) ( がた ) くて、ぜんぜん言うことに ( ) かなくて、『いまび』を 滅多 ( めった ) ( ) まなくて、 ( こま ) ったんです。
My students are all very hard to teach because they never listen to what I say and rarely read IMABI; I'm very troubled by this.

15. 言 ( ) い{ ( がた ) い・にくい・づらい}ことだ。
      It's hard to say.

16. 彼 ( ) ( ) ( ) ( がた ) いやつだな。
      He is a difficult person to get along with isn't he?

17. 彼女 ( ) 言葉 ( ) ( ) ( ) ( がた ) かった。
      Her speech was difficult to hear.

18. 日本 ( ) は住みにくいです。
       Living in Japan is difficult.

19. 彼女はその職の適任者とは言いがたい。 
      It's difficult to say that she is the right candidate for the job. 


第107課: Too/Continue: ~すぎる, ~続ける, & ~急ぐ

Yes, the title is a pun.

~すぎる

過ぎる means "to pass" and is used both transitively and intransitively. It may be used in basically any situation that relates to someone or something passing by. ~過ぎる shows something "is too...”or someone is doing something "too much". When used with adjectives, you drop the く or に in the 連用形 altogether. Likewise, with 形容動詞, you don't use the copula.

 Verb  食べる + すぎる → 食べすぎる
 形容詞  小さい + すぎる → 小さすぎる
 形容動詞  簡単 + すぎる → 簡単すぎる

漢字 Note: This is usually written in ひらがな when used as an ending.  

1. 酒を飲みすぎて、 二日酔 ふつかよ いがある。
    I drank too much sake, and I have a hangover.

2. 小さすぎる。大きいのがある?
    This is too small. Do you have a bigger one?

3. 食べ過ぎないでくださいね。
    Please don't overeat.

4. 真夜中 ( まよなか ) を過ぎる。
    To pass through midnight.

漢字 Note: Be careful to not confuse this 中 with the suffix ちゅう・じゅう. It turns out that 夜中, which is read as やちゅう, means "at night", but it's a 書き言葉.  

5. あんた、頭がよすぎるよ。(Casual; potentially rude)
    You're too smart!

6. この問題は難しすぎる。
    This question is too difficult.

7. そのカメラは高すぎるね。
    Isn't that camera too high?

8. 明日では ( おそ ) すぎるでしょう。
    Tomorrow will probably be too late.

9. 道路 (  どうろ ) 横断 ( おうだん ) にはいくら 注意 ( ちゅうい ) してもしすぎることはない。
    You can never be too careful when crossing the street.

10. 君は彼女に 期待 ( きたい ) をかけすぎる。
     You expect too much of her.

11. いくら好きでも、食べすぎると、体に悪いです。
      No matter how much you like it, eating too much is bad for your health. 

12. 彼はやりすぎたよ。
     He went too far.

13. 時間が過ぎた。
   Time passed.

14. この物理学の問題は難しすぎて、理解するのは無理です。
      This physics problem is too difficult, and understanding it is useless.  

15. コンピューターの画面に近すぎないことが大切だ。
    It's important to not get too close to the computer screen. 

16. 考え事をしながら歩いていたら、自分の家の前を通り過ぎてしまった。    
      Lost in thought, I walked past my house.

Word Note: 通り過ぎる usually means to "pass by", but it can also have the sense "going too far".

Grammar Note: What about the negative? Take the following two similar phrases into consideration. 読まなすぎる vs. 読みすぎない. The first one states that one "reads too little". The second states that one "doesn't read too much". There may also be cases when ~なすぎる is inappropriate for pragmatic reasons in particular contexts.

17. 彼は何もできなすぎる。 △ 
      He can't do anything.

 The Intensifier ~ない

There is also a suffix ~ない that increases the intensity of a given adjective. Inserting さ when using them with ~すぎる is wrong, but speakers occasionally do so anyway.  

The confusing part about this is that this does come from the negative ない. It so happened that late in Classical Japanese it acquired the meaning of just being an intensifier to particular phrases.

18. だらしない生活をする。
      To lead a sloven lifestyle. 

19. あの映画はまったくえげつないよ。
      That movie is just completely dirty.

20. はしたなく言い争う。
     To immodestly quarrel.

21. しがないサラリーマンの人生
      The humble life of a salary-man

22. あどけない子供の笑顔を見る。
      To look at the angelic smile of a child,

23. ぎこちなく運転しちゃだめだ。 
     Don't drive all clumsy. 

24. {いとけない・無邪気な}子
      An innocent child 

25. 滅相もない・滅相なことをいうものじゃないよ! 
      Don't say something so absurd!

There are a few cases where the original adjective and the adjective with the intensifier ~ない exist, just like above. Another example is   せわ しない and 忙しい. The first means "seems busy" and the other means "really busy", but it is still the case that the former is more intense.  

26. 彼はせわしい人だ。
     He's a real busybody. 

27. 忙しない季節 
      A season so busy with no time to rest

 Another odd pair is 切な versus 切ない. 切な is now typically 切なる, odd giving that this is more Classical in form. The word means "earnest", and you would think 切ない would mean that too. It did, but over time it gained more negative undertones, and now it refers to heartrending sadness. This, though, sprouted out from the meaning of "earnest".  

28. 切な(る)顔
      An earnest face

29. 切なさを堪える。
      To withhold heart-wrenching.  

Another weird word is 怪しからん. This comes from the old verb 怪しかる, but rather than being opposites, they accidentally became the same thing, both meaning "inexcusable".

30. 親切に扱ってくれた人の不満をいうとは怪しからん。(Dialectical/older person)     
      Complaining about those who have treated you well is inexcusable. 

~続ける

    The 一段 verb  ( つづ ) ける means "to continue". The verb is normally used for "one's own" actions. If the verb happens naturally, the verb 続く is used instead. Although you would think that this distinction would be carried in compounds, ~続く is essentially only seen with the verb  ( ) る. 

 一段 Verbs  見る + 続ける →   続ける
 五段 Verbs  泳ぐ + 続ける →  泳ぎ続ける
 Noun + Copula  Nounだ + 続ける →  男性であり続ける
 形容詞  美しい + 続ける →  美しくあり続ける
 形容動詞   自由な + 続ける →  自由であり続ける

31. 日本語を勉強し続けてください。
      Please continue studying Japanese.

32. 我 (   わ ) がままを ( とお ) し続ける。 
      Continue one's own way.

33. 彼氏んちまで歩き続けた。(Casual 東京弁)   
   I continued walking up to my boyfriend's house. 

34. 電話のベルは鳴り続けた。
   The phone kept ringing.

35. ハチ ( こう ) は来る日も来る日も 主人 ( しゅじん ) の帰りを待ち続けた。
   Hachiko waited day after day for his master to return.

Culture Note: ハチ公 is a dog that was so loyal to his master, it waited for him to return at the station even after the owner's death.  

36. 彼らは ( はたら ) き続けた。
   They continued working.

37. 赤ちゃんはぐっすりと ( ねむ ) り続けていた。
   The baby was continuing to sleep soundly.

38. 火が ( ) え続けている。
   The fire is continuing to burn.

39. 雨が降り続いている。
   It is continuing to rain.

40. 既    すで むくろ になってしまったとはいえ、やはり母は、こうして祥子の頭をいためる存在であり続けるのだ。
Although she has already become a corpse, mother will after all continue an existence of having Sachiko ache this way. 
From 冷たい 誘惑 ゆうわく by 乃南 のなみ アサ.

漢字 Notes:

1. すでに is often not spelled in 漢字. However, 既に is more formal and literary.
2. 骸 means "corpse" and is stronger than other words like 遺体, which is typically used in news reports, or 死体.
3. 祥 is a name character meaning "auspicious".  
4. 乃 is also a name character. Its most important reading is の. This is used to write the particle の in many names and in old writing.  


 ~続ける VS ~のを続ける

These two patterns translate the same as "to continue...", but they're not exactly the same. ~続ける shows an action/state that is ongoing. The latter simply states that there is a continuation of some sort. For example, a way to distinguish this in English would be similar to "she is continuing to watch the show"  versus "she continues to watch the show". The first shows the ongoing state of her watching the show whereas the latter just states that she continues to regularly watch the show.

41. 彼女はその番組を観続けている。
      She's continuing to watch that show.

42. 彼女は、その番組を観るのを続けている。
      She continues to watch that show.

漢字 Note: You can use 見 instead of 観, but the latter is often used for watching things like movies, shows, etc.  

~急ぐ

ぐ means "to hurry" and can be seen in both transitive and intransitive contexts. As a transitive verb, it can be used in compounds to show that one is trying to hurry and finish something. Its –て form 急いで can also be used to show this as an adverbial phrase. It is best for this ending to see it used in a compound verb before using it as such. 

43. 売り急ぐ。
     To be in a hurry to sell.

44a. リンゴを買い急ぐ。(ちょっと不自然)
44b. 急いでリンゴを買う。(もっと自然)
        To buy apples in a hurry.

45. 彼は死に急いだ。
      He hastened to his death.

46. 急いで ( ふく ) ( ) た。
      I hurried and got dressed.

47. 学校へ急ぐ。
     To hurry to school. 

Word Noteあせ る is not the same thing. This implies frustration that things might not go as planned.

48. 彼は焦って 失敗 ( しっぱい ) した。
    He hurried it and failed.  


第108課: The Particles しか & ほか

    These particles are very similar to だけ, but they're syntactically different. 

The Particles しか & ほか

しか must be used with the negative form of a verb. It may follow nouns and even other particles such as those with に, で, and まで. In translation, it is close to "just/only" but with a nuance of "there is no choice but to," especially after verbal phrases.

Particle Note: The particle に may be deleted before しか!  

1. あと たった(の) 一週間 いっしゅうかん しかありません。
    There's only one week left.

2. セミナーのレポートの ( ) ( ) りは 明日 ( あした ) だ。 徹夜 ( てつや ) するしかない。
The deadline for the seminar report is tomorrow. I have no choice but to work on it all night long.

3. 今日のおやつこれしかないの。(Casual)
    Is this all there is for snacks today?

4. ( 事前 じぜん に・あらかじめ) つた えるしかない。
     I have no choice but to tell.

5. 歩くしかありません。
    You have no choice but to just walk.

6a. ローマ字だけ書けます。                  I can only write Roman letters.
6b. ローマ字しか書けません。              I can't write anything but Roman letters.

Particle Note: Although だけを is possible and relatively common, the equivalent with しか, をしか, is very literary and doesn't show up often.

7. 私が目に見える美をしか信じなかった以上、この態度は当然である。
    Since I could only believe the beauty that I could see in my eyes, this attitude is natural. 
From 金閣寺 by 三島由紀夫. 

8. いつしか時が流れた。
      Time slid by. 

Set Phrase Note: いつしか = いつの間にか知らないうちに. It doesn't need to be used to be with the negative. 

You may also use だけ and しか together creating だけしか. Also, しか may be seen as しきゃ and っきゃ in slang.

9. やるっきゃないな。
     I have no choice but to do it.


 ほか Continued

    ほか means "aside from." Technically, it can also be seen in ~ほかない, which is synonymous to ~しかない.

10. 社長 しゃちょう ほか 五名 ごめい 出席 しゅっせき
        Five in attendance aside from the company president.

11. どこかほかを さが す。
      To search the rest.

12. 彼はこのほかに なん と言った?
    What else did he say?

13a. 弁護士 べんごし 文書 ぶんしょ だけでなく、 口頭 こうとう でも 説明 せつめい してくれた。
13b. 弁護士は文書をもってするほか、口頭でも説明してくれた。
        The lawyer explained orally aside from the use of documents. 


第109課: Conditionals I: The Particles と, なら(ば), たら, & ば

Creating an "if" statement in Japanese is not easy. This lesson will showcase to you three of the most common grammar points in Japanese to make conditional phrases. By no means, though, does this mean you will be able to master them completely by reading this lesson. The differences between these patterns are highly contextual, and it will still take a lot of practice to get the hang of them. So, by all means, please take your time as you read through this lesson. 

The Conjunctive Particle と

     The conjunctive と can be described as being in the part of the construction of the following constructs. For all of these constructs, the particle follows the non-past tense of a verb. 

  1. When X happens, Y will happen. For example, "when you turn, there will be a bank".
  2. When X happens, Y happens. For example, "when I opened the door, snow came in".
  3. When/if..., then...   (Certain)

     So, "when X happens, Y happens". Y is predictable or an unavoidable fact. This is not an "if" statement. Even when it is translated with the word "if", Y is still something that is certain. So, this means that this pattern is not correct for requests, judgments, etc. These sorts of things don't have a 100% degree of certainty, and they can be easily refuted.

 Examples

1. 四月 ( ) になると、 ( さくら ) ( ) く。
    When it becomes April, cherry blossoms will blossom.

2. 先生 ( ) だと、きっと 年上 ( としうえ ) なんじゃないですか。
    If he's a teacher, surely he has to be older, right?

3. 病院 びょういん くと 藤原 さんがいました。
    When I went to the hospital, Mr. Fujiwara was there.

4. 今 かけないと おく れるよ。
    If you don't depart now, you'll be late.

5.  まど けると、 えます。
    When you open the window, you can see cows.

6. 日 ( ) ( のぼ ) ると、 ( ) るくなります。
    When the sun rises, it becomes bright. 

7. 日 ( ) ( しず ) むと、 ( ) くなります。
    When the sun sets, it becomes dark.

8. 昆布 こんぶ や何かで 出汁 だし るといい。
    It would be good to gather soup stock with kombu or something. 

9. 3に2を ( ) すと、5になります。
     When we add 2 to 3, we get 5.

10. 雪 ( ) ( ) ( ) めると、 動物 ( どうぶつ ) たちは 冬眠 ( とうみん ) ( ) める。
      When it begins to snow, the animals begin hibernation.

11. ワカメやヒジキを食べると髪が生える。
    Your hair grows when you eat wakame and hijiki.

Word Note: ワカメ and ヒジキ are different kinds of edible seaweed.  

12. ♪さかなさかなさかな~魚を食べると~♪あたまあたまあたま~頭がよくなる~♪
Fish, fish, fish, when you eat fish, your brain gets smart, your brain gets smart, your brain gets smart.

Practice (1): Translate the following. You may use a dictionary.

1. If you warm ice, it melts. 
2.  部屋 ( ) に入るとカーテンを ( ) けた。
3. ボーイフレンドと京都に行きました。
4. ドアを開けると、犬がいた。 ( まど ) を開けると、鳥がいた。そして、ゴミ ( ばこ ) を開けると、ねずみがいた。

 Other Usages

      These usages are really just extensions of above, but we'll look at them later.

~ようと → Lesson 80  といい → Lesson 95     ~ずと → Lesson 133

Practice (8): Translate the following. You may use a dictionary.

1. If you warm ice, it melts. 
2.  部屋 へや るとカーテンを けた。
3. ボーイフレンドと 京都 きました。
4. ドアを けると、 がいた。 まど けると、 がいた。そして、ゴミ ばこ けると、ねずみがいた。

The Conjunctive Particle なら(ば)

なら may show advice. It can show things that would be realistic if something were to ever be the case. なら is called the contextual conditional because it is equivalent to "if you are talking about..., then...". Overall, なら(ば) is used to give suggestions, speculation, or requests

13. 中国 くなら、 万里 ばんり 長城 ちょうじょう てください。
      If you are going to China, please see the Great Wall.

14. カメラを いたいなら、秋葉原に った がいいです。
      If you want to buy a camera, it's best to go to Akihabara.

15. 郵便局 ゆうびんきょく くなら、60 切手 きって を5 ってきてください。
      If you are going to the post office, please buy five 60 yen stamps.

16. いいえ、 ( ) ( ) れましたが、 自由席 ( じゆうせき ) ならあります。
      No, they are sold out, but we have unreserved seats.

17. どうしてもというなら 仕方 しかた がない。
      If you must, you have no choice.

18. それなら話は早い。  
      That makes it easy.  

19. 仕事 えたのなら、 かえ っていいよ。
      You may leave provided/providing that you finished your work.

20. 知 っているんなら、 えてください。
      Providing that you know, please tell me.

Grammar Note: なら expresses the speaker's supposition or defines the basis of the statement. There is no required temporal ordering of the two situations presented. So, it can't be used to show a consequence in the past or condition for the future. 

Nuance Note: のなら is stronger and enforces a confirmation of the content of the condition.

Usage Note: なら can also be used as a conjunction at the front of a sentence in broken down speech for それなら.

Practice (2): Translate the following.  

1.  韓国 かんこく くなら(ば)、 飛行機 ひこうき がよいです。
2. みなが くなら、 きます。
3.  電車 がないなら、 くまでだ。
4. 大阪 おおさか くなら、 新幹線 しんかんせん がいいですよ。
5. その話なら 何度 なんど も聞いているよ。

The Conjunctive Particle たら

1. Shows an unrealized event being hypothesized, not completely certain. It's often preceded by もし. In a temporal condition, the next action is to happen after the action with たら. So, something happens once certain conditions are met

21. 会議 かいぎ が終わったら、 電話 でんわ しますね。
      I'll call you once the meeting ends, OK?

22.  金持 かねも ちになったら、 しろ う!
      If I were rich, I'd so buy a castle!

23. もし ( ) ( ) らなかったら、 ( ) きましょう。
       If it doesn't rain, let's go.

24. 雨 ( ) が( ( ) り)やんだら、どこかに ( ) くと ( ) めた。
      After it finished raining, we decided to go somewhere.

25. 日本 ( ) ( ) けたらいいなあ。
      It would be nice if I could go to Japan. 

26. もし 地球 ( ちきゅう ) 引力 ( いんりょく ) がなかったら、 空中 ( くうちゅう ) ( ) いているでしょう。
      If there wasn't gravity on earth, you would probably be floating in the air.

27. 地震 じしん おさ まったら、 しい 情報 じょうほう いてください。
      Once an earthquake subsides, get accurate information. 


2. When you do X, Y happens. The latter part is typically unexpected.

28. ドアを開けたら、 加藤 ( かとう ) さんが ( ) っていました。 
      When I opened the door, Mr. Kato was standing there.

29. 本 ( ) ( ) んであげたら、 ( ) ( よろこ ) びました。
      When I read the book for my younger brother, he was very happy.

30. 休 ( ) んだら、 元気 ( ) になった。
      When I rested, I got better.

31. 銀行 ( ) ( ) ったら、 友人 ( ゆうじん ) ( ) いました。
      When I went to the bank, I saw a friend.


3. Shows an obvious conditional. This is a generic condition. This means that something is almost always followed by some situation. This "almost always" diction suggests that it is not as certain as と.

32. この 会社 ( かいしゃ ) 社員 ( しゃいん ) だったら、あの 大学 ( だいがく ) 割引 ( わりびき ) がもらえる。
      If you are an employee of this company, you can get a discount at that college.

33. 人 ( ) ( ころ ) したら、 死刑 ( しけい ) になります。
      If you kill a person, you'll get the death penalty.

34. 風邪 かぜ いたら、くしゃみが ます。
      If we catch a cold, we sneeze.


4. (の)だったら emphasizes a topic because of the condition of someone else. 

35. やりたくないんだったらやめてくれ。(Vulgar)
      If you don't want to do it, stop!

36. お ( ) さんだったら 部屋 ( ) にいるよ。
      If you're talking about dad, he's in the room.


たら may be たらば in formal situations. In hypothetical situations, もし(も) is almost always added. Unlike と or なら, たら may be in a hypothetical yet unrealistic gesture. It's also the most common conditional because of its wide usage. However, it's often avoided in formal writing.

The Adverb もし

      We saw that in the first usage of たら, もし was always present. もし is related to hypothetical events. If you looked in a Japanese dictionary, you would find a definition similar to the following.

37. ある 事態 ( じたい ) 仮定 ( かてい ) して ( ) べることを ( あらわ ) す。
      It shows an event of hypothesizing and stating a certain condition. 

     When a clause with たら is used to show a hypothetical condition--where it may or may not happen--it is usually used with もし. もし is also used with counter-factual hypothetical statements where the event is extremely unrealistic. Even here, もし simply adds more uncertainty.

38. 毎日すし( ) べられたら、 ( ) ( ) せでしょう。
      If I could eat sushi every day, I would be very happy.

39. もし ( ) ( ) れば ( ) ( ) にいます。
      If it rains tomorrow, I will stay at home.

40. もし ( ) があなただったらすこし ( ) つでしょう。
      If I were you, I'd wait a while. 

41. もし ( ) ( ) 立場 ( たちば ) だったら、どうしますか?
      Suppose you were in my place, what would you do?

The Conjunctive Particle ば

ば creates the provisional conditional form with the  已然形 いぜんけい . Never confuse this with the potential forms of verbs. There is a difference between えば and えれば. The first is ば with the basic form of the verb, and the second is ば with the potential form of the verb. The chart below shows how to conjugate with the 已然形 . You are now responsible to know what this base is. 

 形容詞  形容動詞  一段  五段  する  来る  である  だ
 新しけれ  簡単であれ  食べ  歌  す  来(く)  であれ  ならば

  ば shows that the previous stated condition's establishment is the condition for the latter stated condition to occur. The subjects of both clauses should not show volition. So, although the subject may be the same in both clauses, the resultant outcome should be natural in such instance. 

This particle is perfect for showing desired result, so it would sound unnatural if the latter clause had some negative/undesired result specifically stated. This, then, does not mean "negative words" used in making suggestions/commands are then ungrammatical because you are soliciting a desired outcome.  

ば may also show the cue for a latter stated recognition or judgment. 

42. ほかに 意見 ( ) がなければ、これで ( ) わりましょう。
      If you don't have any other opinions, let's end here.

43. まあ、 無理 ( むり ) {なら・であれば}、 月曜日 ( ) までに ( ) してください。 
       Well, if it's impossibility, turn it in by Monday.  

Like たら, it can show generic, temporal, and hypothetical conditions, but it's more forceful and places emphasis on the future aspect. The main clause shouldn't suggest with an action in the following manner. 

44. 京都へ来たら、ぜひ連絡してください。〇京都へ来れば、ぜひ連絡してください。X
      Once you come to Kyoto, please contact me.   

   The suggestion is to do something once the condition of reaching Kyoto is met. Both conditionals can be followed by expressions reflecting the will of the speaker, but phrases with ば tend to be stronger and directed more specifically on something. 

45. せば、 ひら きます。
      It will open once you push it.

46. 冬 ( ) になれば、 ( ) ( ) る。
       When it becomes winter, snow will fall.

Grammar Note: たら has a sequence requirement, but this "once" nuance of ば focuses on the conditional as the instigator for the latter to occur. So, it is stronger.  


47. 都合 がよければ、 一緒 いっしょ 大阪 きませんか。
      How about going to Osaka together if it's convenient with you?

48. 自信 じしん があれば なか 成功 せいこう したも 同然 どうぜん だ。(Proverb)
      Confidence is half the battle.

49. 見上 げれば、 ほし ちゅう をうねり、 やみ おお っている。
      If you look up, the stars are projected in the air, and the dark is spreading.

50. あれだけ 勉強 ( ) すれば、 合格 ( ごうかく ) するのも 当然 ( とうぜん ) です。
      If you'll study to that extent, passing is only natural.

51. 酒 ( ) ( ) めば、タバコも ( ) う。
      If you drink sake, you also smoke.

52. 歌手 かしゅ になりたいのであれば、 楽器 がっき かた なら った ほう がよいのです。
If it is the case that you wish to become a singer, it is best that you also learn how to play an instrument. 

Pronunciation Note: Do not pronounce 楽器 as がき because 餓鬼  = brat. So, be careful. 

Practice (3): Translate the following.

1.  ければ、 わない がいいですよ。
2. 僕の家に来ればどう?
3. 犬と話せれば、楽しいでしょう。
4. 勉強すれば、Aがもらえますよ。
5. 安ければ、買った方がいいと思います。

Proverb Note一犬虚 いっけんきょ ゆれば 万犬実 ばんけんじつ う。This proverb means that "if a single dog barks a lie, ten thousand dogs will then speak it as the truth". This is meant to show that once a rumor spreads, it will eventually be taken as the truth. 吠ゆれば is the Classical Japanese form 吠えれば, and in proverbs such as this, old forms of grammar are common. 

Slang Note: ~ば may be turned into ~や in slang. Generally, this is seen when れ precedes ば, and then the combination becomes りゃ. For instance, どうすりゃいいの? However, you can still say things like どう言いやいいんだよ. Of course, this would be very casual and slang and is rather 乱暴.  

Keys

Practice (1):

1. 氷を あたた めると、 ける。
2. When I entered the room, I opened the curtains.
3. I went to Kyoto with my boyfriend.
4. When I opened the door, there was a dog. When I opened the window, there was a bird. And, when I opened the trash can, there was a rat.

Practice (2):

1. If you are going to Korea, it is best to go by plane.
2. If everyone's going, I'll go too.
3. If there's not a train, you just got to walk.
4. If you are going to Osaka, the bullet train is good.
5. If it's that you're talking about, I've heard it numerous times.

Practice (3):

1. It's best not to buy it if it's expensive.
2. How about coming to my house?
3. It would probably be fun if you could take to dogs.
4. You'll be able to receive an A if you study.
5. If it’s cheap, I think that it’s best to buy it. 


第110課: Conditional Phrases 

Now that you have learned about the conditional particles, it's time for you to learn about all the different phrases you can make with them. Now, this lesson won't be totally exhaustive in its coverage on these phrases. So, you will still learn more in the future. 

なら Phrases

  AがAならBもBだ

 "AがAならBもBだ" compares two things that aren't good. Similarly, "AもAならBもBだ" gives a meaning of "both being not normal".

1. おっと 教師 きょうし なら つま 教師 きょうし だ = 夫も妻も とも に教師だ
The husband and the wife are both teachers.

2. 犬も犬なら猫も猫だ。
    If dogs are dogs, then cats are also cats.

3. 親も親なら、子も子だ。
    If parents are parents, then kids are also kids.

たら Phrases

~としたら

~としたら is like "if it happens that". Notice that it can follow verbs in the non-past or past tense, but this decision has to be solely made on the circumstances.

4. もしたくさんの 遺産 ( いさん ) あったとしたらどのように使うのですか?
    Say if it so happened that you had a lot of inheritance, how would you use it?

5. 仮に、お金が一億円あるとしたら、何に使いますか。
    If you were to have 100 million yen for instance, what would you use it for?


 ~たらいい? ~たらどう?

There are many ways to make suggestions, some of which are made with たら. These phrases may show noninterference, light commands, and suggestions--"how about?". In plain speech it's more common to drop か in a question in order to not sound curt/rude. 

6. の人と話したらどうですか。
    How about talking to other people?

7. もし来なかったらどうしよう? 
    What shall we do if he doesn't come?

8. どうやって ( つぐな ) いをしたらいいのでしょうか。
    How can I make it up to you?

9. 先生もお使いになってみたらいかがですか。(Very polite/formal)
    Sensei, how about you try using this? 

10. どうしたらいいですか。 
      What shall/should I do?

11. どうしたらいいと思いますか。
      What do you think I should do? 

12. 何で行ったらどうですか。
      How do I get there? 

Grammar Note: This 何で is read as なにで, and it refers to the means by which you are going. As this is also expressed by the word "how" do not be confused. 

13. どこでチケットを買ったらいいですか。 
      Where should I buy a ticket? 

In casual speech, the final part after the conditional is often dropped. When this is done, the sentence ends with a rising intonation.

14. 先生に聞いてみたら?
      How about you ask the teacher? 

              ~てはどう and its variants can also be used to mean "how about (you)?". 

15. この本を読んでみてはどうですか。
      How about you read this book.

16. この薬を飲んでみてはいかがでしょう。 
      Why don't you take this medicine? 


 Conditional...だけ

              With a conditional, だけ can express "the more, the...". Some patterns include したら…しただけ, …しただけ, …したらそれだけ, and ~ば…だけ". At this point, just recognize what role だけ plays.

17. 希望 きぼう した 会社 かいしゃ 就職 しゅうしょく したら就職したぶん(だけ) 気苦労 きぐろう えるでしょう。
      Just by getting a job at your dream company, anxiety will also surely increase.

Word Note: 希望する and  ( のぞ ) む both mean "to hope", but they're not used like the English word. They are mainly literary, but when spoken they show sincere desire, beseeching, etc. 希望する is more like "to desire". If wanted to say, "I hope it's cold tomorrow", you'd say something like 明日寒 ( あすさむ ) いといいね. In short, these words are too serious to be used in more practical settings.

18. ( 時間 ( じかん ) が) 十分 ( じゅっぷん ) (だけ)あれば、 仕上 ( しあ ) げられるけど、もう 零時 ( れいじ ) になったから ( とこ ) ( ) いた方がいいです。
If I had ten minutes, I would be able to finish it. But, because it's already midnight, it's best to go to bed.


 でもしたら・でもしようものなら

        でもしたら or でもしようものなら--"(even) if you were". This pattern attaches to the 連用形 of a verb.

19. おく れでもしたら 大変 たいへん ですよ。
      It would be awful even if you were just late. 

20. でも ( ) ( ) る時に ( まん ) ( いち ) 子供を ( ) きでもしたら大変である。
      But, if by chance when I break across, it would be awful if I were to run over a kid. 
From 雨天炎天―ギリシャ・トルコ辺境紀行 by 村上春樹. 


 Conditional...(た)で

              There are three conditional patterns in which で acts as a conjunctive particle. Unlike the case particle, this classification means that it is to follow something that acts as a clause. This is completely different than just following a noun phrase.

These phrases below that utilize this odd で show an effect on something due to a conditional. So, there is some causality implied. So, if something happens, there is a certain effect. This use of で can surface as any of the following patterns. The table is followed by example sentences. 

 With なら  名詞・形容動詞+なら+形容動詞+で  広大なら広大で
 With たら  連用形+たら+た+で  引っ越したら引っ越したで
 安かったら安かったで
 With ば  動詞: 已然形+ば+連用形+た+で
 形容詞: 已然形+ば+終止形+で
 形容動詞: 已然形+ば+語根+で
 名詞: であれば+ 名詞 + で
 あればあったで
 広ければ広いで
 難解であれば難解で
 暇であれば暇で

Say we note this pattern as A + Conditional +A + B. While you adequately assess the establishment of A, you lead into a situation B that is not foreseen.  

21. 休んだら休んだで、たくさんやることがある。
      From having taken a break, I have a lot of stuff to do.

22. 一段落したらしたで、次の難問が待っている。 
      Just from following down one step, the next difficult problem awaits.

23. お金というものはあったらあったで無駄に使ってしまうものだ。
      Money is something that when you have it, you end up wasting it.  

24. 部屋が広ければ広いで掃除機なんか結構時間がかかります。
      The bigger the room gets, the more time it takes to do stuff like vacuuming.   

In all four of these examples, because of the event transpiring before で, there is an effect from it that leads to the result stated after で. This pattern tends to get used a lot more when the past tense precedes で.

Because this pattern doesn't get used extremely frequently, judgments may vary on exact instances of it. This is because it should be used within the explanation provided above. If you are told that you are using it incorrectly, you should use ほど instead of で. This does not mean で → ほど in most cases. Nor does this mean that these different patterns are the same by any means.  It's just that if you use this pattern incorrectly, it more than likely should be ほど.

一段落 いちだんらく したらしたで、 難問 なんもん っている。
Just from following down one step, the next difficult problem awaits.

ば Phrases

~ばいい 

~ばいい is like "it would be good". In the past tense, ~ばよかった, the perspective changes to first person to show a feeling of regret or criticism at something not happening. In question form it is essentially the same thing as ~たらいいですか。

25. あの家を買えばいいんです。 
      It would be good for you to buy that house.

26. 私がすればよかったんですが。
      It would have been good if I had done it.

27. 時間があればよかった。
      It would have been nice if there were time. 

28. もっと早く来ればよかった。
      It would have been nice if you had come earlier.


~{から・と・に}すれば 

~からすれば, ~とすれば, and ~にすれば show a particular position. There isn't really any significant differences between them, although judging from the translations below, you can get a sense of slight nuance differences based on the particle used. 

29. 彼にすれば 悪意 ( あくい ) から出た 行為 ( こうい ) だったのでしょう。
      Considering it's him, the action was probably out of malice thought.

30. 彼女の顔つきからすれば、本当に美しいですよね。
      Starting with her looks, she's really pretty, isn't she! 


 AもすればBもする

"AもすればBもする" aligns similar conditional situations.

31. 雨も降れば風も吹く。
      The rain falls, and the wind blows.

32. 男もいれば、女もいる。
      There are men, and there are also women.


第111課: Must Not

In this lesson, we will learn about the phrases for “must not”. Now, contrary to what many textbooks may say, there are actually differences among the several options that you as the listener must understand. Before we study “must” phrases, it’s important to learn about the “must not” phrases because there are fewer of them and less information overall to go through. So, let’s begin. 

禁止:~てはならない・~てはいけない・~てはだめだ

Conjugations

  • 動詞: 連用形 + ては+ならない・いけない・だめだ
  • 形容詞: 連用形(く) + ては+ならない・いけない・だめだ
  • 名詞・形容動詞: 連用形(で) + は+いけない・だめだ/ではあっては+ならない・いけない
Contraction Note: In casual speech ては → ちゃ では →じゃ 
 使っては → 使っちゃ  死んでは → 死んじゃ

 使い分け

~てはならない: A prohibitory command accompanied with a sense of societal duty. This is the only pattern appropriate for law documents or judicial verdicts. It is obligatory in the written language in showing commands that regard society. 

~てはいけない: A prohibitory command accompanied with a sense of personal duty. ~てはならない would be more stern than ~てはいけない in this situation in the written language.  

~てはだめだ: A prohibitory command projecting warning, chastise, or criticism to the listener. It may not always be a literal command. It may simply suggest prohibition or avoidance of an action. It may also be used to encourage someone like in “don’t give up”: 諦めてはだめだ!This pattern is used primarily in the spoken language. 

Spelling Note: These phrases are typically spelled in ひらがな. However, だめ is frequently spelled in 漢字 as 駄目.

In the spoken language, there is a lot of interchangeability between ~てはいけない and ~てはだめだ, and in the written language, there is a lot of interchangeability between ~てはならない and ~てはいけない.

1. 日本は、 憲法 ( けんぽう ) ( ) らして、いかなる 武器 ( ぶき ) も保持してはならない。(Formal document; 書き言葉)
   Japan must not maintain any arms in light of the constitution. 

2a. 町民 ( ちょうみん ) ( とう ) は、いかなる 理由 ( りゆう ) にせよ、 廃棄物 ( はいきぶつ ) 不法 ( ふほう ) 投棄 ( とうき ) してはならない。 (法律; 書き言葉)
2b. 市民は、いかなる理由であっても、廃棄物を不法投棄してはならない。(書き言葉)
     Townspeople must by no reason unlawfully dump waste matter. 

3. この薬は 副作用 ( ふくさよう ) があり、 血糖値 ( けっとうち ) の上昇を引き起こす 可能性 ( かのうせい ) があるので、2日 以上 ( いじょう ) 連続 ( れんぞく ) して 服用 ( ふくよう ) しては{ならない・いけない}。(書き言葉)
There are side effects to this drug with one being a possible rise in blood sugar. So, you mustn't use it more than two days consecutively. 


 The Person Commanding

If we think of who makes the command, the person is of a higher status than the listener. It does not necessarily have to be the speaker who is the commander. The commander is likely as such based on what exactly you use.

 Pattern  Style?  Description of Use
 ~てはならない  書き言葉  Commanded person is an overseeing/administering agency.
 ~てはいけない  Both  Commanded person is a responsible party. 
 In the spoken language, it is mainly used by men.
 ~てはいけません  話し言葉  Used mainly by women: mothers, teachers, and bosses
 ~てはだめだ  話し言葉  Used mainly by men: fathers, teachers, bosses, and sempai. 
 ~てはだめです  話し言葉  Used mainly by women: mothers, teachers, bosses, and sempai.

Speech Style Note: If a man is to use the non-敬語 phrases ~てはいけない and ~てはだめだ and they are not a person of ultimate authority, one can imagine the speaker becoming in an emotional state in which he just ignores the character of the addressee.

~てはだめ(だよ・よ)when used among friend and family becomes advice rather than a straight out command and can be used to one’s technical superior and inferior in this situation.

4. お母さん、そんなに働いちゃだめよ。体を壊しちゃうわ。(女性語)
    Mom, don't work so hard like that. You'll get sick. 

5. そのぬいぐるみ、まだ持ってたの?ルパートは危ないから、持ってちゃだめだよ。捨てなさい。(Family Guy reference)
You still have that stuffed animal? I told you that Rupert was dangerous, so you can't keep him. Throw him away. 


 Gender Trend?

It is not that ~てはいけません and ~てはだめです are exclusively used by women, but women are often expected to be more polite. So, in this sense, regardless of whether one is male or female, the use of these polite forms emphasizes ones class more than actually showing respect to the addressee. This is expected of any well-educated 成人.

6a. 今日は、自分の車で帰るつもりでしょう?お酒を飲んでは{いけません・だめです}よ。( 敬意 けいい
6b. 今日は、車で帰る?じゃ、飲んじゃ{いけません・だめです}よ。( 品格 ひんかく 保持 ほじ

6a. Aren't you going home in your own car today? You mustn't drink.
6b. You're going home by car today? Well, you mustn't drink.      

Grammar Note: Not using polite forms of conjunctive phrases makes it clear whether someone is showing 敬意 (respect) or 品格保持 (societal standing). This would show the latter.


 More on ~てはならない

Using ~てはならない in things based on personal experience and knowledge in spoken, colloquial contexts is unnatural except in dramas and movies. 

7. 敵に後ろを見せるのかい。そりゃならぬ。武士として、あるまじきことじゃ。  (Samurai talk)
   Show our rear to the enemy? That mustn't happen. That is unworthy of a warrior. 


The Difference between ~てはいけない & ~てはだめだ

When ~てはいけない is used, there is a rule that needs to be protected/followed, and if one breaks the rule, punishment follows. When ~てはだめだ is used, it is most often the case that there is no penalty or responsibility implied for the addressee. Even if there isn’t a rule to follow, if you are scolded or are to run into an unpleasant circumstance, it becomes understood to the speaker and listener that there is an unwritten rule to abide by.

8. ご飯を食べたら、すぐにお風呂! それまでゲームをやっては{いけません・だめです}よ。
   Bath right after supper! Until then, you must not play video games. 

9. こんなに雨が降ってきては{だめだ 〇・いけない X}、計画は中止だ。
   This can't do with all rain falling like this; plans are cancelled. 

It’s impossible for man to actually command the weather. So, in this sentence, using ~てはいけない is just wrong. 


Summary Chart

   書き言葉  話し言葉   ばつ ・ペナルティ   命令 めいれい ぶん   非命令 ひめいれい ぶん
 ~てはならない  〇  X   〇  〇  X
 ~てはいけない  〇  〇  〇  〇  △
 ~てはだめだ  X  〇  X  〇  〇

Definition Notes: 罰 = Punishment; 命令文 = Imperative sentence; 非命令文 = Non-imperative sentence

 ~といけない・~とだめだ

First, before we look at how these phrases differ with the ones above, consider the conjugation rules below.  

  • 動詞:終止形+と{いけない・だめだ}
  • 形容詞・形容動詞:終止形+{といけない・だめだ}
  • 名詞:である・だ+(といけない・だめだ)

As you can see, there is no ~とならない. You can't use ~といけないand ~とだめだ to make sentences that urge someone. They may be used in declarative and affirmation sentences, but they can't be interpreted as prohibitory commands.

と marks a general condition, and it can only be used with confidence based on personal experience and or knowledge. So, even if you were to tell a listener a message involving having been prohibited, the use of these options would still be unnatural. As ~てはならない exists as an absolute prohibitory imperative phrase, there’s no way a declarative ~とならない could exist.

10.  心臓 しんぞう が悪いから、歩くのはいいが、走ると{いけない・だめな}のだ。   (書き言葉)
      My heart is not good, so it's OK for me to walk, but I can't run. 


More Examples

11. 子供はお酒を飲んではいけない。 
      Children must not drink sake.

12. の中では走ってはいけませんよ。
      You must not run in the middle of the house!

13. おく れちゃだめ(だよ)。
   You can't be late!


第112課: Must

     This lesson will now look at the "must" phrases. There will be more variation in forms to be aware of in this section, and the grammar complications will be harder than with the "must not" forms, but don't worry.

Must

The basic patterns are ~なければならない, ~なければいけない, ~なくてはならない, and ~なくてはいけない. Just as with must not phrases, ~ては contracts to ちゃ in colloquial speech. Other contractions include ~なければ → なけりゃ and ~なくてはいけない shortened to just ~なくちゃ.

 Part of Speech  Example Phrase  Conjugations 
 動詞  食べる  食べなくては + ならない・いけない
 食べなければ + ならない・いけない
 形容詞  新しい  新しくなくては + ならない・いけない
 形容動詞
 名詞
 新鮮だ   新鮮でなければ + ならない・いけない

Chart Note: Example verbs may not be perfect for demonstrating the actual sensitive nuances of the options to be discussed in this lesson.

 Colloquial Variants

 ~なければ → ~なきゃ  ~なければ → ~なけりゃ  ~なくては → ~なくちゃ

Variant Note: ~なきゃ and ~なくちゃ are often used without anything after them.  


~なくてはならない VS ~なければならない 

In the written language, these two "must" phrases are both most likely to be used. This is due to the use of ならない. They're both used not to describe personal matters, but to describe societal duties in regards to law and societal norms. ~なければならない is used for affirmative statements. When the sense of duty you're wishing to command somewhat is directed towards individual responsibility rather than society or some institution as a whole, ~なくてはならない is acceptable.

1. 国家は 直接 ちょくせつ 、国民すべてに、 最低 さいてい 限度 げんど の生活を 保障 ほしょう しなければならない。
    The nation must directly ensure a bare minimal lifestyle to all citizens.  

2.  従業員 ( じゅうぎょういん ) は毎日、 出退勤 ( しゅったいきん ) ( ) を、タイムレコーダーに 記録 ( きろく ) し{なければならない・なくてはならない}。
   Employees must record in the time recorder one's leave time. 


Interchangeability in the Spoken Language 

However, unlike straight-up prohibition, we find all four options ~なければならない・~なければいけない・~なくてはならない・~なくてはいけない acceptable in the spoken language. This is a perfect opportunity to get familiar with casual speech. 

3. 国は、国民すべてに、最低限度の生活を保障し{なければならない・なくてはならない・なければいけない・なくてはいけない}よ。
   The country must provide some minimal lifestyle to all its citizens. 

4. 早く帰って、妹の世話をし{なきゃなんない・なくちゃなんない・なきゃいけない・なくちゃいけない}よ。
   I have to go home and take care of my little sister. 

5. 本を かえ さなくちゃ。(Casual)
    I have to return the book.

6. てめーは死ななきゃ。(Masculine; vulgar)
    You have to die.


 使い分け

In everyday conversation, these four patterns have great interchangeability. If we are to talk about the extremities of the usages of ~なくてはならない and ~なければならない, the difference would be this.

~なくてはいけない:Duty or command to the addressee (which may be oneself or another party) regarding common sense, morality, societal common wisdom, or current conditions. The speaker is directing the addressee. When used towards oneself, you treat yourself as the 'addressee'. If referring to oneself, a first pronoun is usually needed to tell that you mean this. 

~なければならない:A duty of the speaker in regards to common sense, morality, and or societal common wisdom. It will show responsibility burdened upon the speaker. The person bearing the responsibility is not excluding to the speaker, but it is best described as being the subject. This may be be used in the spoken language as well, and this is also when you may see the polite form ~なければなりません.

When you use ~なければ, you imply an obvious duty with no penalty involved for not complying. ~なくては is used when there is a penalty for not complying. いけない is in regards to the listener or one’s conscious and ならない is used in regards to the speaker. So, when we say things interchangeable, we’re saying that if we change one for the other, the new nuance still makes sense. It is not the case that the meaning stays completely the same.

7. 急がなければいけない。
    You must hurry.

8. 子供達 こどもたち は早く なくてはいけない。
    Children must go to bed early.

9. あまりの 無駄 むだ けなければならない。 
    We must avoid an excess of waste. 

10. 弟と遊ばなくてはいけないから。
      It's because I have to play with my little brother.

11. 毎日水を飲まなければなりません。
      You have to drink water every day.  (General you, which includes oneself)

12. 私はボートに乗らなくてはいけないんです。
      I have to catch the boat.

13. 新刊を買わなくてはいけません。
      You have buy the new book.

Word Note: {その・あの}新しい本 may be more natural in many contexts than 新刊, which can also be interpreted as "new publication". Nevertheless, 新刊 is still a commonly used word. 

~ないといけない & ~ないとだめだ

As you would imagine, the rules governing these phrases is just like when used for must not. ~ないとならない doesn’t exist. And, these two phrases are quite removed semantically from the others. You can't tell whether the speaker’s duty or addressee’s duty is being referred to without relying on context, so it is typically only used in the spoken language or writing which can reflect back on the conditions in a dialogue. As this phrase particularly blurs the existence of penalty, it has a lighter feeling and is used a lot in the spoken language because of this.

Because the particle と is used, though, your statement should be one based on experience or knowledge of some sort. Though the situation is somewhat more ambiguous than with must not phrases, you can still see how ~ないといけない refers to rule-like behavior and ~ないとだめだ may hint at the existence of a consequence for not following through.

15. 早く帰って、妹の 世話 せわ をしないとだめなの。(女性語)
   I gotta go home quick and take care of my little sister. 

16. 明日、試験だから、早く起きないといけないんだよ。
   I have to wake up early tomorrow 'cause I have an exam.

17. 死活問題 しかつもんだい だから、 対策 たいさく こう じないといけないのだ。
      It's a matter of life or death, so I/you need to take measures.

18. 明日 あす までに 報告書 ほうこくしょ を書かないとだめだよ。(Casual yet serious) 
      I/You have to write a report by tomorrow!

Casual Speech Note: In colloquial speech, you can simply use ~ないと. 

19. もう行かないと。(Casual)
      I've got to go.


Older Variants

There are many other older and dialectical variations of what we have just learned. As for old phrases, we have ~ねば{ならない・ならぬ},and ~なければならぬ which are old-fashioned but not so archaic that they don’t frequently show up in the written language. You may also see the very stiff ~なるまい. ~ねばならない in particular is extremely common in literature.

20. これからは、自分たちのことは自分たちで決めるんだと思った。なぜなら三人だけで生きていかねばならないからだ。 
I felt that from now on that we would have decide on our own accord concerning ourselves. That is because we must live on just the three of us. 

21. 何としても 合格 ( ごうかく ) せんばならんねな。(Old-fashioned; dialectical)
      You have to pass no matter what. 
From  蒼氓 ( そうぼう )  by  石川達三 ( いしかわたつぞう ) .

Base Note: The old みぜんけい of する, せ-, must be used with ~ぬ. 

Variant Note: There are several important notes about the above sentence. The ~ね in せねば is contracted to ~ん and ~ない in ならない becomes → ~んね, which would be realized today in Modern Japanese as the casual ~んねー such as in 分かんねー・分かんない.  


 Important Dialectical Variants

       Sometimes "must" is expressed completely differently in other dialects. The most common dialect pattern is " 未然形 ( みぜんけい )  +なあかんで". You can also see ~ねば contracted to ~にゃ in Western Japanese Dialects. 

いけない is very sensitive in respect to dialect. Below is a chart of the most common variations you may encounter.  

 いかん、いけん、あかん
22.  片道 かたみち 切符 きっぷ わなあかんで。
      I have to buy a one-way ticket.

23. 歌 ( ) わなくてはいけん。
       I have to sing.

More Notes:

1. せにゃならん = しなければならない

2. せないかん = しなければならない

3. Note 2 is also a Western Japanese dialect example. Here, we see a rare example of ~ない following the old 未然形 of the verb する, せ-, and あかん contracted as かん.


第113課: いかない vs いけない

To be or not to be, or in this case, to choose いかない or いけない is a not so simple choice for the Japanese learner to make at times. They both come from the verb 行く, which has the basic meaning of “to go.” Unsurprisingly, the basic meanings of 行かない and 行けない are “to not go” and “cannot go” respectively.

1. ( なに ) もかもうまくいかないときは、 自分 ( じぶん ) ( ) える、いいチャンスではないでしょうか。
Isn’t when everything goes wrong a great chance to change oneself?

2. でも、そうかといって ( おれ ) 投票 ( とうひょう ) (をし)に ( ) っても ( ) かなくても ( べつ ) 一票 ( いっぴょう ) ( おも ) みを ( かん ) じない。
But even so, whether I go vote or not, I don’t particularly feel the weight of one vote.

3. ( ) んでもらえないだけならまだしも、 本当 ( ほんとう ) 注目 ( ちゅうもく ) してほしいところに 注意 ( ちゅうい ) ( ) かないってことが 問題 ( もんだい ) なんですよ。
If it were just not being able to have him read that would be one thing, but the problem is that his attention doesn’t go to the areas that I really want paid attention to. 

4. トイレに ( ) けないときに ( かぎ ) って 腹痛 ( ふくつう ) ( ) こるのはなぜでしょうか。
Why is it that occurrences of abdominal pain is limited to when I can't go to the bathroom?

5. 空港 ( くうこう ) 見送 ( みおく ) りに ( ) けなくてごめんね。
I’m sorry for not being able to see you off at the airport.

Orthography Note: The uses of these two phrases that are to be discussed are typically written in Hiragana.

わけにはいかない

Translated as “there’s no way…can…” or “…cannot (afford to) …” this expression is used to state that an action is not reasonable/proper for obvious reasons and cannot be done as a result.

6. 日本語 ( にほんご ) 授業 ( じゅぎょう ) では 英語 ( えいご ) ( はな ) すわけにはいきません。
You cannot speak English in Japanese class.

7. アメリカ ( ) の授業ではガムを ( ) むわけにはいきません。
You cannot chew gum in American history.

8. 授業 ( じゅぎょう ) では ( ) るわけにはいきません。
You cannot afford to sleep in class. 

9. ( いそが ) しくても ( ) ないわけにはいかないよ。
Even if you're busy, you can't afford to not sleep.   

10.  

A:  漢字 ( かんじ ) 勉強 ( べんきょう ) するのに 時間 ( じかん ) がかかりますねえ。
B:  ええ、でも おぼ えないわけにはいかないしねえ。
A: It must take a lot of time to study Kanji.
B: Yeah, but I can't afford not to remember them.  

11. 「この ( ごろ ) サークル 活動 ( かつどう ) ( いそが ) しいようだね」「うん、でも、 ( いそが ) しいといって 宿題 ( しゅくだい ) をしないわけにはいかないしね」
“You seem pretty busy these days with club activities, don't you?” “Yeah but, just because I’m busy with them, I can't afford not to do my homework.” 

12. 「 漢字 ( かんじ ) ( むずか ) しいねえ」「うん、でもそうかと ( ) って 漢字 ( かんじ ) ( ) かないわけにはいかないしねえ」
"Kanji are difficult, aren't they?” “Yeah, but even so, I can't afford not to write with them, you know…”

13. 「 毎日忙 ( まいにちいそが ) しくて ( ) 時間 ( じかん ) もない」「でもそうかといって 全然寝 ( ぜんぜんね ) ないわけにはいかないでしょ」
"I'm so busy every day that there's no time to sleep." “Yeah, but even so, there’s no way you can just not sleep at all.”

いけない

The not so literal usages of いけない revolve around being a euphemism of 悪い.

14. ( かれ ) 事故 ( じこ ) ( ) ったって?それはいけない、あいつは 大丈夫 ( だいじょうぶ ) なの?
He got in an accident? That’s not good; is he alright?

15. 最近 ( さいきん ) 日本酒 ( にほんしゅ ) ( ) めるようになったんですが、 熱燗 ( あつかん ) はあまりいけない ( くち ) なんですね。
Recently, I’ve become able to drink sake, but I can't really handle hot sake.

16. 異物混入 ( いぶつこんにゅう ) なんか 全部報道 ( ぜんぶほうどう ) していたら、どこの ( みせ ) もいけなくなるわ。
If every single instance of contamination were reported (in the media), all stores would go out.

17. 馬鹿 ( ばか ) 美容師 ( びようし ) だなあ、この ( みせ ) もいけなくなるだろう。
What a stupid stylist…well that shop will probably go under.

18. ( ) みすぎは ( からだ ) にいけない。
 Drinking too much is not good for the body.


 ていけない

The phrase ていけない is used to show that something is “undesirable/unpleasant.”

19. ( くち ) ( なか ) 塩辛 ( しおから ) くていけないので、 ( みず ) ( ) んだ。
I drank water since having the inside of my mouth being salty would be unpleasant.

20. あのくらいの 年齢 ( ねんれい ) 女性 ( じょせい ) 本当 ( ほんとう ) にお ( しゃべ ) りでいけないっすね。
Women at that age are chatterboxes, which is really unpleasant, you know. 

21. ( ふゆ ) ( さむ ) くていけないね。
Winter is cold and unpleasant, you know.

22. ( きみ ) がいなきゃ ( ) きていけない。
I can't live without you.

23. 最近何 ( さいきんなに ) かとやりたいことが ( おお ) いせいか、どうにも ( ) ( ) っていけない ( ) がする。
Recently one way or another, perhaps from having a lot of stuff I want to do, I feel like getting distracted by no means would be good.


てはいけない 

The phrase てはいけない is used to show that some state/action is not permissible/acceptable. It is typically translated as “must/may not.”  

24. 芝生 ( しばふ ) ( はい ) ってはいけません。
You must not get on the lawn.

25. 教室 ( きょうしつ ) ( なか ) でタバコを ( ) ってはいけません。
You must not smoke inside the classroom.

26. ( みず ) 一緒 ( いっしょ ) ( ) んではいけません。
You must not take (the medicine) with water.

27. ( ねこ ) はネギを ( ) べてはいけません。
Cats must not eat scallions.

28. ( そと ) ( あそ ) んじゃいけないぞ。(Masculine)
You mustn't play outside.  


To ikenai/Tara ikenai と・たらいけない 

The phrase といけない is used to show that if said state comes to be, the speaker and or persons involved will be troubled. たらいけない is also possible, and as expected, it simply shows that a certain state/action would not be pleasant if it happens/is done.

29. 遅刻 ( ちこく ) するといけない ので、 ( なに ) より 時間厳守 ( じかんげんしゅ ) です。
Being late is bad, and so strict observance of time is above all.

30. 野菜 ( やさい ) ( くさ ) るといけないから、 一旦家 ( いったんいえ ) ( かえ ) って 冷蔵庫 ( れいぞうこ ) ( ) れてから ( ) かけましょう。
It won’t be good if the vegetables go bad, so let’s return to the house for a moment, put them in the refrigerator, and then go out.

31. 毎日 ( まいにち ) ( ) ( みが ) かないといけない。
You must brush your teeth every day.
Literally: It’ll be bad if you don’t brush your teeth every day.

32. 賞味期限 ( しょうみきげん ) ( ) れたら、 絶対 ( ぜったい ) ( ) べたらいけないものといえば、 ( たし ) かに ( たまご ) 鶏肉 ( とりにく ) とかですね。
In speaking of foods you should never eat once it’s passed its expiration date, there’s definitely eggs and poultry, right? 

33. 高血圧 ( こうけつあつ ) ( くすり ) 服用 ( ふくよう ) しているときに、グレープフルーツなど ( ) べたらいけないとよく ( ) われます。
When taking high blood pressure medicine, you’re often told not to eat things like grape fruit.


なくては・なければいけない

The phrase なくては・なければいけない is used to express some obligation/necessity to do something and it is typically translated as “must do…” As we have discussed once before when we discussed the “must/must not” phrases, double negatives like in this situation create positive expressions just as in English.

34.  足下 ( あしもと ) 注意 ( ちゅうい ) しなくてはいけません。
You must watch your step.

35. 必要 ( ひつよう ) 書類 ( しょるい ) 提出 ( ていしゅつ ) しなくてはいけません。
You must submit necessary documents.

36. 有料道路 ( ゆうりょうどうろ ) ( とお ) らなければいけません。
We must go through a toll road.

37. そうしたチャンスは ( まれ ) なので、 ( ) つけたときには ( おお ) きく 投資 ( とうし ) しなくてはいけません。
Such chances are rare, and so when you find them, you need to invest a lot.

38. タオルも 大量 ( たいりょう ) 購入 ( こうにゅう ) しなくてはいけません。
We have to purchase a large quantity of towels as well.

いかん・いかぬ 

In addition to what we’ve seen, it’s important to note that いかない sometimes becomes いかん・いかぬ. The latter is more dialectical and or potentially old-fashioned, but you will still frequently encounter it in anime/manga among other places. Interestingly enough, despite having seen the different usages of いかない and いけない, いかん・いかぬ can be used in the same instances as both いかない and いけない.

39. 背中を見せるわけにかんぞ。
You cannot show your backside.

40. 通すわけにはいかぬぞ。
I cannot have you pass by.

41. やられたわ、もういかん。
Ugh, I’m done for.

42. 威張ってはいかん。
Don’t be stuck up.

43. 無理をしてはいかん。
You mustn’t push yourself.

あかん

Another noteworthy variant that can be used for any of the usages we’ve discussed thus far is あかん. This word is famously used in Kansai dialects and likely derives from the set phrase 埒が明かない, which means “to not get anywhere.” This word, not being in Standard Japanese, has a peculiar pitch accent in that all three syllables are high pitch. This word is so well-known and frequently used that there is no way that you can watch TV for more than an hour before it's used.

As far as grammar is concerned, many of the example sentences below will incorporate dialectical grammar that we have yet to ever cover, but contrary to the “must” patterns you’ve grown accustomed to, あかん follows verb by adding ない and dropping the /i/.

 Ichidan Verbs  食べる + あかん = 食べなあかん
 Godan Verbs  飲む + あかん = 飲まなあかん
 Suru  する + あかん = せなあかん
 Kuru  来る + あかん = 来なあかん

45. そないことしたら、あかん。
You shouldn’t do stuff like that.

Dialect Note: そんな becomes そない for most Kansai dialect speakers.

46. 子共は見たらあかん。
Kids don’t need to watch.

47. 一回ぐらいは見に来なあかんで。
You must come see at least once!

Dialect Note: The particle で the end of a sentence in Kansai dialect is similar in meaning to the particle よ.

48. あかんゆうたら、あかん。
If you say it’s no good, then it’s no good.

Dialect Note: 言ったら tends to be pronounced as yūtara in Kansai dialects. The verb 言う also tends to be used without the quotation particle と.

49. あかん子やなあ。
What a messed up kid.

Dialect Note: The copula verb is usually や in Kansai dialects.

50. 体重を減らすどころか増やさなあかんぐらいやで。
Rather than losing weight, you’ve gotten to the point you need to be gaining some.

51. あかん、雨降ってきた。
Crap, it’s started to rain.

52. こんだけ頼んでもあかん。
You can't entrust anything to (him) even if it's just something like this.

Dialect Note: これだけ becomes こんだけ in most Kansai dialects.

53. しっかり勉強せなあかんで。
I have to properly study.

54. こら、あかんわ。
This is no good.

Dialect Note: これは is frequently contracted to こら in most Kansai dialects.

55. 何で朝起きなあかんのか。
Why do I have to wake up in the morning?


第114課: Directions

      Having a large vocabulary is important. So, let's learn about places for directions!

Places

 

 Place  所  ところ  Amusement park  遊園地  ゆうえんち
 Post office  郵便局  ゆうびんきょく  Bank  銀行  ぎんこう
 Company  会社  かいしゃ  Work  仕事  しごと
 Hospital  病院  びょういん  Graduate school  大学院  だいがくいん
 College  大学  だいがく  Department store  デパート  デパート
 School  学校  がっこう  Department store  百貨店  ひゃっかてん
 Theater  映画館  えいがかん  Convenience store  コンビニ  コンビに
 Coffee shop  喫茶店  きっさてん  Supermarket  スーパー  スーパー
 Park  公園  こうえん  Museum  博物館  はくぶつかん
 Home  家  いえ  Restaurant  レストラン  レストラン
 Police station  交番  こうばん  Train station  駅  えき
 Airport  空港  くうこう  Church  教会  きょうかい
 Mosque  モスク  モスク  Synagogue  シナゴーグ  シナゴーグ
 High rise  ビル  ビル  Skyscraper  摩天楼  まてんろう
 Zoo  動物園  どうぶつえん  Art museum  美術館  びじゅつかん
 Shrine  神社  じんじゃ  Chinese restaurant  中国料理店  ちゅうごくりょうりてん
 Temple  寺  てら  Japanese restaurant  日本料理屋  にほんりょうりや
 Hotel  ホテル  ホテル  Inn  旅館  りょかん
 Family inn  民宿  みんしゅく  Pharmacy  薬局  やっきょく
 Public bath  銭湯  せんとう  Cemetery
 墓地  ぼち・はかち

 

Culture Note: A 旅館 is a traditional Japanese inn. They are wooden structures where guests may sleep, bathe, and eat traditional food. The flooring is laid out with たたみ . Bedding is 布団 ふとん , and you wear 浴衣 ゆかた to sleep.  

Shops

     Store in Japanese is みせ and shop is 店舗 てんぽ . Store names often end in ~ or ~ てん . To address an employee of a store, address him or her as:

 Kind of Store
 +  ~さん

     At times ~ いん is used to mean "employee". As it is more polite to address a person with his or her actual name, always look for a name tag if available. To say where one works, you use the phrase ~に つと めています.


Kinds of Stores

 Stationer  文房具屋  ぶんぼうぐや  Butcher shop  肉屋  にくや
 Cleaners  クリーニング屋  クリーニングや  Photo shop  写真屋  しゃしんや
 Fish store  魚屋  さかなや  Grocery store  八百屋  やおや
 Fruit store  果物屋  くだものや  Bakery  パン屋  パンや
 Cake shop  ケーキ屋  ケーキや  Candy shop  お菓子屋  おかしや
 Appliance store  電気屋  でんきや  Shoe store  靴屋  くつや
 Sushi shop
 寿司屋  すしや  Flower store
 花屋  はなや
 Drug store  薬屋  くすりや  Food stand  出店  でみせ
 Book store  本屋  ほんや  Book store  書店  しょてん
 Retail store  小売店  こうりてん  Liquor store  酒屋  さかや
 Supermarket  スーパー  スーパー  Toy store  玩具屋  おもちゃや
 Camera store  カメラ屋  カメラや  Old book store  古本屋  ふるほんや
 Furniture store  家具屋  かぐや  Jewelry store  宝石店 ほうせきてん
 Clothing store  衣料品屋  いりょうひんや  Restaurant  飲食店  いんしょくてん
 Convenience store  コンビニ        

Location

     To describe the location of an item or place, you must use the following expressions in Japanese. Unlike in English, the location phrase is after the noun.  

 Xの前  Xのまえ  In front of X  Xの上  Xのうえ  On top of X
 Xの横  Xのよこ  (To) the side of X  Xの中  Xのなか  Inside X
 XとYの間  XとYのあいだ  Between X and Y  Xの後ろ  Xのうしろ  Behind X
 Xの奥  Xのおく  In the back of X  Xの側面  Xのそくめん  At the side of X
 Xの下  Xのした  Under X  Xの隣  Xのとなり  Next to X
 Xの向かい  Xのむかい  Across from X  Xの周り  Xのまわり  Around X
 Xの正面  Xのしょうめん  In front of X  Xの近く  Xのちかく  Near X
 Xの先  Xのさき  Past X  Xの遠く  Xのとおく  Far from X
 Xの向こう  Xのむこう  Beyond X  Xの脇  Xのわき  On the side of X
 Xの方  Xのほう  In the direction of X  Xの近隣  Xのきんりん  Adjacent to X
 Xの(直ぐ)側  Xの(すぐ)そば  Right by X  Xの傍ら  Xのかたわら  Aside from  X
 Xの手前  Xのてまえ  On this side of      

Word Note: You can add なな め at the front of a direction word to mean "diagonally". So, 斜め後ろ = diagonally behind. 向き means "facing". So, 南向き = facing south. 

1. 銀行 ( ) はどこですか。
   Where is the bank?

2. 工場 こうじょう にあります。
    It's right next to the factory.

3. 近 ( ) くに 電気屋 ( ) はありますか。
    Is there a electronics store nearby?

4. 辞書 じしょ にあります。
    The dictionary is on the desk.

5. 交番 ( ) ( ) 学校 ( ) があります。
   There is a school in front of the police station. 

6. 美術館 ( ) ( ) 病院 ( ) があります。
    There is a hospital to the side of the art museum.

7. 川(の)向うの家
    House on the other side of a river 

8. テーブルの ( ) ( ) いてある。
    It's been placed under the desk. 

9. 変 ( ) ( せん ) 学校 ( ) ( ) りにあります。
    There is an odd line around the school.

10. あそこの 本棚 ほんだな の下の だん の左の の小さい 字引 じびき の本
The book over there next to the small dictionary on the left side of the bottom shelf on the bookshelf

11. 消防署 ( ) ( ) かいに 喫茶店 ( ) がある。
     There is a coffee shop across from the fire station.

12. みずうみ のわきで 散歩 さんぽ する。
      To take a walk on the side of the lake.

13. 彼は扉 ( ) ( ) こうへ ( ) ( ) した。
     He began to race beyond the door.

14. この 部屋 ( ) ( ) には 縁側 ( えんがわ ) があって、その ( ) ( ) です。
     There is a veranda in front of the room, and in front of it is a garden.

15. この 先通行止 ( さきつうこうど )
     Road Blocked! 

16. 病院 ( ) ならすぐこの ( ) です。
      If you're talking about the hospital, it's only a little way from here.

17. 駅の隣に大きなスーパーができました。
      A big supermarket has been made next to the train station.

Word Note: Remember that できる does not mean just "can" but can also mean "completed", "be made", "come into being", etc. 

Asking for Directions

     Below are some more additional vocabulary words for the examples that follow.  

 Intersection  交差点  こうさてん  Traffic Light  信号  しんごう
 Bridge  橋  はし  End of the Street  突き当り  つきあたり
 Meter  メートル  メートル  Train  電車  でんしゃ
 Subway  地下鉄  ちかてつ  Bus  バス  バス
 Bus Stop  バス停  バスてい  Taxi  タクシー  タクシー
 Taxi Station  乗り場  のりば  Bullet train
 新幹線  しんかんせん
 Street  道  みち  Road  道路  どうろ
 Highway  ハイウェイ  ハイウェイ  Expressway  高速道路  こうそくどうろ
 Highway  ハイウエー  ハイウエー  Main road  幹線道路  かんせんどうろ
 Corner  角  かど  Left  左  ひだり
 Left Side  左側  ひだりがわ  Right  右  みぎ
 Right Side  右側  みぎがわ  Left and Right  左右  さゆう
 North  北  きた  South  南  みなみ
 East  東  ひがし  West  西  にし
 Northeast  北東  ほくとう  Northwest  北西  ほくせい
 Southeast  南東  なんとう  Southwest  南西  なんせい
 North-north-east  北北東  ほくほくとう  North-north-west  北北西  ほくほくせい
 South-south-east  南南東  なんなんとう  South-south-west  南南西  なんなんせい
 South and North  南北  なんぼく  East and West  東西  とうざい
 All 4 directions  東西南北  とうざいなんぼく  Vicinity  辺り  あたり
 Neighborhood  辺  へん  Direction  方  ほう
 To Turn  曲がる  まがる  To cross  渡る  わたる
 To Go  行く  いく  To pass  過ぎる  すぎる

Word Notes:

1. "By" in the sense of a mode of transportation is expressed by で. 

2. 側 = side. This can be used to refer to direction, side of something, a position, and a third person. For the first three, it can be read as かわ and even be seen as っかわ, but these are no longer standard readings. 

Directions Note: Directions like 南東 ( なんとう ) are reversed if they represent location. For example, southeast Asia is 東南 ( とうなん ) アジア.

     When asking for directions, there are many different ways you can formulate your question. You may opt to say you're lost, use a conditional, or use a certain level of politeness. Below are some of the many viable ways you would do this in Japanese. 

 ...に・へ行きたいですけど・が・けれど(も)  I want to go to...but
 どうやって…に・へ行ったらいいですか。  How should I go if I am going to...?
 どうやって…に・へ行けばいいですか。  How should I go if I am going to...?
 道に迷ってしまいました。  I've gotten lost.
 …への行き方を教えてください(ませんか)。  Could you please tell me how to get to...?
 …ここは、どの辺ですか。  What neighborhood is this?
 …どうやって行くんですか  How do I get to...?
 ...はどこですか。  Where is...?
 ...はどちらですか。  Where is...? (Formal)
 ...がどこか教えてください(ませんか)。  (If you would) please tell me where...is.

Word Note: You can use 何で instead of どうやって, but it isn't as common.  

   As politeness is often heightened when asking for directions, です is often changed to でしょう, its volitional form. People will typically respond to you by using the と conditional or ~てください.

18. どうやって ( ) ったらいいでしょうか。
      How should I go there?

19. 2つ 交差点わた って、40メートルぐらい ってください。
      Cross the second intersection, and go about forty meters.

20. 40メートルぐらい ( ) くと、 左側 ( ) 美術館 ( ) があります。
      If you go about forty meters, an art museum will be on your left.

21. その 美術館 ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) がって、しばらくまっすぐ ( ) ってください。 
      Turn left at the corner of the art museum, and go straight for a while.

22. しばらくまっすぐ ( ) くと、 郵便局 ( ) ( ) えますよ。
      If you go straight for a while, you will see a post office.

23. すみません、 ( ) もこの ( ) ( ) めてなんです。
      Sorry, I am new to this area.

24. 旅館 ( ) はどちらですか。
      Where is the ryokan?

Culture Note: In a 旅館 guests live on traditional tatami mats, take Japanese baths, and sleep on futon. You will most likely encounter Japanese style toilets, which look quite different. You have to squat on those.

25. 「 新幹線 ( ) ( ) ったことがありますか。」「いいえ、 ( ) ったことがありません。ところで、 東京駅 ( ) ( ) きたいですけど、どうやって ( ) けばいいですか。」「3つ ( ) 交差点 ( ) ( ) ( ) がってください。そうすると、 ( ) にありますよ。」「どうも。」
"Have you ridden the Shinkansen?" "No, I haven't". "By the way, I want to go to Tokyo Station, but how should I get there?" "Turn right on the third intersection. Then, it will be on your left". "Thanks". 

Culture Note: The 新幹線 ( ) , also known as the "bullet train", is one of the fastest passenger train services in the world. The 新幹線 opened in 九州 ( ) in 2011.

26. Xへはどうやって ( ) きますか。
      How do I get to X?

27. 道 ( ) ( ) いました。 銀行 ( ) ( さが ) しています。どうすれば ( ) けますか。
      We're lost. We are trying to find a bank. How can we get there?

28. 「 ( ) いですか」「いいえ5分くらいですよ」「ああ、そうですか。どうもありがとう」「どういたしまして」
“Is it far?” “No, it's about five minutes (from here)” “Ah, really. Thank you very much" "You're welcome”.

Then

     "Then" is それから when you're explaining a progression of events, which is very important in giving directions and showing what happens right after in general, and そうすると is used when you do something, something else will happen.  

29. 2つ ( ) 交差点 ( ) ( ) ( ) がってください。それから、まっすぐ ( ) ってください。
      Please turn right on the second intersection. Then, please go straight.

30. この ( ) をまっすぐ ( ) ってください。そうすると、 ( ) 病院 ( ) があります。 
      Please go straight on this street. Then, there will be a hospital to your right.

31. 薬 ( ) ( ) ( ふく ) んだ。それから、 ( ) ( なが ) ( ) んだ。
      I swallowed the medicine. Then, I washed it down with water.

32. 私 ( ) 仕事 ( ) ( さら ) ( ) い、それから ( かわ ) かしました。
      I washed then dried the dishes at work.

Exercises

Translate into Japanese (1-5)

1. I'm going to school tomorrow.

2. Where is the bank?

3. How should I go to the movie theatres?

4. The police station is behind the department store.

5. The neighborhood is to the left side of the highway.

6.How do you say then as in continuing your directions?

7. Explain そうすると.

8. Make a paragraph using 3 locations, and 2 specific indicators where they're are.


第???課: The Particle に III: Agent Marker 

In Lesson 21, we learned how the particle が functions as an object marker for stative-transitive predicates. In this lesson, we will be learning how the particle に marks the agent of such predicates. 

Stative-transitive predicates are predicates that describe states/conditions but still have objects. The term itself presents a dynamic often missed when discussing transitivity and the concepts of “object” and “agent.”

The “agent” is either the cause or the initiator/doer of the sentence. In the context of this lesson, only the latter purpose will be relevant. A doer doesn’t always have to be actively doing anything.

For example, when an animal “needs” food, it has no control over its need for sustenance, but grammatically speaking, “food” is the object of the verb “to need.” In English, “animals need food” is easily explained as involving the transitive verb “to need” and its object “food,” but in Japanese, the primary equivalent of “to need” is 要る.

In Japanese, 要る is categorized as a 自動詞. This is because the object is marked with が. The concept of “object” becomes befuddled here, though, because が for all other kinds of predicates marks the subject.

1. お ( かね ) ( ) る。
i. Money is needed.
ii. I need money.

~が要る can be interpreted as being no different as is evident in translation i. Regardless of whether が is a subject or object marker here, お金 is not the agent. The understood “I” is. An agent/doer, though, need not be the subject of a sentence. The same can be said in English such as in passive expressions.

i. [The man] was chased by /the dog/ for hours.
ii. [The cat] was sold to /an elderly couple/.
iii. [The turtle] was released back into the ocean by /its rescuers/.

In these sentences, the nouns in [] are subjects and the nouns in // are agents. If we were to view the が with stative-transitive verbs as a subject marker, then the verbs would remarkably resemble passive verbs. After all, “needed” is the passive form of “to need,” and translation i. could easily be reworded as “Money is needed by me.”

The next question to ask is how the “agent” of these predicates is marked by に.

2. ( きみ ) のいる 場所 ( ばしょ ) ( ぼく ) にはわかるんだ。
i. I know where you are.
ii. Where you are is known by me.

In English, translation ii. is strange, but it’s exactly how Japanese expresses the emotion that can be felt in the English of translation i. The use of に exemplifies 僕 as the agent of knowledge concerning [君のいる場所]. The use of に, however, is not obligatory. As such, Ex. 2 can be reworded as follows:

3. ( ぼく ) ( きみ ) のいる 場所 ( ばしょ ) がわかる。
I know where you are.

Nuance-wise, Exs. 2 and 3 are almost the same. However, Ex. 2 is more emphatic. Grammatically speaking, the “agent” of both Ex. 2 and Ex. 3 is 僕. Just as we learned in Lesson 12, the particle は, when it is in fact the topic marker, is best understood as only marking the topic. As such, the deep structure (the form of a sentence that represents the interworking grammar in the mind) of Ex. 3 would still, in fact, look like: “boku-wa (ø-ni) kimi-no iru basho-ga wakaru.”

Motivation for why the particle に marks the agent of a sentence can be found in its basic use of denoting the place where something exists. Although long-winded and not representative of typical speech, one could say “it is within me where the knowledge of your location resides.” By extension of this, one can view the particle に as purposely marking the existence of an agent/doer as agent/doer = someone.  

We will now look at each verbal stative-transitive predicate that uses に to optionally mark the agent. This is a precursor to the next lesson in which we’ll finally learn about the passive form of verbs where に obligatorily marks the agent of a sentence. The verbs to be discussed in this lesson are as follows:

・分かる
・聞こえる
・見える
・ある
・いる
・出来る
・要る

Because you already have a basic understanding of what these verbs mean and how they’re used, each section will mainly focus on particle issues the agent-marker に presents in relation to other kinds of に and other particles.

Particle Note: The agent-marking function of に is most often accompanied with the contrast-marker は. When one feels it is necessary to explicitly state the agent, one is doing so because the natural happenstance of the verb is tied to the person being stated in contrast with others.

分かる

The verb わかる, as we have learned, refers to non-intentional, natural understanding. Its lack of volition is why Japanese categorizes it as a 自動詞.  The basic patterns a sentence can take with わかる are as follows:

①XはYがわかる
②Xに(は)Yがわかる
③XはYをわかる

In these patterns, “Y” is understood to be an “object.” Even if it can be conceptualized as a “subject” due to the use of が to mark it, “X” is what is conceptualized as the subject, and as such, the exhaustive-listing function of が can be used to mark X. This can be seen in Exs. 13 and 14 below. It is also impossible to forget how there are indeed cases when the object of わかる is indeed marked by を when the verb itself is no longer treated as being non-volitional.

Ultimately, however, it is Pattern 2 that is the basic pattern of わかる. Pattern 1 is simply a derivative with the marking of the agent treated as an unspoken, understood element.


Examples 

4. ( ) かる ( ひと ) には ( ) かるけど、 ( ) からない ( ひと ) には ( まった ) ( ) からない ( はなし ) をします。
I'm going to talk about something that will be understood by those who understand it but will be totally not understood by those who don’t understand it.

Particle Note: には is obligatory. Using は would disrupt the single-dependent clause modifying the noun 話. には is also obligatory due to the contrast grammar in the sentence. Lastly, using が instead of には would be too syntactically ambiguous and would not be able to express the contrast the sentence expresses.  

5. 人間 ( にんげん ) 気持 ( きも ) ( まえ ) には ( ) かるものか。
You would understand what people are feeling?

Particle Note: The use of ものか is very emphatic, which matches well with the emphasis provided by には. The flipping of constituents so that お前には is not at the front of the sentence is so that が can be interpreted as being the exhaustive-listing function.

6. ( おれ ) にはわかるさ。
I can tell.

7. ちなみに、 ( わたし ) ドイツ ( ) ( ) かるから、 歌詞 ( かし ) 意味 ( いみ ) 理解 ( りかい ) できます。
Incidentally, because I understand German, I can also understand the meaning of the lyrics.

Particle Note: There is no heightened sense of emotion packed into this sentence, so there is no reason to use に(は) after 私 even if it would still be grammatically correct. The same can be said for Ex. 8.

8. イルカ 人間 ( にんげん ) 言葉 ( ことば ) ( ) かるのだろうか。
I wonder if dolphins can understand human speech?

9. 人気 ( にんき ) があるの ( ) かるが、 微妙 ( びみょう ) だね。
I understand that it’s possible, but it’s iffy, huh.

Particle Note: In this example, the は after the nominal phrase 人気があるの is the contrastive は, which means that the sentence implies that the speaker may not understand other aspects of the discussion at hand.

10. ( あじ ) ( ちが ) ( ) かるんですか。
You understand the difference in taste?

Particle Note: The は of this sentence should not be interpreted as the contrastive は.

11. ( きみ ) ( おれ ) ( なに ) ( ) かる?
What about me do you understand?

Particle Note: The particle は doesn’t follow the particle に in this sentence because there is no reason for the speaker to contrast the target agent’s (you) understanding of himself with another person.

12. ( わたし ) に・が}わかるように ( おし ) えてください。
Please teach so that [it can be understood by me/I can understand it].

Particle Note: The use of the particle が should invoke the exhaustive-listing interpretation in this sentence, but that doesn’t have to be the case, especially if the object of discussion—the it—isn’t at the forefront of the speaker’s mind. In which case, が would just be marking the subject of a dependent clause like it usually does. However, if the exhaustive-listing meaning isn’t intended, the choice of が creates unnecessary grammatical ambiguity that is solved by using に.  

13. 本当 ( ほんとう ) ( わたし ) ( だれ ) にもわからない。そして、 本当 ( ほんとう ) のあなた{を・が( わたし ) が・には}わかることもできない。
The true me is understood by no one. And, I cannot understand the true you.

Particle Notes:
1. The は after 私 is the contrastive は, meaning that 私 is still the object of わからない. 
2. Provided を marks 本当のあなた as the object, the following 私 would typically be marked with が as it is established via を that わかる is being treated as a typical transitive verb. には can still be used to mark 私 in this situation, but the sentence would go from sounding like “It is indeed I who doesn’t understand the true you” to “Others may, but it is not I who understands the true you.” 
3. If 本当のあなた is properly marked with が, then には ought to be used. This is because the も preceding できない technically deletes another instance of が, and although the exhaustive-listing function of が does allow for two が in a clause, Japanese never allows three instances of が in a single clause.

14. ( かれ ) (に)もわかっているはずだ。
He should also understand (the situation).

Particle Note: Without context, simply using も would cause the sentence to be ambiguous, making 彼 the object of understanding. This is why when も is used, に is frequently employed.   

聞こえる

The verb 聞こえる is often mistaken as a potential verb, and although it is translatable as “can hear,” it merely describes the natural phenomenon of something being audible, making it fundamentally different from both 聞ける and 聞くことが出来る, which are true potential expressions in the sense that they imply volition over the exercise of said ability.

The basic patterns of a sentence with 聞こえる is as follows:

①XにはYが聞こえる
②XはYが聞こえる
③XにはYがZ(のよう)に聞こえる

①② can be translated as “Y is audible to X/Y can be heard by X.” Typically, the “X” element is not ever stated with 聞こえる in patterns for ①②. When it is, though, the first pattern is overwhelmingly the most used of the two. The second pattern would be limited to non-emphatic instances in which one wishes to contrast what’s audible to oneself with others (Ex. 24).

③ means “Y sounds like Z to X.” The reason why it has a difference in meaning is because there’s an additional argument (element) added to the sentence, and with it a different function of に comes into play, which can also be potentially modified by は. Whereas the に that follows X is the agent-marking function, the に after Z indicates an (indirect) object of comparison. Z can also be an adjective or verb instead of a noun, in which case it must be followed by よう so it can be treated as a nominal phrase.

Although Japanese often drops elements out of a sentence if they're deemed unimportant or understood, if you see a sentence that only has 〇〇が〇〇に聞こえる, it’s going to be ③. However, just 〇〇に(は)聞こえる could have either interpretation depending on the context. One way to differentiate Xに(は)聞こえる and Zに(は)聞こえる is that X must be a sentient agent (human or personified non-human), whereas Z is usually some physical/abstract entity.


Examples 

15. ( かれ ) らは ( わたし ) ( ) こえるように 悪口 ( わるくち ) ( ) っていた。
They were speaking bad of me to where I could hear them.

Particle Note: There is no logical reason to think that “they” were speaking ill of the speaker in a way that could be heard by him/her but not others. Although に is the proper particle after 私, it could be seen replaced with が, especially if one wishes to strongly emphasis the exhaustive-listing of oneself—italicizing of “I.”

16. ( わか ) ( ひと ) には ( ) こえる ( おと ) が、 ( わたし ) (に)は ( ) こえない。
I can't hear sounds that can be heard by young people.

Particle Note: For parallelism, には would be the preferred choice after 私. However, there is nothing wrong with just using は. This would be indicative of the spoken language where people are not always going to necessarily stay grammatically consistent.

17. 大人 ( おとな ) には ( ) こえず、 ( わか ) ( ひと ) にしか ( ) こえない 不思議 ( ふしぎ ) ( おと ) 、それがモスキート ( おん ) です!
A strange noise that cannot be heard but by the ears of young people and not adults, and that is the mosquitone!

Particle Note: It’s important to understand that しか cancels out は, meaning that it should be viewed as a derivative. しか and ~ない, and this agreement is what cancels out は. は and しか are incidentally both bound particles.

18. 人間 ( にんげん ) には ( ) こえないけれど ( いぬ ) には ( ) こえる ( おと ) というのは、 実際 ( じっさい ) には 存在 ( そんざい ) する。
There are, in fact, sounds that can be heard by dogs but not by people.

Particle Note: The には after 実際 is simply the emphatic は after the adverb 実際に.

19. { ( なつ ) には ( せみ ) ( こえ ) ( ) こえる。
The buzz of cicadas can be heard in the summer.

Particle Note: This example is meant to remind you that には could simply emphatically denote temporal setting. This can ascertained from には not being attached to a sentient agent (people/personified non-humans).

20. ( おっと ) ( わたし ) ( ) こえるような 小声 ( こごえ ) ( わたし ) 悪口 ( わるくち ) ( ) うのが 苦痛 ( くつう ) です。
It’s painful that my husband insults me in a whisper where I can hear him.

Particle Note: Understand that the 私に in this sentence is in a dependent clause modifying よう which then modifies 小声, which is why が is used beforehand with 夫.

21. 右耳 ( みぎみみ ) ( ) こえるようになった。
I’ve become able to hear out of my right ear.

Particle Note: The use of に(は) would change the meaning to “I then became able to hear it in my right ear.” This sentence exemplifies how ② can be altered to Xが聞こえる, leaving out “Y” entirely. Of course, Xは聞こえる is possible as well.

22. 突然聞 ( とつぜんき ) こえなくなったあと、 ( みみ ) ( ) こえるようになったが、 耳鳴 ( みみな ) りが ( のこ ) った。
After suddenly becoming unable to hear, my ears became able to hear to again, but severe tinnitus remained.

Particle Note: The topic of this sentence is the speaker’s ears, which is why there is no 私は or the like that accompanies the first clause. If it were stated, it would be accompanied with 耳が, creating 私は耳が〇〇. Although this is an example of ②, this is not XやYが聞こえる. Rather, it’s XはXが聞こえる. Although the nouns for X are different, they are parts of a single entity.

23. ( ぼく ) ( みみ ) ( ) こえにくいと ( ) かるなら、 ( ぼく ) が・に( ) こえるように ( はな ) すのが すじ じゃないか。
If you understand that I’m hard of hearing, then wouldn’t it be logical to speak such that [I can hear what’s being said/what’s being said can be heard by me]?

Particle Note: The が after 耳 shouldn't be replaced, but because the use of が after 僕 may imply the exhaustive-listing function,the typical particle choice there would be に.

24. ( ( わたし ) 今変 ( いまへん ) ( おと ) ( ) こえました。
I heard a strange noise/sound just now.

25. めっちゃ ( はたら ) いているように ( ) こえるけれど、 実際 ( じっさい ) のところ、ダレて 仕事 ( しごと ) (を)してる。
It may sound like I’m working real hard, but in actuality, I’m slacking at my job.

26. ずいぶん 成長 ( せいちょう ) ( はや ) ように ( ) こえるかもしれないですね。
It might sound like growth has been quite fast, huh.

27. ( あらし ) ( はこ ) んでくる 落雷 ( らくらい ) 南極 ( なんきょく ) ( こおり ) ( くだ ) ける ( おと ) 、このコには、この 世界 ( せかい ) 鼓動 ( こどう ) ( ) こえているのだと ( おも ) う。
Lightning which carry storms, the sound of Antarctic ice breaking, they must sound like the heartbeat of this world to this kid.

Particle Note: The pattern of this sentence is YがXにはZに聞こえる. Don’t let the fact that the Y elements come before the X element confuse you.

Grammar Note: The use of ている emphasizes how the truth of the statement holds for more than just the present point in time and has been so for some period of time.

28. とても 日本語 ( にほんご ) には ( ) こえないなあ。
It sounds absolutely nothing like Japanese.

29. ( とお ) くにいてもあなたの ( こえ ) ( わたし ) にだけは ( ) こえるの。
No matter if you are afar, your voice can only be heard by me.

Particle Notes
:
1. The は after あなたの声 replaces the が that would typically follow the “Y” element to topicalize/emphasize it.
2. だけに(は) is also possible, but this would shift emphasis off 聞こえる to the noun phrase that precedes the combination particle, which would be 私 in this sentence. Although 私 is emphasized thanks to だけは, the presence of に helps bring a stronger emphasis between the agent and 聞こえる.

30. 日本 ( にっぽん ) 三菱電機株式会社 ( みつびしでんきかぶしきがいしゃ ) が、ブラインドサッカーに 適応 ( てきおう ) する 指向性 ( しこうせい ) スピーカーの 開発 ( かいはつ ) ( すす ) めている。 位置 ( いち ) ( すこ ) しずれるだけで、 ( おと ) ( ) こえたり ( ) こえなかったりするものだ。ピッチでは ( おと ) ( ) こえないけれど、 観客席 ( かんきゃくせき ) だけには ( ) こえるようにすることができる。
Japan’s Mitsubishi Corporation is developing a directional speaker adapted for blind soccer. Just by shifting direction slightly, sound can be heard or not heard. Although sound won’t be heard on the field, one can have it so that sound will only be heard in the spectator stands.

Particle Note:
1. The は after 音 in the third sentence replaces the が that would otherwise follow the “Y” element so that it can be topicalized and used as the “Y” element for the next clause without having to be restated.
2. だけに(は) emphasizes the distinctiveness of the person/people who are a part of the phenomenon described by 聞こえる, which in this sentence is 観客席. Although not a typical person, the people who sit in the stands are people. 

見える

見える is also often mistaken as a potential verb, and although it is translatable as “can see,” it merely describes the natural phenomenon of something being visible, making it fundamentally different from both 見(ら)れる and 見ることが出来る.

The basic sentence patterns for 見える are as follows:

①XにはYが見える
②XはYが見える
③XにはYがZ(のよう)に見える。

The grammatical dynamics for 見える are the same as with 聞こえる. ①② are interpreted as “Y is visible to/can be seen by X” and ③ is interpreted as “Y looks/seems like Z to X.” The Z is an (indirect) object of comparison and can be made up of just a noun or with an adjective or verb that is then purposed into a nominal phrase with the help of よう. So for instance, 働いているように見える = “to seem like (one) is working.”

Of ① and ②, the latter is most common, with には only really explicitly marking the agent if there is a strong, emotional appeal being made (Exs. 31 and 32). To distinguish ①② from ③ when various elements may be missing, remember that X is always a topicalized argument (sentence element) that is a sentient agent (human or personified non-human). Z has no restriction as both people and non-human entities are frequently used as objects of comparison. However, Z must be directly followed by 見える for the comparison-marker function of に to be made clear.

Translation Note: There are two translations provided for each example. The only difference being showcased is the variation in the interpretation of が with 見える. 


Examples 

31. 信仰者 ( しんこうしゃ ) には ( かみ ) ( ) える 理由 ( りゆう ) 何故 ( なぜ ) ですか。
i. Why is it that God is visible to believers? 
ii. Why is it that believers can see God?

32. ( かみ ) 信仰者 ( しんこうしゃ ) {にだけ(は)・だけに(は)} ( ) えるようにしているんでしょうか。
i. Is it that (they) are making it so that God is only visible to believers?
ii. Is it that (they) are making it so that only believers can see God?

Particle Note: だけに(は) is also possible, but this would shift emphasis off 見える to the noun phrase that precedes the combination particle, which is 信仰者 in this sentence. にだけ(は) emphasizes the distinctiveness in the phenomenon which is described by 見える, whereas だけに(は) emphasizes the distinctiveness of the person/people who are a part of the phenomenon described by 見える. 

33. お ( まえ ) ( ) えるか、 ( おれ ) ( かな ) しい ( かお ) が…
Can you see, my sad face…?

Particle Note: The sentence pattern here is a derivative of ①. There is some inversion in here, which is why the “Y” element appears after the verb. Although this means that the “X” element is right next to 見える, because it is お前, there really isn’t ambiguity here to confuse it with ③.

34. 動物 ( どうぶつ ) (に)は 幽霊 ( ゆうれい ) ( ) えるのですか。
i. Can ghost be seen by animals?
ii. Can animals see ghosts?

Particle Note: The importance of being able to see spirits/ghosts can be deemed important enough to emphasize “animals” as the agent of 見える.

35. 視力 ( しりょく ) ( わる ) ( ひと ) にしか ( ) えない 画像 ( がぞう ) をご 紹介 ( しょうかい ) していきます!
i. I’m going to introduce you to images that are invisible but to people whose eyesight is poor!
ii. I’m going to introduce you to images that only people with poor eyesight can see!

Particle Note: The fact that にしか appears in a dependent clause modifying 画像 indicates that 画像 is the “Y” element of ①. Furthermore, the use of しか emphasizes the fact that “X” is the agent of 見える.

36. この 手相 ( てそう ) ( ) ( ぬし ) (に)は 幽霊 ( ゆうれい ) ( ) える。
i. Ghosts are visible to possessors of these palm lines.
ii. Possessors of these palm lines can see ghosts.

37. 昆虫 ( こんちゅう ) カラス 紫外線 ( しがいせん ) ( ) える。
i. Ultra-violet rays are visible to even insects and crows.
ii. Even insects and crows can see ultra-violet rays.

Particle Note: As this is a generic statement concerning fact, there is no semantic reason for why 昆虫 and カラス to be marked with にも instead.

38. ( じつ ) は、 ( いぬ ) ( いろ ) ( ) えるが、 色弱 ( しきじゃく ) 人間 ( にんげん ) ( おな ) 程度 ( ていど ) ( ) える。
i. As for dogs, colors are in fact visible to them, but only to the same degree as a person who has slight color-blindness.
ii. Dogs can in fact see color, but only to the same degree as a person who has slight color-blindness.

Particle Note: The に after 程度 functions as a comparison-marker. It can also be seen as being adverbial, creating a degree-adverb out of 色弱の人間と同じ程度.

39. 蜜蜂 ( みつばち ) (に)は 紫外線 ( しがいせん ) ( ) え、それを 利用 ( りよう ) して 自分 ( じぶん ) ( この ) みの ( はな ) ( ) つけることができる。
i. Ultra-violet rays are visible to honeybees, and they can find their favorite flowers by utilizing them.
ii. Honeybees can see ultra-violet rays, and they can find their favorite flowers by utilizing them.

Particle Note: The use of には accounts for the agent of both 見える and 見つけることができる. Using it over は helps emphasize the uniqueness of honeybees being explained by both predicates.

40. ( あたら ) しい 恐竜 ( きょうりゅう ) アライグマ ( ) えるかもしれない。
A new dinosaur might look like a raccoon.

Particle Note: The は of this sentence actually mark the “Y” element of Pattern 3. The “X” would be an implied あなたには.

41. トムソンガゼルの ( ) れを ( おそ ) うクロコダイルたち 完全 ( かんぜん ) ( ) ( もの ) にしか ( ) えない。
Crocodiles attacking a herd of Thomson’s gazelle just completely look like monsters.

Particle Note: Due to the elements in the sentence and word order, にしか is after the “Z” element and not the “X” element, like has been the case for other examples in this lesson.

42. ( ねこ ) には ( ひと ) ( ) ( ) えない「あるもの」 ( ) えているらしい!
There appears to be a “certain something” not visible to the human eye that is visible to cats!

Particle Note: The phrase 目に見える means “visible to the eye.” The use of には after 猫 establishes grammatical parallelism with 目, as both are agents. 猫 is the agent of 見えている. 見えている is used instead of見える to emphasize the ability cats (unintentionally) utilize that isn’t accessible to humans. 

43. 人間 ( にんげん ) のようなものに ( ) けてはいるが、とても 人間 ( にんげん ) には ( ) えない。
Although it has shape-changed to something like a person, it hardly looks like a person.

44. ( ) ( ) えない 状態 ( じょうたい ) でメイクするなんてできません。
I couldn’t possibly do my make-up blind.

Particle Note: This example demonstrates how ② can be modified to Xが(Yが)見える, especially when the “Y” element is irrelevant, such as is the case here. Furthermore, が is obligatory here because it is in a dependent clause modifying the noun 状態.

45. 今夜 ( こんや ) 十六夜 ( いざよい ) ( つき ) ( いえ ) ( ちか ) では ( ) えるかな。
Tonight is the sixteenth-day moon; I wonder if I can see it near my/the house.

Particle Notes:
1. This sentence reminds us not to forget other particle expressions that could appear before 見える. では shows the location of 見える and has nothing to do with the “X” or “Y” elements of the basic sentence patterns with 見える. The same can be said for 聞こえる.
2. The “Y” element of the sentence is 十六夜の月. The “X” element is an understood 私. However, the thing topicalized in the sentence is 今夜, the time which the phenomenon of 見える is to potentially occur.

ある & いる

In the sense of “to have” as in indicating possession, there are two basic sentence patterns with ある and いる, which are as follows:

①Xに(は)Yが{ある・いる}
②XはYが{ある・いる}

The use of には emphasizes the agent of possession, in other words, who is doing the possessing. “X” must be a human agent or a personified non-human agent. Both ①② are equally common with ある. For when the object of possession is people, いる almost always refer to having family members. In this situation, the agent can either take には or は. Of course, if the exhaustive-listing function of が needs to be employed, it too can follow “X.”

As we learned in Lesson 21, the possession of other animate, living things such as pets is usually not expressed with いる. However, when it is, には is used but with words such as うち and 我が家 which both refers to oneself and one’s household.

Particle Notes:
1. The use of に to mark the agent with ある and いる also calls upon に’s function of indicating where something exists, which is why には is so emphatic here.
2. に isn’t usually by itself to mark the agent with these verbs except when it’s in a dependent clause with just the “X” element that modifies the “Y” element. 


Examples 

46. うちにはお ( かね ) ( ) いから。
‘Cause I don’t have money.

47. ( わたし ) たちには禁酒中 ( きんしゅちゅう ) 、ぼーっと ( ) ( ぱら ) っていたころでは ( かんが ) えられないほど、 時間 ( じかん ) あるんです。
When we’re abstaining from alcohol, we have so much time that we couldn’t have ever thought when we’d be spaced out drunk.

Particle Note: The adverbial phrase ending with the particle ほど does not interfere with the basic sentence pattern XにはYがある. It is just one of two adverb phrases in between Xには and Yが, the other being 禁酒中.

48. 自分 ( じぶん ) には( かね ) があるのに、なぜ ( まわ ) りの ( ひと ) ( かね ) ( ) っていないだろう。
Why is it that the people around me don’t have money when one oneself does?

Particle Note: The reason for why には doesn’t follow 周りの人 is because 持っている is not a stative-transitive predicate. Although it expresses the continuous state of having money, it also implies there is an active volition behind the agent carrying money around, which is contrary to ある, which implies that the possession in question is just a natural circumstance.

49. 大学生 ( だいがくせい ) 一般的 ( いっぱんてき ) には 時間 ( じかん ) あるように ( ) えるが、サークル 活動 ( かつどう ) やバイトなど 様々 ( さまざま ) なことあり、 意外 ( いがい ) ( いそが ) しい。
It may seem that college students, generally, have time, but they are surprisingly quite busy with various things such as club activities and part-time jobs.

Particle Notes:
1. The use of には after 大学生 would be strange as the clause it’s in is just a generic statement. In such situations, the “agent” of possession should just be marked by は and not には.
2. Note that the agent of the second が phrase in the second clause is the same as the first.
3. The には after 一般的 is simply the adverbial form of 一般的だ (to be typical) followed by the contrast-marker は.

50. 特捜班 ( とくそうはん ) にはフランス ( ) ( ) かるメンバー ( だれ ) もいないんだ!
There’s not a single member in the squad that understands French!

Particle Note: 特捜班 can be treated as a location of affiliation and/or a sentient, human agent of possession of people, which is why it is marked には. Using は here would be ungrammatical.

51. うちには ( いぬ ) がいます。
i. I have a dog.
ii. [I/we] have a dog at home.

Particle Note: The translation that best reflects the particle grammar of the sentence is translation ii.

52. ( ) ( ) ( いぬ ) いるから、 余計掃除 ( よけいそうじ ) するようになった。
Our house has begun to excessively clean because we have a dog.

Particle Note: This is an instance where いる can show possession of a non-human object (pet)  with the agent being marked by は. For one, 我が家 is a personified noun referring to both oneself and one’s household. Two, 我が家 is both the topic of the first clause and the second clause. Although it can be viewed as the subject and agent of both clauses, the second clause is not a stative-transitive predicate, and because には doesn’t mark the agent of a regular transitive predicate, using it would be ungrammatical here.

53. 人生 ( じんせい ) ( いぬ ) いることによって ( うつく ) しく ( かがや ) いて ( ) える!
Life seems to shine so beautifully by having a dog.

Particle Note: This sentence demonstrates that you mustn’t ignore independent-dependent clause boundaries. This is not an example of ② because 犬がいる is in a dependent clause modifying こと. However, this is an example of いる indicating the possession of pets, which is common with こと with the “X” element being omitted as an understood—oneself and/or people in general.

54. 自分 ( じぶん ) にしかないものは ( なん ) だろう。
What is it that only I myself have?

55. 自分 ( じぶん ) ないものを ( かぞ ) えるより、 自分 ( じぶん ) あるものを ( かんが ) えましょう。
Rather than count what you don’t have, count what you do have. 

出来る 

As we learned in Lesson 83, 出来る is the potential verb of する and is the representative verb of potential in general in Japanese. The agent of a potential sentence can be marked with に(は) so long as the potential phrase in question can be perceived as being a natural phenomenon. Meaning, when you see に(は), the sense of “volition” that may or may not otherwise be present becomes voided out. If cancelling out the nuance of volition is not possible, then so too is the use of には in that circumstance. To demonstrate this, consider Ex. 56.  

56. ( わたし ) (には ??・は 〇)テニスができますよ。
I can play tennis!

Although it is not entirely ungrammatical to use には to mark 私 as the agent of this sentence due to できる being a stative-transitive predicate at its basic understanding, it is incredibly unnatural here because the strong volitional nuance of the transitiveする.

Though at this point it goes without saying, there are two basic sentence patterns involving potential phrases, which are as follows:

①Xに(は)Yができる
②XはYができる

As for ①, に is typically only seen when in a dependent clause were “X” is only present to directly modify “Y,” or when “Y” and “X” flip places. Having に directly next to the predicate helps emphasize the agent to the point that は isn’t needed unless one wishes to also contrast the agent with other people. Otherwise, には is typically seen. ① is frequently employed when showing the inherent abilities of one agent over that of another (Exs. 59 and 61). Another reason for using には is when は is used as the contrast-marker and not as the topic marker.

As for ②, this is the most common pattern for potential phrases because most people generally imply volitional control of the execution of their abilities. As we have already seen with Ex. 56, the presence of this nuance will cause には to sound unnatural. Because we have already seen plenty of examples of ② in previous lessons, all the examples below will be of ①.


Examples 

57. ( わたし ) できることはなんだろう。
i. What is it that I can do?
ii. What is it that can be done by me?

58. ( わたし ) にはできることとできないことあります。
i. There are things that I can and cannot do.
ii. There are things that can and cannot be done by me.

Particle Note: This example is a misnomer as には is used with the predicate ある. However, the presence of できる in the sentence, emphasizes the necessity of には in the speaker’s mind. Simply using は would cause the sentence to sound rather unnatural.

59. ( ひと ) には 出来 ( でき ) ないが、 ( かみ ) には 出来 ( でき ) る。
It cannot be done by man, but it can be done by God.

60. ( なん ) でこんな 馬鹿偉 ( ばかえら ) そうな ( こと ) ( まえ ) ( ) けるんや!
How is it that you can write such absurdly cocky crap like this?!

Particle Note: Topicalizing お前 and having it come at the front of the sentence to make it follow ② would ruin the chastising tone. Although お前 could theoretically be marked by が with the exhaustive-listing function, the use of に is further enforced by the standard phenomenon of avoiding particle duplication in the same clause.

61. そりやれる ( ひと ) にはやれるし、できない ( ひと ) にはできないとしか ( こた ) えようない。
That's something that can be done by those capable of doing it, and the only answer is that it cannot be done by those incapable.

Particle Notes:

1. そりゃ is a contraction of それは. The それ is the “Y” element to やれる人にはやれる. It also happens to be “X” element to ない in the second clause, but it’s important to note that the purely existential meaning of ある, with which there isn’t an agent/owner to the existence.
2. Just as に is common when “X” and “Y” are flipped in ①, the same can be said for には. Additionally, the contrast-marker は is obligatory here due to the contrast being made between やれる人 and できない人.

62. どっちにしろ、 日本語 ( にほんご ) にはない 言葉 ( ことば ) だから 日本人 ( にほんじん ) には 発音 ( はつおん ) できないんだよね。
Either way, since it’s a word that isn’t in Japanese, Japanese people can't pronounce it, no?

Particle Note: The “Y” element here is 日本語にはない言葉. It is not repeated after 日本人には due to the lack of “it” in Japanese grammar.

63. もはや、エラーコードを 人間 ( にんげん ) ( ) める 形式 ( けいしき ) 変換 ( へんかん ) する 必要 ( ひつよう ) はない。
No longer is there a need to convert error codes into expressions that are human-readable.

Particle Note: This sentence demonstrates how ① is the base pattern of potential expressions. Although using が instead is possible here, because the conditions for using に are all met, and because it is the base pattern, に is the preferred particle choice.

64. 暗号 ( あんごう ) とは、 解読方法 ( かいどくほうほう ) ( ) らない ( ひと ) には 解読 ( かいどく ) できないものだ。
An encryption is something that cannot be deciphered by someone who doesn’t know how to decode it.

65. ( ) べなければならないのは 人間 ( にんげん ) には ( つく ) れない 物質 ( ぶっしつ ) があるからです。
We must eat because there are substances that cannot be created in people.

Particle Note: には is used to contrast with how other organisms may very well be able to create substances that the human body cannot.

66. それは 我々 ( われわれ ) には 想像 ( そうぞう ) ができないような ( くる ) しみだろう。
That is surely a hardship that is unimaginable to us.

Particle Notes:
1. With する verbs, が is often inserted between the base-noun and できる, making the base-noun the object of できる. When this happens, the presence of が after “X” for the exhaustive-listing function becomes less likely.
2. Because special emphasis is being placed on 我々 for being the agent of 想像ができない, simply marking the agent with は would be inappropriate, especially also given that the topic is already established as being それ.  

要る

To bring this lesson to a conclusion, the last stative-transitive predicate that we will learn about will be the very one used as an example in the opening: 要る. As we know, this is the basic verb for “to need.” As has been the case for the other verbs, 要る too has two basic sentence patterns:

①Xに(は)Yが要る
②XはYが要る

Although ① is inherently the base pattern, ② is most commonly used at a ratio of ten-to-one. Whenever the agent of “to need” is actually present, に will always be optional. には is used to emphasis the relation between the agent and 要る. As is to be expected, XにYが要る is exceedingly rare and would only be seen in dependent clauses in which “X” directly modifies “Y” (Ex. 70) or when “Y” and “X” flip places followed by some emphatic sentence ending (Ex. 71).


Examples 

67. お 年寄 ( としよ ) (に)は( かね ) ( ) らないんじゃないか?
Don’t old people not need money?

68. 息子 ( むすこ ) には、お ( かね ) ( ) らないからその ( ) わり 旅行 ( りょこう ) ( ) れて ( ) ってって ( たの ) んでるのさ。
I ask my son to take me on trips instead since I don’t need money.

Particle Note: This example is a misnomer. The には after 息子 goes with 頼んでる. The sentence pattern for 要らない is simply ② with only “Y” present. は is used to imply that of the things the speaker needs, money is not one of those things. However, the fact that the speaker does need things is not negated, just the need for money.

69. 奴隷 ( どれい ) (に)は、お ( かね ) ( ) らない。
i. Slaves don’t need money.
ii. Money isn’t needed by slaves.

Particle Note: Translation i. is most appropriate for when は is used, whereas translation ii. is most appropriate when には is used.

70. ( われ ) ( ) るものは、 銀河 ( ぎんが ) ( つつ ) むエネルギーである。
What is needed by us is the energy that envelops the galaxy.

71. ( なに ) かを 使 ( つか ) ( まえ ) に、 自分 ( じぶん ) ( ) るものか(を) 確認 ( かくにん ) してから 使 ( つか ) ったほうがいいと ( おも ) う。
Before using something, I think it’s best to use it after verifying whether it’s something you yourself need.


~に必要だ: The Purpose-Marker に 

The one adjectival stative-transitive predicate that can take に is 必要だ, unsurprisingly synonymous with 要る. 必要だ means “to be necessary,” and the use of に indicates “to whom” “Y” is necessary. However, this use of に isn’t quite the agent-marker. This is because “X” is not limited to sentient entities. In fact, “X” can be anything, including nominalized expressions (Ex. 73). This に marks a purpose/reason for an action/state.  

72. 運命 ( うんめい ) ( ひと ) 出会 ( であ ) うため( いま ) ( わたし ) 必要 ( ひつよう ) なことは ( なん ) でしょうか。
What is it that my current self needs to meet my soulmate?

Particle Note: Thematically, both に in bold can be viewed as marking purpose/reason.

73. ギターを ( はじ ) めるのに 必要 ( ひつよう ) なものをまとめてみました。
I’ve tried to compile the things necessary for beginning guitar.

The greatest cliffhanger in the introduction of this lesson was the lack of a Japanese translation for “animals need food.” Without further ado, the translation of this sentence is as follows:

74. 動物 ( どうぶつ ) ( ) きるには 食物 ( しょくもつ ) ( ) る。
i. Animals need food (to live).
ii. For animals to live, they need food.
iii. For animals to live, food is needed.

This sentence represents another facet of には. This には is thematically the same as the ones in Exs. 72 and 73, making it equivalent to “for/to.” The reason why には can directly follow a verb is that the verb is actually nominalized as an effect. This makes には equal to のに(は).

The three translations above tie back to various things detailed in this lesson. The insertion of ~が生きる re-purposes に as the purpose-marker because 動物 isn't a true agent. However, because 生きる ends up being nominalized, it is not illogical to treat this as an extension of the agent-marker に. In fact, it’s contexts like these where the purpose-marker に likely derived. A way to conceptualize this as such is translating Ex. 74 as “The state of animals living requires that there be food.”  

75. ( ひと ) ( ) きるには 意味 ( いみ ) があり、そして 価値 ( かち ) があるのです。
There is meaning and value to people living.

Particle Note: The relation between には and ある can be interpreted as both being its existential and its possessive meaning. Where "meaning" resides is within people living, and it is the act of man living which has meaning. Additionally, if we view the purpose-marker に as being one in the same as the agent-marker, then one could translate this as “The state of people living has meaning and value.”


Verb + には 

Thinking this deep into how and why には is used after verbs helps in understanding how に truly works in its various functions. Although one could create grammatically literal translations for any instance of には like the ones just presented, Verb + には is typically translated as “in + verb + -ing…”

76. 飲食店 ( いんしょくてん ) をやるには調理師免許 ( ちょうりしめんきょ ) 必要 ( ひつよう ) だと ( おも ) っている ( ひと ) ( おお ) いですが、 ( じつ ) はそんな 必要 ( ひつよう ) はありません。
There are many people who think a chef certificate is needed [in running/to run] a restaurant, in reality, there is no such need.

77. 自分 ( じぶん ) 必要 ( ひつよう ) 保険 ( ほけん ) ( かんが ) えるには、まず 保険 ( ほけん ) 加入 ( かにゅう ) する 目的 ( もくてき ) 確認 ( かくにん ) することが 大切 ( たいせつ ) だ。
In thinking about what insurance is needed for oneself, it is important to first confirm one’s aim in subscribing for insurance.  

Curriculum Note: As has been alluded to, there is overlap between “Verb + のに(は)” and “Verb + には.” However, due to the complexity of the topic, this will be foregone for now and will thoroughly discussed in a later lesson. 


第115課: The Passive I

     This lesson is actually our second lesson concerning ~られる and ~れる but sadly not the last. They not only make the potential, but they also make the passive voice. The Japanese passive is used in ways the English passive is not. This is aside from the obvious fact that the times when English speakers and Japanese speakers use it won't be the same across the board.  

~られる and ~れる

~られる and ~れる attach to the 未然形 and may be used for the following things. ~られる is used with 一段 verbs and 来る and ~れる is used with 五段 verbs and する.

 一段  食べられる  五段  飲まれる  する  される  来る  こられる

As you can see, 来る is intransitive but is shown here. You will learn in the next lesson on the passive how the Japanese passive endings can be used with intransitive verbs. You'll also learn in a future lessons how to create spontaneity and light honorific phrases. 

Conjugation Notes:

1. For する, the older passive form is せられる (せ-未然形 + ~られる). Some verbs like 課す (to tax; levy) are still sometimes used with the old form せられる.
2. The voiced forms of する, ずる is conjugated as follows: ずる + られる = ぜられる (Ex. 感ぜられる). Using ずる is old-fashioned and restricted to 書き言葉.


 More Conjugation Examples

 五段  To take  取る → 取られる  一段  To eat  食べる → 食べられる
 一段  To see  見る → 見られる  五段  To swim  泳ぐ → 泳がれる
 カ変  To come  来る → 来られる  五段  To buy  買う → 買われる
 サ変  To do  する → される  五段  To change (int.)  変わる → 変わられる
 五段  To carry  運ぶ → 運ばれる  一段  To slip off  脱げる → 脱げられる
 五段  To steal  盗む → 盗まれる  五段  To indulge  貪る → 貪られる
 五段  To fasten  繋ぐ → 繋がれる  五段  To wait  待つ → 待たれる

Caution Note: 五段 verbs ending in る―remember that all verbs in this category etymologically just end in -u―appear to end in ~られる. However, as their 未然形 is ら-, this is not the case.  

Usage Note: 変わられる would only be correct Japanese if used in honorifics or compound verbs like 移り変わる. 

 五段  To take   取る → 取られる  一段  To eat  食べる → 食べられる
 一段  To see  見る → 見られる  五段  To swim  泳ぐ → 泳がれる
 カ変  To come  来(く)る → 来(こ)られる  五段  To buy  買う → 買われる
 サ変  To do  する → される  一段  To change  変わる → 変われる
 五段  To carry  運ぶ → 運ばれる  一段  To slip off
 脱げる → 脱げられる
 五段  To steal  盗む → 盗まれる  五段  To indulge  貪(むさぼ)る → 貪られる
 五段  To fasten  繋(つな)ぐ → 繋がれる   五段  To wait  待つ → 待たれる

Note: 五段 verbs that end in -る seem to use -られる, but it's just that their 未然形 is ら-. 

 五段  To take   取る → 取られる  一段  To eat  食べる → 食べられる
 一段  To see  見る → 見られる  五段  To swim  泳ぐ → 泳がれる
 カ変  To come  来(く)る → 来(こ)られる  五段  To buy  買う → 買われる
 サ変  To do  する → される  一段  To change  変わる → 変われる
 五段  To carry  運ぶ → 運ばれる  一段  To slip off
 脱げる → 脱げられる
 五段  To steal  盗む → 盗まれる  五段  To indulge  貪(むさぼ)る → 貪られる
 五段  To fasten  繋(つな)ぐ → 繋がれる   五段  To wait  待つ → 待たれる

Note: 五段 verbs that end in -る seem to use -られる, but it's just that their 未然形 is ら-. 

 五段  To take   取る → 取られる  一段  To eat  食べる → 食べられる
 一段  To see  見る → 見られる  五段  To swim  泳ぐ → 泳がれる
 カ変  To come  来(く)る → 来(こ)られる  五段  To buy  買う → 買われる
 サ変  To do  する → される  一段  To change  変わる → 変われる
 五段  To carry  運ぶ → 運ばれる  一段  To slip off
 脱げる → 脱げられる
 五段  To steal  盗む → 盗まれる  五段  To indulge  貪(むさぼ)る → 貪られる
 五段  To fasten  繋(つな)ぐ → 繋がれる   五段  To wait  待つ → 待たれる

Note: 五段 verbs that end in -る seem to use -られる, but it's just that their 未然形 is ら-. 

 五段  To take   取る → 取られる  一段  To eat  食べる → 食べられる
 一段  To see  見る → 見られる  五段  To swim  泳ぐ → 泳がれる
 カ変  To come  来(く)る → 来(こ)られる  五段  To buy  買う → 買われる
 サ変  To do  する → される  一段  To change  変わる → 変われる
 五段  To carry  運ぶ → 運ばれる  一段  To slip off
 脱げる → 脱げられる
 五段  To steal  盗む → 盗まれる  五段  To indulge  貪(むさぼ)る → 貪られる
 五段  To fasten  繋(つな)ぐ → 繋がれる   五段  To wait  待つ → 待たれる

Note: 五段 verbs that end in -る seem to use -られる, but it's just that their 未然形 is ら-. 

 五段  To take   取る → 取られる  一段  To eat  食べる → 食べられる
 一段  To see  見る → 見られる  五段  To swim  泳ぐ → 泳がれる
 カ変  To come  来(く)る → 来(こ)られる  五段  To buy  買う → 買われる
 サ変  To do  する → される  一段  To change  変わる → 変われる
 五段  To carry  運ぶ → 運ばれる  一段  To slip off
 脱げる → 脱げられる
 五段  To steal  盗む → 盗まれる  五段  To indulge  貪(むさぼ)る → 貪られる
 五段  To fasten  繋(つな)ぐ → 繋がれる   五段  To wait  待つ → 待たれる

Note: 五段 verbs that end in -る seem to use -られる, but it's just that their 未然形 is ら-. 

受身形

 'Direct' Passive

Basic passive sentences are like Ex. 2, deriving from a non-passive sentence like Ex. 1. However, just as how English speakers can say "the tournament will be held in Paris", there doesn't even have to necessarily be a subject with overt emotion. First, though, consider this basic example yet comical example. 

1. 犬 ( ) ( くじら ) ( ) った。
     The dog ate the whale.

2. 犬 ( ) ( ) ( ) われた。
     The dog was eaten by the whale.

       Although odd, the sentences show the differences well. In a passive sentence there is an action receiver and an action performer. The action received is always there: it's the passive verb. What may or may not be there is the receiver and or the performer. The performer (agent) is marked by に--"by". The subject is the action receiver. In the past tense the subject is the "doer". The (direct) passive voice has the whale be the "doer" and the dog the one being eaten.

Curriculum Note: For instances of the agent being marked by から in the passive, click link.  

Lastly, によって shows what an action was done under. It's especially used for showing when something is created, discovered, or named by someone. If there is a direct object in the sentence, you will see を too. 


 Examples

3. アリは ( ) ( ) われた。
    The ant was eaten by my brother.

4. ネックレスが 泥棒 ( どろぼう ) ( ) まれました。
    The necklace was stolen by a thief.

5. この ( ) ( ) ( ) まれました。
     This book was read by me.

6. ボールがパスされ、彼女はそれを受けた。
    The ball was passed and she received it.

7. 子供 ( ) ( ) ( ) かれて、 ( ) いた。
     The kid was scratched, and he cried. 

8. 親 ( ) にまで 見限 ( ) られた。
    Even his parents have turned their backs on him.

9. このため 開発 ( ) ( ) がれている。
     Because of this, the development is being hurried.

10. 彼女 ( ) ( だま ) されたよ。
      I got cheated by my girlfriend.

11. 姿 ( ) 他人 ( たにん ) ( ) られる。
      To have one's figure seen by others.

12. 二人 ふたり だけ取り のこ された。
      The two were left all alone.

13. アメリカに住んでいるのは めぐ まれた 環境 かんきょう にあるということです。
      Living in America is in a blessed environment.

14. 一句 いっく うち 万感 ばんかん の思いが 凝縮 ぎょうしゅく されていた。
      Floods of emotions were condensed into a single phrase.

15. 彼女は ( やと ) われて ( ) ( ) ( ) もしないうちに ( くび ) になったさ。(Casual; Tokyo Dialect)
      She hadn't been employed for five months before she got fired.

16. この とう 200 年前 てられました。(Passive)
      This tower was built two hundred years ago.

17. 一人だけ取り された孤独な学生が 迷子 まいご になった。
      The left behind lonely student got lost.

18. すりに 財布 ( さいふ ) をすられた。 
       I got my wallet pocket picked by a pickpocket.

19.  上司 じょうし しか られました。
      I got scolded by my boss.

20. のろ われた だよ。
      It is a cursed island.

21. 日本 ( ) ( ) 世界中 ( せかいじゅう ) 輸出 ( ) されています。
      Japanese cars are exported throughout the world.  

22. その 計画 ( ) はあの ( ) たちに ( ) ( ) かれたものです。
      That plan is something that was thought up of by those people.

23. この「 火車 ( ) 」という 小説 ( ) 宮部 ( ) によって ( ) かれました。
      This novel called "Kasha" was written by Miyabe.

24. その 仕事 ( ) 加藤 ( かとう ) さんによってなされました。
       The work was done by Mr. Kato.

25. あの ( ) はコロンブスによって ( ) づけられた。
      That island was named by Columbus.

26. 彼女 ( ) ( ) から ( ) されています。
      She is loved by everybody.

27. 渋滞 じゅうたい まれたからだよ。
       (It's) because I got stuck in traffic!

28. この ( ) 英語 ( ) ( ) われました。
      This song was sung in English.

29. 道 ( ) ( ) かれた。
      I was asked the way.

30. しに 変更 される。
      It will be changed little by little.   

31. 彼 ( ) 名前 ( ) ( ) して ( ) れられないだろう。
      His name will never be forgotten.

32. 昔日本 ( ) ( ) ( ) ( つく ) られました。
      In the past Japanese homes were made with wood. 

33. ブロードバンドルータが ( ) ( ) けられました。
      The broadband router was installed.

34. 保管庫 ( ) ( かぎ ) がかけられた。
      The vault was secured with a key.

35. きん から しろ ったといわれている。
      It is said that he built the castle from gold.

36. 町 ( ) ( ) いていると ( ) ( ) められた。
      I was halted when I was walking through the town.

37. 先生 ( ) ( ) られて ( ) いている。
      He is crying because he was scolded by his teacher.

38. 私は 先生 ( ) ( ) められました。
      I was praised by my teacher. 

39. 何 ( ) 料金 ( ) ( ) まれていますか。
      What fines are included?

40. 悪口 ( ) ( ) われてもへこたれんな!(Slang)
      Don't be discouraged even if you're bombarded by slurs!

41. 今でも、この習慣はまだ行われています。
      Even now this custom is still carried out.

42. これは 使 われるのですか。 
      What is this used for?

43. 犬 ( ) ( くさり ) ( つな ) がれている。
      The dog is chained up. 

44. 洞爺湖 とうやこ サミットは 抗議 とともに われた。
      The G8 Summit in Toyako (Hokkaido) started out with protests. 

45. 彼 ( ) 理論 ( ) はでたらめな 調査 ( ) ( もと ) づいて ( ) てられている。
      His theory is based on haphazard inquiry.

46.    笑顔 えがお られて 微笑 ほほえ む。
        To grin from looking at a smiley face.  

47. 大名に かか えられる。
      To be employed as a retainer by a daimyo. 

48. 彼女は男に がれられる女だね。
      She's certainly a woman deeply loved by men, isn't she? 

WARNING Note: 焦がれる (To yearn for) is not in the passive form. Its passive would be 焦がれられる. The verb 焦がれる can also be used as a supplementary verb in expressions such as 思い焦がれる (to pine for) and  恋(い)焦がれる (to be deeply in love with). So, be careful with these phrases as well.   


 とされる

 とされる shows that an idea is held by people in general.

49. 一般 いっぱん 成功 しいとされる。
      It is believed that success is generally difficult.


Word Note: There are some words that are not verbal expressions but are passive in nature. One such phrase is と おぼ しい, which is equivalent to と われる. 

Grammar Note: The copula is not used with the passive voice.

Contraction Note: For passive meanings in the negative, you could see ~らんない. 

The Potential

The potential and passive verbs go hand in hand. The difference lies in context and particle usage. Even earlier forms of these endings had the same functions. However, the use of ~れる for the potential has rapidly fallen in recent times, though it is still seen in many set phrases and old-fashioned speech. 

50. 越すに越されぬ大井川
      The Ooi River that one just can't cross

51a. 見捨てておかれようか。
51b. 見捨てておけるだろうか。(More Modern)
        Can you leave and forsake it?  

52. 鬼が怖くて行かれない。
       The oni is scared and can't move.


第116課: The Passive II: 不可抗力の受身

Throughout the site, extremely complicated names for things are avoided. However, in this discussion, it is important to bring up proper terminology as common names for what is to be discussed cause the confusion. 

The use of "passive" endings on intransitive verbs puzzled Western scholars from the very beginning. Common names for this have been 迷惑の受身 (trouble passive), 被害の受身 (painful passive), and 間接受身 (indirect passive). Though these definitions are right within specific examples, they not only fail at explaining all instances of this passive sentence type, nor does it address the fact that it is not exclusive to intransitives. The passive sentences we will see all have one thing in common. What might that be? Find out next! 

不可抗力性

Calling the 受身文 below "indirect" is very tempting, especially when you see examples like Ex. 1, but this does us little good. "Indirect" passive, grammatically speaking, means that the agent, which is marked by に, is not directly affecting the subject of the passive sentence. This is very vague, and the relation of "influence" between the doer and the person affected could vary greatly from sentence to sentence. 

1. 畠中さんは大統領に才能を買われました。
  Hatanaka-san's abilities were appreciated by the president. 

This sentence, though, doesn't describe a bad thing. Yet, the overall grammar has been called the "painful passive." For one, there are very few verbs, much less intransitive verbs, referring to painful things. Some of the most painful verbs are transitive like 殺す. That's not to say this pattern never describes 被害.

2. 私は愛犬に死なれて悲嘆に暮れた。 
    My beloved dog died, and I suffered from heartache. 

Because many examples describe 迷惑, some people are fine with calling any usage some sort of 迷惑 even if it's a stretch, but does this really create a good analysis? We also haven't even touched on why を can show up. From an English point of view, the use of intransitives is already bizarre. 

3. 私たちは雨に降られた。 
  We were rained on. 

4. 弟地下鉄中年女性 まれた。
    My little brother got his foot stepped on by some middle aged woman on the subway.

What if we were to say that what is really at work is the existence of a sense of inevitability or something being irresistible which does not exist in a typical passive like in Ex. 5

5. カエルがワニに食われた
    The/a frog was eaten by the alligator. 

The frog just happened to get eaten by the alligator. In Ex. 4, your brother being stepped on by the woman was inevitable and something he couldn't have avoided. The frog, again, just got straight up eaten in the jaws of a beast. With this grammar, the agent does some action which is stated in full, which is why you can see を. Depending on what this is, you are unable resist being put in a situation, and you let into it. Sometimes it's a good thing, but it is very frequently a bad thing. 


 More Examples

6. またあいつに家に られたようさ。(東京弁)
     It seems that guy came to my house again. (You don't like it)

7. 両親に死なれた。 (Will be rude and inappropriate)
     Literally: I was died on by my parents. 
     My parents died on me. 

8. 雨 られて、びしょ れになった。
    I was rained on and became soaking wet.

9. 妹卒業 された。
    My younger sister graduated before me (and I was really embarrassed).

10. 私 まれました。
      I (had/got) my hand bitten by a dog.

11. 私が河田に水藤へ藤原を紹介された。
      Kawada introducing Fujiwara to Suito was inconvenient to me.    

12. 先に子供に死なれたら、どうなるんだろう。
   What would happen if my child/the child were to die first?


第117課: ニ格 VS カラ格

格 refers to grammatical case. Case marking is used to state the role of individual phrases (arguments) in the sentence. Many different particles overlap each other, and に and から are no different. In this lesson, we'll learn when they are interchangeable with each other and how they differ in those situations.

に VS から

There are three kinds of expressions in which we find に and から interchangeable. 

1. ~てもらう
2. Passive phrases
3. 借りる, もらう, 教える, 聞く, etc. 

 Differentiating between に and から can be done several ways, but it's best to keep all factors in mind.


Starting Point

The first thing to consider is whether the agent (doer) of the action is the same thing as the starting point of a transfer of some kind. For physical borrowing or exchange of something via favor, that makes sense because the giver is where the transaction begins.

1. 友里はセス{に・から}英語を教えてもらった。
    Yuri had Seth teach her English. 

2. 智哉がセス{に・から}科学の教科書を借りた。
    Tomoya borrowed a/the science textbook from Seth.

In these sentences, we can see how the agent of the action is the same as the starting point of a transfer. In Ex. 1, the person giving knowledge of English is Seth, and the receiver is Yuri. In Example 2, Seth is the one actually giving the book and Tomoya is the end point of the physical transfer. Not all "transfers" are physical, however. 

3. 百華は上司から褒められたよ。
   Momoka was praised by her boss. 


 Only に

Let's assume, then, that the actual motivation for when you can use both has to deal with the kind of recipient. The agent would still be the person doing the action and then we would have direct and indirect recipients possible. We see that if there is only an indirect recipient in the sentence, から cannot be used. 

4. 秀晃は光太郎{に 〇・から X}パーティーに来てもらった。
   Hidemitsu had Kotaro come to the party. 

5. 有紀子は時計屋{に 〇・から X}時計を直してもらった。
   Yukiko had a watch fixed by a watch shop.  

Furthermore, if there is only a direct recipient, に can only be used if that recipient has a change in its condition. The recipient in this case also happens to be the subject. 

6. 私はきのう、医者{に 〇・から X}診てもらった。
   I had the doctor see me yesterday. 

7. 私は去年、愛犬{に 〇・から X}死なれました。
   Literally: I was died on by my beloved dog last year.


When Interchangeable

 When the subject is receiving a direct effect from an agent but no condition change occurs, both particles may be used. 

8. 私は親切な人{に・から}席を譲ってもらいました。 
   I got a nice person to lend me his/her seat/I had a seat given to me from a nice person. 

9. 喜久子は潤子{に・から}お金を出してもらった。
  Kikuko had Junko give her money/Kikuko had money given to her by Junko. 

So long as the direct recipient doesn't undergo a state change, there could be an indirect recipient in the sentence. Another dynamic that makes から more likely is if the agent and the direct recipient are both marked by に, then から would appear more frequently to prevent the doubling of the same particle. This does not mean not doing so is grammatically incorrect. 

10. 藤川さんは担任教師{に・から}息子を叱ってもらった。
   Fujikawa had his son scolded by the homeroom teacher.

11. 悠子は級友{から・に}代表に選ばれました。
   Yuuko was elected as representative by her classmates. 

12. リーさんは友達{に・から}笑われた。
   Lee-san was laughed at by his friend(s).

13. 謙太は俊太朗{から・に}小田原先生にそのメッセージを伝えてもらった。
   Kenta had the message sent to Odawara-Sensei by Shuntaro.


Only から? 

  If there are situations when you can only use に, there must also be situations when you can only use から. An agent of a transfer can always be marked with に. If no agent is even used at all, then に would not be possible. 

14. セスは図書館から本を借りてもらった。
    Seth had a book borrowed for him from the library.  

The only known giving-receiving verb pair that does not take に is 預かる. In this case, you must use から. However, this appears to be the only case in which から must be used.

15. 有希から荷物を預かった。
    My luggage was entrusted with Yuki.

If we look at the meaning of this verb pair more closely, we see that the action is only a one-way deal. In other words, when you are entrusted with something, you don't have any way of definitively making that be the case (for the sake of the use of these words). In a few of the sentences earlier, we saw how this sort of nuance splitting could be done with に vs. から (though for many utterances no difference is typically felt when interchangeable).


Putting Verb and Particle Meaning Together

Nevertheless, it is certain that から is the only particle that can imply receiving something or an action without personal want. With this in mind, the meanings of these verbs involving giving and receiving combined with what you know about these particles now determine which one you use.  

16. 誰から聞いたの?
      Who did you hear that from?

17. 誰に聞いたの?
      Who did you ask? 

18. 智哉はセス{に 〇・ から X}古典の辞書を貸した。
   Tomoya lent Seth a classics' dictionary.

19. 花束が先生に贈られました。
   A bouquet was presented to the teacher. 

20. 先生からプレゼントを贈っていただきました。 
   I received a present from the teacher. 

21. そのメダルは藤原から杉村に贈られました。
    The medal was presented to Sugimura by Fujiwara. 

22. セスは智哉{に 〇・から X}古典の辞書を借りた。
    Seth borrowed a classics' dictionary from Tomoya. 

Particle Note: For physical borrowing, we don't see much nuance splitting at all, and it is not possible to say that speaker want is not present in borrowing when you use から. So the pairing of it and 借りる essentially overrides から’s possible role of inferring non-volitional receiving. It is important to note, over all, though, that when both particles are possible, に is typically the most common.  


参照: http://ir.nul.nagoya-u.ac.jp/jspui/bitstream/2237/5645/1/BZ001907107.pdf 


第118課: The Causative I: ~させる & ~せる

The auxiliary verbs ~させる and ~せる are primarily used to create the 使役形 (causative form), which equates to "to make/let X do Y". Before we look at what "causation" means and the grammatical restrictions, know that 作る is not used to make the causative form because it means "to make". 作る is used in the physical sense. Furthermore, 作る is a verb, not an auxiliary verb. Knowing that Japanese uses auxiliaries to make forms such as this, you would not be tempted to make a mistake like 1a. 

1a. 怒る作る X 
1b. 怒らせる 〇 
      To make angry

Again, the causative make is "to make X do Y".  Do not confuse the causative with the similar pattern XをYにする, which is used to show that one "makes/has a thing (X) be a certain way (Y). If you were to couple this with XがYになる, you should be able to avoid confusion. Consider Exs. 2~4 which differentiates these three patterns. 

2. 音楽が小さくなった。
    The music('s volume) got smaller/quieter.

3. 音楽を小さくした。
    (I) turned down the music.

4. 彼に音楽を小さくさせた。
    I made him turn down the music. 

The Auxiliaries ~させる & ~せる: 使役形

     The 使役形 is used with both transitive and intransitive verbs, but the grammar is a little different. These endings attach to the 未然形 and conjugate as 一段 verbs. In contracted speech ~させる and ~せる become ~さす and ~す respectively, which are conjugated as 五段 verbs. 

Chart Note: In the chart below, class refer to the class of the verb being used as the example.  

 Class  Auxiliary  Example  Auxiliary  Example
 一段  ~させる  食べさせる  ~さす  食べさす
 五段  ~せる  行かせる  ~す  行かす
 する  ~せる  させる  ~す  さす (X/△)
 来る  ~させる  来させる  ~さす  来さす (X/△)

Grammar Notes

1. The copula is not used in the causative form and should be replaced with ~にさせる. 

Ex. バカ{だ・である} → バカにさせる (to make...out to be stupid). 

2. さす is rather uncommon by itself, but when used in conjugations it may be seen. For instance, 勉強さした (made...study). This, however, just like 来さす are dialectical at best and are not correct in Standard Japanese. 

3. To make an adjectival causative expression, add させる after the く-連用形 of 形容詞 and after the に-連用形 of the copula for 形容動詞. 

  Conjugation Chart

 Class  Verb  動詞・
 形容詞
 使役形  Neg  Past  Short
使役形
Neg  Past 
 一段  To see  見る  見させる  見させない  見させた  見さす (X/△)  X  見さした
 一段  To endure  耐える  耐えさせる  耐えさせない  耐えさせた  耐えさす (X/△)  X  耐えさした
 五段  To say  言う  言わせる  言わせない  言わせた  言わす  X  言わした
 五段  To strike/beat  叩く  叩かせる  叩かせない  叩かせた  叩かす  X  叩かした
 五段  To clamor  騒ぐ  騒がせる  騒がせない  騒がせた  騒がす  X  騒がした
 五段  To knock down  倒す  倒させる  倒させない  倒させた  倒さす  X  倒さした
 五段  To share/divide
 分かつ  分かたせる  分かたせない  分かたせた  分かたす  X  分かたした
 五段  To die  死ぬ  死なせる  死なせない  死なせた   死なす  X  死なした
 五段  To be delighted  喜ぶ  喜ばせる  喜ばせない  喜ばせた   喜ばす  X  喜ばした
 五段  To smile  微笑む  微笑ませる  微笑ませない  微笑ませた  微笑ます  X  微笑ました
 五段  To rub  擦る  擦らせる   擦らせない  擦らせた   擦らす  X   擦らした 
 形容詞  New  新しい  新しくさせる  新しくさせない  新しくさせた  X  X  X/△
 形容動詞  Easy  簡単だ 簡単にさせる  簡単にさせない  簡単にさせた  X  X   X/△

使役形

With Transitive Verbs 

If the original verb is transitive, the direct object is marked with を if there is one mentioned. Remember, though, that if there is a transitive verb in a sentence or clause, a direct object must be implied. Japanese just doesn't require one to be used explicitly if it is information recoverable in context. The subject of the action, in other words, the person/performer being made to do something, is marked by

5. 弟にゴミを出させる。
    I make my younger brother take out the trash.

6. 太郎くんにカメを殺させる。 
   To make Taro-kun kill a turtle.

7. 母は弟に犬にエサをやらせた。
    My mom made my little brother feed the dog.

Sentence Note: The first に marks the brother as the person being made to do the action and the second に marks the dog as the recipient of the food.  


 With Intransitive Verbs

If the original verb is intransitive, を and  may seem to be interchangeable to mark the person being made to do something (被使役者). Most resources have failed in addressing the issue that adequately matches the actual decision between these two by regular native speakers. What is certain, though, is that the deciding factor for using them is determined by semantics.

As for the particle を, it may imply a compelling force. It may also be accidental/overbearing in nature. However, as you will see though, there is speaker variation in this interpretation. It is chosen, however, with 非情物 (things lacking emotion=inanimate objects) subjects and with emotion phrases. 

8. 友達を怒らせる。
    To anger a friend.

9. 風が木を揺らせていた。
   The wind shook the tree(s).

10. ネズミを死なせる。 
      To make the rat die. 

Sentence Note: This last sentence fits in this description as bringing about an effect such as making something die is a means of a compelling force. If we think of animal abuse, using 死なせる in the case of accusing the owner of causing the pet's death would be completely logical.  

を would be expected in situations in which the direct object is something that could never have any will to act on its own (Ex. 11).

11. 心を乱れさせる。
    To upset someone's feelings. 

に shows self-discipline and recognition of the will of the person being made to do something, which is why it goes with the "let" definition. Movement verbs are great examples of this. Nevertheless, natives don't actually consciously differentiate between let and make. So, in reality, what this means is that に can give the interpretation of "let", but in context, the speaker could still just mean "make". In fact, as the next example shows, even when a modal like ~てあげる is added, many speakers would still choose を to mark the 被使役者. 

12. 父親は子ども{を・に} プールで泳がせてあげました。
      The father let his child swim in the pool.

13. 今回は山本に行かせましょうか。
      Next time, let's have Yamamoto go. 

Sentence Note: It's unlikely that Ex. 13 implies the speaker(s) are thinking of Yamamoto's intents, but as the English translation suggests, it's possible to be vague on this matter.  

14. 子どもをベンチに座らせる。
      To make the/a child(ren) sit on the bench.

15a. 子どもを座らせる。
15b. 子どもに座らせる。(△)
        To make the/a child(ren) sit. 

Sentence Note: Most speakers would say 15a is more assertive, and some speakers would think 15b is wrong. There is also natural ambiguity in the exact interpretation of 15a and 15b. 15a may sound like a command or as if a parent is physically forcing the child to sit. 15b may sound like someone is having something sit in the kid's lap. 

16. 先生は吉田さん{を・に}そこへ座らせました。
      The teacher made/let Mr. Yoshida sit there.

17. 犬に公園を散歩させます。
      I let my dog walk in the park.  

As far as realistic usage of Japanese, a large motivation of which particle to use has to deal with not using the same one twice in a clause for the same purpose. Japanese has no problems using the same particle twice if it's for something different like we saw in Ex. 7, but it does not tolerate the doubling of the same thing for the same purpose.

18. 子供{を・(△・X)に}おつかいに行かせる。
    To make/let a kid go do an errand. 

Sentence Note: Despite the grammatical correctness of this sentence, some speakers would say that Ex. 18 is wrong due to the doubling of に. 

19. 親は子供{を・(△・X)に}買い物に行かせた。 
      The parent made/had his/her child(ren) go shopping.

20. ワンちゃんに道の内側を歩かせる。
   To make the dog walk inside the road.

Sentence Note: Though the particle を is not used in this sentence to mark a direct object, the particle に is used to mark the 被使役者 is used first and foremost to avoid from using を twice. Unlike the particle に, native speakers are not aware of there being different usages of を. 

The particle に is also used with verbs that are actions regarding people such as 答える, しゃべる, etc.

21. 先生は、学生に質問に答えさせる。
      The teacher made/had his/her students answer (to) the questions. 

Sentence Note: The status of に as a must with 答える is the same as with 行く. Yet, some speakers would still try to replace at least one of the に with を. Grammatically speaking, the first would be the best to change, but in reality, some speakers would say ~を答えさせる. 

Particle Note: Overall, native speakers use を considerably more often even when either particle is possible. When a place is added into the sentence marked with に, the number of people who would chose を to mark the 被使役者 drastically goes up. In the end, as we've seen, there is certainly individual differences in exact usage of these particles in this situation. So, if you get corrected harshly, do not be discouraged. It's easiest to say that in the case for intransitive verbs, you may mark a 被使役者 with either を or に, but it is most important to most speakers to avoid the doubling of either one of them. 


 More Examples

22. 先生は学生を帰らせました。
      The teacher sent his/her students home.

23. 毎朝犬を散歩させます。
      I walk the dog every morning.

24. 妹を大阪に来させる。
      I'll make/have my younger sister come to Osaka.

25. 公園に犬を散歩させます。
      I walk the dog in the park.

26. 気分が悪そうなので生徒{を・に}先に帰らせた。
      Since the student seemed to feel bad, I had/let him/her go home earlier.     

27a. 人に立たせる。?
27b. 人立たせる
        To make a person stand.

Sentence Note: 27a sounds like you're making someone stand something up. So, you should use 27b.


 Had Someone Do

When you say you had someone do something for you, instead of using the causative, you use ~てもらう・~ていただく. With expressions concerning emotions, those things are not in your control to cause. So, using them with the causative is fine. So, you can say something like 母を心配させた. This is because the causative does not have to be intentional. ~てもらう・~ていただく always are. 

28. 先生に 推薦状 ( すいせんじょう ) を書いていただきました。(You didn't make the teacher do it.)
      I had my teacher write me a letter of recommendation.  

29. 先生に推薦状を書かせました。(Not for your benefit at all)
      I made the teacher write a letter of recommendation. 

Also note that the use of に is different. In the first sentence it shows from whom you received the action. In the second sentence it marks who was forced to do the action. 


More Examples

30. 笑わせないでください。
      Please don't make me laugh.

31. 頭をすっきりさせる。
      To clear the head.

32. 人を ( ) わせる。
      To intoxicate a person.

33. 方言は日本語をより美しくて、素晴らしい言語として成り立たせていると思います。
      I think that dialects makes Japanese a more beautiful and wonderful language.

34. 母が妹に 掃除 ( そうじ ) させたのにがらがらと笑ったんだ。
      I laughed so hard about my mom making my younger sister wash the dishes.

35. でも、父が僕に空手を習わせたのはいやだったよ。
      But, I hated that my dad made me take karate.

36. 僕にもやらせてもらえない(か)。(Casual)
      Could you let me play it?

37. 彼をあっと言わせたい。
      I want to surprise him.

38. あたしを悲しくさせないで。(Feminine)
      Don't make me sad. 

39. 森林を焼けさせる。
      To have the forests burn.

40. 祖母を休ませました。
      We made our grandmother take a rest.

41. 風邪 かぜ こじ らせて、寝込む。
     To complicate a cold and stay in bed (because of it).

Word Note: 拗らせる shouldn't be used in its basic form. Use the intransitive 拗れる in that case. 

42. 弟は野菜が ( きら ) いだが、母は弟に毎日野菜を食べさせるつもりだ。
      My younger brother hates vegetables, but my mother plans to make him eat them every day.

43. 今働き始めたら、それだけ早く済ませるだろう。
      If we were to start working now, the quicker we would probably finish.

44. 何と言っても金が ( ) の中を動かすのさ。
      No matter what, money makes the world go round.

45. 演出家 えんしゅつか 助言 じょげん あた えるため 度々 たびたび リハーサルを 中断 ちゅうだん させた。
      The producer interrupted rehearsals frequently in order to give advice.

46. 

A. あなたが、日本語の先生だったら、学生に何をさせますか。
B. 日本語の先生だったら、学生に{日本語の本・和書}を読むようにさせるでしょう。
A. If you were a Japanese teacher, what would you make your students do?
B. If I were a Japanese teacher, I'd make my students try to read Japanese words.

47.  

A. あなたが、社長になったら、秘書に何をさせますか。
B. 週ごとに報告書を書かせるでしょう。
A. If you were a company president, what would you make your secretary do?
B. I would make (the secretary) write a report a week.

48. 

A. 頭のいいロボットがいたら、何をさせますか。
B. 掃除をさせるでしょう。
A. If you had a smart robot, what would you make it do?
B. I'd make it do my laundry.

49.  

A. 親になったら、子供に何をさせてあげますか。
B. 日本語と 韓国語 ( かんこくご ) を習わせてあげるでしょう。
A. When you become a parent, what would you have your children do?  
B. I would have (them) study Japanese and Korean. 

50.  

A. 結婚したら、相手に何をさせてあげますか。
B. ハワイに旅行させてあげるでしょう。
A. When you're married, what would you have your partner do? 
B. I'd take him/her on a trip to Hawaii. 

Unconcern or Let

"Making" someone do something and "letting" someone do something are very similar. In Japanese, context largely plays a role in determining whether ~させる and ~せる actually stand for either or because in both cases someone is causing something/someone else to do something. Contexts for when "let" is the natural interpretation include "neglect" or "unintentional" circumstances. 

51. 昼全生徒 らせました。
      I let all of my students go home at noon.
52. お 風呂 ふろ あふ れさせてしまったの!(Old person)
      I accidentally let the water in the tub overflow!
 
53. 育間違え子供 をいじけさせるのは 最悪悪夢 だ。
      Incorrectly raising up one's child and having that child grow perverse is a parent's worst nightmare.

54. ちょっと えさせてください。
      Please let me think about it.

55. 車使 わせてください。
      Please let me use your car.

When paired with ~てもらう・ていただく, the speaker humbly takes permission to do something. Rather than simply saying "I will do something", you are saying that you are taking it upon yourself, but you are aware of the person/people responsible for allowing you to even do it in the first place. This is why ~させていただきます is becoming ever more common in honorifics. 

56. 会議 めさせていただきます。(謙譲語)
      Allow me to start this meeting.

When the causative form is paired with ~てあげる・やる, ~てくれる, ~てもらう, the sense of permission becomes clear and distinguishable from the "make" definition.

57. 先生は学生{を・に}トイレに行かせてあげた。  
      The teacher let the student go to the restroom.

58. 父運転 させてくれた。
      My dad let me drive the car.
 
59. 
 
A. 子供両親 は、 をさせてくれませんでしたか。
B. 子供一人 ばせてくれませんでした。
A. As a child, what did everyone's parents not let them do?
B. When I was a child, I wasn't allowed to play alone.
 
60. 
 
A. 高校両親 は、 をさせてくれませんでしたか。
B. { ・アルコール}を ませてくれませんでした。
A In high school, what did everyone's parents not let them do?
B. They wouldn't let me drink. 

第119課: Causative-Passive

Adding the causative and passive forms together creates the 使役受け身形. As the name suggests, the ordering of the endings is causative then passive. Because there is a short causative form, there is a short causative-passive form. So, we will need to look into detail on that. Also, because the causative can either be interpreted as make and let depending on context (remember that natives often do not sense a difference between the two concepts), the causative-passive reflects this as well. 

Causative-Passive

The 受身形 (passive form) and the 使役形 may be put together by combining ~させる・せる and ~られる together.

 Class  Verb  動詞  使役受身形
 一段  To wear  着る  着させられる
 一段  To close  閉める  閉めさせられる
 五段  To eat (俗語)  食う  食わせられる
 五段  To scratch  掻く  掻かせられる
 五段  To sniff  嗅ぐ  嗅がせられる
 五段  To pierce/sting  刺す  刺させられる
 五段  To shoot  撃つ  撃たせられる
 五段  To die   死ぬ  死なせられる
 五段  To jump  跳ぶ  跳ばせられる
 五段  To carve  刻む  刻ませられる
 五段  To print  刷る  刷らせられる

To begin our grammar analysis, let's consider the particle differences to expect between the passive, causative, and causative-passive conjugations. Take note of the first three very similar example sentences demonstrating this point.   

The particle に marks the forcer and the person made to do the action is simply the subject of the sentence. Notice the differences in translation and particle usages in the following.

1. 先生発音を直された。(Passive)
    My pronunciation got corrected by the teacher. 

Sentence Note: 先生 is the doer of the correction; the pronunciation is the direct object of what was corrected.

2. 人にほかの人の発音を直させる。(Causative)
    To make a person correct someone else's pronunciation.

Sentence Note: 人 is the person being made; you are the person making the person do so.

3. 先生にほかの学生の発音を直させられた。(Causative-passive)
    I was made to correct the pronunciation of the other students by the teacher. 

Sentence Note: The teacher is who forced you to correct the pronunciation of the other students.  

 Contracting the Causative-Passive Form

          Remember the short causative endings ~さす and ~す? For the latter, you can add the ending ~れる to create the short causative-passive. Because these endings are using the 未然形, some students mistakenly think that ~される is somehow the ending, which is not the case. However, using the legitimate short causative-passive form when you should be using the passive form because of confusing this as a longer passive form is most certainly incorrect. 

As we know, ~す only attaches to 五段 verbs. The short causative-passive form has another restriction. When a verb ending in す takes ~す, you use the 未然形 さ. Because ~す  will also be in its未然形 さ to take ~れる, two さ would be next to each other. So, you cannot say things like 話さされる. Therefore, only 五段 verbs not ending in す can have a short causative-passive form. The chart below illustrates the causative, short causative, causative-passive, and short causative-passive forms for all kinds of verbs. 

 活用  動詞  使役形  使役縮約形  使役受身形  使役受身縮約形
 五段カ行  描く  描かせる  描かす  描かせられる  描かされる
 五段ガ行  泳ぐ  泳がせる  泳がす  泳がせられる  泳がされる
 五段タ行  待つ  待たせる   待たす   待たせられる   待たされる 
 五段ナ行  死ぬ  死なせる  死なす  死なせられる  死なされる △
 五段バ行  遊ぶ  遊ばせる  遊ばす  遊ばせられる  遊ばされる 
 五段マ行  読む  読ませる  読ます  読ませられる  読まされる
 五段ラ行  帰る  帰らせる  帰らす  帰らせられる  帰らされる
 上一段  見る  見させる  見さす (△)  見させられる  見さされる X
 下一段  食べる  食べさせる  食べさす (△)  食べさせられる  食べさされる X
 サ変  する  させる  さす (△)  させられる  さされる X
 カ変  来る  来させる  来さす (△)  来させられる  来さされる X
 五段サ行  話  話させる   話さす   話せられる   話さされる X

The final three short causative-passives being wrong is not surprising. After all, two さ is unnatural and is resultant of using this shortcut with the wrong kind of verb. Surprisingly, though, one combination was given a △. This means that 死なされる is not common Japanese and is usually avoided. For instance, say you have 本人の意思で医者の手により死なされた. This is odd considering the antonym 生かされる exists. This is because rephrasing with 死なせる is more common/natural. Thus, 死なされる isn't grammatically faulty but hardly ever used and thus usually unnatural. 

~す should only be used with 五段 verbs. However, you often hear things like 食べさして, although this sort of speech sounds dialectical. You could view this as a corruption of 食べさせて or a use of the short ~す in the て形. Thus, △ should actually be X in terms of 標準語. 


Examples 

4. 兄が母に部屋を掃除させられました。
    My brother was made by his mother to clean the room. 

5. 学生は先生に漢字を練習させられる。
    The students are made to practice Kanji by the teacher.

6. 兄にクッキーをすべて食べさせられた。 
      I was made to eat all of the cookies by my big brother. 

7. ガールフレンドに待たされた。
    I was made to wait by my girlfriend. 

8.  奴隷 どれい は毎日ただで働かせられていたということです。
    The slaves were made to work for no pay every day.  

9. 僕は子供の時、母親にニンジンを食べさせられなかったから、今でも大嫌いだよ。
    Since I wasn't forced to eat carrots by my mom when I was a kid, I still hate them.  

10. 熱に浮かされる。(Idiomatic)
      To be in a craze. 

11. 彼は学校をやめさせられた。
      He was expelled from school. 


 X makes Y get...by Z

In English, we can say the following sentences. 

  • The apple was eaten by the student. (Passive)
  • The teacher made the student eat the apple. (Causative)
  • The student was made to eat the apple by the teacher. (Passive-causative)
  • The teacher made the apple get eaten by the student. (Causative-Passive)
In Japanese, there is a fixed ordering of causative and passive. They go in that order, which is why we have させられる and not られさせる. How, then, can we have Japanese mimic the final possibility? The labels are for English, not Japanese. So, although we can easily translate the third sentence by keeping the word order as is minus "was made" being flipped, the fourth is exceptionally difficult. 
 
The first worry we have is if we try to translate 4 directly, we'll get a literally translated expression that sounds foreign. This means unnatural speech, which is not what we want. The following two sentences would be the options a native speaker would suggest for 4. Contextual details are meant to make up for any lack of meaning in 4.  

12. 学生は先生にリンゴを食べさせられた。◎

13. 先生はリンゴを学生に食べさせた。 ◎

It appears already that a direct reflection of 4 is impossible. Consider, though, the following which relies on introducing a different word to the equation: 仕向ける. 

14. 先生はリンゴを生徒に食べさせるように仕向けた。〇 But not ◎

15. 先生はリンゴを生徒に食べられるように仕向けた。X

16. 先生はリンゴが生徒に食べられるようにした。 X

17. 先生は、リンゴが生徒に食べられるように仕向けた。 X 

~られるように仕向ける and ~させるように仕向ける both exist, but the former is incorrect in this context as the speaker is not being affected. This is because there is will involved in making something be acted upon. Now, we'll see how ~させるように仕向ける can go from 〇 to △ because of what 仕向ける means and not because of the existence of the phrase.

仕向ける is working up someone to doing something (tempting/inducing) and it's a lot more work than just a simple scene of a witch giving an apple, eat, and then done. Even if the witch was pushy at that moment, the work behind for 仕向ける situations would be a mismatch. With this in mind, consider the following. 

18.  魔女 まじょ 白雪 しらゆき ひめ どく リンゴを食べさせるように仕向けた。 (ちょっと変)

19. 魔女は白雪姫が毒リンゴを食べるよう(に)仕向けた。

20. 魔女は白雪姫に毒リンゴを わた し、食べるように言った。(一番自然)

Japanese may not allow you to explicitly say what you can in English with "the teacher made the apple get eaten by a student", but you can supplement this semantic information with context. This is what we have to do when languages don't meet eye to eye.


 Causative + Potential

 It just so happens that ~られる also has the "potential" usage, meaning that what looks like the "causative-passive" may in fact be the "causative potential." Because the particles would differ, there usually isn't ever confusion as tow hat is meant. Note that the abbreviated causative cannot be used with this because す → せる would simply revert them back to the non-abbreviated causative form. However, both the short and long causative forms can be followed by ~ことができる.

21. 私は犬にえさを食べさせられますよ。
      I can feed the dog. 


第120課: The Volitional I

Volition is the speaker's will to do or not do something. In Japanese, there are both affirmative and negative volitional forms. For starters, we will learn about the endings used to create affirmative volitional statements.

Plain Speech Affirmative Volitional Endings: ~よう & ~う

As far as meaning is concerned, the affirmative volitional form either translates as "let's" or "I will." If the statement implies participation from others, then the former interpretation is intended. If the statement doesn't imply the participation of others, then the latter interpretation is intended.

Although verbs aren't the only things that have volitional forms, we will limit our discussion to verbal volitional phrases for now. In plain speech, there are two auxiliary verbs used to create the affirmative volitional form: ~よう & ~う. The only difference between ~よう and ~う is what class of verbs they're used with. 

Conjugation Chart 

 /iru/-Ending Ichidan Verbs  見る + よう →  見よう  Let's/I'll see
 /eru/-Ending Ichidan Verbs  食べる + よう →  食べよう  Let's/I'll eat
 /u/-Ending Godan Verbs  買う + う →  買おう  Let's/I'll buy
 /ku/-Ending Godan Verbs  書く + う →  書こう  Let's/I'll write
 /gu/-Ending Godan Verbs  泳ぐ + う →  泳ごう  Let's/I'll swim
 /su/-Ending Godan Verbs  話す + う →  話そう  Let's/I'll talk
 /tsu/-Ending Godan Verbs  勝つ + う →  勝とう  Let's/I'll win
 /nu/-Ending Godan Verbs  死ぬ + う →  死のう  Let's/I shall die
 /mu/-Ending Godan Verbs  読む + う →  読もう  Let's/I'll read
 /ru/-Ending Godan Verbs  図る + う →  図ろう  Let's/I'll devise
 Suru Verbs  する + よう →  しよう  Let's/I'll do
 Kuru   来る + よう →  来(こ)よう  Let's/I'll come

Translation Note: In English, it is not always the case that "I will" is the best phrasing to indicate personal volition to do something, especially since it also functions as the future tense auxiliary. Whenever this is the case, "shall" can be a better working translation of the affirmative volitional auxiliaries of Japanese. 

Pronunciation Note: In casual speech, the final う at the end of these forms may be heard omitted.  


 One's Volition/Will 

 The main usage of these endings is to express one's volition/will to do something. This is referred to as the 意志形 in Japanese. This is either used in a sense of including those around you or simply used to solely indicate one's own intention.

1. 寿司 べよう。
I'll eat sushi/Let's eat sushi.

2. これだけははっきりとさせておこう。 
Let's get this (much) straight.

3. 少 もうか。
How about taking a rest for a while?

4. もう わないから、ゆっくりしよう。
It's not that we have to make it on time. So, let's go slowly.

Word Note: 間に合う should only be used with time.

5. さらに べようっていうの?
You're going to eat on top of this?

6. 出 かけよう{では・じゃ}ないか?
Why don't we go out?

Grammar Note: ~ようでは・じゃないか can also make a volitional question.

7. 中国語勉強 しようか。
How about I/we study Chinese?

8. 食事 ませてから、 よう。
Let's go outside after we finish dinner.

9. この 電車 んでるから、 のに ろう。(Colloquial)
Since this train is crowded, let's get on the next one.


Determination/Volition of Others

~(よ)うと思います shows that oneself is now determined to do something. In contrast, ~(よ)うと思っています either shows that oneself has made the decision to do something some time ago or the volition of others. 

10. 姉 ( ) 中国 ( ) 日本語 ( ) を教えようと ( ) っています。
My older sister is thinking about teaching Japanese in China.

11. ハワイに ( ) こうと ( ) います。
I think I'm going to Hawaii.

12. 奨学金 しょうがくきん をもらおうと えています。
I'm considering receiving scholarship money.

13.   将来 しょうらい 映画監督 えいがかんとく になろうと っている。
I'm thinking of becoming a movie director in the future.


 

Likelihood (Old-Fashioned Speech)

A meaning that has fallen out of use but is still seen in old-fashioned speech and literature is the ability to show likelihood. This has largely been replaced with のだろう, which combines だ and ~う, as we will see again later in this lesson. Though this meaning is largely defunct, it can be distinguished from the others by not just differences in tone but also by context. This meaning of the volitional endings involves statements about state, not an action in which the speaker has control over. 

14a. 長時間歩 ( ) いたのでお腹もすいていよう。(Old-fashioned)
14b. 長時間歩いたのでお腹もすいているのだろう。
You're also probably starving because you've been walking for so long.

15a. 彼らは 指摘 してき できよう。(Old-fashioned)
15b. 彼らは指摘できるのだろう。
They'll probably be able to point it out.

There are some grammatical instances where this meaning of the volitional endings lives on in modern language use. These instances include the patterns ~(よ)うはずがない  and (よ)うものなら. 

16. そんなことがあろうはずがない。
Such a thing should not happen.

17. 黙っていようものなら、自滅するぞ。
If you are to remain quiet, you will end yourself.


Rhetorical Questions

Another usage of these endings is making rhetorical questions when followed by the rhetorical question-marker か. In this situation, か has a sharp drop in pitch. This usage has largely been replaced by ~のだろうか, which incidentally also uses the auxiliary ~う.

18a. 許 ( ) されようか。(Old-fashioned)
18b. 許されるのだろうか。
Will [I/you/he/she/it] really be forgiven?

19a. 彼 はそれができようか。(Old-fashioned)
19b. 彼はそれができるのだろうか。
Can he really do that?


 

No Matter What 
 
"...(よ)うが", "...(よ)うと", "...(よ)うとも", "(よ)うものなら", and "...(よ)うにも", show supposition and is equivalent to "しても". They are like "no matter what" or "even if".

 

20. 家出 ( ) をしようにもお ( ) がないよ。
Even if run away, you don't have any money.

21. 真実 ( ) であろうが ( ) であろうが、まだ 関係 ( ) はない。
Whether it's true or a lie, I still have no part in it.

22. 行 ( ) こうと ( ) くまいと ( ) ( ) ちだ。
Even if you go or don't go, it's my victory.

23. どんなに反対されようが、消費税の引き上げが施行される。 
No matter how much it's protested against, the consumer tax hike will be enforced.

24. どんな苦しみを味わおうが、自分が決めたことは変えたくない。
No matter the suffering I suffer, I won't want to change what I've decided.

25. どれだけお金を損しようが、賭博し続けるよ。 
No matter how much money I lose, I'll continue to gamble. 

26. 何 ( ) をしようと ( ) ( ) ったことではありません。
Whatever you do, it's nothing that I know.

27. たとえ雨が ( ) ろうともフットボールをする。
I play football even if it rains.

28. どれだけ 時間 ( ) がかか{ろうとも・っても}、 ( ) らを 支持 ( ) します。
I will support them no matter how long it takes.

29. 先生 ( ) ( あつ ) かましくも 口答 ( くちごた ) えをしようものなら、 大目玉 ( おおめだま ) ( ) らうでしょう。
Should you ever have the nerve to talk back to the teacher, you'll surely get scolded severely.

30. 火事 ( ) になろうものなら、 大変 ( ) だぞ。
It would be grave should there be a fire.  


Just About To...

~(よ)うとしたら is when "just as one is about to do X, Y happens". Y is out of your control, and often includes speech modals like ~てしまった and ~きた. 

31. 電車に乗ろうとしたら、ドアが閉まってしまいました。
I was about to get on the train when the door (regrettably/accidentally) closed. 

32. アイスクリームを買って、歩きながら食べようとしたら、「みっともないですよ」っておこられちゃったし。
When I tried to eat the ice cream I bought while walked, I was scolded and told that it was "indecent". 

33. 喫茶店へ行こうとしたら、雨が降って来た。
Just as I was about to go to the coffee shop, it started to rain. 

34. 出かけようとしたら、電話がかかって来た。
Just as I was going to leave, a phone call came. 

Polite Speech Affirmative Volitional Ending: ~ましょう

The polite speech equivalent of both ~よう and ~う is ~ましょう. Conjugating with this is the same as with ~ます. In fact, this is just a combination of ~ます + ~う! Meaning-wise, it is not used in all sorts of grammar patterns like its plain speech counterparts. Instead, it is limited to showing "let's" or "I will/shall." Very rarely is it used to show likelihood, in which case it behaves just like its plain speech counterparts. 

Conjugation Chart

 /iru/-Ending Ichidan Verbs  見る + ましょう →  見ましょう  Let's/I'll see
 /eru/-Ending Ichidan Verbs  食べる + ましょう →  食べましょう  Let's/I'll eat
 /u/-Ending Godan Verbs  買う + ましょう →  買いましょう  Let's/I'll buy
 /ku/-Ending Godan Verbs  書く + ましょう →  書きましょう  Let's/I'll write
 /gu/-Ending Godan Verbs  泳ぐ + ましょう →  泳ぎましょう  Let's/I'll swim
 /su/-Ending Godan Verbs  話す + ましょう →  話しましょう  Let's/I'll talk
 /tsu/-Ending Godan Verbs  勝つ + ましょう →  勝ちましょう  Let's/I'll win
 /nu/-Ending Godan Verbs  死ぬ + ましょう →  死にましょう  Let's/I shall die
 /mu/-Ending Godan Verbs  読む + ましょう →  読みましょう  Let's/I'll read
 /ru/-Ending Godan Verbs  図る + ましょう →  図りましょう  Let's/I'll devise
 Suru Verbs  する + ましょう →  しましょう  Let's/I'll do
 Kuru   来る + ましょう →  来(き)ましょう  Let's/I'll come

Pronunciation Note: Though less polite, the final う in these forms can be heard omitted. It is also possible to hear the しょ pronounced as ひょ in certain dialects, especially traditional Kyoto Dialect speech. 

Examples

35. 価格を下げることで売り上げが びるように定価から2千円を割り きましょう。
In lowering prices in order to boost sales, let's knock off 2000 yen from the price. 

36. 乾杯 かんぱい しましょう。
Cheers!

37. 私 ( ) から 電話 ( ) しましょうか。
Shall I call?

Particle Note: This usage of から may be replaced with が.

38. 一緒 ( ) 外食 ( ) しましょう。
Let's go out to eat together.

39. 早速出 ( ) かけましょう!
Let's head out at once!

40. にある かぎ 最善 さいぜん つく しましょう。
Let's do our best to live in this world as much as possible.

Phrase Note( ) にある means "to live in this world". 

 /iru/-Ending Ichidan Verbs  見る + よう →  見よう  Let's/I'll see
 /eru/-Ending Ichidan Verbs  食べる + よう →  食べよう  Let's/I'll eat
 /u/-Ending Godan Verbs  買う + う →  買おう  Let's/I'll buy
 /ku/-Ending Godan Verbs  書く + う →  書こう  Let's/I'll write
 /gu/-Ending Godan Verbs  泳ぐ + う →  泳ごう  Let's/I'll swim
 /su/-Ending Godan Verbs  話す + う →  話そう  Let's/I'll talk
 /tsu/-Ending Godan Verbs  勝つ + う →  勝とう  Let's/I'll win
 /nu/-Ending Godan Verbs  死ぬ + う →  死のう  Let's/I shall die
 /mu/-Ending Godan Verbs  読む + う →  読もう  Let's/I'll read
 /ru/-Ending Godan Verbs  図る + う →  図ろう  Let's/I'll devise
 Suru Verbs  する + よう →  しよう  Let's/I'll do
 Kuru   来る + よう →  来(こ)よう  Let's/I'll come
 /iru/-Ending Ichidan Verbs  見る + よう →  見よう  Let's/I'll see
 /eru/-Ending Ichidan Verbs  食べる + よう →  食べよう  Let's/I'll eat
 /u/-Ending Godan Verbs  買う + う →  買おう  Let's/I'll buy
 /ku/-Ending Godan Verbs  書く + う →  書こう  Let's/I'll write
 /gu/-Ending Godan Verbs  泳ぐ + う →  泳ごう  Let's/I'll swim
 /su/-Ending Godan Verbs  話す + う →  話そう  Let's/I'll talk
 /tsu/-Ending Godan Verbs  勝つ + う →  勝とう  Let's/I'll win
 /nu/-Ending Godan Verbs  死ぬ + う →  死のう  Let's/I shall die
 /mu/-Ending Godan Verbs  読む + う →  読もう  Let's/I'll read
 /ru/-Ending Godan Verbs  図る + う →  図ろう  Let's/I'll devise
 Suru Verbs  する + よう →  しよう  Let's/I'll do
 Kuru   来る + よう →  来(こ)よう  Let's/I'll come

~だろう

      ~だろう comes from the volitional form of だ. It is often shortened to ~だろ. ~だろう is often not used by females due to the brisk tone it often gives.


1. Used to show guess. It may follow nouns, adjectives, and verbs.

41. 明日 ( ) ( ) ( ) るだろう。
It will probably rain tomorrow.

42. 結局 けっきょく 悪化 あっか するだろう。
It will surely get worse.

43. 出席者 ( ) 高々 ( たかだか ) 10 ( ) だろう。
There will be no more than ten attendees. 

44. あの 様子 ( ようす ) からして 離婚 ( ) 間近 ( まぢか ) だろう。
Based on that condition, divorce is surely close.

45. 迷惑 めいわく だろう。
It's probably a bother.


2. ~だろうか may be used to express personal doubt, especially in one's inner monologue. This is the case for both men and women, and in this sense, it can be translated as "I wonder..." In the spoken language when paired with a rising intonation, it can be used to direct serious doubt at someone about something or that individual.  

46. 何時 ( ) だろうか。
I wonder what time it is.

47. いつ ( ) うだろうか。
I wonder when he'll carry it out.

48. 誰 ( ) 議事堂 ( ぎじどう ) ( ) くのだろうか。
Who would go to the Diet?

49. あんな 馬鹿 ( ばか ) 行為 ( ) ( ) されるだろうか。
How would such a stupid action be allowed?

50. 犯人 ( ) なのではないだろうか。
Isn't he supposed the criminal?

51. お るだろう?(Casual/Masculine)
Aren't you coming too?

Grammar Note: When the particle か is dropped like in Ex. 51, the speaker is strongly seeking affirmation from the listener. 


 

3. "...だろうが" and "...だろうと" show supposition and mean "even (in/as)" or "no matter". The former is used in the sense of "even as" whereas the latter is used in the sense of "even in/no matter."  

52. 雨天 うてん だろうと 決行 するつもりです。
I plan to carry it out even in rainy weather

53. 子供 ( ) だろうが 容赦 ( ようしゃ ) はしない。
Even as children, they don't show mercy. 

54. どんな ( ) だろうと、この 映画 ( ) ( ) しめます。
No matter what kind of person you are, you can enjoy this movie.


4. ~だろうに means "even though it's supposed to be". When seen at the end of a sentence, it is often translated as "how I wish!" 

55. 苦しかっただろうに、よく頑張った。
Even though it was supposed to be painful, he persevered well.

56. 人生 ( ) をもう 一度 ( ) やりなおせたらどんなにいいだろうに。
How I wish I could live my life again!

57. もう少し早く出れば に合っただろうに。
If we only left a little bit more early, we would have made it on time.

~でしょう

     For the most part, ~でしょう is the polite form of ~だろう. ~でしょう comes from the combination of です and ~う. It is often shortened to ~でしょ in casual speech. It has largely replaced だろう whenever it isn't followed by some particle. However, it is possible to see ~でしょうに. 

58. 今晩 ( ) ( ) でしょう。
It's probably snow this evening.

59. 戻 ( ) ってくるでしょう。
It'll probably return.

60. くすり 頭痛 ずつう おさ まるでしょう。
Headache should subside with medicine.

61. よろしいでしょうか。
Will this be alright?

62. 彼女 ( ) 本当 ( ) ( よろこ ) ぶでしょう。
I think it'll probably make her really happy.

63. 間 ( ) ( ) わないのではないでしょうか。
Are we not going to be able to make it?


~ますでしょうか 

~でしょうか normally goes after the plain form, but it's occasionally after ~ます in attempts to be more honorific. 

64. 日本に来られて何年になりますでしょうか。
How many years has it been since you've come to Japan?

65. お分かりになりますでしょうか。
Do you understand?


第121課: Family

     Family terms are different for one's family and someone's family. One's family is 家族 かぞく . Another person's is ご 家族 . ご is an honorific prefix that attaches to most Sino-Japanese words. 

      The traditional Japanese house structure, ( いえ ) , is very different from a nuclear family.  The  is responsible for making contracts with Buddhist temples and is comprised of generations of married couples and unmarried children. Ancestors are thought to watch over their descendants. 

      The wife joins her husband's 家 and has no ritual obligations for her nuclear family. In real life one's nuclear family is still important, but death and lineage is dominated by one's  . Only one child is a successor, and it's usually the oldest male child. Females are rarely chosen because they would be obligated for both families' rituals. Upon death, individuals who don't receive ritual care become  無縁仏 むえんぼとけ . These people include singles, childless couples, etc. Family altar is  仏壇 ぶつだん  and family grave is  はか . Ashes of past generations are kept there. 

       Nowadays, some are veering from this. Some have their ashes scattered and others have a grave plot, but these are hard to get.  

家族

     There are many important people in your family tree 家系図 かけいず . Not all family terms have separate terms for one's family and someone else's family. When there is a term that has both an 音読み and a 訓読み, the first is usually for referring to them or in written terms. 

 Great-grandparents  曾祖父母  そうそふぼ
 Great-grandfather  曽祖父  そうそふ・ひ(い)じじ・ひおおじ
 Great-grandmother  曾祖母  そうそぼ・ひ(い)ばば・ひおおば
 Great-grandchild(ren)  曾孫  そうそん・ひ(い)まご・ひこ (Rare)
 Grandparents  祖父母  そふぼ
 Grandfather  祖父  そふ・おじ (Rare)・じじ(Dialect)・じい (~Old man)・おおじ (Rare)
 Grandmother  祖母  そぼ・ばば (Dialect/rude)・おおば (Rare)
 Grandchild(ren)  孫  まご
 Granduncle  大叔・伯父  おおおじ
 Grandaunt  大叔・伯母  おおおば
 Parents  両親  りょうしん
 Father  父(親)  ちち(おや)
 Mother  母(親)  はは(おや)
 Dad  パパ、おやじ  パパ、おやじ
 Mom  ママ、お袋  ママ、おふくろ
 Uncle  叔・伯父  おじ
 Aunt  叔・伯母  おば
 Husband  夫、旦那  おっと、だんな
 Wife  妻、女房、家内  つま、にょうぼう、かない
 Son  息子  むすこ
 Daughter  娘  むすめ
 Older Brother  兄(貴)  あに(き)
 Younger Brother  弟  おとうと
 Older Sister  姉(貴)  あね(き)
 Younger Sister  妹  いもうと

Word Notes:

1. 家内 ( ) is felt to be condescending because it suggests that women should be in the house.

2. For writing aunt and uncle, 叔 is used when they're younger and 伯 is used when they're older than your parents.

3.  母親 ( ) and 父親 ( ) shouldn't be used to address one's parents. ( ) and ( ) are similarly used.  ( ) and ( ) may refer to the mother or father of anything also. 

4. ~ ( ) attached to ( ) and ( ) adds respect.

5. As you will learn, you will often or usually call family members with the titles originally for someone else's family. Some here include one's mother, father, grandfather, and grandmother. 兄 is often like this and 姉 is even more so replaced by the term originally reserved for someone else's older sister.  


Examples 

1. 私 ( ) 兄弟 ( きょうだい ) が3 ( ) います。
    I have three siblings.

2. 母 なる 大地 (Set Phrase)

     Mother Earth

3. 姉 ( ) ( ) に似ている。
    My older sister resembles my mom. 

ご家族

     The main difference between the words for one's family with that of another is that someone's family is addressed with more honorific terms. The list below illustrates these terms with the same rules of age applying for aunt and uncle as before.  

 Great-grandfather  曾お祖父さん  ひおじいさん
 Great-grandmother  曾お祖母さん  ひおばあさん
 Great-grandchild(ren)  曾孫さん  ひまごさん
 Grandfather  お祖父さん  おじいさん
 Grandmother  お祖母さん  おばあさん
 Grandchild(ren)  お孫さん  おまごさん
 Granduncle  大叔・伯父さん  おおおじさん
 Grandaunt  大叔・伯母さん  おおおばさん
 Parents  ご両親  ごりょうしん
 Father  お父さん  おとうさん
 Mother  お母さん  おかあさん
 Uncle  叔・伯父さん  おじさん
 Aunt  叔・叔母さん  おばさん
 Husband  ご主人、旦那さん  ごしゅじん、だんなさん
 Wife  奥さん  おくさん
 Child  お子さん  おこさん
 Son  息子さん  むすこさん
 Daughter  娘さん、お嬢さん  むすめさん、おじょうさん
 Older Brother  お兄さん  おにいさん
 Younger Brother  弟さん  おとうとさん
 Older Sister  お姉さん  おねえさん
 Younger Sister  妹さん  いもうとさん
 Siblings  ご兄弟  ごきょうだい

4. 彼女は 外見 ( がいけん ) はお ( ねえ ) さんと似ているが、 性格 ( せいかく ) ( こと ) なるよ。
    She takes after her sister in appearance, but their characters differ.


 会話: アメリカ人 りゅう がく せい 、セス・クンロードがホームステイ さき のお さんと話している。

5. 

お母さん: セス、 家族 ( ) 写真 ( しゃしん ) (を)持ってる?
セス:ええ、あります。
お母さん: ちょっと見せてもらってもいい?
セス:ええ。
お母さん:へえ。これがお ( ) さん?
セス:ええ、 ( ) です。
お母さん:セスは、お父さんによく似て(い)るね。
セス:ええ、よく言われます。それからこっちが です。
お母さん:ああ、弟さんか。今、大学生?
セス:いいえ、弟は私より4つ下で、今高校生です。
お母さん:ずいぶん若く見えるわねえ。とってもかわいい弟です。

語彙 ( ごい )  Vocabulary

写真 = Picture    高校生 = High school student    若い = Young   よく言われます =  said a lot
~に似ている = To resemble... 

Neutral Family Terms

     Despite there being a great divide in family terminology, there are still many terms that are neutral and may be used for both one's own family and someone's family. Below is a list of the most common of these neutral terms. 

 Nephew  甥  おい
 Niece  姪  めい
 Cousin  いとこ  いとこ
 Second cousin  はとこ・またいとこ・いとこの子  はとこ・またいとこ・いとこのこ
 Father and Mother  父母  ふぼ
 Sisters  姉妹  しまい
 Brothers/Siblings  兄弟  きょうだい
 Younger Siblings  弟妹  ていまい
 Brother-in-law  義兄弟  ぎきょうだい
 Brother-in-law  義弟  ぎてい
 Older sister-in-law  義姉  ぎし
 Younger sister-in-law  義妹  ぎまい
 Son-in-law  娘の夫、(婿)婿、女婿  むすめのおっと、(むすめ)むこ、じょせい
 Daughter-in-law  息子の妻、嫁、義理の娘  むすこのつま、よめ、ぎりのむすめ
 Father-in-law  義理の父、義父、舅  ぎりのちち、ぎふ、しゅうと
 Mother-in-law  義理の母、義母、姑  ぎりのはは、ぎぼ、しゅうと
 Relatives  親族、身寄り  しんぞく、みより
 Ancestors  祖先、先祖  そせん、せんぞ

     Family members in this group can still be made polite in reference to someone else. For example, the nephew and niece of another person can be referred to as ごさん and ごさん respectively. Other family members are simply discussed, if necessary, with ~さん to be polite. 親御 おやご is a similar looking word that may respectfully be used to address someone's parents.


 Ancestor

 先祖 typically refers to one's ancestors, particularly those in your 家. You may hear people refer to them respectfully as ご先祖さま. You never hear ご祖先さま because 祖先 is impersonal. 祖 refers to the founder of a lineage, dynasty, or even a field of study. "Ancestor" as in biological origin is normally 始祖.


After Grandchildren

It's interesting to know that Japanese has words for those who have not just great-grandchildren, but offspring for 8 generations ahead of you (just in case you live that long). The terms up to great-great-grandchildren are usually known by most speakers. The others are just fun to look at. 

 Child  子  こ
 Grandchild  孫  まご
 Great-grandchild  ひ孫  ひまご
 Great-great-grandchild  玄孫  やしゃご
 Great-great-great-grandchild  来孫  らいそん
 Great-great-great-great-grandchild  昆孫  こんそん
 Great-great-great-great-great-grandchild  仍孫  じょうそん
 Great-great-great-great-great-great-grandchild  雲孫  うんそん

How to Write いとこ

     The word for cousin, いとこ, is a very odd word to write in Japanese. It is written differently depending on the age and gender relationship with the speaker. 

 Older Girls/Younger Guys  従姉弟  Older Guys/Younger Girls  従兄妹
 Older Girls  従姉  Older Guys  従兄
 Younger Girls  従妹  Younger Guys  従弟
 Guys  従兄弟  Girls  従姉妹

Word Note: You may also use the 音読み of the characters to distinguish.

Using Terms for Someone Else's Family for Your Own

     Many speakers will call their mom, dad, older brother or sister, and grandparents with the terms that are supposed to be for someone's family. But, if you use them for you own, you may slightly change their appearance. For example, instead of -さん you might choose -ちゃん or drop -さん altogether. It’s also even possible to drop the お- at the beginning of these phrases. 

6. お ( ) さん、おもちゃほしい!
    Mom, I want a toy!

7. お ( ) さん、ほんとにしゃべりすぎだ。
    Dad, you really talk too much.

8. 姉 ( ) さん、 ( ) してる?
    Hey sis', what are you doin'?

Stepfamily


   Sino-Japanese  Native
 Stepmother  継母(けいぼ)  継母(ままはは)
 Stepfather  継父(けいふ)  継父(ままちち)
 Stepchild  継子(けいし)  継子(ままこ)
 Stepson    継息子(ままむすこ)
 Stepdaughter    継娘(ままむすめ)

Half Family

     To create the terms for half-brother and half-sister, you first must decide whether they are from a stepfather or a stepmother. For each combination, there is a technical, conversational, and insensitive term available.

The technical terms utilize Sino-Japanese vocabulary. The conversational terms are the native vocabulary equivalents of the Sino-Japanese terms. The insensitive terms utilize the terms 種違い (of different seed) and 腹違 い (of a different womb) to refer to "by a different father" and "by a different mother" respectively. 

 Meaning  Technical Term  Conversational Term  Insensitive Term
 By a different father  異父(いふ)・・・  父親違いの・・・  種違いの・・・
 Siblings  異父兄弟(いふきょうだい)  父親違いの兄弟  種違いの兄弟
 Sisters  異父姉妹(いふしまい)  父親違いの姉妹  種違いの姉妹
 Older brother  異父兄(いふけい)  父親違いの兄  種違いの兄
 Older sister  異父姉(いふし)  父親違いの姉  種違いの姉
 Younger brother  異父弟(いふてい)  父親違いの弟  種違いの弟
 Younger sister  異父妹(いふまい)  父親違いの妹  種違いの妹
 By a different mother  異母・・・  母親違いの・・・  腹違いの・・・
 Siblings  異母兄弟(いぼきょうだい)  母親違いの兄弟  腹違いの兄弟
 Sisters  異母姉妹(いぼしまい)  母親違いの姉妹  腹違いの姉妹
 Older brother  異母兄(いぼけい)  母親違いの兄  腹違いの兄
 Older sister  異母姉(いぼし)  母親違いの姉  腹違いの姉
 Younger brother  異母弟(いぼてい)  母親違いの弟  腹違いの弟
 Younger sister  異母妹(いぼまい)  母親違いの妹  腹違いの妹

第122課: 呼称

  In our first step into the world of 敬語 (honorific speech), the first thing to learn about are affixes used to embellish names and titles called 呼称 こしょう . You've already been acquainted with the majority of them already, so they should be recognizable to you. A lot can be said about each of them, but for the ones that particularly matter to honorific speech, leaving them out (呼び て) can be drastically bad. 

呼称

     呼称 are suffixes similar to Mr. and Mrs., but aren't, unless stated, gender specific. They are suffixes added to titles or names. Like we've seen, some titles don't need them. Pay close attention to when these endings are used and for whom. 

Analysis

       We need context to know the extent 呼称 are used. There are so many niches that one could be a part in that no single person, including natives, could tell you authoritatively every single situation these endings can be used in. Luckily, however, you can get the gist of how they're used and see for yourself how they're used. 

  There are a few ground rules, however. First, you must never directly use them to refer to oneself. Two, you mustn't use more than one to refer to the same person in the same sentence.

1. わたしは金子さんです。X
 わたしは金子です。
    I am Kaneko (surname).

2. 店員さんは裕子さんですよ。X
 店員の人は裕子さんですよ。
    The clerk is Yuuko-san.  


 ~さん

~さん is generally attached to the name of a person or group to show a light respect or familiarity.  ~さん is a contraction of ~さま, which is why it isn't as respectful both after people's names and in set phrases. 

2. もしもし、加藤さんのお宅ですか。  
    Hello, is this the Kato residence? 

3. お待ちどおさん
    Thank you for waiting; I'm sorry to have kept you waiting.

~さん may be attached to someone's workplace to refer to the workers. So, if you walk into a electric appliance store, you may refer to the clerk as 電気屋さん. Other examples of this include 本屋さん, 八百屋さん, etc. Businesses may also refer to each other in the same fashion. 

Pronunciation Note: ~さん is rendered as ~はん in certain dialects. 


~ちゃん

     ~ちゃん is a diminutive of ~さん, and should be treated as one. It shows affection and endearment. In general, ちゃん is used toward infants, pets, children, grandparents, lovers, and/or close friends. When used toward the wrong individual, it could sound condescending, but tone of voice and one's relationship with the individual are both important factors. 


 ~坊

  ~坊 may be after a boy's name to show affection, but it is also placed after the alias of a monk.


 ~さま

     ~さま, again, is much more respectful than ~さん. It can be applied to basically anything ~さん came, but the effect is different. ~さま can be seen after おれ to refer to oneself in a very haughty manner. 

4. スミス様
   Mr. Smith

5. 先生様 X → 先生

6. 神様 
    God

7. 天皇様  △   → 天皇陛下  
 Emperor 

8. 王様
   King

Word Note: It's important to note that 天皇様 is a questionable phrase in the grey zone with most Japanese speakers thinking it is inappropriate for similar reasons why 王様 is actually found to be somewhat kiddish. This is probably because ~様 through hyperbole weakening in honorific meaning for these instances.  

9.  巡査 じゅんさ 順子 じゅんこ のことを いたが、これは 宿帳 やどちょう に彼女の名前がないからだった。「 外一名様 ほかいちめいさま 」とあるだけである。
The police officer asked about Junko, but this was because her name wasn't in the guest book. It only said, "one other person."

Word Note: 外一名様 is occasionally used to refer to another person anonymously for which mention is necessary out of respect. However, many people nowadays take offense to the term. Sometimes, organizations now send out explanations to their addresses whenever the terminology is implemented to seek understanding. Part of this is due to it falling out of use, but another issue is people now generally expect all persons of interest, especially when there aren't that many to begin with, to be listed out individually. Of course, there are real world instances in which pinpointing even a small number of people specifically is difficult. 


 ~君

     ~君 used to be similar to ~の君(きみ). ~の君 refers to Lords, etc. Now, ~君 is used to address males juniors. Females may also use it towards males affectionately. With close personal friends and family, gender restrictions are removed. In business, men may refer to young employees of either gender with ~君. This works the same way in a classroom. In the Japanese legislature chairpersons address members with ~君.

10. 黒木君はどこにいるの?
    Where's Kuroki?

11. 親友 しんゆう 次郎君 じろうくん
       My best friend Jiro


 ~殿

Although literally meaning "Lord", it is used a lot in official documents seen after names or after an organization, department, etc. However, when you are referring to a superior by name, you will use his/her surname + ~様, not ~殿. When you are referring to a managerial position rather than a personal name, ~殿 will likely be your colleague. All of this, however, is about the written language. ~殿 does not get used in normal conversation. If you hear it in anime, it's because the speaker is purposely speaking in a neo-classical fashion.

12. 〇〇部長殿   
Department Chairman xx 

Luckily, for when you are addressing a group of people, 御中, which is read as おんちゅう, and 各位 are perfect. The former is used in documents addressed to schools, companies, company offices, groups, and organizations. 各位 is used as a header to a letter, but as an addressee, it can be used when sending something to each person without having to say every single name. There is no need to say 各位様 or 各位殿.


 ~氏

~氏 is used to reference someone in the third person in the written language or usages of speech akin to the written language such as news reports and the like. 


Others

閣下: This word is realistically only used in two instances. One, you will see it in the official means of addressing heads of state or dignitaries by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan. For Japanese heads of state, the word is never used. However, for foreign figures, it follows the full name of the country followed by the full name of the person in question. For instance, the soon to be former president of Italy would be referred to as "イタリア共和国大統領ジョルジョ・ナポリターノ閣下."

  Aside from being used to refer to foreign emissaries and dignitaries, it has been used in the realm of translating foreign literature for instances of "excellency." For instance, you may find "your honor" in a courtroom-sense translated as "判事閣下." However, because it has been relegated to very official circumstances, even this would be replaced with what's actually used nowadays, "裁判官." There are also other military/lordship titles that it may refer to, but these are all so specialized that the only use they would serve is if you were to read a novel in which they appear. At which, all you would need to know is that its purpose is being a very honorific title.  

陛下: This word is reserved for the Imperial Family of Japan. Of course, you will also hear it employed for the same purpose for imperial members of other nations (even fictional places).

13.天皇皇后両陛下
   Their Majesties the Emperor and Empress 

婦人: This word used to go after surnames to refer to the Mrs. of the household. However, due to concerns of sexism, words with 婦 are becoming less common. As such, although 婦人 would have been commonly used fifty years ago, that is no longer the case.

14. 中村婦人         
     Mrs. Nakamura

夫人: This word is used to mean "Mrs." and is still frequently used. Despite being homophonous with 婦人, due to the difference in characters used, it has not died out just yet.

15. 加藤夫人はどちらに行かれたのか教えてください。
    Please tell me where Mrs. Kato went.  

嬢: This is seldom used after the name of unmarried women, but it can also be more frequently found in certain occupation terms and set phrases. As お嬢さん, it is still an appropriate and respectful way of referring to a young lady. In other instances, however, the same can't be quite said.

16. 裕子はもともとキャバ嬢として働いてたよ。
    Yuuko used to work as a hostess. 

卿: This is a very rare honorific used to refer to aristocracy. It is now relegated to historical/classical references. 

17. アーサー卿は収入のほとんどを荘園の維持費にしていたといわれています。
  It is said that Lord Arthur used most of his income in the maintenance of his gardens. 


 Honorable Mentions

 ~たん  ~たん  Extreme slang form of ~ちゃん.
 ~ちん  ~ちん  Yet another slang derivation that came from ~たん.
 ~ぽん  ~ぽん  Used in jokes as a silly variant of ~さん.

第123課: Titles

  One's title is important in society, especially Japanese society. Sometimes, it’s so important that it’s how you’re addressed. Last lesson, you were introduced to embellishments called 呼称 ( こしょう ) that attach to people’s names and provide insight to their relation with you or whoever’s speaking. You were also introduced to the concept of 呼び ( ) て, which is not using a 呼称 at all, and when it’s okay to address people solely by their names (casual circumstances). 

The World of Titles

     The most recognizable title in Japanese is 先生, an honorific word which literally means "one born earlier." 先生 refers to teachers, professionals, and leaders. Like a 呼称, it must not be used to refer to oneself. The reason for this is that in honorifics, you are supposed to be humble in speaking about yourself. 

     Titles may differ in wording depending on whether you are referring to someone else or oneself, but there is always a way to phrase someone’s title, putting aside who exactly one is talking about. Embellishing with  呼称 is a good way at bridging the gap between referring to one’s own occupation to referring to someone else; however, many occupations suffice alone as titles. This is because the large majority of occupation terms are neutral in honorifics, and using them in tangent with a surname is usually all you need to do. However, it’s important to study how individual words are used to get all this correct.

  Now it’s time to expand your vocabulary by absorbing many of the common occupation words you may encounter. Some may function like 呼称 while others will simply function as standalone words. For instance, you may talk about your boss as 上司, but you’ll refer to him in person by his actual position. 


Title?/Occupation?

  The best way to learn when to use what and how is not by staring at a list of words but by seeing them used in action. Word notes will be provided per example sentence to give you information about how titles are used and how they may be used outside the example itself. 

1. 課長、 新規 ( しんき ) の見積(書)をご覧になりましたか。
Chief, have you seen the new quote?

Word Note: The word 課長, meaning "(department) chief," is both a title and an occupation. 

2. アメリカのトランプ 次期大統領 ( じきだいとうりょう ) にメキシコ工場の 建設計画 ( けんせつけいかく ) 批判 ( ひはん ) されているトヨタ自動車の 豊田章男社長 ( とよだあきおしゃちょう ) は9日、アメリカのデトロイトで開かれているモーターショーに出席し、アメリカで今後5年の間に100 ( おく ) ドル( ( いっ ) 兆円以上 ( ちょうえんいじょう ) )を 投資 ( とうし ) する計画になっていることを明らかにしました。
Akio Toyoda, the president of Toyota Motor Corporation, who has been criticized by President-elect (Donald) Trump for plans to construct a factory in Mexico, while attending an auto show being held in Detroit in America on the ninth, revealed that the company has made plans to invest over 10 billion dollars (over 1 trillion yen) into America in coming five years. 

From NHK on 1/9/17.

Word Note: トランプ次期大統領 incorporates a “surname + occupation.” (次期)大統領 may be used as a standalone word. 

Word Note: The company president of Toyota Motor Corporation is Akio Toyoda. He is referred to initially by the “full name of the company + full name + title.” Workers of his company would undoubtedly refer to him as 社長. Other mentions of him in the article would have abbreviated his full address to just “surname + title” (豊田社長).

3. 薬師寺 やくしじ 村上太胤管主 むらかみたいいんかんしゅ は「 東塔 とうとう 再建 さいけん 順調 じゅんちょう に進んでいくものと心強く思っています」と話していました。
Tai'in Murakami, the chief abbot of Yakushi-ji, spoke of the matter saying, “I’m strongly reassured that the reconstruction of the East Tower is to proceed steadily.”
From NHK on 1/9/17.

Word Note: 管主 refers to the chief abbot of a temple, and depending on the sect, it may alternatively be 貫首 ( かんじゅ ) , 座主 ( ざす ) , etc.

4.  台湾 たいわん 蔡英文総統 さiえいぶんそうとう は、 外交関係 がいこうかんけい のある 中米 ちゅうべい 4か国を 訪問 ほうもん するのを前に8日、 経由地 けいゆち のアメリカ南部テキサス しゅう のヒューストンで、 地元選出 じもとせんしゅつ 若手 わかて 有力政治家 ゆうりょくせいじか の1人である 共和党 きょうわとう のテッド・クルーズ上院議員と 会談 かいだん しました。
Taiwanese President Tsai Ing-wen on the eighth, before traveling to four Central American nations with which Taiwan has diplomatic relations, met with Republican Senator Ted Cruz, a young, local elected political star, at her transit point in Houston, which is located in the south of the U.S.
From NHK on 1/9/17.

Word Note: The president of some countries, Taiwan being an example, is called 総統. Senator in Japanese is “上院議員.” 議員 simply means “assemblyman” and can be used in a variety of government/bureaucracy related terminology.

5. おととし、 町長 ( ちょうちょう ) と数人の議員たちが 逮捕 ( たいほ ) されるという 不祥事 ( ふしょうじ ) が起きました。
Two years ago, there was a scandal in which the town mayor and several assembly members were arrested.

Word Note: 町長 is both a title and an occupation.

6. これに 関連 ( かんれん ) して 中国外務省 ( ちゅうごくがいむしょう ) 陸慷 ( りくこう ) 報道官 ( ほうどうかん ) は9日の 記者会見 ( きしゃかいけん )
In the context of this, Press Secretary of Chinese Foreign Affairs, Lu Kang, in a press interview on the ninth…
From NHK on 1/9/17.

Word Note:  中国外務省の陸慷報道官 utilizes the occupation/title 報道官. ~官 is a suffix meaning “officer” that you’ll see in several other titles/occupations.

7. FIFAは9日、去年の 年間最優秀選手 ( ねんかんさいゆうしゅうせんしゅ ) を発表し、男子は、ポルトガル 代表 ( だいひょう ) のキャプテンで、スペイン ( いち ) ( ) リーグ、レアルマドリードのエース、クリスチアーノロナウド 選手 ( せんしゅ ) が選ばれました。
On the ninth, FIFA announced the Player of the Year of 2016, choosing Cristiano Ronaldo for man of the year, who is a leading player in Real Madrid, a soccer league of Spain, as a captain representing Portugal.
From NHK on 1/10/17.

Word Note: Many titles/occupations are mentioned here. Firstly, 代表 is used after some “group/organization/country name” to demarcate a representative (代表者). キャプテン is, clearly, a title for “captain (of a team),” and 選手 is used after the name of athletes. 

8.  青森山田高校 あおもりやまだこうこう 黒田剛監督 くろだごうかんとく は「去年3位に終わってから、リベンジしたいと頑張ってきた」と うれ しそうに話していました。
Couch Gō Kuroda of Aomoriyamada High School spoke happily saying, “Since ending in third place last year, we’ve worked hard to get our revenge.”
From NHK on 1/9/17.

Word Note: 監督 is a title. Aside from meaning “coach,” it may also be used to mean director as in 映画監督. The occupation word for this is 監督者. For instance, 管理監督者 would mean “Management Superintendent.”

Word Note: ~者 is a suffix meaning “person,” but using it to refer to oneself is typically inappropriate. You should always rephrase it out in that case. Often times, ~人 is appropriate. Or, you could just not use a suffix after the occupation word in question.

9. 私はマンションの管理(人)をやっています。
    I manage apartments.

10.  安倍総理大臣 あべそうりだいじん はサウジアラムコの 東証 とうしょう への 上場 じょうじょう 直接依頼 ちょくせついらい した。
Prime Minister Abe directly requested for Saudi Aramco’s to be listed in the Tokyo Stock Exchange.
From NHK on 1/6/17.

Word Note: 総理大臣 is both a title and occupation.

11.  清田 きよた CEOは 首都 しゅと リヤドに 到着後 とうちゃくご 、ようやく待ち望んだ 朗報 ろうほう を受け取りました。
CEO Kiyota at last received the good news he had been waiting for after arriving at Riyadh the capital.
From NHK on 1/6/17.

Word Note: CEO is translated into Japanese as 最高経営責任者 ( さいこうけいえいせきにんしゃ ) . Although this word is also used, it is far more practical and common to see CEO used instead.

12. 清田CEOは、 最大 さいだい のキーマンと もく するムハンマド 副皇太子 ふくこうたいし と30分間、サウジアラムコの 会長 かいちょう 兼務 けんむ するファリハ・エネルギー 産業鉱物資源相 さんぎょうこうぶつしげんしょう いち 時間弱 じかんじゃく 、それぞれ 会談 かいだん し、東証の 魅力 みりょく をアピールしました。CEO Kiyota respectively met with the Deputy Crown Prince Mohammed, who is also deemed the most key influential person, for thirty minutes as well as Al-Falih, the minister of the Ministry of Energy, Industry and Mineral Resources as well as the chairman Saudi Aramco, for a little less than an hour to appeal to the glamour of the Tokyo Stock Exchange.  
From NHK on 1/6/17.

Word Note: 副~  is a prefix attached to titles/occupations meaning “vice-/deputy…”

Word Note: 皇太子 means “Crown Prince” and is both a title and an occupation.

Word Note: 会長 is a title and may mean “the president (of a society)” or “chairman (of the board of directors).”

Word Note: ~ ( しょう )   is a suffix meaning “minister” that appears at the end of the official name of a ministry.

13. サウジアラビアの 重要閣僚 ( じゅうようかくりょう ) は、日本の 大手石油元売 ( おおてせきゆもとう ) 会社 ( がいしゃ ) 首脳 ( しゅのう ) にも電話をかけ、 法案撤回 ( ほうあんてっかい ) への日本の協力を 要請 ( ようせい ) しました。
Key cabinet members of the Saudi Arabian cabinet even gave calls to the head leaders of major Japanese oil refiner-distributors seeking Japan’s support to overturn the law.
From NHK on 1/6/17.

Word Note: 閣僚 means “cabinet members” and is inherently plural. Together they form the cabinet ( 内閣閣僚 ( ないかくかくりょう ) ). A member (構成員) of the cabinet is referred to as a 国務大臣 ( こくむだいじん ) . In direct reference to being a cabinet member, you would use 閣僚委員 ( かくりょういいん ) . 閣僚 is only an occupation, and in order to make it a title, you would need to use 閣僚委員.

Word Note: 首脳 is an occupation and may refer to a head of state or head leader(s) of an organization/company. To use it in reference to someone, you might see it used in a sentence like below.

14. 世界には 一国 ( いっこく ) の政府首脳を ( つと ) める女性が 意外 ( いがい ) とたくさんいます。
      There are surprisingly a lot of women who are heads of state in the world.

15. ムハンマド副皇太子は、中国で 習近平 ( しゅうきんぺい ) 国家主席 ( こっかしゅせき ) 会談 ( かいだん ) 、ロシアではプーチン大統領と会談するなど、 精力的 ( せいりょくてき ) に世界を飛び回っています。
Deputy Crown Prince Mohammed energetically flew around the world meeting with President Xi Jinping of China, President Putin of Russia, etc.
From NHK on 1/6/17.

Word Note: The word for “president” in reference to China is 国家主席. Other words for president yet to be mentioned in this lesson include 頭取 for president of a bank, 理事長 meaning “director,” and 総裁, which is the president of a major organization such as the Bank of Japan, hospitals, etc.

16.  落成式 らくせいしき では 阿部秀保市長 あべひでおしちょう が「6年生が卒業する前に、新しい 校舎 こうしゃ で学んでもらおうと 完成 かんせい を目指し、努力してきました。この校舎は 復興 ふっこう のシンボルです」とあいさつしました。
City Mayor Hideo Abe greeted (attendees) at the completion ceremony saying, "We have worked hard aiming to complete this new schoolhouse for our sixth graders to learn in before graduating (primary school).  This school building is a symbol of restoration.”
From NHK on 1/9/17.

Word Note: 市長, meaning “city mayor,” is both a title and an occupation.

17.  宮野森小学校 ( みやのもりしょうがっこう ) 相澤日出夫校長 ( あいざわひでおこうちょう ) は「すばらしい校舎が完成し、感謝しています。 地域 ( ちいき ) の復興に向けて、いい学びの ( ) にしていきたい」と話していました。
Principal Hideo Aizawa of Miyanomori Elementary School spoke saying, “We are greatly thankful that this wonderful schoolhouse has been completed. We look forward to having this be a great learning place as we head towards restoring the region.”
From NHK on 1/9/17.

Word Note: 校長, meaning “principal (of a school),” is both a title and an occupation.

18. 私は20年 教師 ( きょうし ) をしています。
      I’ve been a teacher for twenty years.

Word Note: 教師 is the occupation of “teaching.” Teachers are referred to as 先生. However, one must never refer to oneself as such.

19. オーキド 博士 ( はかせ ) からポケモンを ( もら ) えるって聞いたけど、本当?
      I heard that you can get a Pokemon from Professor Oak, but is that true?

Word Note: 博士 in professional words like Doctorate Degree (博士号) it is pronounced as はくし, but in general use, it is usually pronounced as はかせ.


Final Notes

  When an occupation is used as a title in conjunction with someone’s name, a 呼称 is not necessary. Whenever you are calling someone by his or her occupation, a 呼称 is often necessary. For instance, a store clerk is a 店員, but you’ll need to refer to him/her as 店員さん. In the same token, your doctor is an 医者, but you refer to him/her as お医者さん.

  Not all occupations can or ought to be used as titles. This means “occupation +さん” is not a fix all solution, but ~さん・様 will still likely be needed. Your lawyer is a 弁護士 ( べんごし ) . However, you won’t call him/her in person as 弁護士さん. You may refer to him/her as such in writing, but in person, you’d refer to him/her by surname +さん.

  Some occupations sound quite wordy and technical if used in the spoken language. In such cases, different phrases may be used altogether. For instance, 警察官 ( けいさつかん ) means “police officer.” You may see people refer to police officers as 警察官さん(たち), but in conversation, you’ll hear the word お ( まわ ) りさん to prevent the awkwardness of using such a wordy title. 


先輩 vs. 後輩

  Lastly, to conclude this lesson, we will study the well-known words 先輩 and 後輩, which have gained worldwide attention due to their overuse in anime and manga. Most people outside Japan, however, don’t really understand how they’re used.

  If I were your boss, I wouldn't be your 先輩. I would be your 上司. Even then, you would need to call me by the appropriate title. You don't call your teacher 先輩 either. Even if your 先生 happened to be younger than you, you would not call him/him your 後輩.

  先輩 means "senior" as in being ahead in rank. In school everyone in grades above you is your 先輩. In reverse, you are their 後輩. Everyone in the school, though, is a 学生. 先輩 and 後輩 can be used like 呼称 and as stand-alone words. This is also the case for words like 先生. Teacher and student are complete opposites, and the teacher has a position that should be respected. Thus, you should use neither 先輩 or 後輩 in speaking to him/her.

  Whether or not you can refer to athletes or what not as your 先輩 or 後輩 is dictated by the social circumstances at hand. Are you part of the team? Are you an extremely obsessed female fan that adores a member and affectionately refers to him as 先輩? There is a lot to keep in mind, but it is safe to say that if you find a usage in the wild that fits your situation, it is probably safe to use it likewise, assuming that you don't solely read odd manga series. 


第124課: Honorifics I: Nouns

     Honorific speech 敬語 is very intricate and its usage is mandatory in many situations. There are three broad categories of honorific speech. Of these, the top two categories will be relatively new to you.

As has been the case with polite speech seen listed as the third category, using formal speech toward those whom you ought to be casual with holds the opposite effect than otherwise intended. Therefore, as you learn how to form honorific expressions, it will be just as important to learn when to use said expressions. 

 尊敬語  そんけいご  Respectful  Speaking to/of a person whom one wishes to respect. It is not used in reference to oneself. It is associated with second and third person.
 謙譲語・謙譲語  けんじょうご・けんそんご  Humble  speaking to someone on what you or your in-group are to do. It is associated with first person.
 丁寧語  ていねいご  Polite  


Culture Note
: You should also be aware that using 敬語 to someone that one is usually cordial and casual with will cause division and a sense of separation.

Honorific Nouns

     Nouns are made honorific by the prefix 御~ which has three possible readings.


お~

     御~ is read as お~ when attached to native words as well as a number of 漢語 (Sino-Japanese words).

Motivations for using お~ with 漢語 is being a 和製語 (word created in Japan). It's nearly impossible to know whether an 音読み phrase was made in Japan without being told. However, a great hint is that the majority of these words relate to things of the modern era.

Yet another means of knowing whether お~ is used with a 漢語 is if its sense as a 漢語 has been lost in the general public and has essentially become Japanese (due to the lack or loss of a native equivalent).  

 Noun  Honorific  和語・漢語  Meaning
 名前  お名前  和語  Name
 世話  お世話  和語  Assistance
 世辞   お世辞   和語  Flattery
 釣り  お釣り   和語  Change
 手紙   お手紙  和語  Letter
 塩   お塩   和語  Salt
 魚   お魚   和語  Fish
 目   お目  和語  Eyes
 腹  お腹  和語  Stomach
 上  お上  和語  Buttress; government
 自宅   お住い  和語  Residence

Some words are somewhat difficult to read. For instance, お腹 is read as おなか and お上 is read as おかみ. As you can see, all words are listed. So, what about 世話? This is 当て字,  meaning せわ is native and the spelling blurs this fact.   

1. お‐ is always incompatible with 'long words' several morae long, and it is also not used with words that start with o

2. A rarer but more honorific form of お~ is おん~. Examples include 御自ら and 御母上.

Example Sentences 

1. 彼女にはいろいろなことをしていただいて 世話 ( せわ ) になっております。
    I owe her a lot for everything.

2. お しか りのお言葉を有り難く頂戴いたします。
    I would appreciate it if I receive your scolding.

3. お さき にどうぞ。
    Please go in front.

4. 亡くなられたお方の小さい 御子達 ( おこたち ) の相手に女の ( めい ) たちを連れて来て ( もら ) いたいと ( ) うのだった。
She was told that [they] would like her to bring along her nieces as companions to the small children of the deceased lady.
From 姨捨 ( おばすて ) by 堀尾辰 ( ほりおたつ ) .  

Word Note: Though お方 now refers politely to a gentleman/gentlewoman, in the past it was used to refer to a noble woman or daughter, as is the case in this setting. 

5. 「罪が深いんですから、いくら難有いお経だって浮ばれる事は御座いませんよ」
Since his sin is so grave, you cannot rest his soul no matter how great of a sutra you evoke.  
From 吾輩は猫である by 夏目漱石.

Word Note: お経 is an interesting exception. 経 is a Sino-Japanese word of Chinese origin and does not take ご, which we are about to get to. This must mean that the word is treated as if it is a native word, just like other old loans such as 馬.

Spelling Note: Because the novel from which this example comes from is so old, spelling conventions are not quite the same. ありがたい, when it is written in 漢字 today, is typically spelled as 有り難い. As you can see, the 漢字 are flipped. 

 Non-Polite Examples

Although a phrase may have an honorific suffix in it, it doesn't mean that it is respectful. One example is お里が知れる, which means "to reveal one's upbringing". This refers to Japanese dialects and is felt to be a rude expression. A much more polite way is なまり・方言・アクセントで出身が分かる. 

As another example of words with お that are not honorific, consider the word お化け. This is an alternative way of saying 化け物. Both refer to Japanese-style ghosts/monsters. お化け can also refer to something just really abnormal. There are a lot of important お化け that you should know about. Important ones include  轆轤首 ろくろくび 天狗 てんぐ , and から かさ け.

 お + 外来語

What if you wanted to make a loanword like ワイン or コンピューター? You add nothing. However, there are several exceptions. In relation to drinks, おビール is questionable, but some people, particularly women, do use it. It is also appropriate in the business arena. There is no problem with using お酒, お茶, or お冷 because they are 'Japanese' words. Likewise,  although you can say お洋服, you cannot say おスーツ or おコート. 

おタバコ is not that common unless you're in a service industry. Similar words that are odd unless you're in a secretarial position include お車 and お薬 despite being native words. おズボン would also be seen in the trades or by women who frequently add お to more words than men typically do such as おジュース. おソース is on the same lines as おしょう油. 

 A decent amount of people also say things like おトイレ. It is strange to a lot of people, though. Interestingly, お手洗い is proper Japanese. 

 お + 漢語

As mentioned above, there quite a few words that are from Chinese or based on Chinese morphemes that take お. Consider the following examples.

 お電話  Phone  お時間  Time  お砂糖  Sugar  お宅  Home  お礼状  Thank you note
 お肉  Meat  お邪魔  Disturbance  お写真  Photo  お天気  Weather  お菓子  Sweets
 お愛想*  Affability  お風呂  Bath  お会計*  Bill  お勘定*  Bill  お返事**  Response

Ironically, お宅 does also mean "nerd". In honorifics, though, it seriously refers to someone else's home.  

*: All of these words happen to be used to mean "bill", but there is disagreement on how they should be used. おあいそ is largely felt to be rude in Tokyo, but it is frequently used in West Japan. The reason why some say it's rude is because it should be what a business should say to a customer. Meaning, it is they who may have not shown affability to you as they should have. Thus, a customer referring to this is rude.

お会計 is the word of choice for younger generation. It is the word most likely to be on your receipt at any given place. However, there are those who think only the business side should use it because it is referring to actual accounting. お勘定 is rather neutral in being used by the customer, but the percentage of young people who use it is dropping.  

**: This word can also be ご返事, which is deemed to be the original form and always proper. However, over 60% of people no longer use it. So, it is fair to say that there is no practical difference between the two. Be aware of sticklers. 


ご~ 

     ご~ is used only with 音読み compounds that are often considered formal and typically have a native Japanese word equivalent.

 Noun  Honorific  Meaning
 主人   ご主人   Master*
 病気  ご病気  Sickness
 心配  ご心配   Worry
 旅行  ご旅行  Trip
 連絡   ご連絡  Contact
 両親   ご両親  Parents
 遠慮   ご遠慮   Discretion
 注意   ご注意   Caution
 親類   ご親類  Relatives
 相談   ご相談   Consulting
 近所   ご近所   Vicinity
 親切   ご親切  Kindness
 苗字   ご苗字  Last name

Usage Notes

1. The adverb ゆっくり may also be used with ご~. 

2. 主人 means "master" but "(someone's) husband when ご~ is attached.

3. There are times when adding ご results in Double Keigo (二重敬語). For instance, in ご芳名 (your good name), ご令息 (son), ご逝去 (death), the nouns themselves are already honorific. But, because they have for whatever reason been reanalyzed as being not honorific enough, ご is always attached to them. 


 Examples

6. 大変 たいへん 面倒 めんどう をおかけしてすみませんでした。
    I'm very sorry to have put you into any trouble.

7. 先生 ( ) 茶道 ( さどう ) のご 教授 ( きょうじゅ ) ( たまわ ) りたいのですが。
    Would you be so kind as to give me instruction on tea ceremonies?

8. ご 訂正 ていせい を頂戴いたしまして、どうもありがとうございます。
    Thank you very much for giving me corrections.

9. どうぞご 遠慮 ( えんりょ ) なく。
     Feel free. 


み~

み~ is used with nouns particular to religion or grand importance. Although rarely seen, it is even possible to use おみ~ and おんみ~.

 Comes From    New Meaning
 Treasure  大御宝  Imperial subjects
 Child  御子   God's son
 Name  御名  Holy Name
 Palanquin  御輿・神輿 (みこし)  Portable Shrine
 Liquor  御神酒 (おみき)  Sacred Wine
 World  御世   Imperial Reign
 Heart  御心   Lord's will
 Rock of spirit  御影石  Granite

Word Note: The last example is a little complicated. 御影 happens to mean "spirit(s) of the dead". This word also happens to be a place name where granite is manufactured. Thus, the word 御影石 came from this geographical connection. This is an important example to note, though, because this word is not honorific in any way despite the fact it clearly has the honorific prefix み- in it. 

HONORIFIC NOUNS WITHOUT

     There are other means to show respectful and humble speech in nouns. For respectful nouns, 貴~ is apart of many respectful Sino-Japanese words. However, most, with exception to 貴社 "your honorable company" are rarely used. Death especially has several respectful variants.

Several humble nouns begin with 粗(そ), 拙(せつ), and 弊 (へい). All three characters have negative/humble connotations. 愚(ぐ)~ is a humble prefix added to the 音読み of characters used for family. For representing respectfulness in terms of family, the suffix ~上(うえ) is used. Or, you may use 賢(けん)~.

   Noun  HON.  H or R?
 Person  人  者   H
 Person  人   方   R
 Refreshments  おやつ
 粗菓  H
 My thoughts  私意   拙意   H
 Word  言葉   詔   R
 Older brother  兄   愚兄   H
 Older brother  兄  賢兄   R
 Company  会社   貴社   R
 Company  会社  弊社  H
 Tea  茶   粗茶   H
 Place  所   御所   R
 Husband  夫   宿六   H
 Liquor  酒   粗酒   H
 Daughter  娘   愚女   H
 Father  父   父上   R/H
 Goods  品   粗品   H
 Manuscript  原稿   玉稿   R
 Production; work
 著作   拙作   H

INTERPRETING THE CHART: R = Respectful & H = Humble

Usage Notes:

1. 御所 refers to the "old imperial palace".

2. 詔 refers to an "imperial decree".

3. Whenever a word refers to royalty, that said variant is not used in reference to regular people.

4. 粗品 may also mean "little gift". This would still be 書き言葉的.

5. 粗 means "crude/course/inferior" and these meanings are implied in the humble words whether the thing(s) in question are as such.

6. Sometimes using the right word can be tricky. For instance, whenever people take entrance exams for college (入学試験) and companies (入試試験), people these days are starting to want to use 御校 and 御社 respectively instead of 貴校 or 貴社. The problem with this is with 御 being read as おん, it may sound quite unnatural in the spoken language if it were not for abnormal situation in which one is in front of many people you don't know. Although 貴校 and 貴社 may get used in letters between groups in an almost equal mentality, the most important thing in 敬語 is still to be conscious overall of ways to speak politely. Thus, it is quite OK to use those words.  


HONORIFIC VARIANTS FOR DEATH

 崩御 (ほうぎょ)  The honorable death of royalty.
 卒去 (そっきょ)  Death of king or queen or a high ranking court official.
 逝去 (せいきょ)
 A more honorific word for the passing of an individual.
 薨去 (こうきょ)
 Death of an imperial member or high court.
 薨御 (こうぎょ)  The death of a crowned prince or minister.

Word Note: It is unlikely that you will see some of these words, but there is always that chance. "To die" is generally a euphemism for several other verbs such as 死亡する (to decease), 死去する (to part), and 亡くなる (to pass away)". 


HONORIFIC PHRASES WITH HONORIFIC PREFIXES & SUFFIXES

     There are also many set phrases that include the prefixes お~ and ご~ and the honorific endings ~さん and ~さま.

 お月{さま・さん}   Moon
 お日{さま・さん}   Sun
 お世話さま   Trouble
 お邪魔さま  Trouble
 お疲れさま   Tired One
 お気の毒さま   I'm very sorry
 ご面倒さま   Could I trouble you
 ご苦労さま   Much obliged for hardship

 FORMAL SINO-JAPANESE WORDS

     Some nouns are naturally formal because they are Sino-Japanese. These examples are by no means it, and you have seen many already. You will also see more in coming lessons through example sentences.

 Tomorrow  明日 (みょうにち) This year
 今年、本年 (こんねん、ほんねん)
 Breakfast  朝食 (ちょうしょく)  Day after tomorrow  明後日 (みょうごにち)
 Next year  明年 (みょうねん)  Day before yesterday  一昨日 (いっさくじつ)
 Last night
 昨夜 (さくや)  Today  本日 (ほんじつ)
 The other day  先日 (せんじつ)  Around...  約 (やく)

Word Note: Some of the words are typically heard as well. But, when it comes down to deciding what variant of a word you should use when speaking respectfully, you would choose these words.


 Meals

   Breakfast, lunch, and dinner, in fact, have 4 sets of expressions based on politeness with each set using a different verb for "to eat".

   Breakfast  Lunch  Dinner  To Eat
 Casual  朝飯(あさめし)  昼飯(ひるめし)  [晩・夕]飯([ばん・ゆう]めし)  食(く)う
 Plain  朝飯(あさはん)  昼飯(ひるはん)  夕飯(ゆうはん)  食(た)べる
 Plain/Polite  朝御飯(あさごはん)
 昼御飯(ひるごはん)
 [晩・夕]御飯([ばん・ゆう]ごはん)  食べる
 Formal  朝食(ちょうしょく)  昼食(ちゅうしょく)  夕食(ゆうしょく)  取る

Word Note: 夜ご飯 is becoming more acceptable as more people are now eating dinner later in the evening.  

Exercises

1. When do you use お-?

2. When do you use ご-?

3. How do you use adjectives in honorific speech?

4. What are the two types of honorific speech?

5. Make a sentence in honorific speech with the copula.

6. Make a sentence in honorific speech with an adjective.

7. Make a sentence in honorific speech with a noun.

8. Show how a noun may change meaning when used with an honorific prefix.

9. Explain the usage of honorifics in your own words.


第125課: Honorifics II: Adjectives & the Copula

Pay close attention to what is deemed old-fashioned and what is not. 

Adjectives

 The "honorific" use of adjectives is normally seen in the pattern お+Adjective+です. This is often felt to just be really polite speech rather than honorific speech, but it suffices for the most part. 

お・ご~ Note: The omission of the honorific prefixes is primarily determined by whether you are showing respect/humility or using 丁寧語. As you could imagine, the latter case is for when they should be omitted.


  Examples

In the examples below, you will see various other patterns that hint at what has traditionally been the usage for adjectives. More will be said about them later in this lesson. So, for now, treat options as synonyms.  

1. お忙しいですか。(普通)
    Are you busy?

2. インドへ行けるのは嬉し{ゅうございます・い限りです・い所存でございます}。(謙譲語)
     I would be happy to go to India.

Sentence Note: This example shows how you can make an adjective more humble. 所存 means intention, and it is a good formal choice. We will get to what exactly ゅうございます is later in this lesson.

3a. 皆様本日はお忙しいところご参加 ( いただ ) きありがとうございます。(謙譲語)
3b. 皆様本日はお忙しいところご 臨席 ( りんせき ) ( たまわ ) りありがとうございます。(上位者などに対する尊敬語)
3c. 皆様本日はお忙しいところご出席下さりありがとうございます。(尊敬語)
      Thank you for attending.

4a. 開けてもよろしいですか。
4b. 開けてもよろしいでしょうか。(△/More polite)
      Is it alright if I open up (the window)?

自然さ Note: よろしいでしょう to many speakers is incorrect 敬語 because it is a doubling of two patterns at once to make it such. However, to some, the politeness of よろしい seems insufficient, thereby making this a reasonable solution.  

Exception Note: The honorific form of よい is よろしい・宜しい. 

5a. 皆さん、お静かに願います。(とても丁寧)
5b. 皆様、ご 静粛 ( せいしゅく ) にお願い申し上げます。(Very respectful)
      Everyone, please be quiet.

6a. ご立派でいらっしゃいます。
6b. ご立派であらせられます。(Old-fashioned; very respectful)
      You are great.


Traditional Adjective Honorific Conjugations: Adj. + ~ございます

The traditional means of conjugating an adjective into honorific speech, which is now deemed old-fashioned and potentially grandiose, involves dropping い and adding うございます. Whenever the adjective ends in しい・じい, then you drop い and add ゅございます. You've already seen this grammar in the phrase ありがとうございます. 

 If it ends in...  Drop  Add  Then Add
 ―いい  ―いい  Small ゅ +う  ございます
 ―あい  ―あい  ―おう  ございます
 ―おい  ―おい  ―おう  ございます
 ―うい  ―うい  ―うう  ございます

    Examples

 大きい  大きゅうございます  Big  嬉しい  嬉しゅうございます  Happy
 早い  早うございます  Early  よろしい  よろしゅうございます  Good
 新しい  新しゅうございます  New  白い  白ございます  White
 難しい  難しゅうございます  Difficult  古い  古うございます  Old
 赤い  赤うございます  Red  悪い  悪うございます  Bad


7. 部屋は夏でも涼しゅうございます。(古風)
    The room is cool even in the summer.

8. お早うございます。
    Good morning.
    Literally: You're early.

9. 旅行は ( なご ) うございます。(古風)
    The trip is long.

10. お友達と別れるのは本当に悲しゅうございます。(古風)
      Separating from one's friends is really sad.

11. このお茶は ( うす ) うございます。(古風)
      The tea is flat.

12. 地震や 余震 ( よしん ) ( おそ ) ろしゅうございますね。(古風)
      Earthquakes and aftershocks are scary, aren't they?

13. 空は青うございます。(古風)
      The sky is blue.

14. 「はあ、一人三円で参ります。少しお高うございますが、翌る日寝てしまいますから。」
      "Yes, I'll come for three yen a person. It is a little high, but it is because I sleep the next day".
From 死体紹介人 by 川端康成.

History Note: There was a time in Japan's history when the yen was far more valuable than it is today just as the dollar and penny once were in America. 

15. 日本は大きくございません。( 品格 ( ひんかく ) のある丁寧さ; ちょっと古風)
      Japan is not large.

Pattern Note: Avoiding the contractions is a way to make honorific adjectives sound less old-fashioned and yet at the same time be more polite. Remember that sentences like this are examples of 丁寧語, not 尊敬語.

16. 「それで、好ござんすとも」と御米は答えた。
       "Then, that's fine", Oyome replied.
From 門 by 夏目漱石.

Contraction Note: よござんす is a shortening of よろしゅうございます and was a common 江戸言葉 in light honorifics a century ago. Always be on the lookout for odd stuff in literature. 


~く{思って・ ぞん じて}おります

Many older speakers cannot get used to adding です or a copula of any sort after a 形容詞. The coming of this pattern, like with many generational changes, can be explained by contractions. In this case, the common practice of the new typing age and East Japanese dialect habits became standard. However, as you learn more about how to make your speech ever more honorific, one way to overcome this issue of grammaticality is by changing the adjective to an adverb and using {思って・存じて}おります. 

17. 有り ( がた ) く存じております。
      I am very grateful.
Literally: I think very gratefully.

18. うれ しく思っております。
      I am very happy.
      Literally: I'm thinking happily. 

The Copula

The copula doesn't have a true 謙譲語 form. When you wish to show more politeness with the copula, you use the form でございます. However, this is classified as 丁寧語. It is politer than です・ます調, and it can be used to refer to third person intentions along with sentences regarding oneself. In fact, ございます as a stand alone verb is classified as 尊敬語 or 丁寧語. As far as the copula is concerned, its 尊敬語 is でいらっしゃいます. Referring to their plain forms for convenience, you'll learn that いらっしゃる and ござる happen to be honorific verbs. So, it's no surprise that they would be used this way with the copula.  

19. 社長、こちらは藤原常務でいらっしゃいます。
      President, this is Director Fujiwara. 

20. 皇帝から頼まれたものでございます。
      This is something that was entrusted to me from the Emperor.

21. そうではございません。
      It's not so.

22. 私はこの子の父でございます。
      I am the father of this child.  

23. はい、鈴木でございます。
      Yes, this is Suzuki.


第126課: Honorifics III: Light Honorifics: レル・ラレル敬語

All of the usages of these endings are etymologically related to each other in Japanese. However, to keep things easier in our minds, we will need to treat them separately. This is because the grammar/particle usage for each usage is quite different. These endings, ~られる・れる, along with appropriate phrasing to go along, help create 軽い敬語.

Knowing when it is appropriate to only be lightly honorific is a question that natives struggle at times. It is safe to say, though, that when you are with someone you should be respectful to yet have no established connection with each other to warrant the same speech you would use to your boss, 軽い敬語 becomes very useful. 

Ambiguity Note: There are times when the passive usage and the honorific usage of these endings becomes blurred. Because of this, the usage of 軽い敬語 is less common in comparison to other speech styles.  

軽い敬語

Before we look at how this grammar is used, let's recap on how to construct it.

 Verb Class  Example Verb  未然形  +られる・れる
 上一段  見る  見-  見られる
 下一段  食べる  食べ-  食べられる
 五段  読む  読ま-  読まれる
 サ変  する  さ-  される
 カ変  来る  来(こ)-  来られる

 The use of レル・ラレル敬語 is becoming more frowned upon as being too vague and unfitting for more and more situations. Many speakers believe that if you are to be respectful, then you should just use 敬語. However, many younger people overuse レル・ラレル敬語 and is a potential cause for 二重敬語 when these young people are trained to use more honorific means of expression as they combine what they have known with what they're being told. Of course, doubling 敬語 can come about by just being overly cautious of how respectful you're being, but this is another motivation. 

This is not to take away from the fact that レル・ラレル敬語 is frequently used because it is. Just note that this is just the lowest tier of 敬語 and that you will need to use more honorific patterns as is needed. For instance, if were are to assume that talking to your 課長 and 社長 is different, レル・ラレル敬語 would be proper for the former but not for the latter. In interviews there is a tendency to avoid レル・ラレル敬語, but there are plenty of reporters that use it. In the end, there is a lot of speaker variation. Just keep these things in mind as you use this speech pattern.


  Examples

1. その はもう まれましたか。
    Have you already read the book?

2. どちらで 日本語 われましたっけ。
     Where again did you learn Japanese?

3. 奈良 かれたことがありますか。
    Have you ever been to Nara?

4. 柳田さんは今朝、仙台を発たれました。
    Yanagida-san left Sendai this morning. 

5. 今朝の産経新聞を読まれましたか。
   Have you read this morning's Sankei Newspaper?

6. お酒を飲まれますか。
  Do you drink?

7. どちらに住んでおられますか。
    Where do you live? 

8. この記事をどう思われますか。 
    What do you think about the article?

9. 先生が来られました。
    The teacher has come.

10. 何時に出発されますか。
      At what time will you depart?

11. 鈴木副課長は朝何時に起きられましたか。
   What time in the morning did Chief Suzuki wake up?

12. 先生も行かれますか。(〇・?・X)
      Will you go too, Sensei?

Sentence Note: For those who believe レル・ラレル敬語 should be used towards a figure like 先生, this sentence is wrong. As we will soon discuss in more detail, the sentence could also mean whether Sensei can go as well. Practically speaking, however, many people in school would say this to their Sensei. So, it's not inherently grammatically incorrect.  

13. 先程社長が{言われました X・仰いました 〇}ように、韓国へ進出することとなりました。 
Just as the president has said just a moment ago, we will be expanding into Korea.

Sentence Note: In this sentence, it truly is deemed by the majority of speakers that レル・ラレル敬語 would be wrong because 社長 is not a title that goes with it.  

14. よくゴルフを{されます・なさいます}か。
      Do you often golf?

Word Note: Historically なさる and 下さる didn't even exist. They are in fact from the combination of 為す+れる and 下す+れる respectively. Interestingly enough, なされる is starting to make a comeback in Double Honorifics in Modern Japanese.  


 Ambiguity

As mentioned in the introduction, there are times when it is hard to tell what is meant. In the first sentence, one could argue that if traditional particle alignment (が instead of を for the object of a potential verb) were used that the second interpretation would not be likely. In reality, little distinction is made between using が or を to mark the object of a potential verb. So, the second interpretation is totally plausible. 

15. 資料を見られましたか。
   Did you see the material?
   Could you see the material?
   Was the material seen? (迷惑受身) 

In this example, there is not as much ambiguity as the previous. One could say that the use of 行かれる for the potential form of 行く instead of 行ける is unlikely and old-fashioned. However, because the use of the traditional potential form would be more formal, this causes both interpretations below to be plausible. If the purpose of 敬語 is to be both respectful and clear, then there will be instances in which you should not leave room for misinterpretation. Thus, in these cases you should rephrase with a statement that is clearly only 敬語.

16. 課長は明日行かれますか。 ?    → 課長は明日いらっしゃいますか。    
   Can the chief go tomorrow? 
   Will the chief go tomorrow? 

17. こちらのカボチャ、食べられますか。 → こちらのカボチャ、召し上がりますか。
      Will you eat this pumpkin?
      Can you eat this pumpkin?

If you were to want to add potential to an honorific phrase, it is best to do add a polite element once you have used a regular 敬語 expression.  

18. お酒はどの程度召し上がれますか。
      How much alcohol can you drink?


第127課: Honorifics IV: Regular Verbs

 Most Japanese think they're all equal. Nevertheless, the language still places heavy emphasis on choosing the correct register to address others. 敬語 makes oneself look more educated and better when used appropriately. Always consider the listener's position versus that of your own

Everyone has trouble with 敬語 including Japanese people. Many honorific phrases are old-fashioned, but that shouldn't downplay the importance of 敬語. Interesting phenomenons today include "Xになります" instead of "Xでございます". The first is traditionally incorrect. However, it is so common now that it is here to stay.

So, what kind of expressions are in 敬語? As you should know by now, 敬語 is usually split up into three kinds: 尊敬語 (respectful speech), 謙譲語・謙遜語 (humble speech), and 丁寧語 (polite speech). However, there are other phrases based off words and phrases found in 敬語 that serve the opposite purpose of being rude. This can be very complicated, but we will look at some examples as to how that can be the case.  

 Type  Object of Respect  Type of respect?  Subject of Action  例文
 尊敬語  相手  Yes  相手  部長が話し下さい
 謙譲語  自分  No  自分  私が話しします
 丁寧語  聞き手  Yes  X  こちらにペンがございます
 尊大語  自分  Yes*  自分  俺が言ってやろう!
 軽蔑語  相手  No  相手  早くしやがれ

*: To yourself, which is why it's boastful. 

Terminology Note:
1. 丁寧語 used intransitively is specifically called 丁重語.
2. 尊敬語 is used to give/pay respect to one's out-group or to superiors in one's in-group
3. 謙譲語 is used to lower oneself or one's in-group
4. 尊大語 takes items meant for showing respect to others to direct respect to oneself in a boastful manner. 
5.  軽蔑語 けいべつご does not necessarily share vocabulary with the above kinds of speech, but it is the opposite of 尊敬語. The purpose of the speech style is to look down upon or contempt. It may also be referred to as 卑罵 ひば or 罵詈語 ばりご

      You must consider diction changes that we've studied up to this point. For example, instead of あの人, use あの方. Attitude is also very important. Your words can be elegantly chosen, but if your posture and attitude are coarse, you do nothing but show a crude side of yourself. 

Although there is a lot of information, this lesson only scratches the surface. The best way to learn honorifics is seeing and using it in real life. What you learn here, though, will give you the skills necessary to facilitate it. We will now study the intricacy of verbs in honorifics. 

Verbs Regular in Honorifics

       Both respectful and humble forms

   Respectful Levels of Politeness
 R1  お(連用形)です
 R2  (連用形)なさいます
 R3  お(連用形)になります
 R4  お(連用形)下さいます (implies favor)

have four general levels of politeness.

   Humble Levels of Politeness
 H1  お(連用形)します
 H2

 お(連用形)いたします

 H3  お(連用形)もうしあげます
 H4  お(連用形)いただきます (implies favor)

Patterns' Note: These charts are not exhaustive. Others including the following.

 Pattern  尊敬語・謙譲語?  Usage
 お・ご...の  尊敬語  Refined feminine speech
 ~なさる  尊敬語  Attaches to the 連用形; very honorific but normally seen in the command form ~なさい because people
 tend to incorrectly mix it with R3. 
 ~れる・られる  尊敬語  This is light 敬語. These are the same endings
 as for the passive.
 お...になられる  誤用  This is a misuse.
 お…なさる  誤用  Mostly deemed as a misuse.
 お・ご...(を)たまわる  謙譲語  Humble pattern for receiving. 
 お・ご...(を)差し上げる  謙譲語  Humble pattern for giving.

Prefix Note: ご~ is used instead of お~ in Sino-Japanese expressions. 

Exception Note: 為さる・なさる is the respectful form of する and 致す・いたす is the humble form of する. 

Usage Note: Think of the situations where the example sentences could be practically heard used. Who is speaking? To whom is the speaker addressing? This is all important in deciding which level of politeness is expected of you. Should a waiter have to use R3/H3, or because the guests' statuses are unknown, should he/she use R1/H1? 

Base Note: Again, the 連用形 of verbs is either just る taken off for 一段 verbs or the base that ends in い for 五段 verbs. 

   届ける (一段) = To deliver
 呼ぶ (五段) = To Call
 R1  お届けです  お呼びです
 R2  届けなさいます  呼びなさいます
 R3  お届けになります  お呼びになります
 H1  お届けします  お呼びします
 H2  お届けいたします  お呼びいたします
 H3  お届け申し上げます  お呼び申し上げます

 

Speaker Variant Note: Not all speakers feel お…なさる is wrong. Historically, it has been correct and survives in phrases like お帰りなさい and お休みなさい. Examples using this pattern show that it is still actually used. Oddly enough, ご…なさる is fine for whenever ご is OK.  


Examples

1. 何をお探しですか。(尊敬語) 
    What are you looking for?

2. お忘れですか。(尊敬語)
    Have you forgotten?

3. お持ち帰りですか。(尊敬語)
    Is this to-go?

4. 田中博士とお話ししましたか。(尊敬語)
    Have you talked with Professor Tanaka?

5. このところよくお会いしますね。(謙譲語)
    Our paths seem to cross often lately, no?

6. お出かけですか。(尊敬語)
    Are you going out? 

7. 謹んでお詫び致します。(謙譲語)
    I humbly apologize.

8. 心からお詫び申し上げます。(謙譲語)
    Please accept my heartfelt apology.

9. 後ほど連絡をいたします。(謙譲語)
    I will contact you later.

10. 弊社をご案内申し上げます。(謙譲語)
      I shall give you a tour of the company.

11. 私はあなたをお守りします。(謙譲語)
      I will protect you. 

12. 速達でお願いします。(謙譲語)
      By special delivery, please.

13. よろしくお願いします。(謙譲語)
      Please treat me well.

14. 岸田部長はご出張なさるそうです。(尊敬語)
      I hear that Chief Kishida is going to go on a business trip. 

15. 夕べ課長からこちらの本をお借りしたよ。(謙譲語)
      I borrowed this book from the section manager last night.  

Usage Note: When speaking to friends/colleagues, it is possible to use respectful speech in reference to a superior while the overall speech level is polite/plain, but not doing so isn't necessarily considered rude. You may also humble yourself when referring to a superior even when the overall conversation is in polite/plain speech.


 R4 VS H4

 R4 お...下さる  H4 お...いただく
 お届け下さいます  お届けいただきます
 お呼び下さいます  お呼びいただきます

R4 is expressed from the favor-giver side and H4 is expressed from the favor-receiving side. The person doing the favor in R4 is marked by が or は but is marked by に (by) or から (from) in H4. In H4, this person is from whom something is received. When に is already used in the same sentence, から is often used rather than に. Remember that に can only mark whom one is receiving, not what. After all, honorifics is improper outside the realm of people. For R4, に marks who the object/favor is being directed. In either case, if there is a direct object を, is used. 

16. 私頭取{に・から}ご招待いただきました。(謙譲語)
       I was invited by the bank president.

17. 伊藤さんが(私達に)お話し下さいました。(尊敬語)
      Mr. Ito told us a story.


 Double 敬語 Alert

Remember that ~(ら)れる can be used to make sentences more polite than simple polite sentences but less polite than true honorific sentences. Using it with honorific patterns is called "Double 敬語" and is not correct. Despite this, you might hear it.

18. テニスを{なさられますか △・なさいますか 〇・されますか 〇}。 
      Will you play/do you play tennis?

Exception Note: する’s respectful form is なさる. 

Warning Note: There are other entire phrases to avoid in 敬語. Asking if your superior can do something is forbidden! Asking directly whether your superior wants to do something or is thinking something is also bad. Consider the following.

19a. 部長は、韓国語はお分かりになりましたか。X  (すごく失礼な言い方)
19b. 部長は、韓国語をお話になりますか。 〇   (礼儀正しい言い方)
      Chief, can you understand Korean?  → Chief, do you speak Korean?

20. お茶をお飲みになりたいですか。 X → お茶をお飲みになりますか。 
      Do you want to drink tea? →  Will you drink tea? 


 お...だ?

You can also see in less respectful situations です replaced by だ. This is reminiscent of the use of honorifics in a mix of polite/plain speech that was a hallmark of wife speech. Nowadays, examples like the first are simply set expressions but those like the second are still very much signature of more refined feminine speech. Even towards colleagues, many women still use honorifics in otherwise plain speech to show their own refinement. 

21. あなた、夏休みはどちらへいらしたの。(女性語)
      Where did you go for the summer? 

22. 今朝はずいぶん早く(に)お出ましだね。(女性語・女房語)
      My, you've come quite early this morning.

23. (だれだれさんが)お帰りだよ。(決まり文句)
      Such and such is going home! 

Sentence Note: This last sentence sounds like it would be said by people who run establishments with close customer relations. Places like 居酒屋 or scenes from plays come to mind.

24. お帰り! (Casual)
      Welcome home.  

Word Notes:

1. いらす is a contracted form of the respectful いらっしゃる, which is the respectful form of 行く in this case.

2. お出まし is an honorific word for 出席. Note that the honorific word itself is not feminine.


One's Boss: Humble Speech? 

 It is important that you just don't run with the title of this section. To some, including Japanese people, it is very hard to not always speak of your boss respectfully, but when you're addressing someone in one's out-group, you refer to people in your in-group, including your boss, with humble speech. This includes 呼び捨て, the dropping of titles. Again, this is in reference to your in-group.

Situation A: 岩間さん is an employee at A社. The person on the other line when he answers the phone is 高田さん of B社. 高田さん acts about whether A社長, 岩間さん's boss is available or not. The following response is what 岩間さん should say if his boss is currently out and unavailable.

25. 申し訳ございませんが、Aさんはただいま外出しております。
       I'm terrible sorry, but A is currently out.  

Using respectful speech is a common mistake by newbies in the Japanese workplace. At least it's not as bad as not using 敬語 entirely.   

Question: Is there any situation where you would refer to your boss to an out-group person with respectful speech?

Answer: Yes. Say you were in a huge company and rarely or never have a chance to work with your boss, it becomes even more natural and understandable to use respectful speech as your boss is no doubt very 偉い to regular workers like yourself. However, the person answering the phone for a message like above is probably in constant contact with the boss, so this would not work.  

ある

   ある is a little tricky in 敬語. If you have any older textbooks that are older than the 1960s, you will notice a lot of old forms listed. If you happen to read slightly old-fashioned literature, you'll also see them. This section will show you these forms for completeness, but you must understand what is used today. In the chart below, forms not listed as 古風 are still used. As for 尊敬語, the most common and important form is ございます. おありです may be used sometimes in making questions, but it's starting to become old-fashioned as well.  

 丁寧語  謙譲語 (古風)  尊敬語  尊敬語 (古風)
 ございます
 おありでございます     ございます
 おありです
 おありでいらっしゃいます
 おありになります

26a. マッチがおありですか。(古風)
26b. マッチをお持ちですか。 (丁寧語)
        Do you have a match?

27. 申し訳ございません。(丁寧語)
      I'm terribly sorry.
      Literally: I have no excuse.

28a. お釣はおありになりますか。(古風)
28b. お釣りはございますか。(現代の言い方)
        Do you have some change?

29a. 拙宅にはお炬燵がございません。(やや古風)
29b. うちには(お)こたがございません。(現代の女性語)
29c. うちにはこたつがございません。(現代の言い方)
        I don't have a kotatsu in my house.

Variant Note: お炬燵 has become out of use for many speakers. Opinions differ on its correctness, and what should be used instead depends partly on gender and partly on norms for everyone, which is represented in the notes above. 

30a. お姉様がおありでいらっしゃいますか。(やや古風; もはや使われていない)
30b. お姉様はいらっしゃいますか。
        Do you have an elder sister?

31. ご質問はございませんか。
    Do you have any questions?

~させていただきます

Scene I: You are asked by your boss to go out to a very fine dinner. You have to decline, but you don't want to be rude. You would say something like:

32. せっかくでございますが、ご遠慮させていただきます。
       It would be an honor, but I'm afraid I have to decline.

    ~させていただきます shows a feeling of humble diffidence to convey one's arbitrary action or intention while being considerate of the speaker and his or her status. As such, you should use this pattern rather than other humble patterns with certain verbs when you should recognize authority. ~ていただく implies receiving a favor. Its question forms are ~させていただけませんか and ~させていただけないでしょうか. When you want to ask someone to do something like this, you don't use the causative. 

33. 

学生:今日はすこし頭が痛いので、早めに家へ帰らせていただけないでしょうか。
先生:それはいけませんね。お大事に。
Student: Since I have a headache today, may I go home early?
Teacher: That's no good. Take care.  

34. 

学生:先生、来週の金曜日は文部科学省の試験を受けに行かなければならないので、学校を休ませていただけないでしょうか。
先生:ああ、いいですよ。頑張ってくださいね。
Student: Teacher, I have to take a MEXT exam Friday of next week, so may I skip school (that day)?
Teacher: Ah, that's ok. Good luck.  

Abbreviation Note: MEXT stands for the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology. 

35. 

学生:私にもコピーをさせていただけないでしょうか。
先生:いいですよ。でも明日までに返してください。
Student: May I make a copy of it?
Teacher: Yes, but you need to return it by tomorrow. 

36. 

Aさん: すみませんが、お写真を取らせていただけないでしょうか。
Bさん:あ、いいですよ。
A: Excuse me, but may I take your picture.
B: Ah, that's OK. 

37. 藤山先生 ( ) 紹介 ( ) していただけませんか。
      Could you introduce me to Fujiyama Sensei?


When ~させていただけないでしょうか is not 100% Appropriate 

When you use this expression, it makes the listener feel as if he or she has to say yes. Therefore, it is often the case that it is not appropriate to use this towards someone like a teacher or president. In such case, using ~ても構いませんか is the best choice.  

38.  

学生:申し訳ございませんが、宿題を忘れてきたので、明日提出しても構いませんか。
先生:仕方がありませんねえ。じゃ、明日忘れないでくださいね。 
Student: I'm terribly sorry, but I forgot to bring my homework, so may I turn it in tomorrow?
Teacher: I guess there's no other way. Well, please don't forget it tomorrow. 

39. 

学生:すみません、これは日本語で言うのは難しいので、英語で言っても構わないですか。
先生:いいですけど、何でしょう。
Student: Sorry, I can't say this in Japanese, so may I say it in English?
Teacher: That's OK, but what is it?

Scene II: Your friend is speaking to you. Yet, you're irked at him. He asks if you want to go somewhere. However, you're not really interested in your friend and you say without emotion, "せっかくですが、遠慮させていただきます"。 You were extremely sarcastic and rude. This pattern is sadly effective in asking for divorce.

Scene III: As a social norm, you should always get permission before you do something, particularly in advance. However, there are those instances where you have to dig yourself out of a hole. In this case, you can use ~させていただきます.

40. いらっしゃらなかったので、代わりに転送させていただきました。
      Since you weren't here, I took the privilege of forwarding it.

    You should have gotten permission in advance, but in this case couldn't for some reason. In such case, using the following phrase may cause the listener to reluctantly consent.

さ入れ Note: Some speakers add さ even when it is a 五段 verb to the expression because it sounds more polite despite the fact that the resultant expression is technically incorrect.

41. 急がさせていただきます。 (X)
      Please let me hurry. 

Historical Note: This phrase is clearly used to be more indirect about the speaker doing something. This, though, used to not be representative of Tokyo speech honorifics. In fact, this pattern comes from the 関西地方. Yes, this is 関西弁 that seeped into 標準語 which has since become standard.

Many More Examples of Honorifics

 
These sentences range from rather simple expressions, some of which you've already seen before, to far more complex sentences. Take note in how conjugations, particles, and other things work in honorifics.  

 

42. 社長がお呼びです。
The company president is calling you.

44. 田中さんとよくお会いになりますか。
Do you often meet with Mr. Tanaka?

46. 遠慮なくお邪魔させていただきます。
Allow me to come without hesitation. 

48. 決めさせていただきます。
      I will respectfully decide.

50. 昨日、私の英語の先生は推薦状を書いて下さいました。
Yesterday, my English teacher wrote a letter of recommendation for me. 

53. すぐにお送りします。
       I will send it right away.

54. 休業させていただきます。
      We are taking off for holiday.

誤用 Note: This is a common misuse of honorifics. It should say 休業いたします or even just 本日休業 because it sounds as if they are asking permission from their customers. On the other hand, who can blame them for being extremely humble.  

58. お車はどちらでございますか。
      Which is your car?

60. 少々お待ち下さい。
      Please wait one moment.

43. 心中お察しいたします。
      My sympathies are with you.

45. 私達は伊藤さんにお話いただきました。
       We were told a story by Mr. Ito.

47. 加藤さんはいらっしゃいますか。
      Is Mr. Kato here?

49. 彼はそちらの件をお断りなさいました。
      He rejected it.

51. お手数おかけしますが。
       I hate to be a burden. 

52. 食堂は三階にございます。
The cafeteria is on the third floor.

55a. いいえ、着なくてもよろしゅうございます。
55b. いいえ、着る必要はございません。
No, it's alright to not wear it.

56. 窓を閉めましてよろしゅうございますか?
Is it alright for me to shut the window?

57. 色々お世話になりました。
Thank you for all the wonderful things that you have done.

59. この度は大変お世話になりありがとうございました。
Thank you very much for all of your hard work.

61. このたびは音楽会の入場券をわざわざお送り下さって誠に恐縮です。
It was especially kind of you to have given me the concert ticket.



The Particle にて: The Original Form of で 

で is actually the contraction of にて. にて has the same functions as で and is seen in formal situations.    

62. 神戸 にて 開催 かいさい されます。
      It will be held in Kobe. 

63.  今日遠足 えんそく はこちらにて 解散 かいさん します。
      Today's field trip will be dismissed here. 

64. 昨日 は、 風邪 にて 欠席 けっせき しました。
      I was absent yesterday due to a cold.


第128課: Honorifics V: Irregular Verbs I 

    Whereas for most conjugations する and 来る are the only verbs that are irregular, there are many exceptional verbs in honorific speech. Drastic change in conjugation for honorifics makes it more honorific in nature. So, if anything can be drastically changed, it is more preferable. 

The Exceptions

Too little information is typically given for irregular honorific verbs. There are definitely a lot of them, and not even all "irregular" honorific verbs are to be mentioned in this section. That's because many are restricted to the written language, and the biggest priority that you should have is know how to use honorifics effectively and correctly in the spoken language.  

Chart Note: The chart below illustrates the most important irregularities in respect to 尊敬語 and 謙譲語. When one form is normal, it will be marked with (N) in the chart below. There is no ordering to the chart.Variants often differ in nuance, so the chart is followed by many notes. The most important verbs to remember are in bold.


 

 動詞  尊敬語  謙譲語・謙遜語
 行く  いらっしゃる・お出でになる・お越しになる  参る・伺う・ 参上する・ 上がる
 来る  いらっしゃる・お出でになる・お越しになる・見える・お見えになる  参る
 いる  いらっしゃる・お出でになる  おる
 見る  ご覧になる 拝見する 
 読む お読みになる (N)  拝読する 
 言う 仰る  申す 
食べる  召し上がる・お上がりになる・上がる  頂く 
飲む  召し上がる・お上がりになる・上がる  頂く 
受ける  お受けになる (N)  拝受する 
助ける  ご支援なさる・お助けになる (N)  お手伝いさせていただく 
決める  ご決定なさる・お決めになる (N)  決めさせていただく (N) 
する  なさる  致す 
知る  ご存知だ  存じる・存じ上げる・承知する 
知らない  ご存知ない  存じない 
 知らせる お知らせになる (N)  お耳に入れる 
 見せる  お示しになる・お見せになる (N) お目にかける・ご覧に入れる 
訪問する  お出でになる・訪問なさる  伺う・参上する 
 聞く  お聞きになる (N) 伺う・承る・拝聴する 
会う  お会いになる (N)  お目にかかる・お会いする (N) 
買う  お求めになる・ご利用になる  お買いする (N)  
あげる  おあげになる (N)  差し上げる 
 くれる 下さる  NOT APPLICABLE 
 思う・考える お考えになる (N)
お思いになる (N) 
存じる 
 もらう  おもらいになる (N)  頂く・頂戴する
尋ねる  お尋ねになる (N)  伺う・参上する 
着る  お召しになる・ご着用なさる  着させていただく (N) 
 教える お教えになる (N)   ご案内する 
承知する  ご承知なさる・ご理解なさる  かしこまる 
寝る  お休みになる  寝させていただく (N) 
許す  ご容赦なさる・お許しになる (N)  許させていただく (N)  
死ぬ  お亡くなりになる  死なせていただく (N) 

Usage Notes:

1. As for 行く, if the speaker is going to the place of the addressee, 伺う is used instead of 参る. Also, 参上する and 上がる can be used in both contexts but are not as common.

2. 拝見する is only used if the item belongs to the addressee.

3. ご容赦なさる means "to pardon".

4.  ご尽力なさる = "to be instrumental in".

5. One could say that phrases like お亡くなりになる are just regular honorific forms of euphemisms.

6. 訪ねる can also be お邪魔する in humble speech. 

7. お上がりになる is seen a lot in お上がりです and お上がりなさい.

8. 申し上げる & 申す are not 100% the same. Although the first is even more humble, it is showing respect to someone in which an action is being extended to.

1a. わたくしはスミスと申し上げます。X
1b. わたくしはスミスと申します。〇
      I am Smith.

9. 亡くなる relates to 無くなる, 失くす, and 亡くす. Here we have a classic battle between script and nuance.  

無くなる is a more literary spelling for the intransitive verb なくなる, which comes from the 連用形 of the adjective 無い・ない and the verb なる.  It can be used to show that something has become no longer in existence, or something is used up, something is lost. 

2. 時間がなくなった。
    Time has run up.

Spelling Note: When なくなる is used for ないようになる (to become not...), it is viewed as being separate and is not written in Kanji.

亡くなる comes from the same source as above but refers to the passing away of an individual in a respectful/euphemistic fashion.

3. いつお亡くなりになりましたか。(Honorific; superfluous to some because of the doubling of なる)
    When did [he] die? 

無くす = 失(く)す = (喪す). It is the transitive form of above and has the following definitions. 

1. To lose something that you've had up till now.
2. To get rid of a bad situation.
3. When used in the sense of 亡くす (see below), it can be spelled as 喪す. However, due to the government's attempts to lower spelling options, it is no longer prevalent.

4. 財布をなくしてしまう。
    To accidentally lose one's wallet.  

5. 不正をなくす。
    To get rid of injustice.

亡くす is being died on by someone in your loved ones, and losing that individual.This comes from 亡く + す(る) as expected of the same source as 無くす, which can be broken down likewise. 

6. 幼時に父を亡くす。
    To lose one's father in early childhood.  

Now, we have 失う・喪う. It has a lot of commonalities with the transitive なくす. Thus, there is heavy interchangeability between the two.

1. To lose something that had been in your possession or on you(r person).
2. To lose the chance at getting something.
3. To be gone from having been taken/stolen from (you).
4. To end up not knowing the path to take.
5. To lose (a loved one). This is where the spelling 喪う comes into play.

7. {バランス・視力・昇進の機会}を失う。
     To lose {balance/eyesight/the chance of promotion}.

8. 交通事故で7人の命が{失・喪}われました。
    Seven lives were lost in the traffic accident.  

9. 鍵が{無くなる・なくなる}。 
    For the key to be lost/disappear/be gone.

10. 鍵を{なくす・無くす・失(く)す・失う}。 
      To lose a key.

Nuance Note: 鍵を失う sounds more like the key has been in your possession or on your person for a significant period of time. 


 Contractions with ~ます

 Though it may seem counter-intuitive for there to be contractions in honorifics, it turns out that there are with ~ます when attached to the 連用形 of a handful of 五段 verbs that end in る.

 いらっしゃる→いらっしゃいます  仰る→仰います  下さる→下さいます   ござる→ございます   なさる→なさいます

 Examples

11. クッキーを召し上がりませんか。
       Will you have a cookie? 

12. ありがとうございます。じゃあ、ひとつだけいただきます。
      Thank you very much. Well then, I'll just have one. 

13. 「野山先生でいらっしゃいますか」 「はい、そうですが」「益田と申しますが、ちょっと伺いたいことがあるんですが」
”Are you Noyama Sensei?" "Yes, I am" "I'm Masuda. May I ask you something?" 

14. 「この写真をご覧になりますか」「ええ、ぜひ拝見したいです」
      "Will you see the photo?" "Yes, I definitely want to see it".

Sound Change Note: A similar sound change occurs with the imperatives of these verbs. れ → い. So, for example, 仰る → 仰れ → 仰い. The original imperative is quite old-fashioned for these verbs.

おいでになる VS いらっしゃる

おいでになる is the honorific version of 行く, いる, and 来る. It is common to see おいで as a command for 行く and 来る. This is a contraction of おいでなさい. おいで in some contexts behaves like いる.

15. お子様はおいででしょうか。
      Do you have children? 

16. ちょっと寄っておいで。
      Drop by for a bit. 

17. 何名おいでですか。 
      How many people are there? 

18. ご主人は酔っておいでです。
      Your husband is drunk. 

19. 我慢しておいでなさい。
      Have patience. 

Unlike おいでになる, いらっしゃる, the contraction of いらせられる, may be used to make adjectives honorific! The pattern for this is "お~ Adjective 連用形 + ていらっしゃる". Lastly, いらっしゃる is in でいらっしゃる, the honorific copula.  

20. お若くていらっしゃいます。
      You are young.  

21. そちら(の方)は彼の友人でいらっしゃいます。
       He is his friend.  

22. どちら様でいらっしゃいますか。
       Who is this?  


 Differences

おいでになる may be seen as おいで and おいでなさい to call someone over or to tell someone to go. いらっしゃい, on the other hand, means "welcome!". いらっしゃる is used to make the progressive. When おいでになる is used similarly, it shows some sort of state and is normally seen as おいで in this case.

Honorific Progressive

So, ~ている is how you make the progressive. In humble speech, you use ~ておる, and in honorific speech you use ~ていっらしゃる. If you want to be extremely honorific, you combine this with the honorific form of a verb. So, you have two big changes to the verb. Only one is necessary to make something honorific. Therefore, these extremely long variants are often not used as much.

23. この雑誌を読んでいらっしゃいますか。
      Are you reading this magazine?

24. 何をお作りになっていらっしゃいますか。 
      What are you making? 

25. 何もしておりません。
      I am not doing anything.  

The Problems with Making a Command with 敬語

In Classical Japanese, it was very common and completely proper to make a command like 書かせたまえ because Double 敬語 was used. Sadly, however, this reasoning and direct command to a superior in the first place have become bad in Modern Japanese.

With all the ways to tell someone in Japanese aside from the 命令形 further complicated by the need to be as polite and indirect as possible to superiors, Japanese has developed many ways to say single commands with various degrees of politeness and uses.

It is impossible to list all possible euphemisms of some expressions, but just with the verb 来る, 23 phrases related to its command form 来い can be cited. The following chart is a chart modified from 敬語マニュアル (1996) by 浅田秀子. This is not all powerful, and it doesn't take long to think of counterexamples, but that I will leave you the reader to ponder on. 

 #  「来い」の表現  対象
(Object)
 文体
(Writing Style)
 尊敬度
(Level of Respect)
 新密度
 (Level of intimacy)
 1  来い  Various    0%  100%
 2  来るの・来るんだ  子供・目下  会話  5%  95%
 3  来ること  目下  文章  10%  90%
 4  来なさい  目下・子供  会話  15%  85%
 5  来るように  目下    20%  80%
 6  来てくれ  同輩・目下  会話  25%  75%
 7  来てちょうだい  目下・子供  会話  30%  70%
 8  来てほしい  目下  会話  35%  65%
 9  来て  同輩・目下  会話  40%  60%
 10  来てください  他人  会話  45%  55%
 11  おいでなさい  目下  会話  50%  50%
 12  おいで  目下・子供  会話  55%  45%
 13  いらっしゃい  目下・子供  会話  60%  40%
 14  いらっしゃいませ  同輩・他人  会話  65%  35%
 15  おいでください  同輩・他人    70%  30%
 16  いらしてください  同輩・他人    75%  25%
 17  おいでを乞う  目上・他人  文章  80%  20%
 18  おいでいただきたい  目上・他人    85%  15%
 19  おいで願いたい  目上・他人  文章  90%  10%
 20  お運びいただきたい  目上  文章  93%  7%
 21  御足労いただきたい  目上  文章  96%  4%
 22  御来臨を賜りたい  VIP  文章  98%  2%
 23  御来駕賜りたい  VIP  文章  100%  ~0%

Respectfulness is not necessarily the same thing as politeness, and it's definitely hard to define all of these expressions in one chart. So, please keep all of what you know about Japanese in mind. Just to think, this chart doesn't even have 来させ給え! 

Other Conjugations

The volitional, conditional, provisional, potential, and the "must" patterns must be used with the exceptional verbs if they exist.

26. ご意見をいただけると助かります。 (Potential) 
      We would appreciate your comments.

26. よろしかったら明日伺います。(~たら Conditional)       
      I will be over tomorrow if you like.

27. 彼のご意見を伺ったところ、彼はその件に対してあまり快く思っていないようです。
      Having asked his opinion, he seemed to not be pleased about the case.  

28. 伝言を伺いましょうか。 (Volitional)
      Shall I take a message?

29. 是非伺いたく存じます。 (With ~たい)
      I would like to come.

30. 長らくお待たせいたしました。 (Causative)
      I am sorry to have kept you waiting so long.

31. ご質問がございましたら、今承ります。  (~たら Conditional)
      I will take questions now if you have them. 

32. 早くこちらへいらっしゃい。 (Imperative)
      Come here quickly.

Many More Examples

These sentences range from rather simple expressions, some of which you've already seen before, to far more complex sentences. Take note in how conjugations, particles, and other things work in honorifics. 


33. 玉稿を賜る。(古風)
      To be granted your honorable manuscript.

34. お手紙を拝受いたしました。
      I received your letter. 

35. よくおいでくださいました。
       Thank you for taking the time to come. 

36. お刺し身をいただきます。
       I will eat sashimi.

38. お部屋をご覧になりますか。
      Would you look in the room? 

39. ご迷惑をおかけして、本当に申し訳なく存じます。 
      I appreciate all your trouble. 

40. 長らくご無沙汰して申し訳ございません。 
       I am terribly sorry for my long absence. 

41. あの方を存じ上げません。
      I don't know that person. 

42. 明日お目にかかります。
      I'll see you tomorrow. 

42. 初めまして、十和田と申します。
      Nice to meet you. My name is Towada. 

43. 自分は専門家だなどと生意気なことは申しません。
I don't profess to be an expert. 

44. 手品をお目にかけます。
      I'll show you a trick. 

45. 彼が心配していらっしゃることをもう存じております。
I already know that he's worrying. 

46. ご入用でしたら差し上げます。
      You may have it for the asking. 

47. こちらの本を差し上げましょう。
      I shall give you this book. 

48. 日本にいついらっしゃいましたか。 
      When did you come to Japan? 

49. 弟が参っております。
      My little brother has come. 

50. 時間がございましたら、伺います。
      I would come if I had time. 

51. お礼を申し上げます。 
      I wish to express my appreciation. 

52. この度は大変お世話になりありがとうございました。
Thank you very much for all of your hard work.

53. このたびは音楽会の入場券をわざわざお送り下さって誠に恐縮です。
It was especially kind of you to have given me the concert ticket.

54. お求めになりやすい値段でございます。
      It's at a price apt for you to buy. 

55. 何を召し上がりますか。
      What are you going to eat? 

56. ご注文を承ります。
      I will take your order.

57. かしこまりました。   
      Certainly! 

58. またお越し下さい(ませ)。
      Please come again. 

59. 正直に仰っていただいたことに心よりお礼申し上げます。
I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude that you spoke honestly about it. 

60. 申し訳ございません。お待たせいたしました。
       I am terribly sorry that I had you wait. 

61. 万年筆を拝借します。
      I will borrow your fountain pen.

Orthography Note: 漢字 like 御 and 宜 are normally seen in really formal writing.

62. 心中お察しいたします。 
      My sympathies are with you. 

63. 喜んで参ります。
      I'll be happy to come.

64. 明日そちらへ持って参ります。
      I'll bring it to you tomorrow. 

65. 栄光に存じます。
      It is an honor.

66a. 以降お見知り置きを
66b. 以後お見知り置きください。
        I look forward to getting to know you.

66. 冥利に尽きます。
      I am quite lucky. 
 

67. 工場をご案内申し上げます。
      I will give you a tour of the factory. 

68. 私たちは伊藤さんにお話しいただきました。 
      We were told a story by Mr. Ito.

69. そんなに仰らないでください。私はただ当たり前のことをしたまででございます。
Please don't say such. I merely did what was natural.

70. 月曜日にどちらへいらっしゃいますか。
      Where are you going Monday? 

71. 結構なお品を賜り、ありがとうございます。
We are thankful for receiving from you these excellent items.

72. 陛下がお言葉を賜る。
      To receive His Majesty's words.

73. 思し召してご容赦下さい。
      Please forgive me for thinking such.  

74. そちらをお断りなさいました。 
      (He) rejected it.

75. お手数おかけしますが。
      I hate to be a burden. 

76. 京都から参りました。
      I came from Kyoto.

77. 明日伺います。
      I will come tomorrow.

78. ご承知のように私は泳ぐことができません。
      As you know, I cannot swim. 

79. 米国のどちらからお出でになりましたか。 
      Where in America do you come from?

80. どのようなお仕事をなさいますか。
      What kind of work do you do? 

81. はい、よく存じております。
      Yes, I know (him) very well. 
 

82. 鈴木さん、韓国語をご存じですか。
      Mr. Suzuki, do you know Korean?

83. お酒をお上がりになりますか。
      Will you have some sake? 
 

84. ご飯を頂こうといたしましたが、お箸がございませんでした。
I tried to eat (rice), but I didn't have any chopsticks.

85 お名前は何と仰いますか。
     What is your name? 

86. おたばこはいただきません。
      I don't smoke. 

87. お越しいただいて恐縮です。
      Thank you for coming. 

88. 何をお貰いになりましたか。 
      What did you receive?

89. 呼んで来て差し上げましょう。
      I'll call him here for you. 
 

Dialect Note: Honorifics is different depending on dialect. Just be aware of this. 


瀧野と女中との対話の抜粋

This excerpt is from a conversation between Takino-san and a 女中. 女中 is now a politically incorrect word for maid/female servant. However, the use of 敬語 by 女中 is quite intriguing in literature. This piece is a typical example of male characters speaking in casual speech while the female combines feminine spoken language aspects to her 敬語. 

90. 

「瀧野さん今晩、金彌にお約束なすってるの?」 
"Takino-san, do you have a engagement with Kanaya tonight?"
「うん」
"Yes"
と、彼はとっさにうなづいた。
He promptly acknowledged.
「そうならそうと、早く仰って下さればいいのに」
"It would be nice if you would say that you did early".

Variant Note: なすっている is still a commonly used variant of なさっている, but it is typically viewed as dialectical and or not exactly proper. However, many people, especially in the older population, use this variant as it is common throughout East Japan.   


 読み物: Letter in 敬語

91. 

わたしは若葉学園の卒業生です。都合によって本名が名乗れないのは残念ですが、愛校心は人一倍強うございます。今は大阪で家庭の者となっていますが、母校のことは一日も忘れたことはありません。

I am a graduate of Wakaba Academy. By convenience, I regret not being able to have my real name known, but my school spirit is twice that of most people. I am now a housewife in Osaka, but I haven't forgotten a day of my old school.  

92. 

このような手紙を出すのをずいぶん迷いましたが、愛校心のため思い切って書くことにいたしました
I wavered at sending such a letter for a while, but due to school spirit, I daringly decided to write it. 

93.  

先日のことでございます。わたくしは三重県の鳥羽に主人といっしょに子供をつれて参り、あるホテルに泊まりました。そのホテルは鳥羽湾を見渡す景色のいい所でございますわたくしが朝、飽かずに海のほうを眺めておりますと、ふと、下の道を通る男女づれが眼に止まりました。そして思わず、あっ、と叫んだことでございます
It was the other day. I went together with my husband and children to Toba in Mie Prefecture, and we stayed at a certain hotel. The hotel is a scenic place to survey Toba Bay. When I was untiringly looking towards the ocean, suddenly, my eyes stopped on a man and woman company passing through the street below. And, without even thinking I let out an "ah". 

94. 

ここから書くのは忍びないことですが、今も申した通り、愛校心のために勇を鼓して書くことにします。その男の方は若葉学園の大島理事長さんです。それから、同伴の女性はなんと学生課の秋山千鶴子さんではありませんか。秋山さんは、わたくしの在学中、よくその顔を見ておりますし、それに秋山さんに呼びつけられて叱言を喰ったことがありますので、よく存じあげています
From here I can't bring myself to write, but as I've said now, I will write due to school spirit and take it to heart. That man is Wakaba Academy's Board Chairman Ohshima. And, the female companion was none other than Chizuko Akiyama of the student affairs office. I saw her face a lot when I was at school. Also, I have been called on and scolded on by Ms. Akiyama. So, I know well. 

95. 

わたくしは、そのとき自分の眼を疑いました。まさか大島理事長と秋山さんとが、こんな所を仲よくアベックで散歩しているとは思いませんでした。でも、眼を凝らして見ると、まさにお二人に間違いありません。朝のことでしたが、お二人は手をつなぎ合って、まるで若い恋人同士のようでした。
I doubted my own eyes at that time. I didn't think that Board Chairman Ohshima and Akiyama were walking nicely together as a couple in a place like this. When I tried to fixate my eyes on them, there was no doubt that it was the exact two. Although it was the morning, the two were holding hands and looking just like two young lovers. 

96. 

わたくしは大島理事長が秋山さんと結婚したことも聞かないし、また大島理事長が奥さんを亡くされたことも承っておりませんわたくしはぼんやりとお二人のうしろ姿を見送っておりました
I haven't heard that Board Chairman Ohshima and Akiyama have married, and I haven't heard that his wife has passed. I absent-mindedly saw the two off from behind.

97. 

それでも、わたくしお二人がそういうお仲になっているとは信じられず、あるいは学生の引率でこられて、その間の軽い気持の散歩だと信じたかったのです。けれど、ホテルのフロントにきいてみて、お二人の名前もまったく違うし、もちろん、学生の引率でもないことを知って、眼の前が暗くなりました。
Even so, I couldn't believe that the two were together, and I wanted to believe that perhaps it was a walk with light emotion with them coming as student escorts. But, when I checked at the front desk, the two's names were completely different, and I knew that they were obviously not student escorts, and the front of my eyes darkened. 

This passage is an excerpt from 混声の森 (下) by 松本清張, one of the best novelists in Modern Japanese literature. This section was in quotations, so other things you would expect with a letter were omitted. Although some of the wording may be somewhat old-fashioned, this passage is a great demonstration of how 敬語 is typically used. 


読み物 2 

 Though older literature may have older 敬語, such 敬語 is typically viewed as the "purest" form of it, if such thing even exists in a realistic sense. Regardless, there are many things that you can learn about 敬語 usage in reading texts and listening to dialogues. The following is the first page of the famous story 雪国 by 川端康成.

Not all of this passage is in 敬語, but it's important to have preceding context if possible. The spelling of the original text has been altered to be more of use to you. Blocks of text will be given Japanese and then English by the original paragraph spacing of the text. Translating this passage in particular into English has caused many controversies, but the translations provided try to adhere to the original meaning of the text as close as possible while still sounding natural in English.

98. 

国境の長いトンネルを抜けると雪国であった。夜の底が白くなった。信号所に止まった。
Once (they) came out of the long border tunnel, there was the Land of Snow. The depths of the night had turned white. The train stopped at the signal station.

99. 

向う側の座席から娘が立って来て、島村のガラス窓を落とした。雪の冷気が流れこんだ。娘は窓いっぱいに乗り出して、遠くへ叫ぶように、
「駅長さあん、駅長さあん」
A young lady stood up and came over from the seat on the other side and opened the glass window in front of Shimamura. The cold snowy air rushed in. The girl leaned all out of the window, and as if she were yelling afar, she shouted “Conductor, conductor”.

100. 

明かりをさげてゆっくり雪を踏んで来た男は、襟巻で鼻の上まで包み、耳に帽子の毛皮を垂れていた。
A man who had slowly walked there in the snow covered himself to the top of his nose with a scarf and had a cap pelt drooping on his ears.

101. 

もうそんな寒さかと島村は外を眺めると、鉄道の官舎らしいバラックが山裾に寒々と散らばっているだけで、雪の色はそこまで行かぬうちに闇に呑まれていた。
When Shimamura gazed outside, thinking it had already gotten that cold, railroad residence-looking barracks were just desolately dispersed at the foot of the mountains, and before the snow hues could reach that far, the barracks were swallowed by darkness.

102. 駅長さん、私です、御機嫌よろしゅうございます。
       “Conductor, it’s me. How do you do?”.

103. ああ、葉子さんじゃないか。お帰りかい。また寒くなったよ。」
        “Ah, why isn’t it Youko? Welcome home, it’s gotten cold again”.

104. 弟が今度こちらに勤めさせていただいておりますのですってね。お世話さまですわ。」
”I heard that my younger brother has been allowed to work here next time. Thank you for your care”.

105. 「こんなところ、今に寂しくて参るだろうよ。若いのに可哀想だな。」
        “He’ll probably be lonely and troubled before long now. He’s pitiful yet so young.

106. 「ほんの子供ですから、駅長さんから教えてやっていただいて、よろしくお願いいたしますわ。」
        “Since he’s merely a kid, I ask that you teach him well, Conductor”. 

葉子’s language is indicative of 敬語 speech in the early half of the 20th century. The rule that polite endings should not have 連体形 didn't really exist then, and even today, this rule is still ignored. As you can also see from this passage, traditional feminine speech is maintained even in 敬語. This is now not really the case anymore for obvious post-modern attitude changes towards the role of women.  


 紹介

107.葉山先生をご紹介いたします。葉山先生は、ワシントン大学の大学院で勉強なさった後、
ずっとカナダで日本語を教えていらっしゃいましたが、五年前に名古屋大学にいらっしゃいました。
最近はとてもお忙しくて、テレビをご覧になる時間もないと仰っています。
この間、ピアノをお買いになったそうです。今日は「ほうき星」を歌ってくださいます。
昨日もお宅で練習なさったそうです。では、葉山先生、よろしくお願いいたします。

1. Who is being introduced?
2. When did Hayama visit Nagoya University?
3. Where did Hayama graduate from for graduate school?
4. Where did Hayama teach Japanese for a long time?
5. What song is she going to be singing in English?
6. Underline the honorific speech. Change the person being introduced to your friend, and then change the honorific speech to polite speech. 


 リー先生

108.リー先生は、韓国語を教えています。 韓国から来たばかりのころは、
韓国の方がいいと思ったそうですが、今はアメリカの方が住みやすいと言っています。
スポーツはあんまりしないそうですが、音楽が好きだそうです。
毎日遅くまで研究室にいるので、いつ行っても会えますよ。

1. Underline the parts that need to be changed to 敬語.
2. Change the underlined parts to an appropriate form.
3. What does Lee think about America?
4. What does Lee not like to do often?
5. Why is it that "we" can visit Lee whenever?

Keys

紹介: Key

1. Hayama Sensei is being introduced.
2. Hayama visited Nagoya University five years ago.
3. Hayama graduated from Washington University for graduate school.
4. Hayama taught Japanese in Canada for a long time.
5. She is to sing "Shouting Star".
6. 葉山先生をご紹介いたします。葉山先生は、ワシントン大学の大学院で勉強なさった後、
ずっとカナダで日本語を教えていらっしゃいましたが、五年前に名古屋大学にいらっしゃいました
最近はとてもお忙しくて、テレビをご覧になる時間もないと仰っています
この間、ピアノをお買いになったそうです。今日は「ほうき星」を歌ってくださいます
昨日もお宅で練習なさったそうです。では、葉山先生、よろしくお願いいたします

友達の___を紹介します。___は、ワシントン大学の大学院で勉強した後、ずっとカナダで日本語を教えていましたが、五年前に名古屋大学に来ました。最近はとても忙しくて、テレビを見る時間もないと言っています。この間、ピアノをお買いになったそうです。今日は「ほうき星」を歌ってくれます。昨日も家で練習したそうです。じゃあ、____、よろしくお願いします。

リー先生: Key

1. Underline the parts that need to be changed to 敬語.

リー先生は、韓国語を教えています。 韓国から来たばかりのころは、
韓国の方がいいと思ったそうですが、今はアメリカの方が住みやすいと言っています
スポーツはあんまりしないそうですが、音楽が好きだそうです。
毎日遅くまで研究室にいるので、いつ行っても会えますよ

2. リー先生は、韓国語を教えていらっしゃいます。韓国からいらっしゃったばかりのころは、
韓国の方がいいとお思いになったそうですが、今はアメリカの方が住みやすいと仰っています。
スポーツはあまりなさらないそうですが、音楽がお好きだそうです。
毎日遅くまで研究室にいらっしゃるので、いつ行ってもお会いできます。

3. Lee thinks that it is easier to live in America than Korea.

4. Lee doesn't play sports often.

5. Lee is always in his office.


第129課: What & When

In this lesson, we will take a second yet closer look at the words for “what” and “when.” This time, we will look at how to express these words outside of polite speech, in which case some variation will have to be taken into consideration.

What

When looking up “what” in plain speech, most people will be find that the expression is なんだ. As you can see, なに becomes なん. This is because /ni/ becomes /n/ to make pronunciation easier. This causes some problems, but for now, let’s see how なんだ is used.

1. ( なん ) だ?
What (do you want/is it)?

Sentence Note: Ex. 1 would most likely be said by a male speaker. All by itself, なんだ shows irritation at someone.

2. ( なん ) だよ!
What the heck!

Sentence Note: Ex. 2 also shows irritation, which is amplified with the use of the particle よ. With that being the case, this isn’t a literal question.


Of course, we already know that なん is the form you use in polite speech. This is simply because です also starts with /d/. 

3. 趣味 ( しゅみ ) ( なん ) ですか。
What are your hobbies?

4. お 仕事 ( しごと ) ( なん ) ですか。
What is your job?

5. ( かみ ) 王国 ( おうこく ) とは ( なん ) ですか。
What is “God’s kingdom”?

Grammar Note: The use of とは is mean to seek a definition of what precedes it.


When not used in isolation, なんだ isn’t limited to irritated responses. Rather, the question tends to be philosophical. They also tend to be more commonly stated this way in the written language, but you can imagine sentences like Ex. 4 being spoken in slightly dramatic soliloquies.

6. 人間 ( にんげん ) とは ( なん ) だ。
What is mankind?


Another neat phrase that utilizes なん instead of なに is なんぞや. This utilizes pretty old grammar, which means most people typically only use it when they’re purposely trying to sound old-fashioned, but it can also be seen in things like textbooks to draw attention to a topic. For instance, if you see a heading that says “What is biochemical engineering?” you might see this used.

7. ( われ ) とは ( なん ) ぞや。
What am I?

Word Note: Keep in mind that 我 is the original word meaning “I” in Japanese and is still occasionally used in purposely old-fashioned expressions such as in Ex. 7.


In isolation, 何 is how “what” is usually expressed in casual expressions. Kids and female speakers tend to drag out the /a/, resulting in な~に, but this isn’t common in male speech. なんなの, however, tends to show up as well. This adds more emphasis to getting an explanation for “what” something is.

Of course, as a regular noun that can take on any case particles, you use なに. At the end of a sentence, it is rarely followed by the particle か. When it is, the question sounds as if it is a part of narration or the title of some discussion in some form of presentation/writing.

8. お 土産 ( みやげ ) ( なに ) がいいですか。
What would be good for souvenirs?

9. あれって ( なに )
What is that?

10. 津波 ( つなみ ) とは ( なに ) か。
What is a tsunami?


With some particles, なに may emphatically alternatively become なんに with certain particles, particularly も. However, it’s also important to note that the combination にでも causes なに to become なん most of the time (as seen in Ex. 12). 

11. いや、な(ん)にもない。
Oh, no, it’s nothing.

12. ( なん ) にでも ( ) れるよ。
You can become anything.


In compounds, なん and なに are used in fundamentally different situations. なん is used with counter phrases to mean “how many…” なに is used to mean “what kind…” There is one exception in particular that must be noted, which is何曜日 (what day of the week?). Although its traditional reading is なにようび, it is most frequently pronounced asなんようび. This is because most speakers find this reading easier to pronounce. Now, let’s return to the main difference between these two readings with the following examples.

13. 全部 ( ぜんぶ ) 何色 ( なんしょく ) ありますか。
In total, how many colors are there?

14. デンマークの 国旗 ( こっき ) は、 2 ( ) 色使 ( しょくつか ) われている。
As for the national flag of Denmark, two colors are used.

15. 何色 ( なにいろ ) のペンキを ( ) ったらいいですか。
What color paint should I buy?

16. 何色 ( なにいろ ) ( ) えますか。
What color does it look like?

17. 日本 ( にほん ) には 全部 ( ぜんぶ ) 何県 ( なんけん ) ありますか。
In total, how many prefectures are there in Japan?

Phrase Note: Most people will answer this question by giving the number of prefectures that are actual 県, not those that are 都道府.

18. 竹島 ( たけしま ) 何県 ( なにけん ) にありますか。
What prefecture is Takeshima in?

19. 何部 ( なにぶ ) 所属 ( しょぞく ) してるの?
What club/department do you belong to?

20. 何部 ( なんぶ ) くらい ( つく ) ればいいですか。
About how many copies should I make?

21. ( かれ ) 何人 ( なにじん ) ですか。
What nationality is he?

22. 兄弟 ( きょうだい ) 何人 ( なんにん ) いますか。
How many siblings do you have?


なにで vs なんで

One rather difficult challenge presented by “what” that confuses students is the difference between なにで and なんで. The use of the particle で here is used to show means/method/composition. In this sense, なにで is almost always the reading used.

23. 口紅 ( くちべに ) ( いろ ) はなにで ( ) まる?
What determines the color of lipstick?

24. このジュースってなにで ( つく ) ったの?
What did you make this juice with?

25. ( つめ ) ( なに ) 出来 ( でき ) ているの?
What are nails made of?

26. 入試 ( にゅうし ) ( ) 漢字 ( かんじ ) は、なにで 勉強 ( べんきょう ) すればいいですか。
What should I use to study with for the Kanji that appear in the entrance exam?

27.  構文 ( こうぶん ) ( なに ) 勉強 ( べんきょう ) すればいいんでしょうか。
What should I use to study with for sentence structure? 

Pronunciation Note: なにで may alternatively be replaced with なんで. However, most speakers avoid this as なんで typically means "why?" Although なんで seldom replaces なにで, it does occasionally happen in contexts regarding transportation.

28.

坂井 ( さかい ) :「 定村 ( さだむら ) さん、いつ 横浜支社 ( よこはまししゃ ) ( ) きますか。」
定村 ( さだむら ) :「 水曜日 ( すいようび ) ( ) きます。」
坂井 ( さかい ) :「{なにで・なんで} ( ) きますか。」
定村 ( さだむら ) :「 飛行機 ( ひこうき ) で行きます。」
Sakai: Mr. Sadamura, when will you be going to the Yokohama office?
Sadamura: I’m going on Wednesday.
Sakai: [By what means/how] will you be going?
Sadamura: I’m going by plane.

As for other means to say “how,” there is a caveat to using なにで over the usual どうやって or some other expression. As stated above, it simply asks by what means someone travels. The answer shouldn’t describe manner.

29. なにで ( ) たの?
How’d you get here?

30. どうやって ( ) たの?
How did you come?

Sentence Note. In Ex. 30, the question is open-ended enough for the listener to respond with something like “by camouflaging myself,” which would be an inappropriate response to Ex. 31.

31. なにを 使 ( つか ) って ( ) たの?
What did you use to come here?

Sentence Note: In Ex. 31, the question is out-of-place as a typical question one would ask in Japanese, but if you were to ask this to someone, you would inevitably get a smart-alecky reply on the lines of “by using my legs.” 

In the same vein of thought, even when a verb primarily used for movement is used in a different sense, なにで・なんで can be seen, again, with なにで being most preferred.

32. さて、何で ( ) きますか。
Alright, what will we go with?

When

The three expressions that you will need to pay most attention to not confuse are いつ (when?), 何時 (what time?), and 何時間 (how many hours?).

33. いつ ( ) ますか。
When do you go to sleep?

34. 何時間寝 ( なんじかんね ) ますか。
How many hours do you sleep?

35. 何時 ( なんじ ) ( ) ますか。
What time do you go to sleep?

36. 会議 ( かいぎ ) はいつ ( ) わりますか。
When does the meeting end?

37. 今日 ( きょう ) 何時 ( なんじ ) ( かえ ) るの?
What time will you return home today?

38. 人類 ( じんるい ) 火星 ( かせい ) ( ぎょう ) けるようになるのはいつだろうか。
When will mankind become able to go to Mars, I wonder?

39. いつの ( ) にか ( ねむ ) ( ) んでいた。
I had fallen asleep before I knew it.

Phrase Note: いつの間にか is a set phrase meaning “before one knows it.”


Aside from these three basic expressions, there are also the phrases いつ頃 (about when?) and いつなんどき (at any moment). As you can see, the latter comes from an emphatic version of いつ, which isn’t really used in literal questions. However, you may notice that it peculiarly has なんどき in it, which does happen to be an old-fashioned variation of 何時. This is rarely used outside the phrase いつなんどき, but if you do see it elsewhere, the context will be very specialized.

40. いつ 頃完成 ( ごろかんせい ) しますか。
About when will it be completed/you will complete it?

41. ( いま ) ( なん ) どきですか。はい、ラーメンどきよ!
What time is it? It’s ramen time!

Sentence Note: This was a line to an old ramen commercial on TV. As you can see, when なんどき is used to ask “what time is it” as in what’s supposed to be going on. This, in normal conversation, would be conveyed by どの時.

42. いつなんどき 必要 ( ひつよう ) になるかも分からない。
I also have no clue when it’ll become needed.

43. (何時)何時 事故 ( じこ ) ( ) わないとも ( かぎ ) らない。
It is not necessarily the case that you will never get into an accident.

Spelling Note: When written in 漢字, いつなんどき usually becomes いつ何時, but it may also be written as 何時何時.

Grammar Note: ~とも限らない is a verbal expression that follows adjectives/verbs to indicate “it is not necessarily that…”

44. 水分補給 ( すいぶんほきゅう ) はいつなんどきでも ( わす ) れないでください。
Don’t ever forget to be hydrated.


第130課: Who & Where: 誰, どなた, どちら, どいつ, & どこ

In this lesson, the words we will look at are 誰, どなた, どちら, and どいつ. After we learn about the words for "who," we will go over the two words for "where," どこ and どちら. 

Who's Who?

The basic word for “who,” 誰, may be used in casual, plain, and polite speech. It is for all intended purposes, the generic word for asking “who” someone is.

1. それは ( だれ ) がやったの?
Who did that?

2. これを ( だれ ) ( わた ) せばいいの?
Who should I pass this to?

3. ( だれ ) ( ) けばいいでしょうか。
Who should I ask?

4. これって ( だれ ) のものですか。
Whose is this?

5. ( きみ ) ( だれ )
Who are you?

Sentence Note: This sentence would likely be spoken by a guy in an extremely informal, abrupt fashion, most likely to someone who he views to be inferior to himself.

6. 世界 ( せかい ) 一番美 ( いちばんうつく ) しいのは ( だれ ) だい。
Who is the fairest of them all?

Sentence Note: The use of だい at the end of the sentence indicates a rather coarse, abrupt, masculine question. It is rather bombastic and isn’t used so much anymore, but you will hear it frequently used in anime, music, etc.


どなた 

どなた is the respectful version of 誰. Its purpose is to ask who someone is. However, it is normally not used at someone directly. For instance, you might ask your boss about who someone is by using どなた, but you wouldn’t walk up to someone and say どなたですか. However, if you were to ask someone who happened to just appear to you and are perplexed as to who that person is, you could respond with Ex.7

7.(あなた、)どなた(ですか)?
Who are you?

8. お ( はな ) ( くだ ) さったのはどなたですか。
Who is it that gave the flowers?

9. ( つぎ ) ( かた ) は、どなたですか。
Who is it that’s next?

Sentence Note: In Ex. 9, the speaker is merely asking for whoever is next to point himself/herself out. It is almost undoubtedly the case that the speaker knows who the person next is, and it’s also likely that the case that the person next is physically near the speaker.

10. すみませんが、 責任者 ( せきにんしゃ ) ( かた ) はどなたですか。
Excuse me, but who is the person in charge?

11. どなたか、このお ( ) さんをご 存知 ( ぞんじ ) ( かた ) はいらっしゃいませんか。
Anyone, is there someone who knows who this child is?


どちら

When used to mean “who,” どちら is almost always used asどちら様. This is used to ask not just who someone is, but also who they are affiliated with. This is because it comes from a kosoado which literally means “where?”  

Say if you were to receive a phone call from someone you don’t know. The natural response in Japanese to this is どちら様ですか. Perhaps you’re at work and there is a visitor waiting to see your boss. As a secretary who is in a hurry to tell his/her boss who has come by, you may ask Ex. 12.

12. どちら ( さま ) でいらっしゃいますか。
May I ask who you are?

As you can see, this variation is more respectful. At times, though, it’s not always appropriate to ask “who are you?” to a client or someone you should be giving the utmost respect/courtesy. In such a situation, you may wish to use something like in Ex. 13a or 13b.

13a. 失礼 ( しつれい ) ですが、お 名前 ( なまえ ) 頂戴 ( ちょうだい ) できますか。
Excuse me, but could I have your name?
13b. 失礼 ( しつれい ) ですが、お 名前 ( なまえ ) ( うかが ) えますでしょうか。
Excuse me, but could I ask your name?

どちら様, nevertheless, plays an important role in “who” questions in respectful speech. This is because of how it is nuanced towards asking for affiliation and not just one’s personal name.

14. あちらのお ( がた ) はどちら ( さま ) でしょうか。
Who is that person over there (from)?

15. ( おそ ) ( ) りますが、 本日 ( ほんじつ ) のご 来店 ( らいてん ) はどちら ( さま ) のご 紹介 ( しょうかい ) ですか。
Pardon me, but who was it that introduced you to come to our store today?

16. どちら様までご 連絡差 ( れんらくざ ) ( ) げればよろしいでしょうか。
Who should I get in contact with?

17.「すみません。 電話中 ( でんわちゅう ) ですので ( ) ( かえ ) します。」「あ、わかった」「どちら ( さま ) まで? ( ねん ) のために 電話番号 ( でんわばんごう ) をお ( ねが ) いします。」
“I apologize, but I will need to call you back because I’m on the phone.” “Oh, ok.” “To whom am I speaking? Just in case, may I have your phone number?”

18. 「 ( おそ ) ( ) りますが、お 名前 ( なまえ ) とご 連絡先 ( れんらくさき ) をお ( ) きしてもよろしいでしょうか。」
“Pardon me, but may I ask your name and contact information?”

どなた様

どなた様ですか is also a thing. As you can see from the examples below, it’s used as the respectful form of 誰 in very honorific yet indirect circumstances.

19. どなた ( さま ) ( ぞん ) じませんが、 先程 ( さきほど ) 親切 ( しんせつ ) 道案内 ( みちあんない ) をしていただいた ( かた ) にお ( れい ) ( もう ) ( ) げたいのですが。
I don’t know who it was, but I would like to show my appreciation to the person I had kindly show me the way a moment ago.

20. どなた様にお送りいたしますか。
Who should I send it to?

21. どなた様をお訪ねしたらよろしいですか。
Who should I visit?

22. どなた様でもお申し込みいただけます。
Anyone can apply.

23. どなた様もご利用OK!
It’s OK for anyone to use!

Sentence Note: Ex. 23 is indicative of an advertisement.


In Humble Speech 

When it’s necessary that you humbly ask who in one’s company someone wishes to speak to in a business situation, you may useどちらの者.

24. どちらの ( もの ) にご ( よう ) でしょうか。
Who do you have business with?

In reality, you might wish to ask the following question, but there are certainly situations in which asking whom one has business with is appropriate. In Ex. 24, you also implicitly ask about the department of the company the person you are speaking to has business with.

25. どのようなご 用件 ( ようけん ) でしょうか。
What sort of business do you have (with us)?

When asking someone who you need to call, you could just use 誰. どの者 may also be used, but some speakers find this to be stiff. Because this is a humble setting, there is no grammatical need to use anything more than 誰.

26.{ ( だれ ) ・どの ( もの ) }をお ( ) ( いた ) しましょうか。
Who shall I call for you?


Rude Language: どいつ 

Although outdated outside of certain set expressions, another word for "who" is どいつ. If you think this sounds like ドイツ (Germany), you'd be right. Japanese people also love making puns with it because of this!

27. ( うわさ ) ( おんな ) はどいつだ。
Who's the rumored woman?

28. どいつでもいいんじゃない!
Just anyone's not alright! 

29. どいつもこいつもドイツ じん だ!
Every last one of them is a German! 

Grammar Note: This word creates a kosoado series, as is indicated by こいつ. 

Where

The basic word for "where" is どこ. Aside from just meaning "where," it can also mean "what part?" or ask about to "what extent" something has gone. You can see how these nuances relate to each other in the examples below. 

30. トイレはどこですか。
Where is the bathroom?

31. 三上 ( みかみ ) さんはどこですか。
Where is Mr. Mikami?

32. どこに ( ) んでるの?
Where do you live?

33. どこが ( わる ) いの?
What (part) is wrong about (that/it)?

34. どこも ( いた ) くありません。
It doesn't hurt anywhere.

35. どこの 職場 ( しょくば ) でも 人間関係 ( にんげんかんけい ) がうまくいかない。
No matter the work place, my relations with people don't go well.

36. どこまで ( すす ) んでいるか ( おし ) えてくれない?
Could you tell me how far you've progressed?

37. iPhoneのどこがいいですか。 
What part of the iPhone is good?


どちら

As mentioned, どちら literally refers to "where." This is seen in respectful language.

38. どちらへお ( とま ) りでしょうか。
Where will you be staying?

39. どちらへ ( ) かれますか。
Where are you going?

40. どちらへおかけですか。
Where will you sit?

41. ご 出身 ( しゅっしん ) はどちらですか。
May I ask where you were born?

42. ご 住所 ( じゅうしょ ) はどちらですか。
May I ask for your address?

43. エスカレーターはどちらですか。
Where is the escalator?

44. 制服ってどちらで買えるんですか。
Where can you buy uniforms?  

45. 「王さんのお ( くに ) はどちらですか。」「 台湾 ( たいわん ) です。」
“Mr. Wang, what is your country of origin?” “Taiwan.”

Reading Note: 王 is a Chinese surname. When read the Japanese way, people will read and refer to someone with this surname as オウ. If using a Mandarin rendition, people will refer to that person as ワン. If using the Cantonese rendition, people will refer to that person as ウォン. 


第131課: Why: なぜ, どうして, & なんで

The words for “why” in Japanese are relatively easy to understand, but in Japanese culture, “why” questions are frequently avoided so as not to be too direct, pushy, or rude. Sometimes, asking why can be offensive or uncalled for. Nevertheless, asking why is also sometimes unavoidable. As such, we will spend time looking at the words for “why” so that you can both ask and be asked why.

なぜ

The basic word for “why?” in Japanese is なぜ. In 漢字,  this is spelled as 何故. For the most part, なぜ is logically/objectively based. This makes it appropriate for all speech styles, although tone will drastically change how people perceive it.

To use these words grammatically, there are a few places where なぜ can be placed. When at the front of the sentence, the topic of the question is marked by は. The sentence itself ends in some form of のか. の is usually contracted to ん in the spoken language, but in the written language this is generally not the case.

1. なぜ 地球 ( ちきゅう ) ( まる ) いのですか。
Why is the Earth round?

2. なぜ 方言 ( ほうげん ) ( なま ) りなどが ( ) まれたのですか。また、なぜ 東京 ( とうきょう ) 方言 ( ほうげん ) 標準語 ( ひょうじゅんご ) なのですか。
Why do dialects, accents, and the like come into existence? Also, why is the dialect of Tokyo the standard dialect?

3. ( そら ) はなぜ ( あお ) いの?
Why is the sky blue?

Grammar Note: As Ex. 3 demonstrates, the topic and なぜ can be flipped with no changes made to particle usage in the sentence.

4. なぜワシントン ( しゅう ) に引っ ( ) すんですか。
Why did you move to the State of Washington?

Grammar Note: Ex. 4 would be spoken, not written. The question innocently asks why the person in question moved to the State of Washington. The question does not imply interrogation or pressure for the person to spill some sort of truth.

A college classmate lover began dating another woman, and she couldn’t fathom that she herself was dumped and why the person chosen was some other person and not herself.   

5. ちなみになぜこの 商品 ( しょうひん ) ( ) ( ) って ( いただ ) いたのですか?
By the way, why did you take interest in this product?

6. お ( かね ) が貯まる ( ひと ) はなぜ 時間 ( じかん ) 使 ( つか ) ( かた ) がうまいのか。
Why is it that people whose money is being saved up good at using time?

Nuance Note: Ex. 6 sounds as if it is a header to some document/post. It is not the plain speech のか that you hear in coarse conversations. That usage is to be seen shortly in this lesson.

7. ( おな ) じアマゾン ( ない ) で、 ( おな ) 商品 ( しょうひん ) なのに 価格 ( かかく ) ( ちが ) うのはなぜですか。
In Amazon itself, why is it that something may be the same product but have a different price?

8. なぜ、この 言葉 ( ことば ) ( ) くと 不快 ( ふかい ) ( おも ) ってしまうのでしょうか?
“Why,” do you not feel uncomfortable when you hear this word?

Nuance Note: As with any word in Japanese, “why” can also be the word of conversation.

9. なぜなら、 ( こた ) えは、 自分 ( じぶん ) のすぐ「 ( となり ) 」にあったからです。
That is because the answer is right beside oneself.

Grammar Note: When used with the particle なら, なぜ is used to explain reasoning. You can see it as literally meaning “if you ask why…”

In Ex. 10 and Ex. 11, なぜ is used in embedded questions. It is typically the word of choice in this situation due its objective nature.

10. 彼女 ( かのじょ ) は、 大学 ( だいがく ) 同級生 ( どうきゅうせい ) である 恋人 ( こいびと ) が、 ( べつ ) ( おんな ) 交際 ( こうさい ) をはじめて、 自分 ( じぶん ) ( ) てられた、なぜ ( えら ) ばれたのが 他方 ( たほう ) であり 自分 ( じぶん ) でないのかがどう ( かんが ) えても ( ) からなかった。
A college classmate's lover began dating another woman, and she couldn’t fathom that she herself was dumped and why the person chosen was some other person and not herself.   

11. ( みな ) がなぜ、いきなり 集団 ( しゅうだん ) ヒステリーのように ( ) ( ) したのか、 不思議 ( ふしぎ ) でたまらなかった。
It was a wonder to me why everyone started suddenly crying out in mass hysteria.

We as humans intuitively infer the tone of a question based on its content. Below, each example is confrontational. This is when なぜ will go from sounding objective and calm to sounding confrontational and out of anger.

12. 「なぜ 遅刻 ( ちこく ) をしたの?」
“Why were you late?”

13. 「なぜ 気付 ( きづ ) かなかったの?」
“Why didn’t you notice?”

14. 「なぜ ( わす ) れてきたんだ?」
“Why did you come and forget it?”


なにゆえ 

As you may have noticed, the characters of 何故 imply that it should normally be read as なにゆえ. It just so happens that this is also a valid reading, but it is an archaism. Its place in Modern Japanese is relegated to jokingly sounding old-fashioned like in Ex. 15 or in neo-classical contexts.

15. なにゆえここに ( きみ ) がいるのか。
Why is it that you are here?

どうして

どうして is likely the word for “why”  you have incidentally heard over and over. This is because it is far more frequently emotionally based. It also happens to be somewhat more casual than なぜ as an effect.

This word is composed of どう meaning “how/in what way?” and して, the gerund of する. Thus, it intrinsically means “how.” This is demonstrated in the following examples.

16. 毎朝 ( まいあさ ) はどうして 時間 ( じかん ) ( つぶ ) そうかと ( かんが ) えていた。
Every morning I pondered how I would pass the time.

Grammar Note: When used with the volitional form + the particle か, the meaning of “how” becomes especially obvious.

17. どうして ( ぼく ) 試験 ( しけん ) ( ) かったって ( ) ってますか?
Do you know how I passed the exam?

Sentence Note: When the sentence ends in “do you know…?” it makes more sense to interpret どうして as “how” rather than “why” because even if you were to rephrase the English translation to use “why” instead, the question still intrinsically revolves around method.  This means that even なぜ to some extent may even ask “how” like in Ex. 18.

18. なぜ 扇風機 ( せんぷうき ) ( はたら ) くのか.
How fans works/how do fans work/why (do) fans work(?)

Sentence Note: Even in English, there is some fluctuation that can be seen between “why” and “how.” The Japanese phrasing could be used in introducing a question of discussion or even as the title of something.

In related phrases, the literal breakdown of どうして meaning “how” becomes even more apparent; especially in どうしても, which either means “no matter what cost” or “no matter what,” the latter being used in a negative connotation.

19. どうしても ( きみ ) ( うしな ) いたくない。
I don’t want to lose you no matter what.

20. どうしても 納得 ( なっとく ) できません。
I can't accept this by any means.

Unlike all other words for “why,” どうして has evolved other usages. Occasionally, you will find it used in complex adverbial phrases with a meaning of “contrary to (expectations).”

21. なかなかどうしてうまくいかないものだ。
Things aren’t going well as expected.

Phrase Note: なかなかどうして is a set phrase which is synonymous with ( おも ) ったより. 

22. ちょっと 心配 ( しんぱい ) だったのですが、どうしてなかなかしっかりしてるよ。
I was a little worried, but (it’s) holding quite sturdy contrary to expectations.

Grammar Note: As you can see, for this meaning to make sense, the sentence itself must not be formed as a question but as a declarative statement. Furthermore, for どうして to be used for this meaning, it needs to be followed by some line that brings up a past expectation.

Another grammar pattern that works on the sense of “how” is どうして…られよう(か).  This utilizes the potential form with the ending よう, which you may remember as originally also being used to indicate “surely” like in だろう・でしょう. This means we get an expression on the lines of “how could…possibly…?” It is inherently rhetorical and emphatic.

23. そんな 姿 ( すがた ) ( ) てどうして ( だま ) っていられようか。
How could one stay silent after having seen that appearance?

24. どうして ( わす ) れられよう。どうして ( わす ) れていられようか。
How could I forget? How I could I ever forget?

25. こんな ( ) ( なか ) でどうして ( わら ) っていられようか。
How could one ever remain laughing in such a world as this?

26. どうして ( ひと ) ( ) ( よろこ ) んでいられようか。
How could one ever be rejoiceful in the death of another person?

It may come as no surprise that at one point, どうして could also be used as an interjection similar to “oh my!” like in Ex. 27. This, however, is not so common nowadays, but it still readily understood due to its occasional use in writing.

27. どうして、 大層 ( たいそう ) 悪役 ( あくやく ) ぶりだな。
Oh my, what the villain-type you are.

Now, you be may thinking, is どうして used to mean “how”? No, not quite… In the same way the concept of “why” and “how” are intertwined, so is the case with どうして. As a stand-alone sentence, all you need is どうして or the addition of ですか if used in semi-casual polite speech. However, when more is added to the sentence, some form of のか is grammatically necessary.

Remember that unlike なぜ, どうして tends to be emotionally and/or subjectively based. Although it is far more common in conversation due to its semi-casual nature, its overuse will draw upon more emotion than you intend.

28. どうしてですか。
Why (is that)?

29. どうしてまた ( おそ ) くなったんですか。
Why were you late again?

30. どうして 自分 ( じぶん ) ( おとこ ) だと ( おも ) うんですか。
Why do you see yourself as male?

31. 昨日 ( きのう ) 、どうして ( ) なかったの?
How come you didn’t come yesterday?

Sentence Note: As Ex. 31 demonstrates, it is sometimes more natural to translate どうして as “how come?” This makes the intertwined dichotomy of how-why even more apparent.

32. どうして ( ) くの。どうして ( ) ( ) まない。
Why do you cry? Why do you not stop…?

Sentence Note: The lack of のか, interestingly enough, creates a sense of despair. It also makes it clear that the sentence is part of the speaker’s inner monologue. The speaker is distraught. One can imagine the next thought of the speaker being tied to whatever troubles are besieging the person.

33. どうしてあくびが ( ) るの?
Why are you yawning? 

なんで

なんで is composed of 何 meaning “what” and the particle で, which can be seen as marking the instrumental case in this phrase. The instrumental case marks means/method. This means that なんで is akin to “how come?”

なんで is more casual than anything else. It doesn’t particularly have any sense of objectivity or subjectivity. This is why it is used heavily in casual conversation. However, just as with the other words for “why,” it too can be used in tense situations or in questions based in intimidation. Nevertheless, think of how teenagers say “why” and equate it to how people would generally use なんで. By doing so, and by reviewing the examples below, you should get a good picture of how なんで is used.

Grammatically speaking, a sentence with なんで ends with some form of のか. Without it, the question will sound brisk and abrupt. Of course, in a stand-alone sentence, it can be said by itself or followed by ですか in semi-casual speech.

34. ( とく ) に、 人生経験 ( じんせいけいけん ) 成功体験 ( せいこうたいけん ) ( すく ) ない ( ) どもたちに ( ) かって、なんで?なぜ?どうして?の ( ) いかけは 百害 ( ひゃくがい ) あって 一利 ( いちり ) なしです。
Especially towards child, who have little life experience and experience succeeding, questioning them with “why, why, why?” brings a hundred harms and not a single gain.

35. なんでテストで 100 ( ひゃく ) ( てん ) ( ) ったんだ?
How come you got a 100 on your test?

Sentence Note: Ex. 35 is an example of how being asked about something good can sound intimidating when seemingly interrogating someone.  

36. なんでちゃんとやらないの?
Why won’t you do it properly?

37. すごいじゃないか!なんでそんなによかったんだ?
Wow, that’s awesome! How come it was so good like that?

38. すごいですね!なんでそんなに 好調 ( こうちょう ) なんですか?
Wow, that’s great! How come things are going so well?

39. なんでこれが ( ) きた?
How come this happened?

40. なんでそうなった?
How did it end up that way?

41. なんで?なんで?
How come? How come?

42. なんでだよ!
How come!?

43. ねーねー?なんで?
Hey, hey… how come?

44. なんでじゃねーんだよ?
Don’t you “how come?” me; you hear me?

One grammatical situation that makes なんで very similar to なぜ but in a far more casual way is when it is used at the end of the sentence to mean “why is that/how come…?”

45. 人間 ( にんげん ) ( ) べないのは ( なん ) でですか。
Why is it that/how come humans can't jump up?

46. ( おな ) ( かた ) 電車 ( でんしゃ ) でも、 ドア ( どあ ) 開閉速度 ( かいへいそくど ) ( こと ) なるのは ( なん ) でですか。
Why is that/how come the opening and closing speed of doors differ even when it’s the same model train?

47. ( おんな ) ( おとこ ) 結婚率 ( けっこんりつ ) ( ちが ) うのは ( なん ) でですか。
Why is that/how come the marriage rates for men and women are different?

48. ( みせ ) によって ( ちが ) うのは ( なん ) でですか。
Why is that/how come it’s different based on the store?

49. ( あせ ) ( しろ ) シャツの ( わき ) 黄色 ( きいろ ) くなるのは ( なん ) でなの?
Why is that/how come the sides of white T-shirts become yellow from sweat?

50. ( かたち ) ( ちが ) うのは ( なん ) でですか。
Why is that/how come the shape is different?

理由

Another phrase that brings on a translation of “why” is the word for reason, 理由. In English, we say “the reason why…” In Japanese, the word “why” just isn’t grammatically needed. The sense of this naturally comes about from 理由 being combined with other phrases.

51. 退職 ( たいしょく ) (した) 理由 ( りゆう ) ( ) かせてください。
Please let me hear why you left your (previous) job.

52. あなたが ( ひと ) ( ころ ) した 理由 ( りゆう ) ( おし ) えてください。
Please tell me why you killed a/the person.


第132課: Which: どれ, どちら, どっち, & いずれ

In this lesson, we will discover how to say the question word “which” in Japanese. This lesson will be about the “which” used in questions. Although “which” may at times correspond to other things in Japanese, the words you will learn in this lesson cover the fundamental meaning of “which.” 

Which 'Which'?

There are three primary words that mean “which” in Japanese: どれ, どちら, and どっち. Generally speaking, they are distinguished in the following manner.

どれ: Used for when pointing out from three or more things.
どちら: Used when pointing out from two things.
どっち: Used when casually point out from two things.

1. 香川 ( かがわ ) さんの ( かばん ) はどれですか。
Which is Mr. Kagawa’s bag/briefcase?

Sentence Note: In Ex. 1, there are most likely more than two bags/briefcases present.

2. どちらが ( ) しいですか。
Which do you want?

Sentence Note: In Ex. 2, only two options are likely being offered.

3. 日本語を勉強し始める前は、どちらが中国語の教科書、日本語の教科書かが分からなかったでしょう。
Before studying Japanese, I probably wouldn’t have figured out which is the Chinese textbook and which is the Japanese textbook.

4. この 会話 ( かいわ ) では、どっちがいいか ( ) かりません。
I don’t know which to use in this conversation.

Sentence Note: Although どっち is used colloquially, it still works well in polite speech. However, in formal situations, it gets completely replaced with どちら.

5. アルコールの ( よわ ) いお ( さけ ) はどれですか。
Which drinks are low in alcohol?


What we have seen thus far are the forms for “which” when used as a noun. When used adjectivally, you will need to change どれ to どの and add the particle の to どちら and どっち.

6. どの ( みち ) ( えら ) ぶか ( まよ ) っています。
I’m wavering on which path to choose.

7. {どの・どちらの} 図書館 ( としょかん ) 返却 ( へんきゃく ) してもいいんでしょうか。
Which library would it be alright to return (it) to?

8. どの ( えき ) ( ) りればいいですか。
Which station should I get off at?

9. どのチームを 応援 ( おうえん ) してるの?
Which team do you support?

10. どの 科目 ( かもく ) 選択 ( せんたく ) するかとても ( なや ) んでます。
I’m really worried about which subjects to choose.

11. ( ( わたし ) には)どの ( いろ ) 一番似合 ( いちばんにあ ) うと ( おも ) います?
Which color(s) do you think fits me the best?   

12. 結局 ( けっきょく ) 、どれにすればいいの?
In the end, which should I go with?

13. どれにしようか ( まよ ) っています。
I’m wavering on which to go with.

Grammar Note: しよう is the volitional form of する (to do). If you were to remove what’s after か from the sentence, you would get a sentence that equates to “which shall I go with?”


どれの is seldom possible, but it does exist. For instance, it can be seen in どれのこと. In this case, のこと is added to emphasize ‘what’ is being discussed.

14. ログインIDってどれのことを ( ) すんですか。
Which thing does login ID indicate?

15. どれのことを ( ) っているのかわかりません。
I don’t know which thing (he/she) is talking about.


Aside from the truly basic sentences we’ve seen thus far, somewhat more grammar needs to be introduced when listing the actual things in a sentence with “which.” Because the underlying grammar is the same across the three ‘which’ words, we’ll use the English word ‘which’ in discussing the grammar patterns used with them.

The basic grammatical pattern used when listing the actual things ‘which’ may refer to is “XY ()では.” When listing things with the particle と , it was once the case that Y was always marked by と. In making comparisons, this archaic grammar remains relatively used. Even when there are three or more elements, in which case (と)では would be after the final element, it is still often used.

16. ドメインは、.comと.net(と)ではどっちがいいですか。
For a domain, between “.com” and “.net,” which is good?

17. ジョギングは、 ( あさ ) ( よる ) ではどっちがいいの
As for jogging, which is best, morning or night?

Sentence Note: The lack of と before では is largely due to the sentence being more casual. After all, the use of と after the second element is optional and indicative of older grammar.

18. 体重 ( たいじゅう ) 身長 ( しんちょう ) ( あさ ) ( よる ) (と)では ( かなら ) ( ちが ) います。
Both one’s weight and one’s height always differ between day and night.  

Sentence Note: Although “which” is not in the sentence, (と)では is still used to create the phrase “between…and…”

19. ( 同室 ( どうしつ ) と) 別室 ( べっしつ ) とどっちがいい?
(Between same room or) separate rooms, which is better?

Sentence Note: Whenever the first element is deemed to be obvious, it may be omitted from the sentence. In this example, the only thing that could reasonably be compared with別室 (separate room) is the phrase for “same room,” which is 同室. Though rather unrelated, also note that the “which” in “which is” is neither a noun nor an adjective, meaning it doesn’t correspond to the “which” phrases in this lesson.


When listing three or more phrases, you can use の中で(は)instead of (と)では. The difference in nuance by using the word 中 is that the translation will usually include “among” rather than “between.”

20. ( いぬ ) ( ねこ ) と、ウサギ{(と)・の ( なか ) }では、どれが 一番好 ( いちばんす ) きですか。
Between/among dogs, cats, and rabbits, which do you like the most?

Grammar Note: The use of the particle は is to emphasize the choice being made. In effect, it highlights the pool of choices. In the next sentence, は is not used. The reason for this is because the four seasons are quite finite and there is no need to add special emphasis to the options at hand. However, adding は would not make the sentence odd or ungrammatical.

21. ( はる ) ( なつ ) ( あき ) ( ふゆ ) ( なか ) で、{どれ・どちら}の 季節 ( きせつ ) 一番 ( いちばん ) ( ) きですか。
Among spring, summer, autumn, and winter, which season do you like the most?

Grammar Note: Although どちら is almost always used in situations in which there are only two things ‘which’ may refer to, it is sometimes treated as the formal form of どれ. This becomes apparent when clearly formal elements are introduced in the sentence. Here, we see that the prefix お~ is added to 好きだ (to like) to create an honorific expression.

22. モンストとパズドラってどっちが ( ) き?
Between Monster Strike and Puzzle & Dragon, which do you like?

Grammar Note: The second/last と may actually be seen as って. As we know, this is not the only instance in which と can be replaced by って. Its use here is to lessen the old-fashioned nature of marking the second element.

Phrase Note: Monster Strike and Puzzle & Dragon are two of the most popular mobile app games in Japan. Colloquially, they are referred to by their contractions as is demonstrated in Ex. 22. 


The use of と to mark the second/last element, as mentioned, is grammatically unnecessary. This is also the case when one or both elements are nominalized phrases. When it’s missing, you’ll see that the nominalized phrase essentially connects with the ‘which’ word with the particle の.

23. ( たま ) ねぎは、 ( なま ) 加熱 ( かねつ ) するの(と)、どっちがいいの?
As for onions, which is better, they being raw or heating them up? 

24. ( いえ ) は、 ( ) るのと ( ) すの(と)、どっちがいいの?
As for homes, between selling and leasing, which is better?

25. ( ) るのと ( ) くの(と)、どっちがいいの?
Between shaving and plucking, which is better?


Another facet of grammar surrounding ‘which’ is the optional addition of の方 to the sentence after a ‘which’ word to emphasize “which one.”

Orthography Note: To avoid confusion with its other usages, 方 may be read as ほう.

26. ワインとビール{(と)では・の}どちら(のほう)が ( ) きですか。
Between wine and beer, which (one) do you like?

27. ( いま ) のところ、モンストとパズドラ(と)では、{どっち・どちら}のほうが 人気 ( にんき ) があるんですか。
Currently, between Monster Strike or Puzzle & Dragons, which is more popular?

28. 喫煙席 ( きつえんせき ) 禁煙席 ( きんえんせき ) 、どちらになさいますか。
Which would you like, smoking or non-smoking?


The options before the ‘which’ word may alternatively be listed with the particle か. In this case, か is usually stated after the second/last element, although it may be omitted if the following ‘which’ phrase sounds like a separate statement. Regarding difference in nuance, the sense of comparison is lessened to a listing of options which may not be exclusive which may also be emphatically based.

29. お ( はし ) かフォークかどちらになさいますか。
Will you go with chopsticks or fork?

Sentence Note: Although the general options may indeed just be chopsticks or forks, the option of neither is also implied. It is also open-ended enough for the customer to choose something else not explicitly mentioned.

30. ガチャって、 単発 ( たんぱつ ) 10 ( じゅう ) ( れん ) か、どっちがいい?
As for gacha, which is better, single shot or 10 shot?

Sentence Note: As mentioned, the sense of comparison is open-ended but is also more subjective and emphatically based. By posing the question this way, the speaker may expect follow-up questions regarding the nature of the options or personal experiences from others with said options.

Word Note: In mobile games, gacha is an internal prize that you get, often by utilizing in-game currency. 

31. ( あい ) かお ( かね ) かどちらにしますか。
Which will you go with, love or money?

Sentence Note: Ex. 31 is a perfect example for the subjective, emphatic nature of か. Clearly, there is more behind “love” and “money” alone, but it is this fact that also drives the emphasis behind the question itself.

32. モンストかパズドラ、どっちがおススメですか?
Monster Strike or Puzzle & Dragon, which do you recommend?

33. 賃貸 ( ちんたい ) ( ) ( いえ ) かどっちが ( とく ) かなど 比較 ( ひかく ) してはいけません。
You mustn’t compare on the lines of like whether renting or owning one’s home is the better bargain.


In addition to what we’ve seen, it is also appropriate and very common for the second/last element of a sentence with ‘which’ to be followed by a conditional phrase.

34a. 太平洋 ( たいへいよう ) 大西洋 ( たいせいよう ) だと、どちら(のほう)が ( おお ) きいのでしょうか。
If it’s the Atlantic Ocean and Pacific Ocean, which (one) is larger?
34b. 太平洋 ( たいへいよう ) 大西洋 ( たいせいよう ) (と)では、どちら(のほう)が ( おお ) きいのでしょうか。
Between the Atlantic Ocean and the Pacific Ocean, which (one) is larger?

Grammar Note: The use of だと adds to the sense that a definitive comparison is being made.

35. 経営者 ( けいえいしゃ ) 労働者 ( ろうどうしゃ ) なら、どちら(のほう)が ( ) いでしょうか。
If it’s between being a manager and being a worker, which (one) is better?

Grammar Note: The use of the particle なら is used in order to ask for a suggestion.

37. ( くるま ) ( ) うなら、 新車 ( しんしゃ ) 中古車 ( ちゅうこしゃ ) かどっちがお ( とく ) なんですか。
If you’re buying a new car, which is a better bargain, a new car or a used car?

38. ( くるま ) 購入 ( こうにゅう ) する 場合 ( ばあい ) は、 新車 ( しんしゃ ) 中古車 ( ちゅうこしゃ ) (と)では、どちらがお ( とく ) なんでしょうか。
In the case of purchasing a vehicle, which is the better bargain, a new car or a used car?

Sentence Note: Ex. 38 is a more formal version of Ex. 37. As you can see, the phrase ~場合は is used to mean “in the case…”


Deceiving Translations from English

At times, the use of the word "which" doesn't correspond to either of the 'which' phrases discussed in this lesson. However, it is almost always the case that the English can be paraphrased into something else, and it will be that something else that translates smoothly into Japanese.

39. 紳士服売 ( しんしふくう ) ( ) は何階ですか。
Which/what floor is men’s clothing?

Word Note: The opposite of “men’s clothing” is “women’s clothing,” which is 婦人服.

40. {どこの・どの} 都市 ( とし ) ( ) んでみたいですか。
What/which city would you like to live?


Izure いずれ 

Another word meaning “which” is いずれ. It is the original form of ‘which’ that became どれ over time. It, though, remains as “which,” often in set phrases like いずれにしても, meaning “at any rate/in any case.” You will also see it frequently used as an adverb meaning “sooner or later.”  

41. 彼女 ( かのじょ ) はいずれ ( わす ) れるでしょう。
She will surely forget sooner or later.

42. 死刑廃止 ( しけいはいし ) 存続 ( そんぞく ) 、いずれにしても ( むずか ) しい 問題 ( もんだい ) なのだ。
Abolishing the death penalty or continuing with it, at any rate, it is a difficult question.


第133課: ~ていく & ~てくる

 
These patterns are a little easier than the ones from the last lesson, but these are easier to confuse with each other. So, 注意してください!

~ていく & ~てくる

     行く (to go) and 来る (to come) with て creates constructions that are not as straightforward as one would expect. What dictates the usage of ~ていく and ~てくる is highly context driven. It's rather impossible for even the best linguists to properly define all of the possible situations these phrases can be used in. "Highly context driven" refers to the fact that how you interpret them is not just determined by the transitivity of the verb phrase but by what exactly it is "semantically".

Categorical properties of what exactly the verb means is very important to keep in mind, and this also means that you can't just assume that English and Japanese match perfectly on a word-by-word basis. Usually, even this is never the case. After all, the two languages are NOT related to each other. 


When physical action is involved, ~ていく and ~てくる show action away and action towards the speaker’s current location respectively. In this case, the verbs are typically written in 漢字, but this is not always the case. At times, these phrases result in sentences that do not sound quite like anything one would say in English. In such cases, think really hard about the real world context in which they are used to better understand the semantic properties at work. 

1. ちょっと かけて ます。
     I'm going out for a bit (and will come back).

2. 公園に歩いて行った。
    I went to the park by foot.

Grammar Note: Remember that some て phrases act like adverbs in Japanese, which then can then like in this sentence equate to a prepositional phrase, in this case 歩いて = by foot.  

3. 朝ご飯を食べて行きました。
    I went having eaten breakfast.  

4. 行 って ます。
    I'm going and coming back.

Usage Note: The above phrase is used when leaving your residence, knowing that you will be coming back. Though the plain form is acceptable with those you are close to, given its status as a set phrase, the polite form is also used without any repercussions.  

5. 台所 だいどころ からいすを ってきます。
    I'm going to get a chair from the kitchen. 

6. 10分もすれば、帰ってくる。
     If I have but 10 minutes, I'll come home.


When there is no physical motion involved, ~ていく indicates disappearance whereas ~てくる indicates a process of emergence. Both can show a process of change or continuation, but they are different in this manner. ~ていく would indicate something that will change and continue on into the future whereas ~てくる would represent that has been happening for something and extends to the present.

7. ミルズさんは 日本語 がうまくなってきましたね。
    Mr. Mills has been getting better in Japanese, hasn't he?

8. 君英語 はきっと 上手 うま くなっていくでしょう。(Familiar)
    Your English will surely get better!

9. 自分勝手 じぶんかって 選択 せんたく したい よく は、 かなら えていくのであろう。
    Your desire to want to selfishly choose will surely disappear.  

10. 囚人達 しゅうじんたち 洞窟 どうくつ からぞろぞろと てきた。
      The prisoners came filtering out of the cave.  

11. その木は、芽が出てきた。
      The tree has begun to sprout.
 
12. 最後の希望が消えていく。
      There goes our last hope. 

 Inception

~てくる can also indicate the inception of a process. As this section will show, understanding this can get really tricky. So, pay attention to detail and be open to differences between Japanese and English grammar. 

13a. 雪 ってきた。
13b. 雪 めた。
        It started to snow.


 ~てくる・~ていく Interchangeability 

Tense can be problematic in making ~てくる and ~ていく seem interchangeable. The semantic differences between the verbs of these phrases and differences in the main verbs used are important. For instance, the fact that 消える is used below is very important.  

14. 暖炉の火が消えて{きた・いく}。
      The fire in the fireplace is about to go out.

The first option indicates inception of a change. The status of the fire gets changed, and the process is "going out". With ~た, you indicate that the process has just started. A strong wind, cutting off of fuel source, or lots of water put on it would determine how quickly it goes out. Nevertheless, the English can be used in the same situations. The second option indicates a process of disappearance. The flame will shortly start to fade and then go out. In a real world situation, it would be very hard to tell all these details, especially because these judgments are all subjective to what the speaker feels.  

When considering the English equivalent, you should be able to see how it could be used for both. For brevity, more literal/less natural English equivalents are not shown. With the information given thus far, you should be able to construct more literal interpretations at your own will. 

Consider a less puzzling example. Here we have a sentence in reference to the weather. This,again, is an important detail to keep in mind. 

15. 段々暑くなって{くる・いく}。
      It will become gradually hotter.

In this case, you could say that the former indicates an inception of a process that is to happen. It's more vivid and doesn't feel that it's going to take long for this change to occur. Once it has become quite hotter, it could just reach a point and stay that way. The latter option doesn't imply this. Rather, the latter shows a slower, gradual change that will occur and continue on that way. So, even if both sentences were used in the context of the temperature reaching 100F, with the latter, it could just continue to steadily get higher.   


 More Examples

Variant Note: It is also important to realize that ~ていく is often contracted to ~てく in casual speech in the same way ~ている is contracted to ~てる. Be sure to recognize it in different conjugations. For example, ~てった = ~ていった. However, this contraction is avoided in conjugations in which it might get confused with ~てくる. For instance, ~ていきなさい would accidentally become ~てきなさい if you dropped い. 

16. ひと りで 子供 こども そだ ててきました。
      I have brought up my children alone.

17. 帰 ( ) ってくるまでここで ( ) っててね。(Casual)
      Just wait here until I come back.

18. 先生 ( ) ( はい ) ってくるのを ( ) つ。
      To wait for the teacher to come in.

19. 氷がどんどんと せま ってきた。
      The ice steadily approached and came (here).

20. 彼は新聞 ( ) ( ) ってくるのを ( ) れた。
      He forgot about bringing the newspaper. 

21. 寒 ( ) くなってきたみたいだ。
      It looks like it’s becoming colder.

22. ガスが( ( まわ ) って) ( ) た。
      Gas came.

Word Note: 回る in this context emphasizes the circulation of gas. 

23. カーテンの ( うし ) ろから ( ) づいてくるなんてこわい。
      Approaching from behind the curtain like that is scary.

24. 時 ( ) ( ) のように ( ) ぎていきました。
      Time started to pass by like an arrow.

25. 彼 ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) まで ( ) いていきました。
      He walked to the station through the rain.

26. 持 ( ) ってきてください。
      Please bring it.

27. 持 っていってください。
      Please take it (away).

28. ペン一本も持ってきませんでした。
      I didn't bring a single pen. 

29. プレゼントに銀ドルを持っていきました。
      I took a silver dollar as a gift. 

30. ちょっとお金を忘れてきちゃった。貸してくれない。(Casual)
      I forgot to bring some money. Could you lend me some?

31. 雪 ってきたかと うともうやんだ。
      Just as I thought it had started to snow, it had already stopped. 

Phrase Note: かと思うと = "just as I thought".

32. 彼 れてきてください。
      Please bring him.

33. 彼 れていきなさい。
      Take him away.

34. 今夜は岡田さんを連れてきました。
      I brought Mr. Okada along tonight.

35. シネコンに行くんだったら、僕も連れて行ってくれない。
      If you're going to the cinema complex, can't you take me along too? 

Word Note: Notice the contrast in definitions between 連れて[いく・くる] and 持って[いく・くる] 

36. 彼東京 ってから 五日後 ってきた。
      I came back home after five days after he left Tokyo.

37. {日常 にちじょう ・日々}の 生活問題 せいかつもんだい が{ かさ なってくる・ なる}でしょう。
     Normal daily life problems will pile on.

38. ヒマワリの種をまいてから、一週間とたたないうちに芽が出てきました。
      After I planted the sunflower seeds, they sprouted in no less than a week.

39. 彼女 に( っ) していきました。
      She moved to Kobe last month.

40. これからも頑張っていきたいと思います。
      I'd like to continue to do my best from now on. 

41a. 彼部屋 へや んできました。
41b. He rushed into my room.  


~ていく → ゆく

~ゆく may seldom follow the stem of verbs in a poetic fashion. This is in fact the original form the pattern took, which is why it is deemed poetic/nostalgic. ~てゆく also exists, which is quite nostalgic and is very common in songs and literature. 

42. 大事な思い出も記憶から消え(て)ゆくのであろう。
      Even important memories will slip from your memory.  

43. 花燃えゆく。
      Flowers, burn away. 

44. 死 ( ) にゆく。
      To be dying.


なってくる VS なっていく 

Although the previous information may be sufficient enough to make the differences between these two phrases easy enough to ascertain, given that they are still often misunderstood, it's best to go through this as an independent point of discussion. First, consider the following.

48. こちらも、こんなに寒くなって{きた・いったX}のですから、そちらは、これからますます寒くなって{いく・くるX}ことでしょうね。
Since it has become cold like this here, it will definitely get steadily cold there after this.

This is a wonderful example of how the two can even be seen in the same complex sentence but yet have zero interchangeability. The first part states the change that it has become cold and still is cold at the speaker's location. In saying so, the speaker makes a conjecture that it will get cold somewhere else away from the speaker. These distinctions are crucial to keep in mind. Here are some more sentences to consider.

49a. 10月だ。故郷は、もう寒くなってきただろうか。 〇
49b. 10月だ。故郷は、もう寒くなっていっただろうか。X
         It's October. Hasn't it already gotten cold at our hometown?

50. 5月も半ばだから、そろそろ暑くなってくるね。梅雨が明けると、それこそ、ますます暑くなってくるんだろうけど。
Since it's already the middle of May, it should be getting hot soon, right? Once the rainy season lifts, that alone should make it get hotter gradually. 

51. 6ヶ月もダイエット続けてるのに、太ってくばかりで、ちっともやせてこないんだよ。
Although I've been on this diet for 6 months, I've only continued to gain and haven't gotten a bit skinnier!

Though the last may be harder to follow from the free translation, it would be a great mistake to change the speech modals to one or the other. When used with intransitive verbs that express change, you are showing a natural change of events by a given process. When you use ~ていく, you say that at the time the change starts, there will continue to be change from that point onward. ~てくる gives a more punctual feel to the instant of change. So, ~ていった would be like "had been getting..." whereas ~てきた would be like "got".  


第134課: Best That: ~方 Patterns & ~に越したことはない

For some reason, students are compelled to use the word 方 excessively.  

Best/Better That

方がいい means “best to…” and with verbs, you should use the past tense, and with adjectives or the negative, you should use the non-past tense. However, this can still be used with the non-past of verbs, and いい can be replaced with phrases like 賢明だ (wise).

~方がいい is used in the written and spoken language. It is often used in daily conversation, but it is often used by Japanese learners when giving suggestions/advice, which may lead some Japanese to smirk.

Non-past +方がいい is primarily used with one’s in-group as it is used a lot in situations where you are giving direct advice on what is best to do. Past+方がいい is felt to be more euphemistic and is often used towards one’s out-group. However, some people have personal preferences for one or the other.

1. 今すぐ行った方がいいです。
    It'd be best to go right now.

2. 寝た方がいい。
    It's best to sleep.

3. よく考えた方がいい。
    You'd better think that over.

4. 泳ぐ前に、 日焼 ( ひや ) ( ) めを ( ) った方がいいよ。
    It's best to put on sunblock before swimming.

5. たまご は食べない方がいい。 (Contrasting and or highlighting)
    It's best to not eat eggs.

6. {ほとんどの}わずかな ( みせ ) しか開いていないから、今食品を買った方がいい。
    Since there are only but a few stores that are open, it's best to buy food now.

7. 彼はそこへ行った方がよい。
     It is best for him to go there.

8. 毎日運動した方がいい。
    It's best to exercise every day. 

Nuance Note: Even when there is not a second reference mentioned, this pattern implies a comparison between things. It may sound pushy depending on the context as it can be used to impose your will/thought. When you want to make a simple suggestion, you can use ~たらいい.

Again, other things than just いい may also appear in this fashion.

9. 当人に会って直接に話し合った方が 効果 ( こうか ) はあると思います。
     I think that it is effective to meet with the said person and directly talk together (about it). 


Non-Past + 方がいい

It is also worth noting that when you use the pattern "Non-past+方がいい", there could be several things that are good to do in the said situation, but you pick one as an example of being good.

10. 折りにふれて 想起 ( そうき ) するほうがいい。
      Occasionally, it is good to call it to mind.


~がよい

~がよい can create a suggestion bordering on a command, and it uses older grammar by just directly following verbs without the need of a nominalizer like の. 

11. そうするがよい。
      You had better do it.


 ~方: How to...

Following the stem of a verb, ~ ( かた ) means "how to...". Sometimes this may not show up in translation. For instance, 読み方 may very well be able to be translated as "how to read," but it can also be sufficiently translated as "reading" depending on context. 

12. 弟の笑い方が気に食わねー。(Slang)
     I can't stand the way my little brother smiles.

13. 日本語の書き方をよく知っていますか。
      Do you know how to write Japanese well?

14. 行き方が全く分からない。
     I don't know the way to go at all.

15. どの読み方を使うべきかは分かりません。
      I don't know which reading I'm supposed to use.

16. 本当に ひど い言い方だよ。
      That's a hideous way to talk.

17. しかたがありません。(Set Phrase)
     It can't be helped.  

18. 簡単な覚え方を教えてくださいませんか。
     Could you teach me an easy way to remember? 

~に越したことはないが

~に したことはない(が) means "can never...too much" and is used in giving common sense advice. The verb 越す has meanings all related to the idea of "surpassing". This phrase is used to show that nothing beats doing X.  So, when young people use it in certain situations, it can make them sound arrogant. 

If turned into ~に越したことはなかった, you end up showing regret. This is because you recognize what was the best thing to do, but you didn't do it. This directly follows verbs and adjectives, but for adjectival nouns, the copula is either as である or not there at all (which is most common). 

19. かさ を持つに越したことはない。
      It's always best to have an umbrella.

20. 貯金をするに越したことはなかったが、ちょっと生活を楽しむことができた。
      Nothing would have beat saving, but I got to enjoy life a little.  

21. 用心 ようじん に越したことはないが、そんな服装を着るなんて 派手 はで すぎるじゃない?      
      You can never be too careful, but isn't wearing an outfit like that too showy?   


第135課: ~てしまう

~てしまう is an extremely important ending. It is often described as showing perfected actions or things done on accident, but what does this actually mean and is there more to it? This lesson will discuss the nuances that it has as well as important variants used in every speech of it.  

~てしまう

 Spelling and Other Meanings 

The verb しまう either means "to end" or "to keep/put back". In 漢字, you might see it spelled as 仕舞う, 終う, or 了う. As you can imagine, the latter two spellings are perfect fits for its meaning of "to end". The only time when you should take this verb literally when after て is when there is an intentional pause. Then, you have to be careful about what other possible homophonous phrases fit--especially when listening.

Take for instance this classic demonstration in Japanese linguistics concerning this very thing.

1. 変態な本を読んで、しまった。
   I read a perverted book, and (then) I put it up.

2. 変態な本を読んでしまった。
  I accidentally read a perverted book.


 The 3 Nuances of ~てしまう

So, what is ~てしまう? It sadly doesn't have one meaning. There are basically three ways it is used. Intonation plays a role in discerning whether しまう is supplementary or not. When supplementary, you get the pattern ~てしまう, which has one of the three meanings below.

1. To show a sense of regret/surprise when you did have volition in doing something, but it turned out to be bad to do. This can also be sarcastically and cleverly used in a positive attitude while still being natural. Sexual relations come to mind. 
2.  To show perfective/punctual achievement. This shows that an action has been completed. It should not be used with something like ~そうだ, which is a nonfactual speech modal.
3. To show unintentional action--"accidentally". Often used with adverbs like うっかり (absentmindedly) and ぐうぜんに (unexpectedly).

Clarification Notes:

1. Statives (verbs that show state not action) can be used with ~てしまう too. However, they are not perfective in any sense. When put together, the perfective is never expressed. Rather, it goes back to point 1.  
2. It's important to view these usages as instances of the same thing interpreted differently in context because there are cases where more than one reading is possible. At times, all three can be meant together. In  "うっかり花瓶を割ってしまった", the act of breaking the vase is perfective. It could have been accidentally broken. Plus, you could feel regret over having broken it.

 Examples

1. スープは めてしまっている。
   My soup has gotten cold.

2. あの 子供 はのろのろと 椅子 いす から がった 突然倒 とつぜんたお れてしまったよ。
   That kid over there suddenly collapsed after he rose up sluggishly from the chair.

3. 恋人 こいびと たちは 二人サンバおど らなくなってしまった。
   The couple ended up not dancing the samba together.

4. 花瓶 かびん こわ してしまって、 ばつ のが れたい。
  I accidentally broke the vase, and I hope I don't get punished.
  More literally: I accidentally broke the vase, and I want to escape punishment. 

5. 窓 めなかったので、 風邪 いてしまいました。
  I didn't close the window, and so I caught a cold.  

6. 夏服 なつふく 押入 おしい れにしまった。
   I put my summer clothes in the closet.

7. 明日までにレポートを書いてしまいます。
  I'll finish writing the report by tomorrow.

8. お金を使ってしまった。
   I regrettably used the money.  

Practice: Translate the following.

1. 宿題をしてしまいました。
2. I ate them all.
3. 僕の車が故障してしまった。
4. 眠ってしまった。
5. To keep information back.


~ちゃう & ~じゃう

~てしまう may be contracted to -ちゃう (playful) or -ちまう (vulgar/mature men). These forms are voiced as ~じゃう and ~じまう respectively when て is used with certain 五段 verbs. 

 食べてしまう → 食べちゃう  見てしまう → 見ちゃう  呼んでしまう → 呼んじゃう
 読んでしまう → 読んじゃう  死んでしまう → 死んじゃう  ばれてしまう → ばれちゃう
 着てしまう → 着ちゃう  切ってしまう → 切っちゃう  してしまう → しちゃう

Grammar Note: The use of slang and polite speech is usually improper, but there are times when these casual forms are used in familiar polite speech, but this would be most common by children and women than men. 

 Examples

9, 見る見るうちに 老人 ろうじん になっちゃった!
In the blink of an eye, I turned into an old person!

10. ガソリンが れちゃった。 最寄 もより の(ガソリン)スタンドまで っててもらえる?
      I ran out of gas. Could you tow me to the nearest gas station?

11. その んじゃいました。 
      I finished reading that book.

12. 犬くる っちゃった。
      The dog went crazy.

13. 中国語 かと っちゃった。
       I mistook it for Chinese.

14. 財布 さいふ れちゃったよ。
      I forgot my wallet.

15. どうして空き地にし{てしま・ちゃ}わないのか。 
      Why won't they make it into an empty lot? 

16. 不注意 ふちゅうい からカップを おと しちゃった。
       I accidentally spilled the cup due to carelessness.

17. とても かったから、 火傷 やけど しちゃった。
      Because it was very hot, I accidentally scalded my mouth.


 関西弁: ~て(し)もた

The 関西弁 version is so commonly seen in manga and anime that not mentioning it would do you a disservice. しまった and しもた share the same origin. ~た instead attached to the 終止形. This produced しまうた. The vowel sequence au simplified to a long o in Western dialects, and this was then shortened in this phrase and many others. The し is then dropped in even more colloquial speech.  

18. 忘 れて(し)もた!
      I completely forgot!

19. 買うて(し)もた。
      I accidentally bought it.

関西弁の音便 (Kansai Dialect Sound Change): かって → こうて.


はめになる

  This phrase is equivalent to "end up; wind up; (come down) to". はめ may be written in 漢字 as 羽目 or 破目. はめ  in this case actually means "bind" as in an awkward situation. 

20. 彼は言 いなりになるはめになった。
      He ended up giving in to him. 

21. 僕罰金 ばっきん 支払 しはら うはめになった。
      I ended up paying a fine. 

22. ねずみは おぼ れるはめになった。
      The mouse ended up drowning.

23. 疑うはめになる。
     To come to suspect. 

Key

Practice 

1.    I (have) completed by homework.
2.    全部食べてしまった。
3.    My car broke down.
4.    I accidentally slept.
5.    情報をしまっておく。


第136課: Advanced Preparation: ~ておく

~ておく is most known by Japanese learners as expressed advanced preparation, and it is typically simply translated as “in advance”. However, there are many syntactic and semantic differences between the Japanese pattern and the English equivalent. With that being the case, this lesson will provide you the information necessary to fully utilize ~ておく.

~ておく

The basic sentence structure for ~ておく is “Xが +(Y) + Verb of Volition A+ ておく”. So, before knowing anything about what the pattern means, you already know that a lot of verbs are ungrammatical with it. Does someone have will over the action? If so, then without any additional information it should be OK.

Speech Style/Contraction Note: Before we get any farther, it’s important to know that this pattern may be contracted to ~とく in colloquial speech.

There are two broad usages of ~ておく. This initial coverage may suffice for most students, but the rest of the lesson delves into issues with it and other phrases that are very similar and ~ておく's own limitations. 


1. Before a situation occurs, X changes the current situation in a positive preparation for something. In the non-past tense, this means that verb A has yet to happen, and the speaker is saying that from now they will do so in advance of, again, a certain situation.

1. 韓国に 駐在 ( ちゅうざい ) といわれたよ。少しでも韓国語を習っておかないといけないね
   I was told that I’d be stationed in Korea. I guess I have to learn some Korean in advance.

2.  こんなこともわかんないのか。これしきのこと、知っとかなきゃだめだぞ。(男性語; やや 無礼 ( ぶれい ) )
  You don’t even know this sort of thing? You have to know at least just this much!

3. 帰るまでには、思い出しておいてよね。(ちょっと女性っぽい)
  Have it remembered by the time I return home, OK?

4. あれほど 注意 ( ちゅうい ) しておいたほうがいいと ( おも ) う。
  I think it's best to be careful to that extent.

5. あらかじめ連絡しておいた方がいいんじゃないでしょうか
  Perhaps it would be best to contact them beforehand?

漢字 Note: あらかじめ may also be written as 予め.


2. Trying to actively maintain the current condition. Verb A is still not realized, but in trying to continue to maintain a certain condition, Verb A is to be done.

6. 先日のご本を金曜日までお借りしておいてもよろしいですか。(敬語)
  Is it alright if I borrow your book from the other day until Friday?

7. その 道具 ( どうぐ ) は今要りませんから、そのまま入れておいてください
   That tool isn't needed now, so please leave it [in there] as is.

8. とりあえず、ここでやめておきます。
   Anyways, I'll stop here.

9. もうこれ 以上 ( いじょう ) あんたをのさばらしておくことはできねーぞ。(Vulgar; 男性語)
   I can no longer let you have your own way.   

Grammar Note: のさばらす is a causative form of のさばる, which means "to have one's way".  

10.  演奏 えんそう が演奏だけに放ってはおけないでね。
    You mustn't blow it off just because a performance is a performance.

Sentence Note: The sentence basically says that the performance was really horrible. 

11. もとのままにしておく
   To leave it as it is originally.

12. 金庫 きんこ にしまっとけ
   Keep it in the safe!

13. 自分は自分のその女にたいする感情を 厚意 ( こうい ) の程度でとめておけたろう。(ちょっと古風)
    I believe I've been able to keep my own emotions towards that woman to the degree of favor.
From 友情 by 武者小路実篤 むしゃのこうじさねあつ .

In either case, one contemplates a situation to happen latter, and in order for that situation in time to be beneficial, one is going to perform Action A. So, X affirmatively does Verb A or Verb A being done is anticipated.

There also happens to be situations where the situation can't be called positive. In this, the speaker expresses a negative manner in light of maintaining the current situation being the best option. In this sense, emotions of abandonment/resignation may be mixed in.

14. ひとりにしといてやれ。何言っても、どうせ聞きはしないよ。(ちょっと砕けた)
   I’ll leave you to yourself. I won’t listen to you no matter what you say.

15. 仕方ないよな、食べさせとこうよ。そのうち ( ) えはじめちゃうしさ。(砕けた)
   I guess there’s no other choice; I’ll let you eat. You’ll end up starting to bark before long.


The Verb 置く

The literal meaning of the verb 置く, from which ~ておく derives, is "to place". There are positive situations where it is used, and there are also instances where it negatively portrays negligence and abandonment.

16. 時計を友達の机の上に置く。
   To place a watch one one’s friend’s desk.

17. 3軒おいた隣が、 幼稚園教諭 ( ようちえんきょうゆ ) のお ( たく ) です。
   Three houses down is the home of the kindergarten teacher.

18. 私の学校は 外国語 ( がいこくご ) 重点 ( じゅうてん ) を置いていません。
   My school is not putting stress on foreign languages.

19. 夫と子どもをおいて家出する。
   To run away from home leaving one’s husband and children.

Orthography Note: ~ておく is normally not spelled as ~て置く unless 置く is used in a more literal sense.


~ておいた 

~ておいた, even though the pattern is in the past tense, does not mean that the condition in which actions have been made in preparation for has occurred. You just state that you've done something in preparation. ~ておいた may also show that one has continued to maintain a past circumstance. 

20. 明後日はコンサートですから、 切符 ( きっぷ ) を買っておきました。
   Since the concert is two days from now, I bought tickets in advance.

27. その毛布はまだ ( かわ ) いてなかったから、そのまんま ( ) といたよ
   Since the blanket wasn't dry yet, I left it to dry.

28. サッちゃん、起こしても眠そうだったから、寝かせておいたの。(ちょっと女性っぽい)
   Since Satchan seemed sleepy even when she would wake up, I had her stay asleep.

29. 「できる」というから、させておいたのに、結局できなかったな。(男性語)
   Although I let you do it since you said you could, you ultimately couldn't.

30. 祥子を泣かせておいたら、泣き寝入りしちゃったみたいわ。(女性語)
   It looks like Sachiko went to bed crying when I let her cry.

31. 持っていくものをケータイのそばに置いておきましたから、忘れないでね。(Wife)
   I put what to bring next to your cellphone, so don’t forget.

Phrase Note: Yes, 置いておく is completely fine and commonly used. After all, the two instances of 置く have separate purposes.

In either situation, ~ておいた strengthens the sense that preparations have been completed. Again, whether or not the past condition is continuing into the present depends on the situation. Whether the situation is positive or negative, the speaker is thinking of what’s to come ahead, and in intentions of having it beneficial, A is done.


Verbs ~ておく Can & can't Be With

~ておく, as mentioned earlier, is used with a wide range of verbs of volition whereas other speech modals cannot. 

1. Full Volition: We will see why other options don’t work in more detail later in this lesson.

32. 万一のことがあってはいけないから、ケータイは持って{〇 おいた・X ある}。
   As the worst case scenario won’t do, I brought my cellphone.

33. すぐに来るかと思って、ここで待って{〇 おいた・△ いる・X ある}んだ。
   Since I though [he'd] come immediately, I’ve waited here in advance. 

2. In situations where a verb usually not volitional is deemed, ~ておく may be used.

34. 次の公演でデブの母さんをやるから、初日までには太っとかなきゃ。 (Casual)
   I gotta get fat by the premiere because I’m playing a fat mother in the next performance.

35. さっき聞いたこと、殺されたくなかったら、忘れておくんだな。(男性語)
   What you heard just now, if you don’t want to be killed, you’ll forget it.

So, if you are using the verb to express what a person is trying to do in preparation for a positive outcome, then ~ておいて・おいた can be used. Now, though, we will investigate some problems with this.

36. NHKの記事で事件を{〇知った・ X 知っておいた}。
   I knew about the matter in an NHK article.

37. 彼のことならよく{〇 知っています・△ 知っておきました}。
   As for him, I know him well. 

The reason why the verb 知る, which is a verb that you can expect a positive effect, and ~ておく can't connect is because it shows received knowledge, information, association, etc. passively through emotion or experience. In these situations, you can't take measures beforehand. However, when considering phrases like ( はじ ) を知れ and 経済情勢を知ろう, there are clearly instances where 知る would be OK with ~ておく. In these instances, one is to fully understand a matter.

38. てき の情勢を知っておけ。
   Know of your enemies’ position beforehand.

39. 親の ( おん ) くらいは知っておけば大丈夫。
   If you know at least your parent’s favor, you’ll be OK.

A similar set of issues exist with 分かる + ておく. If 分かる is used to show a natural, non-volitional change of something unclear becoming clear, then ~ておく can't be used with it. However, when used in a volitional sense, the combination becomes OK.

40. 彼のことをよく分かっておく。
   To understand him well in advance.

41. 彼氏の気持ちも分かっておいてよ。
   Understand your boyfriend’s emotions full well too.


The Two Faces of ~ておく・おいた

Depending on the nature of Verb A, this pattern has one of the following two faces.

1. With verbs that become duration verbs or non-internal limitation verbs, ~ておく shows changing a situation and affirmatively taking measures beforehand.

42. 清潔 せいけつ にしておきなさい。
   Keep your hands clean.

43. メールで連絡しておく。
   To contact in advance with e-mail. 

44. 食事の用意をしておきました。
   I did the preparations for dinner in advance. 

2. With verbs that become instantaneous verbs or internal limitation verbs, ~ておく either shows an affirmative urging/current condition change or a positive/negative current condition maintenance/neglect/dismissal/nonintervention.

45. あとのために、 ( はさみ ) 使 ( つか ) ったら、 ( もと ) ( ところ ) ( もど ) しておいてくださいね。
   For later, please put back the scissors where you got them after you're done using them.

46. ことがことだけに放ってはおけない。
   Since a circumstance is a circumstance, one mustn't let loose.

47. だまっとけ!  (Rude)
   Shut it!

Phrase Note: As you can see, ~とけ can be used to make (rude) commands as such. 

As for the group of verbs that are duration/non-internal limitation verbs such as 連絡する, 用意する, 習う, and 食べる, in the case that they are already realized before the current point in time, they do not express up to the maintaining of the later conditions of having contacted, finishing preparations, being equipped with knowledge, and being full being expressed. So, even though you can use these verbs with the first usage of ~ておく, they do not work with the second.

48. そのまま習っておく。 X

              On the flip side, verbs like 隠す and 壊す are instantaneous/internal limitation verbs, and action being done, whether good or bad, can maintain the result of those verbs, 隠した・壊した.       

49. 犬たちが遊ぶといけないから、壊しておかないといけない。
   Since the dogs can't play [with it], I have to destroy it in advance.

50. 犬たちが遊ぶといけないから、このまま壊しておくほうがいい。
   Since the dogs can't play [with it], it’s best to destroy and have it as is. 


The Effectiveness of ~ておいた

Aておいた deals with something already realized at the base present time, and it expresses an A which is a matter that has already been taken care of. However, at the present time, whether A was effective or not—in reference to the beneficiary factor of ~ておく—is given no concern and is left uncertain. Hopefully this should not be news to your eyes at this point in this lesson. 

52. コンピューターを消さないください。アニメを見るために、つけておいたんです。
      Please don’t turn off the computer. I turned it on in advance to watch anime.

53. コンピューターを消してしまったんですか。アニメを見るために、つけておいたんです。
     Did you accidentally turn off the computer? I turned it on in advance to watch anime.

54. 後でアニメ、見るのでしょう? コンピューターつけておいたよ。
      You're going to be watching anime later, aren't you? I turned on the computer in advance.

55. コンピューターをつけておいたのに、アニメを見なかったの? (ちょっと女性っぽい)
      Although I had turned on the computer, you didn't watch anime? 

56. 出かけますから、コンピューターを消しておきました。
     As I’m leaving, I turned off the computer.

57. お弁当を作っておいたけど、食べたか。
      I had fixed a bento in advance, but you ate it?

These sentences show instances where Verb A was beneficial and not beneficial in the end, but like the last example shows, there are indeed times where this is not certain. What if the speaker was a husband going on a business trip and a financial emergency came about and his wife so happened to need to retrieve something from the computer and expected it to be on but couldn't get it to turn on and use it? This may sound far-fetched, but it’s just one situation where this could be bad. Thus, from the sentence alone one can't 100% make the call whether Verb A was good or bad.


Practice: Translate the following.

1. 呼んどく。
2. 調 ( しら ) べておきます。
3. 連絡 ( れんらく ) しないでおく。
4. よく ( おぼ ) えておけ!
5.  ( かみ ) 信頼 ( しんらい ) ( ) く。
6.  ( くつ ) 玄関 ( げんかん ) に置いてください。
7. 水を ( たくわ ) えておく。
8. 生かしておけない。
9. しまっておけない。
10. 貯めておけない。

11. Consider the differences between the following and effectively explain what each means in your own words.

片付けてある。
片付けておいた。
片付いている。
片付けている。

Keys

Practice

1.    To call in advanced. (Casual language)
2.    I will check in advance.
3.    To leave without contacting (someone).
4.    Remember well!
5.    To place trust in God.
6.    Please leave your shoes at the doorway.
7.    To store water.
8.    To not be able to be left alive (literally); mortal.
9.    To not be able to be put away.
10.  To not be able to be stored/{left/put} aside.

11.

片付けてある: The speaker sounds arrogant and tells the listener that it was he/she that did it. If the person were some pro at clearing off things, then it would definitely imply the speaker’s self-confidence.

片付けておいた: The speaker is just saying that he/she cleared things up, and there is no additional information implied as to what the speaker may be thinking or additional purposes other than simply informing.

片付いている: Shows a nature change and doesn't say if someone did it.

片付けている: Shows that it was done by a person, and the listener would think of a particular person. When the speaker uses it, it does show that it was he/her that did it, but it does not have the effect of ~てある as mentioned before.  


第137課: ~ために I: In order to...

The purpose-marker に attaches to a handful of nouns, creating several important grammar patterns. This is very much the case when it follows the noun 為, which means “objective/benefit” or “result.” Although most typically seen paired with the particle に, 為 can still be used like any other noun with these meanings as demonstrated below.

1. あなた ( ため ) ( おも ) って ( ) うのよ!
I’m saying this for your own good!

2. 世界 ( せかい ) ( ため ) なら 犠牲 ( ぎせい ) 仕方 ( しかた ) ない。
If they’re for the sake of the world, sacrifices can't be helped.

3. 子供 ( こども ) ( ため ) ( おも ) って ( ) っているつもりが、 ( ぎゃく ) にストレスを ( あた ) えているかもしれません。
Your intentions of saying that for your child’s benefit may in fact be conversely stressing out your child.

4.  部下 ぶか 沈黙 ちんもく 上司 じょうし のためにならないし、 組織 そしき にとってもその上司のキャリアにとってもプラスにはならない。
Silence from subordinates is not for the benefit of the boss, nor will it be a plus for the organization or for that boss’ career.

5. ( なさ ) けは ( ひと ) ( ため ) ならず。
Compassion is not for other people’s benefit.

Grammar Note: ならず is the Classical Japanese equivalent of ではない and is commonly seen in proverbs such as Ex. 5. 

When the purpose-marker に follows ため, it is used to express an objective/goal to realize something by one’s utmost effort. In doing so, it is often translated as “for” or “(in order) to” as we will soon see. Aside from showing purpose, in concurrence with its second definition, ため may also be used to show cause. This lesson will focus solely on the first meaning, and in the next lesson we'll focus on the second meaning.


Orthography Note: It’s important to note that 為 is typically written as ため , which is how it will be spelled for the remainder of this lesson. Nonetheless, 為 is still a common spelling. Often, it is the writer’s style or the medium that dictates which spelling is used.

Marking an Objective

The primary purpose of ~ために is to express purpose. In doing so, ~ために must be used with verbs of volition. This does not mean that it is limited to transitive verbs. Rather, it is limited to verbs which have an agent who has control over achieving the stated goal.


Conjugation Recap

Although ~ために follows the same grammar as any other instance of a noun following a verb, because the Japanese expression itself is very different in regard to part of speech from its English counterpart “(in order) to,” we will look at how to conjugate ~ために with each kind of verb.

 /eru/-Ichidan Verb  食べる + ために →  食べるために  (In order) to eat
 /iru/-Ichidan Verb  見る + ために →  見るために  (In order) to see
 /u/-Godan Verb  使う + ために →  使うために  (In order) to use
 /ku/-Godan Verb  行く + ために →  行くために  (In order) to go
 /gu/-Godan Verb  泳ぐ + ために →  泳ぐために  (In order) to swim
 /su/-Godan Verb  話す + ために →  話すために  (In order) to talk
 /tsu/-Godan Verb  勝つ + ために →  勝つために  (In order) to win
 /nu/-Godan Verb  死ぬ + ために →  死ぬために  (In order) to die
 /mu/-Godan Verb  読む + ために →  読むために  (In order) to read
 /ru/-Godan Verb  測る + ために →  測るために  (In order) to measure
 Suru (Verb)  する + ために →  するために  (In order) to do
 Kuru  来る + ために →  来るために  (In order) to come

Conjugation Note: This usage of ~ために is usually used with affirmative expressions, and it must be used with the non-past form of a verb.


The Four Scenarios of the Objective-Marking ~(の)ために

 

Regardless of how ~(の)ために expresses purpose, the agent of both clauses in the sentence are always the same. To visualize this, envision all instances of the purpose-ため as being “AためにB.” The someone doing A and the someone doing B must be the same person. In case you’ve forgotten what “agent” means, the “agent” of a sentence is the “someone doing X.”  

Particle Note: Interestingly, the particle に is often dropped in literary settings from these two expressions when in declarative statements, but in interrogative sentences and/or comments directed at others, に is not dropped. Motivation for this is that in literary settings, grammatical connections such as に’s role of marking purpose that are easily deduced from context are dropped out of a necessity to be concise. Questions or statements directed toward others, though, present a need to be explicit, and so omission of latent parts of a sentence becomes out of place.


①: Noun A + の + ため: Thinking about A’s benefit

This interpretation is used with nouns that either concern people or are/made up of people. This usage is usually translated as “for.” Even when the “A” element in the base sentence pattern “AためにB” is a noun, the particle の is conceptualized as being an abbreviation of some verbal expression. For instance, in Ex. 6, a verb that comes to mind that の before ため stands for is 援助 ( えんじょ ) する (to aid).  

6. ( まず ) しい 人々 ( ひとびと ) のために 何百万円 ( なんひゃくまんえん ) もの 慈善寄付金 ( じぜんきふきん ) ( あつ ) めました。
We have collected millions of yen in charity contributions for the poor.

7. ( いま ) までで 一番国民 ( いちばんこくみん ) のための 政治 ( せいじ ) ( おこな ) ってくれた 総理大臣 ( そうりだいじん ) ( だれ ) だと ( おも ) いますか?
Of the prime ministers up till now, who do you think has governed for the people the most?

8. 社会貢献活動 ( しゃかいこうけんかつどう ) ( とお ) して、 安全 ( あんぜん ) 快適 ( かいてき ) 社会 ( しゃかい ) のために様々 ( さまざま ) 活動 ( かつどう ) ( おこな ) っています。
Through social action programs, we are conducting various operations for a safe and pleasant society.

9. 言葉 ( ことば ) ( かべ ) により、 ( たか ) 能力 ( のうりょく ) ( ) かせない 外国人生徒 ( がいこくじんせいと ) のため( ) ( ) 授業 ( じゅぎょう ) 外国人生徒 ( がいこくじんせいと ) サポーターなどによる 教育支援体制 ( きょういくしえんたいせい ) ( ととの ) えている。
For foreign students who cannot make the best of their high-level abilities due to language barrier, (they) have arranged an education support structure by means of separate classes and foreign-student supporters.

10. 会社 ( かいしゃ ) のために ( はたら ) いていることが、お 客様 ( きゃくさま ) ( よろこ ) ばれ、それが 自分 ( じぶん ) 家族 ( かぞく ) のためになるのであればそれでいいし、 自分 ( じぶん ) 家族 ( かぞく ) のために ( はたら ) くことでお 客様 ( きゃくさま ) から 支持 ( しじ ) され、それが 会社 ( かいしゃ ) にとっても 有益 ( ゆうえき ) ならそれでいい。また、お 客様 ( きゃくさま ) のために ( はたら ) いていることが、 自分 ( じぶん ) ( よろこ ) びとなり、それが 結果的 ( けっかてき ) 会社 ( かいしゃ ) 利益 ( りえき ) ( つな ) がり、 給料 ( きゅうりょう ) ( ) がることで 家族 ( かぞく ) ( よろこ ) びとなればそれでいい。
Working for the company will delight one’s clientele, which is fine if it becomes beneficial for oneself and one’s family, and if one receives support from one’s clients by working for oneself and one’s family and that is also profitable to the company, then that’s fine. Also, if working for one’s clientele becomes one’s joy, which is then consequently tied to the company’s benefit, and leads to a raise that becomes one’s family’s delight, that too is fine.   


②: Noun A + の + ため: Objective to realizing A

In this usage, “Noun A” refers to some entity that can be viewed as a purpose/goal, and what follows is the objective for realizing that said purpose/goal. This usage can also have its parts reversed to have the objective stated first with the sentence ending in ~ためだ (Ex. 11). This usage is also typically translated as “for.”

11. なぜ 会社 ( かいしゃ ) のために 仕事 ( しごと ) (を)するかというと、 自身 ( じしん ) 収入 ( しゅうにゅう ) のためです。
As to why one works for one’s company, it’s for one’s own income.

Grammar Note: Though the first instance of ため is of Usage 1, the sentence-ending instance is of Usage 2. “Working for one’s computer” is the objective for realizing one’s source of income.

12. 安全 ( あんぜん ) 社会 ( しゃかい ) 実現 ( じつげん ) のためには、すべての 市民 ( しみん ) 理解 ( りかい ) 協力 ( きょうりょく ) 必要 ( ひつよう ) です。
For the realization of a safe society, understanding and cooperation of all townspeople is necessary.

13. 自分自身 ( じぶんじしん ) 健康 ( けんこう ) 幸福 ( こうふく ) のために ( てき ) ( ゆる ) し、 ( わす ) れましょう。
For one’s own health and happiness, forgive one’s enemies and forget.

14. ( なん ) のために ( たたか ) うのか。 権力 ( けんりょく ) のためか。 自由 ( じゆう ) のためか。 平和 ( へいわ ) のためか。
What do you fight for? For influence? For freedom? For peace?

15. 責任 ( せきにん ) ある 科学者 ( かがくしゃ ) は、 科学 ( かがく ) 健全 ( けんぜん ) 発展 ( はってん ) のために、こうした 事態 ( じたい ) ( みずか ) 適切 ( てきせつ ) 対応 ( たいおう ) していく 必要 ( ひつよう ) がある。
As for the scientists responsible, it is necessary that they themselves adequately handle these situations for the healthy development of science.

念のため、確認したいのですが、上記の認識で大丈夫でしょうか。
I want to make sure just in case. Is my understanding above okay?


③: Verb + ための Noun B: Noun B which realizes stated goal

Although this can also be seen as Noun A + ための Noun B, the point of Usage 3 is that when ~(の)ため is followed directly by another noun, that Noun B is what realizes the stated goal seen before ため. This usage may be translated as “for” or “to.”

16. 住民 ( じゅうみん ) 福祉 ( ふくし ) 向上 ( こうじょう ) させるための 政策 ( せいさく ) 実施 ( じっし ) する。
To implement political measures for advancing the welfare of residents.

17. ( しあわ ) せになるためのたったひとつの ( みち ) とは?
What is the one single path to becoming happy?

18. 場所 ( ばしょ ) によっては、 着替 ( きが ) えるための 部屋 ( へや ) 提供 ( ていきょう ) してくれるところもある。
Depending on the location, there are also places that will offer you a room to change.

19. 一人暮 ( ひとりぐ ) らしをするための 部屋 ( へや ) ( ) りるときには、 部屋 ( へや ) ( ) してくれる 大家 ( おおや ) さんと 賃貸契約 ( ちんたいけいやく ) ( むす ) ぶことになります。
When renting a room to live alone, you will sign a lease agreement with the landlord who is renting you the room. 

20. ( すべ ) ては、 家族 ( かぞく ) により ( ) 生活 ( せいかつ ) をもたらすためだ。
It is all [for bringing/to bring] about a better life for (their) families.

漢字 Note: The verb もたらす (to bring about) is only seldom spelled as 齎す.


④: Verb of Volition + ためには + Expression of Obligation

~ためには involves willful action/control by the agent/speaker in question. For verbs that have intransitive-transitive pairs, only the transitive form should be used with this pattern. This is further enforced by the sentences ending in an expression of obligation.

21. 成功 ( せいこう ) するためには面倒臭 ( めんどうぐさ ) いことをたくさんしなければなりませんよ。
(In order) to success, you must do lots of tiresome things.

22. 優良 ( ゆうりょう ) 見込 ( みこ ) ( きゃく ) 獲得 ( かくとく ) するためには、これを 見極 ( みきわ ) めなくてはなりません。
(In order) to acquire excellent prospective [customers/clients], you must get to the bottom of this.

23. 大型船舶 ( おおがたせんぱく ) 運航 ( うんこう ) するためには 海技士 ( かいぎし ) 免許 ( めんきょ ) 必要 ( ひつよう ) です。
(In order to) operate a large seacraft, [a mariner license is necessary/you must be a licensed mariner].

24. 心臓病 ( しんぞうびょう ) 予防 ( よぼう ) するためには、どうすればいいですか。
(In order) to prevent heart disease, what should one do?

25. 英語 ( えいご ) 習得 ( しゅうとく ) するためには、あなたの 生活 ( せいかつ ) ( なか ) 英語 ( えいご ) 優先順位 ( ゆうせんじゅんい ) ( たか ) くしましょう。
(In order) to learn English, increase the priority of English in your daily life.


~ないために

As mentioned earlier, ~ないために is seldom used. This is because for it to be grammatical, 100% or near 100% confidence that the agent has control over the non-realization of “A” must be implied. Remember, the base sentence pattern for ~ために is “AためにB.” Just as how ため carries a very affirmative nuance of “A” being realized by a stated objective “B,” when paired with a negative sentence, this becomes a very affirmative statement that “A” won’t realize by means of the stated objective “B.”

26. スズメバチに ( おそ ) われないためには、どのようなことに ( ) をつけたらよいのでしょうか。
What sort of things should one be careful of to not be attacked by wasps?

Sentence Note: This question asks about what actions—“B”—can be taken to give the agent control over the non-realization of “A”—being attacked by wasps.

27. 被害 ( ひがい ) ( ) わないために、 様々 ( さまざま ) 詐欺 ( さぎ ) 手口 ( てぐち ) について ( ) っておきましょう!
Know about the various scam tricks in order not to become victimized!

Sentence Note: The use of ~ために is appropriate so long the speaker implies that “B”—actively finding out and learning about the various scam tricks—brings about person control over not becoming a victim.

28. そうならないためにも専門家以外の人に相談するのはやめましょう。
Refrain from consulting with non-experts to make it so it also doesn’t happen that way.

Grammar Note: Although なる typically doesn’t imply volition, this sentence implies that “B” is the means by which the agent has control over “A” not realizing, thus making the sentence grammatical.

29. ( ) なないために ( ) きるのは 御免 ( ごめん ) だ。
I'll have nothing to do with living in order not to die.

30. ~パリ 協定後 ( きょうていご ) 投融資 ( とうゆうし ) ( あやま ) らないために~
—In Order not to Make Investment and Lending Mistakes Post-Paris Accords—

Sentence Note: The use of ~ないために is most common in headlines such as this.


第???課: ~ために II: Due to...

~ために, as hinted at in the introduction of the previous lesson, is not limited to expressing an objective. Another primary interpretation that may or may not coincide with an objective is expressing a cause. This lesson will help you understand exactly how to use and understand this "cause-marking" ~ために and how it contrasts and coincides with the "objective-marking" ~ために.

Marking a Cause

The cause-marking ~ために is used to express the cause of something in a reserved manner. It is equivalent to the English phrase “due to.” It can be seen after nouns, adjectival nouns, adjectives, and verbs. For conjugatable parts of speech, it can be seen after both the non-past and past tenses.

 Part of Speech  Non-Past Tense  Past Tense
 Nouns  N + の + ため(に)  N + だった + ため(に)
 Adjectival  Nouns  Adj. N + な + ため(に)  Adj. N + だった + ため(に)
 Adjectives  Adj. + ため(に)  Adj. + かった + ため(に)
 Verbs  V + ため(に)  V + た + ため(に) 

 Semantic Restrictions

The cause-marking ~ために is only used in declarative sentences and the questions made from said sentences. The basic sentence pattern with the cause-marking ために is “A + ために + B.” The A expresses cause if B is the result of A having occurred. Generally speaking, when the agent of A and B are the same, then ~ために expresses an objective, but when the agent of A and B differ, it expresses cause. This rule of thumb only works, though, with the non-past tense. When you see ~ため(に) after the past tense or the progressive form (~ている), or whenever both clauses lack a true active agent, then it is always the cause-marking interpretation.

Particle Note: The に in ~ために is frequently omitted, and when the statement is a positive one, it’s most natural to omit it. When に isn’t present, the statement is as neutral as can be. When に is present, the cause stands out more, but there is no emphasis as to whether the cause is good or bad.

Usage Note: This pattern is almost entirely used in the written language and/or in news(-like speech). 

1. 現在 ( げんざい ) 工事 ( こうじ ) のために 閉鎖中 ( へいさちゅう ) です。
(Road) currently closed due to construction.

2. ( もっと ) 得票 ( とくひょう ) ( おお ) 候補者 ( こうほしゃ ) でも 当選 ( とうせん ) 必要 ( ひつよう ) 票数 ( ひょうすう ) ( とど ) かなかったため再選挙 ( さいせんきょ ) ( おこな ) われることになった。
Due to the fact that not even the candidate who won the most votes reached the necessary count to be elected, a repeat election is to be held.

3. 彼女 ( かのじょ ) 容姿端麗 ( ようしたんれい ) な・だったため{に X・ø 〇}、 数々 ( かずかず ) 男子学生 ( だんしがくせい ) ( あこが ) れの ( まと ) だった。
She was the object of adoration of numerous male students due to her attractive face and figure.

4. 彼女 ( かのじょ ) 容姿端麗 ( ようしたんれい ) なために数々 ( かずかず ) 男子学生告白 ( だんしがくせいこくはく ) されたりするのにうんざりしている。
She is fed up with having numerous male students confess their love for her due to her attractive face and figure.

5. このため、フジテレビは 今後 ( こんご ) 放送 ( ほうそう ) ( ) りやめることにした。
Because of this, Fuji Television has decided to call off further broadcast (of the program).  

6. 業績 ( ぎょうせき ) 右肩下 ( みぎかたさ ) がりの 時期 ( じき ) 入社 ( にゅうしゃ ) したためか組織変更 ( そしきへんこう ) の繰り ( かえ ) しで ( ひと ) 出入 ( でい ) りが ( はげ ) しい。
Perhaps due to having entered the company at a time when performance was declining, turnover was relentless with repeated structure changes.

Grammar Note: ~ためか is equivalent to “perhaps due to.”

7. ( あね ) 結婚 ( けっこん ) するため( ちち ) はアルバイトして、お ( かね ) を貯めている。
My father is working a part-time job and saving money because my older sister is marrying.

Sentence Note: It may also be the case that the father is saving the money so that his daughter may marry, but this would be something one must confirm whether this is true with the father.

8. ( あね ) 結婚 ( けっこん ) するために、アルバイトして、お ( かね ) を貯めている。
My older sister is working a part-time job saving money in order to marry.

Sentence Note: Because the agent is the same in all clauses of the sentence, ために is interpreted here as “in order to.” The same can be said for Ex. 9.

9. 研究者 ( けんきゅうしゃ ) ( なぞ ) ( さぐ ) ため(に) 実験 ( じっけん ) ( ) ( ) した。
Scientist have also set out to experimenting (in order) to probe the mystery.

10. 秋雨前線 ( あきさめぜんせん ) ( ちか ) づいているため( くも ) ( ぞら ) となりました。
The weather has become cloudy due to an autumnal rain front approaching.

11. 結局 ( けっきょく ) 最終 ( さいしゅう ) バスに ( ) ( おく ) れたため( ほか ) 友達 ( ともだち ) 徒歩 ( とほ ) でキャンパスへ 帰還 ( きかん )
Returned to campus by foot with other friends due to ultimately missing the final bus.

Sentence Note: This sentence is representative of blog-style writing.

12. ( まわ ) りの ( ひと ) ( ) せびらかしたいために、ゲームがしたいために 機種 ( きしゅ ) ( ) える、 ( きみ ) 両親 ( りょうしん ) はそんな 理由 ( りゆう ) 何万 ( なんまん ) ( えん ) )も ( ) せるわけが ( ) いでしょう?
Changing devices because you want to show off to people around or because you want to play a game… there’s no way that your parents could dish out tens of thousands of yen for those sort of reasons, no?

13. ( ゆう ) べはぐっすり ( ) ていたため地震 ( じしん ) ( ) ( ) きませんでした。
As I was fast asleep last night, I did not feel the earthquake.

14. 十分 ( じゅうぶん ) 情報 ( じょうほう ) がないため、サーバーを 検証 ( けんしょう ) できません。
Cannot access server due to insufficient information.

15. 濃霧 ( のうむ ) のため( くるま ) という ( くるま ) はみなライトをつけて ( はし ) っている。
Due to dense fog, every single car is running with its headlights on.

16. ( ) ( きり ) のため管制塔 ( かんせいとう ) からの 指示 ( しじ ) があるまで、 着陸 ( ちゃくりく ) 見合 ( みあ ) わせています。
Due to dense fog, landing will be postponed until there are instructions from the control tower.

17. サービスが ( わる ) かったため(に)、お ( きゃく ) さんが ( ) った。
Customers have diminished since service was bad.


 ~ます + ~ため(に)

There are also instances in which you will find the cause-marking ~ため(に) after polite endings such as ~ます, ~ました,  and ~ません in attempt to be more formal. This is also almost entirely used in the written language. Some speakers frown on this practice, preferring the plain speech forms; however, it is nonetheless important to know that both ~ますため and ~ませんため are used a lot.

Particle Note: The particle に is seldom seen after ため in this situation.

18. 現時点 ( げんじてん ) では、まだ 完治 ( かんち ) ( いた ) っておりませんため今後 ( こんご ) 通院 ( つういん ) して 治療 ( ちりょう ) ( つづ ) ける 予定 ( よてい ) です。
Because I have yet to fully recover at this time, I plan on continuing my treatment through outpatient visits going forward.

19. 返品 ( へんぴん ) 交換 ( こうかん ) ( ) ( ) けておりませんため、 ( あらかじ ) めご 了承下 ( りょうしょうくだ ) さい。
We do not accept returns and/or trades, so please take this into your consideration.

20. ドリンク ( だい ) ( ふく ) まれておりませんため現場 ( げんば ) でお 支払 ( しはら ) いいただきます。
Drink fees are not included, and so you will pay on site.

21. パスワードの 再登録 ( さいとうろく ) 必要 ( ひつよう ) となりますため 大変 ( たいへん ) 手数 ( てすう ) をお ( ) けし ( もう ) ( わけ ) ございませんが、 何卒 ( なにとぞ ) 理解 ( りかい ) とご 協力 ( きょうりょく ) をお ( ねが ) ( いた ) します。
As password re-registration is required, we ask for your understanding and cooperation. We apologize for the inconvenience this may cause you.

22. ( なお ) 掲載 ( けいさい ) までには 規約違反 ( きやくいはん ) がないかの 審査 ( しんさ ) をしておりますため( すこ ) しお 時間 ( じかん ) がかかることをご 了承 ( りょうしょう ) ください。
Also, because we are inspecting as to whether they are no TOS violations before publication, please understand that it will take some time. 

23. ( さき ) ほど ( いただ ) いた 内容 ( ないよう ) 確認点 ( かくにんてん ) 御座 ( ござ ) いました ( ため ) 、ご 連絡致 ( れんらくいた ) しました。
I'm contacting because of there being something to confirm in the content we received from you earlier.

Spelling Note: Although ため hasn’t been spelled as 為 elsewhere in this lesson, Ex. 23 particularly exemplifies the style of writing seen in business communications where other phrases that would otherwise not be written in 漢字 are to give off an overall formal feel.


Ambiguity Between Objective/Cause-Marking ~ため(に)

There are some situations in which the agent of A and B are the same. Sometimes this causes ambiguity as to whether ~ために expresses an objective or a cause.

①: When A is a noun, if the noun is one that describes an unrealized thing such as 成功 (success)・健康 (health)・幸福 (happiness), then it expresses an objective.

24. 日々 ( ひび ) 健康 ( けんこう ) のためにも毎日十分 ( まいにちじゅうぶん ) 睡眠 ( すいみん ) ( ) りましょう。
Get plenty of rest daily for your daily healthy as well.

②: If the noun expresses something that has happened/is happening such as 事故 (accident)・失敗 (failure)・あられ (hail), then it expresses cause.

25. 事故 ( じこ ) のため電車 ( でんしゃ ) ( おく ) れております。
The train has been delayed due to an accident.

26. ( あめ ) のために 試合 ( しあい ) 延期 ( えんき ) します。
We will postpone the game due to the rain.

27. ただいま 信号待 ( しんごうま ) のため(に)停車 ( ていしゃ ) しております。お ( いそ ) ぎのところご 迷惑 ( めいわく ) をおかけします。
We’ve now stopped to wait for a traffic light. We apologize for this inconvenience as you’re in a hurry.

Sentence Note: Although the use of “to” as the English translation may suggest that Ex. 27 demonstrates an objective, it is not the case that the vehicle stopped purposely to wait for a light. Although such a scenario is theoretically possible, it is also the case in English that “to” refers to cause. Changing the translation from “to” to “in order to,” for this reason, would be wrong.

③: For nouns—or even verbal expressions—in the middle that are neither positive nor negative things, only context can tell which interpretation is meant. Both interpretations can also be meant, which is also true for the English equivalent “for” and “to.”

28. 再検査 ( さいけんさ ) をするため(に)先週 ( せんしゅう ) 一日 ( ついたち ) 会社 ( かいしゃ ) ( やす ) みました。
I took a day off last week to get re-examined/for a re-examination.

29. ( はは ) ( むか ) えるために( ) ( ) って 掃除 ( そうじ ) をした。
I revved up and cleaned to welcome my mother.

30. それとも 利益 ( りえき ) のためにそうなったのかはわからない。
And it’s not clear if it happened so because of/for profit.

31. 今年 ( ことし ) 10 ( じゅう ) ( がつ ) 誕生日 ( たんじょうび ) で、 ( はは ) 還暦 ( かんれき ) ( むか ) えるため家族 ( かぞく ) みんなで 3 ( さん ) ( ぱく ) のお ( とま ) 旅行 ( りょこう ) ( ) ってきました。
Our whole family went and came back from going on a three-night trip for my mother turning sixty on her birthday this year in October.


第???課: ~ように: So That...

In this lesson, we will look at yet another grammatical expression which utilizes the purpose-marking に. This phrase is ~ように, which is composed of the noun ( よう ) and the particle に. 様 is a Sino-Japanese noun, but unlike the noun ( ため ) we learned about in the previous two lessons, 様 is not ever used in true isolation as a standalone noun—at least not in Modern Standard Japanese.

Overall, ~ように is used to express an expectation or goal that one wishes to realize or hopes will realize if possible. This is similar to ~ために; however, ~ように oppositely implies no volition on the part of the agent of the clause that precedes it.

Orthography Note: The よう in ~ように is only seldom spelled as 様. When it is, it is usually in very formal writing.

Conjugation Recap

First, let’s have a bit of conjugation review. Despite the ambition ~ように following the same grammar as any other nominal expression which follows a verb, because the expression itself is totally different in terms of part of speech from its English counterpart “so that,” we will look at how to conjugate ~ように with each kind of verb. Note that unlike the simile ~ように,  the ambition ~ように is only used with verbs.

 /eru/-Ichidan Verb  見える + ように
 見えない + ように
 見えるように
 見えないように
 So that… can be seen
 So that… cannot be seen
 /iru/-Ichidan Verb  見る + ように
 見ない + ように
 見るように
 見ないように
 So that… sees
 So that… doesn’t see
 /u/-Godan Verb  買う + ように
 買わない + ように
 買うように
 買わないように
 So that… buys
 So that… doesn’t buy
 /ku/-Godan Verb  行く + ように
 行かない + ように
 行くように
 行かないように
 So that… goes
 So that… doesn’t go
 /gu/-Godan Verb  騒ぐ + ように
 騒がない + ように
 騒ぐように
 騒がないように
 So that… makes a fuss
 So that… doesn’t make a fuss
 /su/-Godan Verb  話す + ように
 話さない + ように
 話すように
 話さないように
 So that… talks
 So that… doesn’t talk
 /tsu/-Godan Verb  立つ + ように
 立たない + ように
 立つように
 立たないように
 So that… stands
 So that… doesn’t stand
 /nu/-Godan Verb  死ぬ + ように
 死なない + ように
 死ぬように
 死なないように
 So that… dies
 So that… doesn’t die
 /bu/-Godan Verb  運ぶ + ように
 運ばない + ように
 運ぶように
 運ばないように
 So that… carries
 So that… doesn’t carry
 /mu/-Godan Verb  飲む + ように
 飲まない + ように
 飲むように
 飲まないように
 So that… drinks
 So that… doesn’t drink
 /ru/-Godan Verb  切る + ように
 切らない + ように
 切るように
 切らないように 
 So that... cuts
 So that... doesn't cut
 Aru  ある + ように
 ない + ように
 あるように
 ないように
 So that… there is
 So that… there isn’t
 Suru (Verb)  する + ように
 しない + ように
 するように
 しないように
 So that… does
 So that… doesn’t do
 Kuru  くる + ように
 こない + ように
 くるように
 こないように
 So that… comes
 So that… doesn’t come

Part of Speech Note: Conjugation-wise, ~ように behaves like a nominal phrase, but the purpose-marking に is adverbial in nature. Thus, as a whole, ~ように can be viewed as an adverbial phrase. This contrasts with “so that,” which is treated as a conjunction in English. Even in Japanese, though, the resultant phrase can also be viewed as an adverbial conjunctive phrase.

The Usages of ~ように

Whereas ~ために must be used with verbs of volition to express realizing a stated objective/goal, ~ように must be used with verbs that don’t express volition. In fact, although ~ように is largely used with intransitive verbs, it can be used with transitive verbs so long as those verbs don’t imply willful control over the action by the agent.

Just as was the case with ~ために, the concept of “agent” is very important to understanding how to use ~ように properly. First, know that the base sentence pattern is “A + ~ように + B.” Both “A” and “B” are verbal expressions. Each verbal expression will have an agent. “A” will always be the expectation/goal, and “B” will either be an effort or an exertion of influence. The nature of “B” is determined by who the agent of “A” is and whether it is the same as the one in “B.”

~ように is not particularly complicated to understand, but these factors do add subtleties to its interpretation. For each usage discussed, we will learn about what the “agent” can be for both the “A” clause and the “B” clause, what kind of verbs “A” and “B” can be, and compare usages with each other if necessary.

Grammar Note: Do not confuse this with the volitional form. The volitional form is created with the auxiliary verb ~よう for only a subset of verbs in Japanese, and conjugating with it does not follow the same rules as ~ように.


Usage 1:(目標+努力)

The words 目標 (goal) and 努力 (effort) are very important words to know in understanding ~ように. For Usage 1 of “A + ~ように + B,” A is a goal that the speaker wishes to make possible by some effort expressed by B. This usage normally involves A being a verb in the potential form, negative form, or the potential-negative form. When not specifically used with a potential verb, the verb in question should be an intransitive verb of non-volition.

Translation Note: This usage is most often translated as “so that.”

1. 来年復活 ( らいねんふっかつ ) できるように 頑張 ( がんば ) りたいと ( おも ) います。
I want to do my best so that I can make a come-back next year.

2. 韓国 ( かんこく ) ( ) けるように 貯金 ( ちょきん ) をしています。
I am saving money so that I can go to Korea.

3. ( 自分 ( じぶん ) が) 自分 ( じぶん ) であることをいつか ( ほこ ) れるように今日 ( きょう ) 明日 ( あす ) ( むね ) ( ) るんだ。
I shall be confident today and tomorrow so that I one day can be proud of being myself.

4. ( ) 日本語教師 ( にほんごきょうし ) になれるように経験 ( けいけん ) ( ) んでいきたいと ( おも ) います。
I’d like to gain experience so that I may become a good Japanese teacher.

5. ( いち ) ( にち ) {も・でも} ( はや ) 解決 ( かいけつ ) できるようにやっていきたい。
I'd like (for us) to move forward so that I/we can resolve this as soon as possible.

6. クビにならないよう(に)しっかり 仕事 ( しごと ) ( おぼ ) えるのが ( さき ) だ。
Properly learning the job comes first (so as) to not getting fired.

Grammar Note: Although the person that would potentially fire the agent of B would not be that said individual, the agent of B is the experiencer of A, and A is still a goal that the agent of B would be trying to make sure of.   

Particle Note: Ex. 6 is an example of the agent of A and B being “one,” which is a third-person pronoun and not a first-person pronoun like all the other examples in this section. When this is not used in first person, it is possible to omit the particle に. This omission is commonplace in very formal writing and oration. It is worth noting that when this usage is used in second-person, it brings about Usage 3.

7. よく ( ) えるように( ( からだ ) を) ( たか ) ( ) ( ) げてもらった。
I had myself lifted up so that I could see well.

Grammar Note: In this example, B involves an effort which has someone do something for the speaker, but the experiencer of A and the causer of B is still the same individual, and B is still an action that person does to achieve goal A.

8. 風邪 ( かぜ ) やインフルエンザなどにならないように免疫力 ( めんえきりょく ) をアップさせることを 意識 ( いしき ) して 生活 ( せいかつ ) していきたいと ( おも ) います。
I want to live while consciously thinking of increasing my immunity so that I don’t get colds or the flu.

Grammar Note: In this sentence, the experiencer of A is the agent of B. Even though the viruses that would cause the speaker to become ill would be the technical agent of A, Japanese does not typically treat non-human things such as this as active agents. Thus, this creates a basis for concluding that if the agent of B is not present in A that A must be the same person as B but as the role of experiencer.

9. ( ) ( ちが ) ように ( きみ ) ( ) いたい。
I want to meet you so that we may pass by each other.

Grammar Note: In this sentence, the experiencer of A includes another individual, but because one of those experiencers is the agent of B, it is still representative of this grammar.


~ようにする

In the examples above, the agent/experiencer of A and B was limited to “I” and “one.” These examples also demonstrated how this grammar point doesn’t limit A to potential verbs. The one stipulation stated was that A would otherwise need to be a non-volitional intransitive verb. However, there are in fact instances when A is a transitive verb or volitional intransitive verb. When this is the case, though, B is limited to  する by default, creating the grammatical pattern ~ようにする. This phrase is translated as “to try to…” as in putting effort into making some goal a habitual action.  

The thought process behind this is that the volition that would otherwise be wholly expressed by the transitive verb of A is shifted to the verb in B, する. This is the case even when the verb in A also happens to be する.

Particle Note: Ex. 6 presented a case in which the particle に can be omitted after よう, but it is important that you not run with this. This is only true for second-person and third-person in formal writing and speaking and is not applicable to ~ようにする or anything involving ~ように with first person. Although ~ようにする can be used in second-person (in question form) and third-person, ~ようにする is a set phrase in which に is obligatory and should be treated as such.

10. 牛乳 ( ぎゅうにゅう ) ( ) まないようにしています
I am trying not to drink milk.

11. ( すこ ) しずつ 野菜 ( やさい ) ( ) ようにしています
I am trying to have vegetables little by little.

12. 銀行口座 ( ぎんこうこうざ ) はまめにチェックするようにしています
As for my bank account, I am trying to check it diligently.


Usage 2: (目標+働きかけ)

The word ( はたら ) きかけ means “pressure/encouragement.” The concept of putting pressure on someone becomes very important when the agents of A and B don’t match. When this is the case, the subject will manifest oneself in B, and B will be an action that puts pressure, encourages, and/or expresses hope/anticipation that goal A is realized. The goal of A could be several things. It could be the agent of A becoming able to do something (with potential verbs), doing some action (with transitive verbs or volitional intransitive verbs), or the experiencer of A becoming a certain state (non-volitional intransitive verbs). Regardless of what the goal of A is, B will always involve the subject of B either hoping or doing some action to get that goal realized.  

Translation Note: Potential translations for this usage include “(so) that” and “so as to.”

Grammar Note: In many ways, Usage 2 is no different from Usage 1 except that the agents of A and B don’t match. Putting pressure on someone for A to be fulfilled is in and of itself an effort.

13. 英語 ( えいご ) 文法 ( ぶんぽう ) ( ) かるように先生 ( せんせい ) ( ) 使 ( つか ) って 説明 ( せつめい ) してくれました。
The teacher explained using pictures so that (they) could understand English grammar.

Sentence Note: The agent of B is “the teacher” and the agent/experiencer of A (understanding) is the implied “they.” 

14. ( つま ) 無事出産 ( ぶじしゅっさん ) できるように神様 ( かみさま ) にお ( ねが ) いしています。
I’ve asked God that my wife may deliver safely.

15. スマートに 会話 ( かいわ ) ( はじ ) めることができるように自己紹介 ( じこしょうかい ) 使 ( つか ) われるフレーズをいくつか 紹介 ( しょうかい ) してみました。
I tried introducing (to them) several phrases used in self-introductions so that (they) could begin to be able to converse skillfully.

16. 左翼思想 ( さよくしそう ) 人々 ( ひとびと ) は、 再分配 ( さいぶんぱい ) 強化 ( きょうか ) するように 税制 ( ぜいせい ) ( ) えようと 主張 ( しゅちょう ) している。
Leftists are insistent about changing the tax system so as to reinforce redistribution.

17. 官庁 ( かんちょう ) は、 道路 ( どうろ ) 建設 ( けんせつ ) ( ちから ) ( ) れ、 資本家 ( しほんか ) 企業 ( きぎょう ) 保護 ( ほご ) するように 政策 ( せいさく ) 転換 ( てんかん ) した。
The authorities changed its policy so as to put effort into road construction and protect capitalists and corporations.  

18. 地震等 ( じしんなど ) 振動 ( しんどう ) 転倒 ( てんとう ) しないよう固定 ( こてい ) する 必要 ( ひつよう ) のあるものは ( かなら ) 固定 ( こてい ) する。
Always secure things that ought to be secured so that they do not fall down due to vibrations caused by earthquakes and such.

Grammar Note: This example, in contrast with Exs. 16 and 17, shows how に is only omissible when the sentence is interpreted as a directive to someone, which was also the case with Ex. 6. These examples all hint at Usage 3, which we are about to come to shortly.  

19. 厚生労働省 ( こうせいろうどうしょう ) は、インフルエンザと 診断 ( しんだん ) されてから ( すく ) なくとも ( ふつ ) 日間 ( かかん ) 極力 ( きょくりょく ) ( ひと ) ( ) にしないよう 注意 ( ちゅうい ) するほか、マンションやアパートの 場合 ( ばあい ) ( まど ) 玄関 ( げんかん ) 施錠 ( せじょう ) し、ベランダに ( めん ) していない 部屋 ( へや ) ( ) かせるよう ( ) びかけている。また、 ( おお ) くの ( ひと ) ( はや ) めにワクチンを 接種 ( せっしゅ ) できるよう13 ( じゅうさん ) 歳以上 ( さいいじょう ) ( ひと ) 原則 ( げんそく ) ( いっ ) ( かい ) だけの 接種 ( せっしゅ ) にしてほしいと ( ) びかけている。
The Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare is asking that, in addition to being careful not to leave someone diagnosed with influenza alone as much as possible for at least two days, they are also calling that for those in apartment buildings or condominium high-rises have (said individuals) rest in rooms which are not facing verandas. They are also calling for people 13 years or older to limit their vaccination to just once as a rule so that more people can be vaccinated ahead of time.

20. イエレン 議長 ( ぎちょう ) は、 自由貿易 ( じゆうぼうえき ) ( そこ ) なうことがないよう、トランプ 政権 ( せいけん ) 牽制 ( けんせい ) した。
Chairman Yellen checked the Trump Administration so that they don’t mar free trade.

21. 災害発生時 ( さいがいはっせいじ ) ( つと ) ( さき ) 外出中 ( がいしゅつちゅう ) 家族 ( かぞく ) 安否確認 ( あんぴかくにん ) をとるために 連絡先 ( れんらくさき ) をみんながわかるようにしていますか?
Do you have your contact information set up so that you know everyone in order to confirm the safety of family at work or out and about for when a natural disaster occurs?

22. 科学工場 ( かがくこうじょう ) 火災 ( かさい ) なので、 職場 ( しょくば ) 仲間 ( なかま ) にはマスクをしたうえで ( そと ) ( ) ないよう 注意 ( ちゅうい ) をした。
With it being a chemical factory fire, I warned my friends at the workplace not to go outside upon having put on masks. 

23. ( さら ) 努力 ( どりょく ) してプレミアムフライデーを 定着 ( ていちゃく ) させるよう 頑張 ( がんば ) っていきたい。
I want to do my best strive more to have Premium Friday take hold (in society).

Grammar Note: Although A is a causative verb, the agent of A and B is still the main speaker, making it an application of a “goal” being sought for by the effort expressed in B. The causative verb, however, does imply that the goal involves directing people to make it so, thus a grammatical motivation for why に can be omitted here.

24. 子供 ( こども ) ( さわ ) らないように( あぶ ) ない ( もの ) ( たか ) いところに ( ) ようにしています
I’m trying to place dangerous objects high up so that (the) children won’t touch them.

Grammar Note: This example as well as Ex. 25 show that it is possible to have more than one ~ように in a sentence. As for the first instance in Ex. 24, its purpose is to indicate the goal of having children not touch dangerous objects which is achieved by the effort of placing them up high, which is an indirect pressure on said children not to get into such trouble. The purpose of ~ようにしている indicates that this is a pressure the speaker is actively exerting and trying to maintain.

25. ( はは ) 心配 ( しんぱい ) をかけない{よう・ため}毎日 ( まいにち ) ( はや ) ( いえ ) ( かえ ) ようにしている
I am trying to return home quickly every day [so as/in order] not to worry my mother.

Grammar Note: The difference between ~ように and ~ために is that although both indicate fulfilling a certain goal, only ~ために implies complete confidence of that goal being made so. ~ように puts more emphasis on the hope that the goal will be matched, but hope is not a guarantee.

26. 学生 ( がくせい ) がフェイクニュースに ( まど ) わされないようにしようと ( おも ) って、 調査 ( ちょうさ ) ( はじ ) めました。
I began an investigation hoping to have students not be misled by fake news.

Grammar Note: This example exemplifies how “effort” and “pressure” are one of the same thing. Do note that the よう in しよう is the auxiliary verb for affirmative volition. Its purpose is to emphasize the will of the speaker to have it so that students aren’t misled.

27. 借金 ( しゃっきん ) ( ) くならないように 出来 ( でき ) ているものだ。
Debt is made so that it doesn’t go away.

Grammar Note: 出来る, here, means “to be made,” which implicitly suggests an agent who had the goal of making said liability one that wouldn’t go away.


~ようになる

Ex. 27 implies that it is possible to use ~ように in contexts in which goal A has already been achieved. This is no truer than when it is used in ~ようになる, which is intrinsically the non-volitional, intransitive form of ~ようにする. ~ようになる can be after transitive verbs to express a meaning that is close to “to come to.”

28. 毎日 ( まいにち ) ( ちゃ ) ( ) むようになった。
I’ve come to drink tea daily.

~ようになる may also be after potential verbs to mean “to become able to.”

29. やっと 理解 ( りかい ) できるようになった。
I’ve finally become able to comprehend it.

~ようになる may also be after intransitive verbs to mean “to be (made) so that.” In this situation, it isn’t so much so that A is a goal that is already realized, but it may very well be an anticipation that has been borne out.

30. その 携帯電話 ( けいたいでんわ ) は、しばらく 放置 ( ほうち ) すると 電源 ( でんげん ) ( ) れるようになっている。
That cellphone is made so that it turns off when you leave it idle for a while.

Grammar Note: Like Ex. 27, the agent that would have programmed the phone had しばらく放置すると電源が切れる as a goal, and that success is embodied in ~ようになっている. The use of ~ている suggests that this success is not instantaneous with the statement but has been so. 


Usage 3: Euphemized Command

When ~ように is directed toward someone, it expresses a command that indicates the manner you want the listener (agent) to do in order to achieve goal A. When the verb before ~ように is a transitive verb or volitional intransitive verb, the following effort B doesn’t have to be stated. However, when the verb is a non-volitional intransitive, the effort described by B cannot be omitted as the statement becomes a directive for the state expressed by the verb of A to come true (Ex. 32).   

Grammar Note: This usage may also be interpreted as an application of the simile ~ように’s use of illustrating an example. In the examples below, ~ように is translated as “so that,” which plays emphasis on the interpretation of goal A being carried by effort B. However, “so that” can easily be paraphrased to “in a way that.” Thus, Usage 3 demonstrates that there is in fact overlap between these two different ~ように.

31. せっかく 寝付 ( ねつ ) いた ( あか ) ちゃんを ( ) こさないように、( ( しず ) かにしてよ)。
(Be quiet so that you) don’t wake up the baby who just went to sleep.

Translation Note: When “B” is omitted from this sentence, it can be translated as “Try not to wake up the baby who just went to sleep.”

32. ( こわ ) さないように ( はこ ) んでください。
Please carry it [so that you don’t break/without breaking] it.

33. 普段 ( ふだん ) から、 ( あや ) しい ( もう ) ( ばなし ) などの 誘惑 ( ゆうわく ) ( ) らないように 行動 ( こうどう ) するよう ( こころ ) がけましょう。
Let’s keep in mind on a routine basis to conduct ourselves so that we are not yielded to temptation by shady get-rich-quick schemes.

Particle Note: Aside from the second よう having に omitted because of it marking a directive to others, another motivation for why に is omitted here is that it gets rid of grammatical awkwardness that would be felt with two too similar instances of ~ように.

The next three examples show how this usage can also be used when the verb preceding ~ように is in polite speech. Thus, both ~ますよう(に)and  ~ませんよう(に) are possible. However, the use of the auxiliary ~ます is only acceptable when ~ように is used to create a command or to simply express a hope (Usage 5)

34. 今後 ( こんご ) ともよろしくご 指導 ( しどう ) くださいますように(お ( ねが ) ( もう ) ( ) げます)。
I ask for your continued guidance going forward.

35. ご 確認頂 ( かくにんいただ ) きますよう、お ( ねが ) ( いた ) します。
I ask that you please confirm this.

36. ( さむ ) ( ) ( つづ ) きますので、お 風邪 ( かぜ ) など ( ) しませんよう、ご 自愛 ( じあい ) のほどお ( ねが ) ( もう ) し上げます。
Because cold days continue, please take care of yourself so that you do not catch a cold.


Usage 4: ~ようにと

As an extension of the previous usage of creating euphemized commands regarding manner, ~ように can be optionally followed by the quotation-marking と and then followed by a request verb of some kind. This is largely restricted to transitive verbs or volitional intransitive verbs.

37. 友達 ( ともだち ) 荷物 ( にもつ ) ( はこ ) ぶように(と) ( たの ) みました。
I asked my friend to carry [the/my] luggage.

38. 学生 ( がくせい ) たちに 授業 ( じゅぎょう ) 欠席 ( けっせき ) しないように(と) 注意 ( ちゅうい ) しました。
I warned the students not to be absent from class.

39. ( わたし ) ( かれ ) 原稿 ( げんこう ) ( ) ように(と) 依頼 ( いらい ) しました。
I requested to him that he write draft/manuscript.

40. ( かれ ) はみんなに 注意 ( ちゅうい ) して 運転 ( うんてん ) するように(と) ( うなが ) した。
I urged everyone to be careful driving.

41. 花が咲くように(と思って)毎日水をやっている。
I water the flowers daily so that they may bloom.

Grammar Note: Ex. 41 is an example of this being used with a non-volitional verb. When that is the case, と is obligatorily followed by a verb of thought. This puts one’s hope into a mental quotation.


Usage 5: Hope/Prayer

In the same way ~ように can indicate a command to someone so that a goal can be met, when the verb involved is a non-volitional verb and nothing else follows, the resultant phrase solely expresses a hope that that goal is realized. This was hinted at in Ex. 41, but the examples below explicitly show how ~ように without “B” expresses hope. This usage is used extensively when praying and wishing for something to happen.

Typically, this usage is used with the verb preceding ~ように being in polite speech, thus creating ~ますように. If a plain form speech were to be used, then grammar resembling that of Ex. 41 would need to follow. Unsurprisingly, ~ませんように is also possible with this usage.

42. ( ) たりますように。
May [I/you] hit (the lottery).

43. 素敵 ( すてき ) 一年 ( いちねん ) になりますように。
May this be a wonderful year.

44. ずっと 一緒 ( いっしょ ) にいられますように。
May we always be together.

45. どうか ( あや ) しまれませんように。
May I not be suspected.

46. お ( つか ) れの ( ) ませんように。
May you not become wary (in your endeavors).

Phrase Note: Ex. 47 is the honorific means of expressing 頑張 ( がんば ) ってください to superiors. It is not so ubiquitous among younger speakers, but knowledge of it and proper use of it in the workplace is highly appreciated by older generations among adult speakers.


Variation with Negative Auxiliaries

In conclusion, it’s worth noting that ~ない is not the only form that negation takes and that those other forms can all be used in conjunction with ~ように. Aside from ~ませんよう, there is also ~ぬよう(に), seen most frequently in literature and song as a more poetic variant. There is also ~んよう(に) which is merely dialectical, but to many can give off the impression of a man in his 40s or older. Lastly, ~へんよう(に) is possible in Kansai Dialects.

47. 時節柄 ( じせつがら ) 体調 ( たいちょう ) ( くず ) されませぬようご 自愛 ( じあい ) くださいませ。
The season being what is, please take care of yourself so that you do not upset your health.

48. この ( おも ) いが ( ) えぬように、 ( なが ) ( ぼし ) ( ねが ) うよ。
I wish to a shooting star so that this hope may not die.

49. ( おな ) じような 事故 ( じこ ) ( ) きんようにしっかりと 頑張 ( がんば ) ってほしいな。
I want for them to work firmly so that similar accidents don’t occur.

50. LINE ( ライン ) 通知 ( つうち ) ( ) ーへんようにしたよ。
I made it so that LINE notifications don’t show up.

Dialect Note: こーへん = こない in Kansai Dialects.


Curriculum Note: One cliffhanger that remains from this lesson pertains the usages of ~ようになる and ~ようにする which fall outside their definitions presented here due to the simile definition of  ~ように. In Lesson ??? (which will be made within the coming month), we will direct specific attention to ~ようになる and ~ようにする, and in doing so we will learn more about how the simile ~ように and the ambition ~ように are interrelated.  


第138課: ~とおりに

In this lesson, we will learn about a phrase composed of a generic noun and the standard-marking particle に. The noun in question this time is 通り, which literally refers to a road in a town in which people and cars pass along. First, we will study more literal definitions of the word and then learn about the expression ~とおりに, the true focus of this lesson.

Intonation Note: とおり↓ 

The Literal Definitions of 通り

 
The most basic meaning of 通り is “road” as in a road that runs through a town in which people and things (cars, carts, animals, etc.) pass along. In meaning street, it can be used as a suffix following place names. In this situation, it is pronounced as どおり.

1. 前面 ( ぜんめん ) 歩道 ( ほどう ) のある 比較的大 ( ひかくてきおお ) きな ( とお ) りに ( めん ) している。
The front part faces a relatively large street with a sidewalk.

2. 銀座通 ( ぎんざどお ) りに ( ちか ) いので、 利用者 ( りようしゃ ) ( おお ) い。
Because it is close to Ginza Street, there are lots of consumers.

通り not only can mean “road,” but it can also refer to the flow of people and things trafficking said road. Thus, it is akin to “street traffic,” which isn’t the same “traffic” as in one is stuck in traffic. That is technically referred to as “traffic conjugation,” which translated as 渋滞.

3. ( みち ) ( せま ) く、 ( くるま ) ( とお ) りが ( おお ) い。
The street is narrow, and there is a lot of vehicle traffic.

From this concept of the flowing of things, 通り by extension can also refer to the flow of liquid and gases. It can also refer to the transmission of sound and by extension the reach of someone’s voice. And from extension of this, the meaning of reputation also comes about. After all, one’s reputation is formed by the dissemination and coalescence of what others are saying.

4. 空気 ( くうき ) ( みず ) ( とお ) りを ( ) くして 植物 ( しょくぶつ ) ( ) 酸素 ( さんそ ) ( あた ) えるという 仕組 ( しく ) みです。
It’s a mechanism that gives oxygen to the plant roots by bettering the flow of air and water.

5. ( とお ) りの ( わる ) ( こえ ) ( こま ) っています。
I’m bothered with my voice not carrying well.

6. 自分 ( じぶん ) 業界 ( ぎょうかい ) ( とお ) りが ( ) さそうな 名前 ( なまえ ) 使 ( つか ) えばいいのではないかと ( おも ) います。
I think it’d be a good idea to choose a name that seems reputable in one’s industry.

By further extension, the very flow of ideas that compose one’s understanding is yet another meaning of 通り. With understanding comes methods, which is how 通り can be used as a counter to count “method.”

7. ( いま ) のところ ( とお ) りの ( ) 説明 ( せつめい ) だろうか。
Would it really be a sensible explanation currently?

8. 白髪 ( しらが ) になるパターンは 3 ( さん ) ( とお ) りあります。
There are three patterns to turning gray. 

~とおりに & ~どおりに

It is this last meaning of “method” that forms the semantic basis for the grammar pattern ~とおりに meaning “just as.” ~とおりに  follows after nouns or verbal expressions.

 Part of Speech  Pattern Forms  Examples
 Nouns  ~のとおりに
 ~どおりに
 地図{のとおりに・どおりに}(according to the map)
 Verbs  ~るとおりに
 ~たとおりに
 言うとおりに (just as…says)
 言ったとおりに (just as…said)

As demonstrated, when ~とおりに attaches to verbal expressions, the tense of the verb can either be in the non-past or the past tense. However, as is also demonstrated by the chart, one mustn’t interchange the tenses for the other because the meaning will change accordingly.

When ~とおりに attaches to nouns, there are two options. One can use the particle の to attach it to the noun, or one can just append とおりに to the noun with it being consequently voiced as ~どおりに, with the latter option being the most prevalent choice. Grammatically speaking, the particle の here can be viewed as substituting for a fully worded verbal expression. Using ~どおりに, by comparison, causes this semantic simplification to be understood analytically. To understand what this means, consider the following.

9a. 地図 ( ちず ) のとおりに ( すす ) んでください。
9b. 地図どおりに ( すす ) んでください。
9c. 地図に ( ) いてあるとおりに ( すす ) んでください。
Please proceed according to the map. 

Grammatically speaking, all three versions of this sentence are perfectly sound, and you can hear all three versions. 9c, although the wordier version, is still just as viable and usable as the others, and this may very well be because it forms the grammatical basis for why the shorter versions are possible. How one wishes to phrase things is typically based on the flow of the given context.

Another point that must be noted is that Ex. 9 exemplifies the basic sentence pattern X + とおりに + Y, but it’s important to understand that the pattern X + とおりだ is also possible and used profusely.

Orthography Note: Unlike many other grammatical patterns, this one can be just as easily written in Kanji as it can in Hiragana.

Translation Note: ~{とおり・どおり}に is most often translated as “just as/according to.” It implies that one is doing X a certain way 100%.

10. ( ぼく ) {が・の} 想像 ( そうぞう ) したとおりだ。
It’s just as I had imagined.

11. 事実 ( じじつ ) ( ぼく ) 想像通 ( そうぞうどお ) りだ。
As a matter of fact, it is just as I imagined.

12. ( みち ) はまさしく 地図 ( ちず ) どおりに ( つな ) がっていた。
The route was evidently connected just like the map.

13. 取扱説明書 ( とりあつかいせつめいしょ ) どおりに 設置 ( せっち ) したのに、 接続 ( せつぞく ) されません。
It won’t connect even though I set it up just like how it was written in the user’s manual.

14. ( ) われたとおりにお ( はし ) ( ) べてみました。
I tried eating it with chopsticks just as I was told.

15. ( わたし ) {が・の} ( ) うとおりに ( うご ) いてください。
Move as I say.

16. ( わたし ) {が・の} ( ) ったとおりに ( うご ) いてください。
Move as I said.

17. ( わたし ) ( ) ったとおりになったでしょう。
It happened just as I said, right?

18. 前日 ( ぜんじつ ) 天気予報 ( てんきよほう ) のとおりに 雨模様 ( あめもよう )
Signs of rain just like the weather report the other day said there would be.

19. 午後 ( ごご ) からは、 天気予報 ( てんきよほう ) どおりに ( あめ ) ( ) ってきました。
Just like the weather report said, the rain came starting in the afternoon.

20. なぜ、 仕事 ( しごと ) 予定 ( よてい ) どおりに ( ) わらないのか。
Why doesn’t work end like planned?

21. 先生 ( せんせい ) ( おし ) えてくださった ( とお ) りにやったら ( ) けました。
When I did it just how my teacher taught me, I was able to solve it.

22. 本案件 ( ほんあんけん ) 成果物 ( せいかぶつ ) は、 期限 ( きげん ) どおりに 納品 ( のうひん ) された。
The results of this project were delivered in due course.

23. 自分 ( じぶん ) 都合 ( つごう ) 相手 ( あいて ) 期待 ( きたい ) し、 自分 ( じぶん ) ( おも ) ( どお ) りにならないと ( はら ) ( ) てる。
To get angry when one expects of someone on one’s own circumstances but things don’t turn the way one thought.  

24. 心理学 ( しんりがく ) 理論 ( りろん ) どおりに ( ひと ) ( うご ) くとは ( かぎ ) らないし、 経済学 ( けいざいがく ) 理論 ( りろん ) どおりに 経済 ( けいざい ) ( うご ) くとは ( かぎ ) らない。
It isn’t always true that people will operate according to the theories of psychology, and it isn’t always true that the economy will operate according to the theories of economics.

25. 記憶 ( きおく ) がある 事実 ( じじつ ) は、 記憶 ( きおく ) どおりに ( こた ) えます。
For facts you have memory of, answer exactly according to your memory.

26. ( おし ) えたとおりにやりなさい。
Do it exactly how I’ve taught you.

27. 神様 ( かみさま ) ( かなら ) ずしも 聖書 ( せいしょ ) どおりに 行動 ( こうどう ) するわけではない。
It is not the case that God always acts exactly according to the Bible.

28. 人生 ( じんせい ) ( おも ) ( どお ) りに、 予想通 ( よそうつう ) りにいくことばかりではないのだ。
Life isn’t full of things going as one wants or expects.

29. ( まった ) ( おっしゃ ) ( とお ) りです。
You’re absolutely right.

30. その ( とお ) りだ。
That’s exactly right.

31. 明日 ( あす ) から 元通 ( もとどお ) りだね。
Things will be back to normal starting tomorrow, huh.

32. { 以下 ( いか ) 下記 ( かき ) }の ( とお ) りです。
(It) is as follows:

33. ( わたし ) はいつも ( どお ) りです。
Same as usual.

34. ( わたし ) にできる ( かぎ ) り、 部長 ( ぶちょう ) のご 指示通 ( しじどお ) りに ( おこな ) いました。
I carried it out according to the chief’s instructions to the best of my ability.

35. スケジュール ( どお ) りに 仕事 ( しごと ) ( すす ) めていきたいと ( おも ) います。
I would like to proceed with the work according to the schedule.


Omission of に

The に after とおり・どおり is the standard-marking に. Unsurprisingly, because the noun itself expresses adherence to a standard by 100%, it is possible to delete it with no effect to the grammaticality of the sentence. However, it is more often used than not.

In fact, it’s quite unnatural to drop に when using ~のとおりに. One motivation for this is that the に used in this expression is also adverbial in nature. It is this adverbial nature that makes it grammatical redundant and thus omissible in expressions like いつもどおり (Ex. 36).

There are also situations where omitting に brings about a more formal tone, similarly to how when it is omitted in other expressions such as ~ために (Ex. 37).

36. 休日 ( きゅうじつ ) でもいつもどおり(に) ( ) きてしまう。
I end up waking up as usual even on weekends.

37. 自分 ( じぶん ) ( ) めたことを 計画通 ( けいかくどお ) り(に) 実行 ( じっこう ) できれば、なんでもやれる。
You can do anything if you’re able to carry out according to plan what you’ve decided to do.

38. イギリスの ( ことわざ ) にもある ( とお ) り(に)、 自分 ( じぶん ) 国以外 ( くにいがい ) ( ほか ) のことを ( ) ることで、 自分 ( じぶん ) 特徴 ( とくちょう ) がより ( ふか ) 理解 ( りかい ) できるのだ。
Just as is also in the English proverb, one can more deeply understand one’s own characteristics by knowing other things outside one’s own country.


~{とおり・どおり}の

With X + とおりだ being a valid sentence pattern, it is only logical that it can be used to directly modify a noun phrase, and in doing so, one gets ~{とおり・どおり}の.

39. 希望通 ( きぼうどお ) りの 職種 ( しょくしゅ ) ( ) きながらも、 不満 ( ふまん ) ( かん ) じている 若手社員 ( わかてしゃいん ) 意外 ( いがい ) ( すく ) なくない。
The number of young employees who feel frustrated despite being employed in the occupation they hoped for is surprisingly not few.

40. 評判 ( ひょうばん ) どおりの ( ) いホテルだった。
It was a good hotel that lived up to its reputation.


~てのとおり

Interestingly, there are two expressions in which ~のとおり follows verbs in the gerund form made with the particle て. These phrases are 見ての通り (as you can see) and 知っての通り (as you know). Grammatically, the particle の can be viewed as taking the place of some other phrase.

As for 見ての通り, one such “other phrase” that would fit perfectly here is わかる. In fact, 見てわかる通り is another way of saying “as you can see.” As for 知っての通り, の can be thought of as a substitute for いる.

It’s important to understand that 見る and 知る can still be used just like other verbs in other forms provided the semantic combination of said form with 通り makes sense. Such examples will be sprinkled in with examples of ~てのとおり below.

Particle Note: Partly due to being set phrases, neither 見ての通り nor  知っての通り are followed by the particle に.

43. ( ) ての ( とお ) り、 ( はな ) すのは 得意 ( とくい ) じゃなくてね。
As you can see, I’m not good at speaking.  

44. ( ) てわかる ( とお ) り、 毎日暇 ( まいにちひま ) です。
As you can see, I’m free with my time every day.

45. グラフ{に ( ) る・で ( ) かる・の} ( どお ) りに、 15 ( じゅうご ) 年間 ( ねんかん ) 比率 ( ひりつ ) 4 ( よん ) . 5 ( ) だった。
[As can be seen in the graph/as can be understood with the graph/exactly as the graph says], the fifteen-year ratio was 4.5.

46. ( わたし ) 手本 ( てほん ) ( しめ ) すから、 ( ) たとおりにやってみてください。
I’m going to show an example, so try doing it just as you see it.

47. ( ) っての ( とお ) り、 HP ( エッチピー ) 攻撃 ( こうげき ) 防御 ( ぼうぎょ ) 異常 ( いじょう ) ( たか ) いのです。
As you know, its HP, attack, and defense are abnormally high.

48. ご 存知 ( ぞんち ) ( とお ) り、 ( ) えは 身体 ( しんたい ) ( ) くありません。
As you know, chilliness is not good for the body.

Variant Note: ご存知の通り, alternatively also seen as ご存じの通り, is the honorific form of 知っての通り, and it is actually more frequently used due to it being politer as 知っての通り can often sound too direct.

49. ( そと ) は、ご ( らん ) ( とお ) りの 長蛇 ( ちょうだ ) ( れつ ) です。
Outside, there’s a long line, as you can see.

Variant Note: ご覧の通り is the honorific form of 見ての通り, and is arguably used more than its non-honorific form. As Ex. 49 demonstrates, ご覧の通り can even be used to modify noun phrases with the help of the particle の. The same thing can be said for ご{存知・存じ}の通り, but not for either phrase’s non-honorific form.

50. 皆知 ( みなし ) っている ( とお ) り、 顧客 ( こきゃく ) なしではビジネスは ( ) ( ) たない。
As everyone knows, business is not viable without customers.

51. ( だれ ) ( ) ( とお ) り、 ( かみ ) ( おも ) 樹脂 ( じゅし ) からとられる。
As known by everyone, paper is largely taken from resin.


~ように 

As an aside, it is worth noting that ~とおりに is similar to ~ように, with the latter being translatable as “as.” Just as ~とおりに establishes some standard X by which the agent is to act 100% accordingly to, ~ように can also establish a standard X by which the agent is to act accordingly to, but the expectation is not set at 100%.

52. 説明 ( せつめい ) したように 適当 ( てきとう ) にしてください。
Do as you see fit as explained.

53. ( まえ ) にも ( ) ったように、この 案件 ( あんけん ) 来週 ( らいしゅう ) 金曜日 ( きんようび ) ( ) わる 予定 ( よてい ) です。
As was said earlier, this project is scheduled to end on Friday of next week.

54. よくも ( わる ) くも、 想像 ( そうぞう ) したようにはまったくいかないな。
Good or bad, it just doesn’t go at all like I imagine.

55. ご ( らん ) のように、 ( ) ( めん ) 別々 ( べつべつ ) ( ) てきます。
As you can see, the noodles and ingredients come out separately.

Phrase Note: Due to it being more indirect, ご覧のように is somewhat politer than ご覧の通り.


第139課: Try I: ~てみる・みたい・みせる

 The word "try" has a lot of different meanings. When it is translated into Japanese, there are many phrases to consider. The phrases themselves are not difficult to use or understand, but because they all have the same English translation, it may become troublesome to differentiate between them. So, in the next two lessons, we will go through each applicable phrase in great detail so that you properly learn how to express the many "try" phrases of Japanese. 

~てみる/~てみたい

As you know already, 見る means "to see." When it is after the particle て, it means "to try to..." in the sense of doing something for the sake of seeing what happens. There isn't any negative consequences necessarily implied by using it.

1. 新 しいコートを てみる。
    I'll try a new coat on.

2. よく えてみる(よ)。
     I'll think it over.

3. カレーライスを べてみる。 
    To try to eat curry rice.

4. みんなに聞いてみたけど。
     I've tried asking everyone, but... 

5. 一か八かやってみる。
     To take a chance/sink or swim.

Reading Note: 八 is read as ばち in the phrase above. Other readings of the entire phrase other than いちかばちか is wrong. 

6. たまった宿題を 一遍 いっぺん に片付けてみよう。
  I'm going to try to finish up this piled homework at once. 

Grammar Note: In this sentence, ~よう is used to emphasize one's volition to finish the homework.  


 ~てみたい

~てみたい means "to want to try to..." Again, this "try" is the same "try" as in "trial and error" (試行錯誤). These patterns are not intended to describe "trials" that last longer than an occurrence.

7. 本当 に(お)すしを べてみたいです。
     I really want to try sushi.

漢字 Note: Sushi may also be spelled as 寿司, 鮨, or rarely as 鮓. 

8. やってみたい。
     I want to try.

9. 月見 バーガーを べてみたい。
    I want to try a tsukimi burger.

Word Note: It might as well be called egg burger.  

10. 誰か 一度会 ってみたい  がいますか。
      Is there someone you would like to meet once?

 

11. みんなを笑いの うず に巻き込んでみたい。 (Idiomatic)
    I want to put a smile on everyone's faces. 


Orthography Note: In Modern Japanese spelling, helper verbs like みる in ~てみる are written as such in ひらがな. Writing the verbs in 漢字 would not be wrong, but the verb may be interpreted literally.

Colloquialism Note: In casual speech, you can tell someone to try to do something by using ~てみい.  


 ~てごらん

 This is used to entice someone to try to do something. ごらん is from the honorific form of みる, ご覧になる. This pattern comes from the abbreviation of the command form of this expression, ご覧なさい.

12. おいしいから食べてごらん。
      Try it. It's delicious.

13. そのサボテンを えてごらん!
   Try jumping over the cactus!

漢字 Note: The 漢字 for サボテン is 仙人掌. You don't need to remember this.

Honorifics Note: Some speakers do not like ~てご覧なさい and feel that it lacks etiquette. However, as is found in dictionaries and is the case for most speakers, it is completely fine and the correct way of making ~てみる honorific.

14. 来てごらんなさい。
      Please come [forth].

15. 耳を ませてご覧なさい。
    Please try to listen carefully.  

16. 目を閉じてご覧なさい。
      Try closing your eyes. 

However, those who feel ~てご覧なさい lacks respect replace it with ~てみてください with an already honorific verb. So, the difference lies in where the honorific element of the verb phrase is. 

17a. 訂正されてみてください。△
17b. 訂正なさってみてください。〇
        Please try to revise/edit it. 

This shows that lowering honorific standards causes problems. The first sentence may make someone sound uneducated. The second sentence comes from fears of being too pushy, which ~なさい in other contexts gives.  

To complicate things more, ~てご覧なさい may not always be appropriate. However, ~てみる is typically not used in other conjugations in honorific fashion as mentioning superiors trying things is not formal. Rather, things like ~ていただく "receiving the act of...(by/from....)" would be used. So, "I received the boss eating X" rather than "X tried eating X". 


 試す

This verb means "to try out" and is used a lot with ~てみる.

18. 自分の力を試してみる。
      To try one's strength. 

19. もう一度試してみて。
      Have another try.


試す VS 試みる 

  • 試す is used to mean "to test" in the sense of investigating means. 
  • 試みる is used to mean "to test" in the sense of ascertaining an end result. In other words, you're taking a go at it.

The best way to see how these two verbs differ, it's important to see what sorts of phrases they are used in. Trying to escape from jail? 試みる will be your best choice. Simply trying to test your Japanese skills? 試す will be what you want.  

20. 脱走 ( だっそう ) を試みる。
      To test/have a got at an escape.

21. 能力を試す。
      To test ability.

22. 日本語能力試験をして実力を試してみたらどうですか。
       How about testing your true skills by taking the Japanese Proficiency Test?

23. 新車の乗り 心地 ( ごこち ) を試す。
      To test the feel of a new car.  

24. 別の方法を試みる。
      To try another method.


 Other Miscellaneous "Try" Verbs 

There are plenty of other phrases in Japanese that are translated into English as "try". However, they all correspond to specific usages. Meanings like in "trying one's utmost" or "test new products" are all expressed differently in Japanese. 

25. 彼は全力を尽くした。
      He tried his hardest.

26. ラーメンを 試食 ( ししょく ) する。 
      To taste-test ramen.

27. 新製品を試用する。
      To test new products.

28. あらゆる 努力 ( どりょく ) をする。 
      To make every effort. 

29. 誰がこの事件を{ ( さば ) く・ 審理 ( しんり ) する}のでしょうか。
      Who is going to try this case? 

30. 彼は 脱税 ( だつぜい ) 容疑 ( ようぎ ) で裁判を受けた。
      He was tried for tax evasion.

~てみせる

見せる means "to show". After the particle て, it usually isn't written in 漢字. In this sense, it shows the showing of an action to someone. 

31. 手品 てじな をしてみせましょう。
       I will show you a trick!

32. 微笑んでみせる。 
      To show a smile.

33. 何としても勝ってみせるぞ。
       No matter what it takes, I'll show you that I'll win.

34. 彼はグラフをコンピュータ画面に{表示して・出して}みせた。
      He displayed the graph on the computer screen. 

35. 彼は素晴らしい勇敢さを見せた。
      He showed great courage. 

36. 私の名前を漢字で書いてみせた。
      I showed them how to write my name in Kanji.

37. 将来必ず日本語の 通訳 ( つうやく ) になってみせるよ。
      As for the future, I will certainly show that I will become a Japanese interpreter. 


第140課: Try II: ~ようにする & ~ようとする

As you can tell just by looking, these phrases are very similar. Only the particle within the phrases are different, and they're still not that different. Nevertheless, these patterns are not quite the same.  

~ようにする

~ようにする shows that you carry something out willfully in the sense of making a serious attempt.  ~ようにしてください can be used to indirectly tell someone to do something by telling them what they need to try to do either for a one-off occasion or for a habitual change. It can't be used for an on-the-spot request. This よう is a noun and the pattern follows the non-past affirmative or negative forms.

1. 肉を食べないようにしています。
     I am trying not to eat meat. 

2. ご希望に うようにします。
    I'll attend to that. 

3. 遅れないようにしてください。
    Please try not to be late.

4. 町を引っ 手繰 たく るようにして(、物を) うば い取った。
    They plundered the town by snatching. 

Word Note: 引っ手繰る means "to grab at". You can figuratively see the things of the town being drawn towards the bandits with this example. Remember that the よう used in this pattern is 様. Plundering a town is serious work, so this is a great example.  

~ようとする

~(よ)うとする shows that one tries to materialize something, not just attempt something. This is a present action and isn't continuous for any considerable duration. What is being expressed is that you're trying to realize something.

5. 起きようとしましたが、起きられませんでした。
    I tried to get up, but I couldn't. 

It may also show something right as something is about to happen. So, it's "right as...is about to try to do..., then...". 

6. 朝ご飯を食べようとした時、電話がかかってきました。
    Just as I was about to eat breakfast, I got a telephone call. 

In this example, the phone call came in before the speaker could ever actually start eating breakfast. 

When an attempt is continuous, meaning that it has a measurable duration, conscious in the sense that you are willfully trying to do it, or a non-momentous effort (such an action could have a negligible duration), ~ようにする must be used instead. Remember that ~ようにする actions have a longer duration and it is often the case that one is trying to change a habit. 

              This is attached to verbs of volition, and ~よう and ~う attach to the 未然形. As the class of verb determines which one you use, here is a conjugation chart for this pattern.

 一段  食べる  食べる+よう+とする →  食べようとする
 五段  飲む  飲む + う +とする →  飲もうとする
 サ変  する  する+よう+とする →  しようとする
 カ変  来る  来る+よう +とする →  来(こ)ようとする

7. ワインを飲もうとしました。
    I tried to drink wine. 
8. エレベーターに乗ろうとした時、後ろから走ってきた男に されたんです。
Just as I was about to get onto the elevator, I was pushed by a man who came running from behind. 

9. その後、店で財布を出そうとしたけれど、何もなかったんです。
    After that, just as I tried to take out my wallet in the store, nothing was in it.      


Grammatical Limitations

There is a time restraint to ~ようとする that makes its non-past form ungrammatical in many instances. ~ようとする describes the moment right before an action/change occurs, namely the beginning of the "trial", but the action is meant to be right after when one says it. The moment you utter the phrase is the "base period" for the action implied. If say you are going abroad to Japan like in Ex. 10. You're trying to put into action some sort of change, and that change consequently is about to happen, but in doing so your attempt has already begun as you are consciously planning its execution. All of this is implied with this phrase, which is why we usually see it in the past tense or the progressive. With that in mind, Ex. 10 should sound weird. The "try" in English should clearly not match the "try" phrase being used in the Japanese. 

Take note in what makes the following sentences grammatical.

10. 私は日本へ留学しようとするんです。X → 私は日本へ留学しようと思います。〇
      Intended: I will try to study abroad in Japan. 

11. 友子、すぐ出かけようとするんですか。X → 友子、すぐ出かけようとしていますか。〇
      Intended: Is she going to try to leave immediately? 

12.  あり が自分よりも大きな食べ物を の方へ運ぼうとしていますよ。
      Ants are trying to carry food that is larger than themselves to their hill.

13. 僕は、大学院に進むため、留学しようとしていたんです。
      I was trying to go abroad to get into graduate school.

14. 僕は氷が るくらい寒いところにある川に氷の け目から落ちてしまった犬を助けようとしたのです。 
I tried to save a dog that had fallen from an ice crack into a river in an area that was cold with ice. 


3rd Person Restraints

[Xは + Verb of volition A + とする] when trying to speak figuratively, an object third person's pose or feeling right before a trial can be captured by the speaker. In actual dialogue this becomes unnatural. When in conversation, in other words, in the present time of the speaker, there is no explanation for why the speaker would conjecture definitely about the feelings of the third person. This is un-Japanese to do, and bad Japanese grammar to try. In other words, in this situation, there is no shutter chance to be able to grasp the instant before X (the third person) does A. Consider this passage.

15. 日が のぼ り、男の顔を照らそうとする。男は目を まし、起き上がろうとする。そのとき、 するど すような胸の痛みを感じた。まぶしい。男は太陽が怖かった。何とかして歩こうとする赤ちゃんの姿が、 微笑 ほほえ ましかった。
The sun rose and shined on the man's face. The man opened his eyes and tried to get up. Then, he felt a sharp pain in his chest. He was dizzy. The man was afraid of the sun. For some reason the figure of his baby trying to walk was pleasing. 

This shows a lot of features about Japanese literature. For one, literary past can be expressed with the non-past form. This enables the passage to capture the exact moment before the trial as mentioned above. You can make conjectures about third person feeling when writing a novel or when definitively talking about someone.  

16. どうして、わざわざ、そんなところへ行こうとするんだ!?やめとけ。
       Why are you trying to take the efforts to go to such a place!? Quit it.

In this situation it is appropriate to use this without an evidential phrase like ~ようだ or ~らしい in dialogue because you are being critical about something that you're watching fold out in front of your eyes. Note that this pattern is actually a contraction of [Verb A+(よ)うとして+Verb B]. So, you will see examples where all of this applies in a complex sentence.


Foreboding

When ~ようとする is used with verbs of non-volition, it shows foreboding of a situation.

17.  稲妻 いなずま が走って、雷が鳴り、今にも雨が降り出そうとしていたんだよ。
      Lightning was striking, thunder was roaring, and it was going to rain at any moment.

18. ワニに われようとして、目が覚めたが、 恐怖 きょうふ のあまり、 強張 こわば っていた。
    About to be eaten by an alligator, his eyes opened, but his body was rigid out of fear.

漢字 Note: The 漢字 for ワニ is 鰐. 


第141課: The Particles とか, など, & なんか

     In this lesson we'll learn about additional particles that are used to list things colloquially: とか, など, and なんか.

The Adverbial Particle とか

     とか means "such as." It can also be interpreted as "something like". This particle may be seen after nouns, the end of conjugations such as the て形 and the 命令形. It is somewhat colloquial, and you can often see it at the end of a sentence fragment. 

1. 美由紀さんはギターとか、ドラムとか、ピアノとかたくさんお 稽古 けいこ に行ってるのよ。(女性言葉)
    Miyuki is taking many lessons such as guitar, drum, and piano.

2. 民主主義は食料とか飲料のように輸出できるものではない。 
     Democracy is not exportable like food or drink.

3. まだ用意とかできてねえよ。(乱暴な言い方)
    I still can't, uh, get prepared.

4. Youtubeを見てないで、少しは犬を散歩につれてくとか、本を読むとか、してはどう?(Casual)
    How about doing something like walk the dog or read a book without watching Youtube?

5. テニスとかサッカーとかアメフトとかの球技が大好きだからね。(Casual)
    Because I love ball sports like tennis, soccer, and (American) football.

6. 宏君のおばあさんは80いくつとかでまだフランス語を教えているんですって。
    Hiroshi's grandmother is something like 80 years old and is still teaching French.

The Adverbial Particle など

     など becomes なんか in colloquial settings. It is used to give related examples and may be seen after nouns or verbs. This particle is not usually used in list form like other similar particles such as と. However, when the need arises, it is often used together with the particle や.

Translation Note: The particle など is often also translated as "etc."  

7. 私は休日は 雑誌 ( ざっし ) を読むなどして ( ) ごしました。
     I spent the holidays doing stuff like reading magazines.

8. 東京やニューヨーク市などの大都市には 大勢 ( たいせい ) の人が住んでいます。
    A lot of people live in metropolises such as Tokyo and New York City.

9. 音楽やビデオゲームなどが若者に愛用されている。(堅苦しい言い方)
    Things such as music and video game are cherished by young people.

10. お茶・ 砂糖 ( さとう ) ・塩など
      Tea, sugar, salt and so on

11. レモンやミカンやタンジェリンなどの 果物 ( くだもの ) を買い集めた。
     I bought up fruits such as lemons, mandarin oranges, and tangerines.

漢字 Note: Lemon and mandarin oranges can be written in 漢字 as 檸檬 and 蜜柑 respectively, but they are usually just spelled in カタカナ.

12. 彼など 適任者 ( てきにんしゃ ) だね。
      Someone like him is suitable, right?

13. このパソコンなどお ( ) ( どく ) です。
      Something like this personal computer is a bargain.

14. ヨーロッパの 信用 ( しんよう ) 不安で海外経済が 減速 ( げんそく ) していることなどが 影響 ( えいきょう ) している。
Events such as overseas economies decelerating due to uneasiness of confidence in Europe are taking an effect.

15. こりゃなんかええじゃん? (Casual)
      Isn't something like this OK?

16. 彼女になんか会わなければよかった。
      If I had somehow not met her, it would have been good.

17. 私はテレビでアニメなどは見ません。
      I don't watch things like anime on TV.

18. 休暇 きゅうか 中に 洗濯 せんたく 掃除 そうじ などしなくてもいい。(堅苦しい)
      休みなのに洗濯とか掃除とかしなくてもいいじゃない。(Casual)
       It's all right to not do laundry, cleaning and such on vacation.

19. 表彰 ひょうしょう なんか受けたくもねーし。( くだ けた言い方)
       I don't want any public acknowledgement.

20. 泣いてなどいられん。(Casual; dialectical)
      I can't just cry.  

21. 「ああ、佐伯あさっちゃんのところに行ったの。あんなヤツの言うことなんか、嘘っぱちだよ」
"Ahh, Sahaku went to Satchan's place? What that guy says is a downright lie.
From 冷たい誘惑 by 乃南アサ.  

22. 今さら行くなどと言ってももう ( おそ ) いよ。
      Even if you say you're going to go now, you're already later.

23. 甲冑 かっちゅう なども 精巧 せいこう 出来 でき ている。
     Things like the armor are also exquisitely made.

漢字 Note: 冑 is not a 常用漢字. So, don't worry about it. 

Variants' Note: など may also be seen as なんど, なぞ and なんぞ. These are all dialectical. So, who uses them is dependent on the region in question. 


第142課: The Particle なんて

The particle なんて is similar to なんか and  など because all three particles can be used to euphemize what they follow. However, the practical situations in which they are used can be very different. When it comes to how なんて is used, the tone that it gives is far more emphatic  than the other two can ever be. It also brings about unique grammar that the other two don’t.

In this lesson, we will focus solely on なんて to see how it’s used. Ultimately, it is easier to learn this particle separately so that you don’t confuse it with things that can occasionally be used similarly but not ultimately bring about the same nuance. 

How to Use なんて

Grammatically speaking, なんて can pretty much following anything. One reason for this is that it is partially composed of って, which you should understand as one of the most common means of citation in speech. The なん, as you can imagine, comes from 何. This provides major context to how the phrase generally works. It’s emphatic; it’s subjective; it’s there to draw some form of attention.

なんて can pretty much follow anything. It can be seen after nouns, adjectives, adjectival nouns, verbs, as well as full statements. Interestingly enough, as you will soon see, the copula だ can actually intervene at times to add even more dramatic effect to what’s being referred. The "referring" aspect makes だ's role akin to that of a citation particle like って, drawing upon the literal breakdown of なんて itself. 

 Part of Speech  Example
 With Nouns  恋(だ)なんて
 With Adjectives  おかしい(だ)なんて
 With Adjectival Nouns  新鮮(だ)なんて
 With Verbs  行く(だ)なんて
 With Sentences  本当に好きだよなんて

Although overall it is fair to say that なんて is used in mostly negative situations, it is not limited to this. Regardless of whether the statement is positive or negative, it will euphemize whatever it follows. This euphemizing can then have a belittling, critical, or supportive tone depending on the sentence. 

1. 彼女 ( かのじょ ) 包丁 ( ほうちょう ) なんて 使 ( つか ) ったことあるのかな。
I wonder if she’s ever used a kitchen knife.

2. そもそも 決闘 ( けっとう ) なんてしませんよ。
We’re not going to be having a duel in the first place.

3. もう、 健太君 ( けんたくん ) なんて ( ) らないわ!
I don’t know you anymore, Kentaro!

4. ( わたし ) なんてまだまだです。
I still have a long way to go.

5. アライグマなんて ( こわ ) くないよ。
There’s nothing scary about raccoons!

6. バスク ( ) なんて 簡単 ( かんたん ) さ。
Basque is just easy!

7. 野球 ( やきゅう ) なんてちょっと ( ) まらなくない?
Isn’t baseball a little boring?

8. 雪合戦 ( ゆきがっせん ) なんて 子供 ( こども ) じゃあるまいし。
A snowball fight…it isn’t as if I’m a child.

9. 人生 ( じんせい ) なんてそんな 素晴 ( すば ) らしいものじゃない。
Human life is not such a wonderful thing.

10. 人間 ( にんげん ) なんて ( もろ ) いものなんでしょうね。    
People really are weak things, aren't they?

11. セス 先生 ( せんせい ) なんて ( ) いたことねー。
I’ve never heard of this Seth-sensei.

12. 漢字 ( かんじ ) なんてどうしても ( ) けないの!
I can't write Kanji no matter what I do!

13. なんで 試験 ( しけん ) なんてやるんだろ。
Why is it that we do exams anyway?

14. お ( かね ) なんて ( ) らない!
I don’t need any money!

15. 無意味 ( むいみ ) 愚痴 ( ぐち ) なんて ( ) きたくもない。
I don’t want to hear your meaningless complaining.

16. 本来 ( ほんらい ) ( しろ ) いはずのものが ( あか ) いなんてちょっと 神秘 ( しんぴ ) ( てき ) )だよね。
Something that’s originally supposed to be white being red is a little mysterious, isn’t it?

17. 男性 ( だんせい ) じゃあるまいし、 鼻下 ( びか ) ( あお ) いなんて 洒落 ( しゃれ ) になりません。
It’s not as if I’m a man; my upper-lip being blue is no joking matter.

18. ( はじ ) まりが ( こわ ) いなんて、そんなの 当然 ( とうぜん ) だからね。
That’s ‘cause it’s natural for the beginning to be scary.

19. あれほど ( みにく ) いなんて、 本当 ( ほんとう ) 残念 ( ざんねん ) なことだ。
It truly is a shame that (he) is so ugly like that.

20. 図々 ( ずうずう ) しいだなんて、とんでもございません。
It’s absolutely not audacious (of him).

21. 体型 ( たいけい ) ( うつく ) しいだなんて、 ( ) れるわ。
I get embarrassed when I’m told my figure is beautiful.

22. ( かなら ) ずずっと 一緒 ( いっしょ ) (だ)なんて、あり ( ) ないんじゃない?
Always being together forever is impossible, no?

23. 日常会話が簡単(だ)なんて嘘だよ!
It’s a complete lie that daily conversation is easy!

24. え、まさかあいつが ( おれ ) のことを ( ) きだなんて・・・
What? You’re saying that guy likes me!?

25. 仏様 ( ほとけさま ) ( ) ( はら ) うなんて、 人間 ( にんげん ) 出来 ( でき ) ることじゃないと ( おも ) うがね。
Though I’m pretty sure reducing the Buddha into ashes is not something man can do.

26. ( ) ( くに ) 神々 ( かみがみ ) ( うたが ) うなんて、とんだ 身分 ( みぶん ) だな。
What unthinkable position you’re in doubting the gods of our country.

27. 息子 ( むすこ ) さん 早稲田 ( わせだ ) に受かったなんて ( すご ) いですね。
That’s amazing how your son got accepted to Waseda (University).

28. 正月 ( しょうがつ ) 一度 ( いちど ) ( かえ ) らないなんて ( なに ) 事情 ( じじょう ) があるからだろうしなあ。
There's probably got to be some reason behind (him) not going home even one on New Year’s.

29. 重要 ( じゅうよう ) 会議 ( かいぎ ) 遅刻 ( ちこく ) するなんて、 ( ゆる ) せない。
It’s unforgiveable to be late to an important meeting.

30. ( ) くなんて ( ) ってないよ。
I'm not saying that I'm going.

31. 子供 ( こども ) ( さる ) ( つぎ ) ( とし ) ( ) をたくさん ( ) むなんてことはできない。
The young monkeys can't also give birth to a lot of offspring the next year.

32. この ( さる ) ちゃん、 ( ) をたくさん ( ) むことなんてできないもん。
This little monkey, there’s no way it can give birth to a lot of offspring.

33. 全員 ( ぜんいん ) ( ) かれるのなんて 無理 ( むり ) だよね。
It’s impossible to be liked by everyone, huh.

34. 禿 ( ) げるのなんて 絶対嫌 ( ぜったいいや ) だ!
Going bald would just be absolutely awful!

35. タイムマシンが 出来 ( でき ) るのなんて 不可能 ( ふかのう ) なんですよね?
Building a time machine is impossible, right?

36. 英語 ( えいご ) できるのなんて 成人 ( せいじん ) としては ( ) たり ( まえ ) じゃないか。
Being able to speak English is only natural as an adult, is it not?

37. 智美 ( ともみ ) がああいう ( ひと ) だったなんて、 ( ) らなかったです。
I had no idea Tomomi was that kind of a person.

38. つい 最近 ( さいきん ) まで 高校生 ( こうこうせい ) だったなんて ( しん ) じられませんね。
I can't believe that I’ve been a high school student up until just recently.

39. この ( ) ( ) わりだなんて ( かんが ) えるのは ( おろ ) かだ。
Thinking something like the world's going to end is foolish!

40. どうしてここに ( ) たのかなんて、 ( ) まっている。
It’s a given as to why (he) came here.

41. ( ) ( ) てか、さん ( ) けかなんて ( かんが ) える 余裕 ( よゆう ) はなかった。
There was no leeway to ponder whether to address him with or without an honorific.


As a Final Particle 

To the same effect as above, you can also find なんて at the end of a sentence/statement to show utter surprise/disbelief. Depending on the tone, this may be used in ridicule as well.

42. どうして ( きゅう ) にお ( さけ ) なんて・・・
Why alcohol all so suddenly?

43. まさか、 和睦 ( わぼく ) ( みち ) ( えら ) ぶなんて・・・
Wow, to think (they’re) choosing the path of reconciliation…

44. お 正月 ( しょうがつ ) がこんなに 大変 ( たいへん ) (だ)なんて・・・
To think New Year’s would be this intense…

45. どちらも 本物 ( ほんもの ) だなんて。
Both are the real thing?!

46. これからずっと ( おび ) えて ( ) らさなきゃいけないなんて。
The thought of us having to live from here on out in fear….

47. まだまだ ( ) ( がつ ) なのに 竜巻 ( たつまき ) 発生 ( はっせい ) するなんて・・・
Tornadoes forming even though it’s still only April…

48. ( あい ) してるよなんて。
Huh, I love you...

49. あいつが「 竹島 ( たけしま ) ( じつ ) 独島 ( トクト ) だと 主張 ( しゅちょう ) してる」なんてもっぱらの ( うわさ ) だよ。
The persistent rumor is that he "claims Takeshima is Dokdo". 

Culture Note: 竹島 is a group of islands in the Sea of Japan called the "Liancourt Rocks" in English. However, the islands are under territorial dispute with Korea. Japan claims they’re part of  島根県 ( しまねけん )  (Shimane Prefecture). However,  Korea claims them as theirs under the name 独島.  


With the Copula や 

The particle なんて does not follow the copula や, however, which is used in dialects like 関西弁 instead of だ. 

50a. 東京弁 ( とうきょうべん ) ( ) ってあげる(だ)なんて ( ) っていない。〇
50b. 京都弁 ( きょうとべん ) ( ) うたげるなんて ( ) うてへん。〇    
50c. 京都弁 ( きょうとべん ) ( ) うたげるやなんて ( ) うてへん。X
I'm not saying that I'll buy it for you.  


何て

As you may have already noticed and as was alluded to earlier, you can also view なんてas being equivalent to などと言って・何と言って. As you can see in the following sentences, spelling it as 何て is possible when it used more literally.

51. ( いま ) 、何て ( ) ったんだろ・・・
What was it that (he) said now?

52. 名前 ( なまえ ) は何ていうの。
What’s your name?

53. この 漢字 ( かんじ ) 、何て ( ) むの?
How do you read this Kanji?

54. こんな ( うわさ ) ( ひろ ) まってるなんて、 上司 ( じょうし ) ( ) ったら ( なん ) ( ) うかな。
I wonder what the boss would say if he found out this sort of rumor was surprising.

55. 池田 ( いけだ ) さんなんて ( ひと ) ( ) りません。
I don’t know a person by the name of Ikeda-san.

56. スイーツでまずいなんてことってあんまりないですよね。
There really aren't that many times in which something is a sweet but actually tastes bad.

Sentence Note: In Ex. 56, you could interpret なんて as being the same as などと言う.

57. 旦那 ( だんな ) なんて ( ) ばれる 身分 ( みぶん ) じゃない!
I'm not in the position to be called “husband”!

58. 「 仕事 ( しごと ) ( わたし ) 、どっちが 大事 ( だいじ ) なの?」なんて 絶対 ( ぜったい ) ( ) ってはいけない 禁句 ( きんく ) なんですよ。
“Which is more important, work or me?” is a taboo that you should absolutely never utter.

59. すごいなんて 言葉 ( ことば ) では 全然足 ( ぜんぜんた ) りない。
Using a word like “awesome” is totally not good enough.

60. ( わたし ) 、なんて ( こと ) を!
What have I done!


Oh How... 

Lastly, it is also important to note that なんて can be used in its own set phrases (Ex. 64) as well as an adverb meaning “oh how…,” in which case it is synonymous with 何と (Exs. 61-63).

61. カナダの ( ふゆ ) って、 本当 ( ほんとう ) になんて ( うつく ) しいんでしょう。
Oh how beautiful winter in Canada truly is!

62. うちのアパートの 水道水 ( すいどうすい ) 、なんてまずいんだ。
The tap water at my apartment, it’s just awful.

63. なんてつまらないんだ!
How boring!

64. なんて、( 冗談 ( じょうだん ) で)ね。
Just joking. 


第143課: The Particles ほど & くらい

Although very similar, ほど and くらい―also ぐらい―are not always the same.

The Adverbial Particle ほど

The first thing that you should know about the particle ほど is how it is attached to various parts of speech and what sort of particle combinations are allowed.

 Class  Pattern  Example
 名詞  N+ほど  日本ほど
 形容詞  連体形+ほど  できなほど
 形容動詞  連体形+ほど  楽ほど
 動詞  連体形+ほど  考えほど

As far as particles are concerned, the typical order is noun + case particle + ほど. However, が・を are deleted. If they are to be used, they are used right after ほど. However, the particles such as に, で, and から are always after it. 


Approximation 

After a quantity, ほど shows an approximation. This usage is interchangeable with くらい・ぐらい.  

1. 9年間 ほど
    About nine years

2. 旅 は10 時間 ほどかかるでしょう。
    The trip will probably take about ten hours.

3. そのロープは さが メートルほどあります。
    The rope is about six meters long.

4. することが ほどあるよ。
    I have a pile of work to do.
    Literally: I have a mountain of stuff to do.

5. あと1 ほどで 夏休 みになる。
    I'll be on summer vacation in about a month.

6. この 仕事 はあと2 週間 ほどあれば 出来上 がりますか。 
    Will this job get done in around two weeks?

7. {細石・小石} ほどの きさの

     A stone the size of a pebble

Reading & Meaning Note: 細石 = さざれいし. This is smaller than a 小石. However, in English you use the same word. 

8a. あの はどれ{ほど・くらい} 長い ですか。(More natural)
8b. あの橋の長さはどれくらいですか。
      How long is that bridge over there?

9. お(お)よそ50人(ほど)の人
    Around fifty people

Word Note: お(お)よそ = Approximately 


 Extreme Example

   It may also show an extreme example. It takes a specific situation and evaluates its extent. So, it is often translated as "to the extent that". It may be seen after nominal or verbal expressions. Of course, idiomatic translation may very well blur this literal definition. 

10. 言葉 にできないほど 素晴 らしい。
      It's too wonderful for words.

11. 彼 ( ) ( ) けないほど ( ) ってはいなかった。
      He wasn't weak enough to not walk.

12. 彼 ( ) ( ) てるのが ( ) ( ) なほど 悄気 ( しょげ ) てる。(Casual)
      Just seeing him makes me feel bad.

13. 彼 ( ) はそれを ( ) みるほど 勇敢 ( ゆうかん ) 兵士 ( ) ではありません。
      He isn't a brave enough soldier to attempt that.

14. 全国民 ( ) 戦争 ( ) 優勝 ( ) して、 ( なみだ ) ( ) るほど ( ) しかったです。
      The entire nation was happy to the point of tears from winning the war.

15. 振ほど けないほど 彼女しっか りと抱き めた。 (叙述的な表現)
      I hugged her so tightly that she couldn't break away.

漢字 Note: しっかり(と) is usually written in ひらがな. Using the 漢字 is more old-fashioned. 

When ほど is used to make a negative comparison such as in the following sentences, it cannot be replaced with くらい・ぐらい. 

16. クリスマスほど ( ) ( どお ) しいものはない。
      There's nothing I look forward to more than Christmas.

17a. 鈴木 ( ) さんは 外見 ( ) ほど ( ) をとっていませんね。 (Potentially rude)
17b. 鈴木さんは見た目より若く見えますね。 (More natural)
        Mr. Suzuki's not as old as he looks.

18. 高橋氏外見 ほどの 年齢 ねんれい じゃないよ。 (失礼な言い方)
      Mr. Takahashi is not as old as he looks.

19. 日本 ( ) ( ) むほど ( ) せなことはありません。
      There is nothing more happy than living in Japan.

20. 足はこの程度なら医者に行くほどのこともない。
      If your foot is only this bad, there's no need to go to the doctor.

21. おこ るほどのことではありません。
      It's not something we need to get angry about.

22. 心配 ( ) するほどの 怪我 ( けが ) ではありません。
      It's not an injury to worry about.

23. 病状 ( ) 手術 ( ) 必要 ( ) なほどではない。
      The condition of her illness is not to the point of surgery.

24. あいつは ( ) ほどうまく 運転 ( ) しねー。(Vulgar)
      He doesn't drive as good as me.

25. 私 ( ) 知識 ( ちしき ) など 先生 ( ) のそれとは 比較 ( ひかく ) にならないほどお 粗末 ( そまつ ) なものでございます。 (Humble)
      My knowledge is not even comparable to that of the teacher's.

26. 散歩 ( ) ほどいいものはないね。
      There's nothing like a walk, right?

27. 今日微分積分学 びぶんせきぶんがく 試験 ったほど しくなかった。
      Today's calculus exam was less difficult than I thought.

28. 結果は後程ご一報ください。(Formal)
      Please inform us the results later.

敬語 Note: 後程(のちほど) = あとで. 


 AすればAするほど

This pattern means "the more...the more...". Without the conditional, you'd just show that there is a link between the extent of the pattern and the phrase that follows. The overall sentence can either be positive or negative depending on whether you are showing an increase or decrease in the degree of something respectively. You cannot replace ほど with くらい・ぐらい for this usage!

 Verbs  泳ぐ → 泳げ → 泳げ +ば = 泳げば + 泳ぐほど = 泳げば泳ぐほど
 形容詞  新しい → 新しけれ + ば = 新しければ + 新しいほど = 新しければ新しいほど
 形容動詞  簡単だ → 簡単な (+ば) = 簡単なら(ば) + 簡単なほど = 簡単なら(ば)簡単なほど

Politeness Note: Using であれば instead of なら is more formal/polite.  

29. 多 ( ) ければ ( ) いほどよい。
     The more, the better it is.

30. 複雑 ふくざつ なら複雑なほど れやすいです。
      The more complicated something is, the easier it is to break.

31. 何 でも、 練習 すればするほど 上手 になります。
      With anything, the more you practice, the better you become.

32. 価格 かかく が高ければ高いほど、 需要 じゅよう 減少 げんしょう する。
      The higher the price, the smaller the demand is.

33.  骨董品 こっとうひん は古ければ古いほど価値があがる。
      The older antiques are the more value it has.

34. 早ければ早いほどいいです。
      The sooner, the better it is.

35. 高く れば登るほど寒くなってくる。
      The higher you climb, the colder it gets.

36. パソコンは操作が簡単であれば簡単であるほどいいです。
      The easier the operation of a PC is, the better it is.

37. 田舎 いなか むほど せなことはないと う。
      I think that nothing is happier than living in the country.

38. 人が多ければ多いほど楽しい。
      The more the merrier.

39. 深ければ深いほど暗くなる。
      The deeper you get, the darker it gets.  

The Adverbial Particle くらい・ぐらい

The way くらい・ぐらい are attached to things is the same as with ほど, but its combination with other particles is slightly different.

 Class  Pattern  Example
 名詞  N+くらい・ぐらい  一円{くらい・ぐらい}
 形容詞  連体形+くらい・ぐらい  見えない{くらい・ぐらい}
 形容動詞  連体形+くらい・ぐらい  不思議な{くらい・ぐらい}
 動詞  連体形+くらい・ぐらい  捨てる{くらい・ぐらい}

 The particles が and を if used with it are after it. The particles に, へ, で, と, から can all be seen before or after it. 


 Approximation

Introduces something and then shows the degree or quantity almost equivalent to that. When you are saying that something is the same degree, you must use くらい・ぐらい.

40. ニューメキシコ州も同じ{〇 くらい・〇 ぐらい・X ほど}暑いですよ。
      New Mexico is just as hot.  

41. 8時 ( ) くらいです。
      It's about eight o'clock.

42. リーチは立原の方が極端なぐらい長い。
      As for reach, Tachihara's is longer to an extreme.   
From 擬態 by 北方謙三.

43. 彼 ( ) は36 ( ) ぐらいだ。
      He is around thirty six years old.

44. 30分 ( ) ぐらいしてから、もう 一度電話 ( ) をかけてみました。 
      I tried calling again after about thirty minutes.

45. 私 ( ) の捕った ( ) はこれくらいの ( ) きさでした。
     The fish I caught was about this big.

46. 昼 ( ) くらいに ( ) ( ) んだ。
      It stopped raining around noon.

47. それくらいのことでめげるな。
      Don't be discouraged at such a thing.

48. まゆ れるくらいに ってください。
      Please cut it so that my eyebrows are covered.  

49. そして 仲田 ( ) が、その女を自分の妹あつかいし、馬鹿にしているのを 勿体 ( もったい ) ないことをする ( やつ ) だ位に感じた。
Furthermore, he felt that Nakata was this guy treating that (perfect woman for him) as his own sister, making her out to be stupid, having her do things unfit for her class. 
From 友情 by 武者小路実篤 むしゃのこうじさねあつ .

Grammar Note: An entire clause is modifying 位, the 漢字 spelling of くらい, and if this were written in a more modern fashion, quotations would have probably been used to reinforce a short spoken pause that aids in the grammaticality of this sentence. 

Orthography Note: This sentence comes from a book originally published in 1920, which is why くらい is written in 漢字. It would be somewhat old-fashioned to do likewise today.  


 Belittling 

Introduces something of light degree and limits it to a certain level. This can be seen in the pattern XのはYくらいだ (Y is about the only X). Thus, again, this usage creates a minimal phrase. This belittling usage is not interchangeable with ほど. 

50. せめてタバコくらいやめてくださいよ。
      The least you can do is stop smoking.

51. 簡単 ( ) 料理 ( ) ぐらい ( ) だってできるよ。
      Even I can cook a simple meal (to that extent)!

52. 子供 ( ) でもそんなことくらい ( ) かる。
       Even a child would understand (to the extent of) something like that.

53. 「韓国料理は、何でも好きですか」 「いいえ、私が好きなのはキムチくらいです」
"Do you like any Korean food?". "No, kimchi is about the only thing I like". 

54. 「このごろの子供は、本をあんまり読まんと聞いたが」「ええ、ほんとに。よく読むのマンガぐらいなんだよね」「そりゃ困ったな~」 (すごく砕けた言い方)
"I heard that kids these days don't read books much". "Yeah, that's true. Manga is just about the only thing they often read". "That's no good".

55. 「あの、君はスポーツは何でもできるんでしょ」「いや、実は、僕ができるのは{サッカー・卓球・野球・バドミントン・テニス}くらいだよ」
"Uh, you can play any sport, right?". "No, actually, [soccer; table tennis; baseball; badminton; tennis] is about the only thing I can". 

56. 空一面 になるくらいの 見事 みごと 夕焼 けでした。
      The splendid sunset was to the extent that the whole sky turned completely red.

57. ずかしくて があったら りたいくらいだった。
      I was so embarrassed to the extent that if a hole opened up I would want to enter it.

2. Shows an extreme matter. ~くらいなら~ほうがましだ = "rather...than...". However, it should be understood that both actions are unfavorable. It's just you say that you'd rather do the latter. 

58. 降参 ( ) するぐらいなら ( ) んだ ( ) がましだ。 
      I'd rather die than surrender.

59. 君 ( ) ( ) てるぐらいなら ( ) んだ ( ) がましだ。
      I would rather die than abandon you.

60. 期日 きじつ れるくらいなら、 徹夜 てつや をして 完成 かんせい させた がましだ。
      I would rather have it completed overnight than be late to the deadline.

Phrase Note: ましになる is used to show that something is improving, but it's not fully good. As such, it's not really appropriate to a lot of people to use such a phrase to refer to someone feeling better. However, there are areas like the Kansai Region where it is rather common.

61. 痛みがましになる。
      The pain improved.

62. 通りから広場に出たところで、少し混雑がましになった。
      As I entered into the plaza from the street, the traffic got a little better.
From 野生の風 by 村山由佳. 

3. ~くらい~はない shows something being the most....

63. 彼 ( ) くらい 努力 ( ) する ( ) はいません。
      There is no person putting effort into it than him.

64. 地震{ほど・ くらい} いものはない。
      There's nothing as scary as an earthquake.

4. ~くらいで  gives that the feeling that something is at a small amount or significance. It is often used in suggesting or belittling something.

65. テストが悪かったぐらいで、泣かないで。(Casual)
      Don't cry over a doing bad on a test.

66. スペイン語習ったことはあるけど、ちょっとしゃべれるようになったぐらいでやめてちゃったんで、本を読めるようにはならんかった。 (すごく砕けた言い方)
I've studied Spanish, but I quit when I became able to speak it, so I didn't end up becoming able to read a book. 

67. このレッスンはやさしいから、ちょっと練習するくらいで、終わりましょう。
      Since this lesson is easy, let's end with a little practice. 


第144課: The Particle より

     In this lesson we will learn how to compare things with the particle より.

The Case Particle より

     より creates a comparison and it translates to "than". There is no change to the adjective in Japanese like there is in English with the suffix -er. As illustrated in the chart, the Japanese word order is still flexible. Notice the differences in word order between English and Japanese. 

 English  X is adj -er than Y.
 Japanese  X(は・の方が)Yより(か・も) adj.
 Japanese  Yより(か・も)X(の方)が adj.

Contraction Note: よりか can be contracted to よか in slang. 

Usage Note: よりか is a くだけた言い方. 

1. このリンゴはあのリンゴより大きい。
    This apple is bigger than that apple.

2. 俺はお前より背が高いぞ。(Rough male speech)
    I'm taller than you are! 

3. 彼女は臆病者が何よりもいやだった。
    She hated a coward more than anything.

4. 君は誰よりも早く走ったな。(Male speech)
    You ran faster than anyone else, didn't you.

5. 祖父は父よりゆっくり話す。
    My grandfather speaks more slowly than my father.

6. 俺にはあんたよりずっと多くの歌があるんだ。(Rough male speech)
    I have much more songs than you do.

7. 彼女は僕より{4つ・4年・4歳}年下だ。
    She is 4 years younger than me.

8. 昨日よりも今日の方がずっと暑い。
    Today is much hotter than yesterday.

9. あいつは、不良よりマヌケだぞ。(Rough male speech) 
     He's more so a fool than a rogue.

10. 薬を飲むより仕事してくれ!   (乱暴な言い方)
      Work instead of drinking medicine!

11. 彼は僕よりお前を選んだのか。(Male speech)
      He chose you instead of me?

12. ここに残ってるより出て行きたいの?
      You'd rather go than stay?


 より仕方がない

より仕方がない = There is no other choice but to.

13. 「車が故障したんですが」「じゃ、歩いて行くより仕方がありませんね」
       "My car broke down". "Then, there's no other choice but to walk".

14. 「僕、料理は、ぜんぜんできないよ」「じゃ、自分で作るよりしょうがないね」
       "I can't cook at all". "Then, you have no choice but to do it yourself".

15. 「今日の宿題を忘れてきちゃった」「じゃ、早くやりなおすよりしょうがないよ」  
"I accidentally forgot today's homework". "Then, you have no other choice but to redo it quickly".


2. "From" in the sense of starting, distance, space, or quantity. This is a more polite version of から. 

16. 四時よりも後なら結構です。
      It'll be good if its after 4 o' clock.

17. ホームの白線より内側でお待ちください。
      Please wait inside the white line on the platform.

18. 真ん中より後ろに置いてください。
      Put it behind the middle of it.

20. これより先は立入禁止。
      It's forbidden to pass by from here!

21. 学校は駅より手前にあるのです。
      The school is before the station.

22. 会議は五時より行います。
      The meeting will be held at 5 o' clock.

23. 雪は未明より降り続いています。
      The snow will continue to fall from dawn.

24. 私共は朝6時半より営業しております。
      We are open from 6:30 A.M.

25. 子どものころよりお互いに知っています。
      We've known each since we were children.

26. 羽田空港より出発しました。
      We departed at Haneda Airport.

27. 横浜港より出港しました。
      We departed from Port Yokohama.

28. 吉田さまよりお電話がございました。
      You got a telephone call from Mr. Yoshida.


3. "Verb + ~よりほかない" means "nothing else to do but..." This is a more formal rendition of simply using ~ほかない (Ex. 30).

29. どうしても電話が通じない。こうなっては、仲谷君の家へ行くよりほかない。(やや書き言葉的)
I can't get through on the phone no matter what. This being the case, there's nothing I can do besides going to Nakaya's house.

30. ケーブルカーが故障で動かへん。直るまで待つほかあらへんわ。(Kansai Dialect)
The tram is out of order due to a collision. There's nothing else to do besides wait until it's repaired.

Dialect Note: ~へん = ~ない. 


第145課: Similarity: ~ようだ, ~みたいだ,  & ~っぽい

Though all of these phrases have a common theme, their grammar and usages do vary significantly. So, please be sure to not rush through them even if you've seen them show up many times in your studies thus far. 

~ようだ

     様 is a noun that literally means "appearance". ~ようだ is a 形容動詞 conjugating ending that comes from it, and it has many applications.


~ようだ 

Overall, ~ようだ is like "like" or "seem". よう is a noun itself, so when used after nouns, precede it with の. When after 形容動詞, use な!

1. 僕の犬は言葉が分かるようだよ。
  My dog seems to understand words!

2. 爬虫類 はちゅうるい のようで、実は、 哺乳類 ほにゅうるい だ。
   It looks like a reptile but in reality is a mammal.

漢字 Note: 爬 and 哺 are rare. So, you don't need to worry about them.   

3. すこし 塩辛 ( しおから ) いようですね。
    It's kind of salty, don't you think?

Word Note: 辛い is often used to mean "salty" in West Japan. The word 塩っぱい also exists. In this word, 塩 is pronounced as しょ. 

4. どうも ( こわ ) れているようだ。
    Presumably, it's broken.

5. みな元気なようです。
    Everyone seems fine.

6. 彼はとても悲しんでいるようです。
    He seems to be very sad.

7.何か ( かく ) しているようです。
   He appears to be hiding something.

8. あの人を見たような気がしました。
    I felt like I saw that person before.

9. ちょっと ( おこ ) ったように聞こえた。
    I heard her like she was a little angry.

10. ステーキかまたはそれと同じようなものを食べる。
     To eat steak or something just like it.

11. 彼は、何も言いたくないような、 ( ) ( だま ) った表情をしてる。
      He's reticent as if he doesn't want to say anything. 

12. 彼は、何も言いたくないようで、ぶすっとしてる。
      He's in a bad mood not saying anything. 

13. 難しかったようです。
      It looks like it was difficult.

14. 対策もなく、 俎板 ( まないた ) ( こい ) のようなものだ。(Idiomatic)
      It's basically a hopeless situation without a countermeasure.


 まるで & ~かのようだ 

~ようだ is also often paired with まるで to make "just like", and when used with the particle か, it creates "as if". 

15. マイクさんはまるで天使のような人ですね。
      Isn't Mike just like an angel?

16. まるで人でも殺したかのように、ぼうぜんとしてる。
      He's dumbfounded as if he's killed a person.

17. 彼の病気はまるで神様が治してくれたかのようにきれいに消えましたよ。
      His sickness disappeared as if it was by God.

18. 地に ひざ をつくかのように木が風に れていた。 
      The trees swayed in the wind as if they knelled to the ground.


~よう{なら・だったら} 

~よう{なら・だったら} euphemizes a supposition.

19. この 治療 ( ちりょう ) {手当て・ 処置 ( しょち ) }で治らないようだったら病院に行ってくださいね。
     If you don't get better with this medical treatment, please go to the hospital, OK?


 ~ようになる

~ようになる shows that a state changes. It indicates a state that could not be done has become one that can be done. It can also be used in the negative. Also, ~ないようになる can be contracted to ~なくなる. The pattern can also be used to show acquisition of a habit or custom. 

20. 六年ぶりに 旧友 ( きゅうゆう ) と会えるようになった
     After six years I was able to meet an old friend. 

21. 日本語で 挨拶 ( あいさつ ) ができるようになりましたよ。
      I have become able to greet in Japanese.

22. 「日本語の勉強はどうですか」「宿題が簡単にできるようになりましたし、それに日本人と毎日会話をしてい      ます」
"How are you Japanese studies?” “Homework has become easier to do, and furthermore, I converse with Japanese people every day". 

23. 最近、彼女はよく話すようになりました。
      She recently started to talk a lot.

24. 彼はテレビを見なくなりました。
   He stopped watching TV.


The Noun よう

     The noun よう may be after the 連用形 of verbs to show appearance or method. It can also function as a nominalizer. 

25. 言おう様ない (Rare) = 言い様のない
   Indescribable

26. その ( ) しみようは ( ) ていられない。
   I can't stand watching that miserable condition (of that man).

~みたいだ

     ~みたいだ is for the most part a more casual variant of よう for comparison, but since it does come from 見る (to see), it shows that something "resembles...". It acts as a 形容動詞. So, you can see ~みたいな (adjectival) and ~みたいに (adverbial). The negative should be ~ないみたいだ. but in slang you may still see ~みたくない.

27. 兄 ( ) ( さむらい ) みたいな ( ) だね。
   My older brother is like a samurai. 

28. ったみたいだ。
   It was like rain had fallen in pitch black.

29. ガムみたいに ( ) びるものだ。
   It's a thing that stretches like gum.

30. もう ( ) ( ) れみたい。
   It looks like it's already sold out.

31. 誰もいないみたいだが。
   It seems that nobody is here, but...

32. 夢 ( ) みたいな ( ) だ。
   That's a story resembling a dream.

33.  かべ みたいに うす いよ。
   The walls are thin like paper.

34. 味 ( ) がすこし ( ) いみたいです。
   The taste seems to slightly be weak.

Origin Note: ~みたい comes from ~みた様, which can still be seen in literature.   

~っぽい

The 形容詞 conjugating suffix ~っぽい is often discarded as slang. However, it is becoming very popular. It is very similar to "-ish". After the stems of adjectives, it shows a distinct nature. With nouns, it shows a strong impression about what something is like. However, when attached to the 連用形 of verbs, it shows tendency. Now it can be seen after the 終止形 to mean "looks like".

35. 彼女 ( ) 全然女 ( ) っぽくないな。
   She's not womanly at all!

36. 君 ( ) 欠点 ( けってん ) ( ) れっぽいことだぞ。(Masculine)
   Your fault is that you're forgetful.

37. なんて ( うそ ) っぽい ( ) や! (関西弁)
   What a lie!

38.  ほこり っぽい
    Dusty

39. 最近忘 ( ) れっぽくなった。
  I tended to forget the recent times.

40. あら っぽい 行動
   Rough conduct.

41. 彼は ねつ っぽく えていた。
   His body was feverishly shaking.

42. この ( ) ( ) っぽいの。(Feminine)
   This sake is watery.

43.  理屈 りくつ っぽい
   Argumentative

44. マジで ( ) っぽいテレビだな。 (Casual)
   It's really a cheap TV, isn't it?

45. やるっぽい! (Casual)
    It looks like he's doing it!

46. 病院 ( ) っぽい 雰囲気 ( ふんいき )
   A hospital-like atmosphere.

47. 子供っぽいことすんなよ。 (Masculine)
      Don't do something childish.

48. バナナっぽい ( かお ) りが ( ) きだわ。(女性言葉)
   I like banana-like fragrances.

49. 黒 ( ) っぽい ( ) でした。
   It was a blackish car.

50a. 哀 ( ) れっぽい声
50b. 哀れめいた声 (More serious)
     A piteous voice


第146課: Seem: ~そうだ

~そうだ acts like a 形容動詞 and is only used with adjectives or verbs. It just can't be used with plain nouns.Its usages have significant differences in grammar. There are two grammatical ways it can be used. In this lesson, we will focus on how it is used when it attaches to the 連用形.

Attaching to the 連用形: Conjecture 

From the outward appearance, ~そうだ expresses the speaker's intuitive subjective guess on the nature, quality, or properties of something or someone. The statement isn't proven. So, if obvious, it's not applicable. This is like "seem to be (doing)". ~そうだ attaches to the 連用形 for verbs but the stems of adjectives for conjecture. 

動詞  降る+そうだ→降りそうだ 形容詞 面白い+そうだ→面白そうだ 形容動詞  簡単+そうだ→簡単そうだ

The negative can be ~なさそうだ or ~そうじゃない. One may be more preferable depending on the situation and or the opinion of the speaker. With adjectives in the negative and よい, さ should be inserted. So, ~なそうだ and よそうだ. 

1. 新 しいマネージャーは こわ そうな かた ですね。
   The new manager is a scary-looking guy, isn't he?

2. このビデオゲームは 面白 くなさそうだ。
    This video game doesn't seem interesting.

3. 今日調子 ちょうし がよさそうだね。
    You look good today.

4. マレーシアは、 今日天気 がよさそうです。
    The weather seems nice today in Malaysia. 

5. 雨 らなさそうです。
  It doesn't look like it's going to rain.

6. もうしばらく続きそうです。
  It seems like it will continue for a little longer. 

7. このステーキは 美味 おい しそうです!
  This steak looks delicious.

8.  金髪 きんぱつ きそうだな。(Masculine; casual)
  I bet you like blond women!

9. まだ 使 えそうだ。
  It looks like you can still use it.

10. 難 しそうな だ。
   It's a difficult looking book.

11. なんだかずいぶんよさそうじゃないか? (Casual)
   Somehow it doesn't really seem amazing does it?

12. 彼 しくなさそうだ。
   He doesn't seem to be feeling painful.

13. 建物 かそうです。
   The building seems quiet.

14. 彼 そうだ。
   It seems that he's going to come.

15. 彼 しそうではなかった。
   He didn't look happy.

16. この 可哀相 かわいそう
   This poor dog.

Meaning Note: Notice how the meaning of かわいい changes to "poor" with ~そうだ.  

漢字 Note: 可哀相 is 当て字. 可哀想 is also possible. 

17. 一見 したところではその はやさしそうだ。 
   At first sight, the book seems easy.

18. 忙しそうです。      VS忙しいようです。
   Seems to be busy.   Looks busy.

Nuance Note: As this shows, ~そうだ shows something from an intuitive judgment based on observation.You get the sense that the person is busy. Maybe he's constantly looking at his clock. ~ようだ indicates that the judgment is based on actual knowledge of the person's situation. You may have heard that he was busy, or you know information concerning his work schedule. 

19.  仕方 しかた なく一成は 受話器 じゅわき を置いた。 初老 しょろう 守衛 しゅえい 怪訝 けげん そうにしているので、すぐにその場を立ち去ることにした。 
Kazunari reluctantly put the phone receiver down. The middle-aged security guard was giving a questioning look, so Kazunari immediately deciding to leave the area. 
From 白夜行 by 東野圭吾.  

Grammar Note: Remember that this structure is adjectival. So, you can get forms like ~そうな and ~そうに. 

Word Note: 初老 originally meant someone in one's forties. As people now live longer, some consider it to mean mid-fifties to even early sixties. 


Inserting -

      Again, with よい and ない, さ is inserted. This gives よさそう and なさそう. As for the auxiliaries ~たい and ~ない, ~そうだ attaches to the stem. However, さ is being attached more and more. Even for adjectives that end in ない like ぎこちない (awkward), ~さ is being attached. The negative is ~そうではない, but you can also use ~な(さ)そうだ. However, something like "知らなそうだ" is correct. You still get examples like 20, though.

20. 成瀬はつまらなさそうに言った。
Naruse said in a disappointed tone. 
From 顔に降りかかる雨 by 桐野夏生. 


2. Shows a judgment based on circumstances or experience. The negative is そう[に・も]ない.

21. このままだと、帰れ そうにもない。
   It would seem that at this rate, there is no way that [I/we] will be able to go home.

22. 今 ならまだ いそうです。
   If now, we can still be there on time.

23. 景気は依然として好転しそうにない。(ちょっと硬い文章語)
   The economy still appears that it won't improve.   


3. Shows that something looks like it's going to or has...just as before. There is a basis with some experience. After all, how can you know if it's going to rain if you've never seen rain? This is an affirmative application of 1 seen with verbs. This can be seen with the past tense, and time phrases are often used to specify when something is thought to occur. 

24. 赤 ちゃんは しそうな をしていた。
   The baby had a face as if he was going to burst out crying.

25.  当分 とうぶん の間、 今回 こんかい 熱波 ねっぱ 居据 いす わりそうだ。
   For the time being, this heat wave will probably settle.

26. バランスが くず れて、 一瞬倒 いっしゅんたお れそうだったさ。 
   I lost my balance, and for a moment it seemed I would fall.

27. 彼 は100 まで きられそうだ。
   He is likely to live to 100.

28. このカメラは れていそうだ。
   This camera looks broken.

29. 電気 えそうだ。
     The lights appear to be dying.

30. 元気になれそうです。
   It looks like it will be able to become better. 

31. 今にも雨が りそうだ。
   It looks like it's going to rain any moment.

32. もうすぐ さくら きそうだよ。
   The cherry blossom trees are about to bloom.

33. 試験合格 できそうだ。
   I feel that I can pass the exam.

34. 朝鮮半島 ちょうせんはんとう で、 戦争 せんそう や何か 物騒 ぶっそう なことが こりそうだ。
   It appears that war or something dangerous is going to occur in the Korean peninsula.


第147課: Hearsay: ~そうだ & ~らしい

Hearsay, 伝聞, is the topic of this lesson. This should be a lot easier than phrases for expressing similarity.

Verb/Adjective + ~そうだ

Directly following a verbal/adjectival expression with そうだ expresses hearsay. So, with a noun, follow it with だそうだ. Tense is shown before ~そうだ because this usage has no tense: it's only used with て or in the final position. Before we get to any example sentences, we will first look at the conjugation chart below.

 動詞  すそうだ  形容詞  古そうだ  形容動詞  簡単そうだ  名詞  猫そうだ

1.  博士 はかせ 入院 したそうだ。
  I hear that the professor was hospitalized.

Reading Note: The general reading of 博士 is はかせ, but はくし is respectful and is in words such as  博士号 はくしごう .  

2. 先生病気 だそうです。
    I hear that the teacher is sick.

Part of Speech Note: Remember that 病気 is not an adjective in Japanese! 

3. うわさ によれば、 二人離婚 りこん するそうです。
  Rumor has it that the two are going to get a divorce.

4. 羅生門 らしょうもん はいい 映画 だそうです。
  They say that Rashomon is a good movie.

Culture Note: 羅生門 is a very popular crime scene movie in Japan from the 50s created by the renowned producer  黒澤明 くろさわあきら

5. 地震 があったそうだ。
  They say there was an earthquake.

6. 天気予報 てんきよほう では 今日雨が らないそうです。
   I hear it's not going to rain today with the weather report.

7. 日本語上手 じゃないそうです。
  I hear that he's not good at Japanese.

8. 彼 はよく 勉強 するそうです。
  It sounds like he often studies.  

9. 「あの人は子供の欲しいものは何でも買ってやるそうですよ」「よっぽど甘やかしているんでしょう」
  "I hear that that person always buys whatever her kids want" "The kids must be pretty spoiled"

10.  テレビ局が来月からタガログ語の番組を放送するそうです。
       I hear that the TV network will air a Tagalog program starting next month.

~らしい

The auxiliary ~らしい shows speculation based on some sort of foundation such as hearsay. However, it is somewhat of a euphemism for a more direct, declarative statement concerning hearsay, which would be expressed by ~そうだ.

Also, when there is a clearly defined reason or proof for something, you the speaker aren't just making conjecture. Rather, you're taking what you're hearing, seeing, or reading and making a non-intuitive statement.

 形容詞  高い + らしい →  高いらしい  形容動詞  危険な + らしい → 危険らしい  名詞  ガンらしい

 Example Sentences

11. 日本 なかったらしいです。
   He apparently didn't go to Japan.

12. それが 原因 げんいん らしい。
    That is apparently the cause.    

13. この 都市不動産 ふどうさん いらしいです。
    The real estate properties in this city seem to be expensive.

14. その 幽霊 ゆうれい るらしい。
    The house appears to be haunted.

15. 彼女 はよく 勉強 するらしいです。
    She appears to study often.

When the suffix ~らしい attaches to nouns, it makes adjectives to show typicality. It may also follow the stem of adjectives and some adverbs to show that something brings on a certain emotion. As you can see, you must understand that the auxiliary verb and suffix ~らしい's are different. 

16. 彼は子供 らしくない。
   He doesn't act like a child.

17. もう 大人 おとな らしくしてください。
   Please a little more like an adult.

18. この傷は致命傷らしい。 
   The wound seem to be mortal.

19. あいつもう 元気 らしいじゃん?  (Casual)
   Doesn't he seem already fine?

20. あんた、ホントに 浅薄 せんぱく でいやらしい だわ。(Rough female speech)
   You, you're a really shallow and disgusting man!

21. わざとらしい 微笑 びしょう
   An intentional/unnatural smile

22. そんな 発言 はつげん はいかにも彼らしい。
      Speech like that is typical of him.

23. このごろあんたらしくねーよ。(乱暴な言い方)
     You haven't been yourself lately.


第148課: Citation II: ~という, ~ということ, & ~というもの

という is a phrase even natives have difficulties with. At times may seem as if it is just a filler word, but when we study its use which all natives agree on to be correct, we do find details on how to use it most effectively.

Spelling Note: The 漢字 for 言う is usually used when the verb is used literally for “to say”. However, it is extremely common in casual texts to see it written out as いう or even ゆう. In other usages, the ひらがな spellings are more common. Also note that this verb may be spelled as 云う in older spelling for quoting others. 

Casual Note: For all usages mentioned in this lesson, the particle と may be replaced with って in casual contexts. If it follows ん, て is usually used instead of って. Do not confuse this with the conjunctive particle て! The grammars are completely different.  

という

First, let's remember what という is composed of and why it matters. と is the citation case particle of Japanese. The phrase it attaches gets grammatically quoted, and it’s always a signal that a citation verb of some sort should follow, and if it doesn’t, that verb is implied. When conjoined with the verb 言う, literally meaning “to say”, we see that it is used to help make phrases able to modify other phrases when otherwise the grammar wouldn’t allow for it. Before we get to far ahead of ourselves, remember that this phrase is used to say “to say…”.

1. 僕はセス先生に似ていると、たまに言われます。
    I'm occasionally told that I resemble Seth-sensei.

The next logical leap from this literal usage is to be used to mean “to be called/said/named”. 

2. さっき買った植物がなんという植物なのか気になっています。
    It's getting to me what plant it was that I bought a while ago. 

3. 先月の台風で沈んだのは何という船でしたっけ。
    Oh, what was the name of that boat that sunk in last month's typhoon.

4. 私はセスと申します。
    I'm Seth. (I am called/call myself Seth)

5. いまびドットネットという学習サイトを勉強したことがありますか?
    If you ever studied a site called imabi.net?

6. 「関心」は英語で「Interest」と言います。
    "Kanshin" in English is "interest".  

7. 人というものはわからないものだ。
     People, I don't understand.

8. 人生というものは辛いものだ。
    Life is tough. (Literally: the thing called life is a tough thing". 

Grammar Note: Remember that もの refers to a more concrete thing. ~ということ would show a circumstance of some sort.

9. 希望という名の光
    Light called hope

Nuance Note: ~という名の is a common figure of speech frequently seen in titles and song lyrics embodying a sense of reputation/name with something. 


 という‘s function in making complex relative clauses is incredibly important. Although complete sentences may easily modify nominal phrases at times, there are a few situations where not using という just doesn’t work or just doesn’t make sense. It’s also important to note that Japanese speakers internalize this usage as the same thing as above. So, try to think why that is.

10. 日本に住みたいという動機があるので、日本語の勉強が楽しい。
   Because I have a motive of wanting to live in Japan, studying Japanese is fun.  

If you want to use a phrase that ends in だ as a complex relative clause, という is necessary. This is also true for onomatopoeic phrases. 

11. 何をやってもダメだという気持ちを忘れよう。
      Forget those feelings that whatever you do is bad.  

12. せっかくの独立記念日だというのに、一日中家に引きこもっていた。
Although it was Independence Day (a great opportunity), I stayed inside my home all day.  

Speech Style Note: ~だというのに is slightly more formal than ~なのに. This is because のに is already rather empathic. So, making it more emphatic would be slightly abnormal in the spoken language.

〇という+名詞 is used to introduce something to the listener or reader as new information. So, although it is reasonable to say something like ジブチという国, インドという国 would be unnecessary even for kids. This lack of necessity often leads to sentences being deemed ungrammatical when this common sense principle is not implemented. This point largely determines whether という makes the most sense or not with (complex) relative clauses.

13. 仕事で妥協を許さないのは、上司から何をされるか分からないという恐怖からでしょうか。
Is your behavior of not allowing compromise at work from a fear of not knowing what your boss will do to you?

14. 反乱軍の兵士たちは、国の軍隊にいつ拘束され、処刑されるかわからない(という)恐怖におびえながら、町々の住民を守り続けた。
The rebel soldiers continued to protect the citizens of the villages as they feared the unknown as to when they would be seized by the country's army and be put to death. 

Sentence Note: The use of という in Ex. 14 would likely only be used in conversation in which という would function more so as a filler word. This is because the objective stance that the sentence takes in conveying the information makes という unnecessary at best. 

Of course, this is not grammatically different at all from ~というの+Particle as we’ve already seen. Why? The particle の here functions as a dummy noun, making everything above apply.

15. 政治家たちさえ何が起こるかわからないというのはなぜでしょう?
      Why is it that not even the politicians know what will happen?

16. 男でもいけるというのは本当なの?
      As it true that you even go out with guys?

17. 多くの中国人や韓国人が日本人を毛嫌いするのに日本語を勉強するというのはどうしてなのでしょうか。
Why is it that many Chinese and Koreans study Japanese even though they despise Japanese people?

18. 90% というのは信じられない数字でした。
      90% was a truly impossible to believe figure. 

19. アプリはアップデートしろというのに、Google Playストアにアップデート情報がきていない。
Although the app told me to update, there isn't any update information coming into the Google Play Store.

Phrase Note: Remember that the particle のに is technically just a combination of の and に. 

~ということ & ~というもの

~ということ is perfect in showing something that is abstract in nature. Essentially anything that can be deemed as an analysis of something, summarizing, determination etc. fits under this definition. This ‘something’ is never a physical thing but an abstract thing. 

20. 夏にテキサス州のオースティン市に行ってみればどんなに暑いかということがわかるでしょう。
If you were to try and come to the city of Austin in the state of Texas in the summer, you would find out just how hot it is.

21. 分かるということはどいうことでしょうか。
      What does understanding really mean? 

22. 「バグが発覚したという報告がありました」「ということは、そろそろメンテに入るでしょう」
 "We got a report that a bug surfaced" "So, that means we'll be entering maintenance shortly.

~というもの, on the other hand, is used with not-so-abstract noun phrases. The addition of it brings an "as a matter of fact..." nuance to the phrase in question. 

23. 日本語というものがこんなに美しいと感じたことはなかった。
      I had never felt Japanese to be so beautiful like this better.      

24. 予知夢というものを見てしまったかもしれない。 
      I may have had a prophetic dream.

~ということ is also frequently inserted in places it is not necessary in formal speech to lessen the tone and to be more indirect. This should make sense because こと refers to the situation, so you’re referring to things in a broader sense.

25. セス先生は、特に仕事が忙しいということなので、仕事頑張ってという応援メールを送りました。
I heard that Seth-sensei's job is particularly busy, so I sent him a support message telling him to "keep working hard". 

Remember the difference between ~ということ and ~というもの? という invokes the vaguer meaning of こと which is to mean “matter” as in the matter of things. This is why we can say things like 映画のこと but not 映画ということ. ~ということ would work, though, if the noun is related to any event/action.

26a. ユーザーがモンスターを売却してしまった件ということですが、….。X
26b. ユーザーがモンスターを売却してしまったとのことですが、….。〇
        About the users accidentally having sold their monsters...

It’s also important to note that ~ということだ or ~とのことだ can refer to hearsay. For instance, the sentence above may very well be hearsay depending on the context. The word hearsay here isn’t that far removed from summarizing things. It would only be context that determines how certain that is.

27. 新聞によると、〇〇も自殺を図ったということだ。
     XX also committed suicide according to the newspaper. 

28. 禁断の恋ということですが、〇〇。
      About forbidden love,....

という: Emphasis Marker

という can also be used as an emphatic marker at times. This also applies to the phrases above. In the first two phrases below as well, it is not grammatically necessary, but it strengthens the emotional sense of the statements. With counter phrases, it shows that the degree is high, and at times excessive.

29. 今日という日を記念日にするよ!
      We make this day a commemoration. 

30. 今日という日は二度と来ない。
      Today will never come again.

31. なぜ数億円という突拍子もない数字が出てくるのか説明しろよ。
      Explain how such a preposterous figure of several hundred millions of yen came about.

32. ウミガメは毎年、何百キロまたは何千キロという長距離を移動する。
Sea turtles move great distances of hundreds and thousands of miles every year. 

33. その後、投資家たちが医療業界に数千万ドルという資金を投入した。
After that, investors invested several tens of millions into the medical industry.

34.  何千枚 ( なんぜんまい ) という ( たから ) くじが、一日で売り切れました。
      Lottery tickets totaling thousands were sold in a day.

Note that this point actually encompasses a general pattern of repeating the very same word using という. This pattern is more frequently used in the written language, but it is still possible to hear it in conversation.

35. クリスマスの日は、店という店は基本的には営業休止にすればいい。
     All shops as a principle should close business on Christmas Day.

36. 今は今しかない。だから、今という今は本当に貴重なのだ。
      Now we only have now. So, the now truly is precious.


第149課: The Superlative

   The superlative is relatively easy, but there is still a lot to pay attention to.

-est

The superlative (最上級) is made with "-est" in English. In Japanese you use 一番 or 最も (in formal speech) before the adjective, not after. Superlative sentences often have some sort of restriction such as the following.

 In the world  世界(中)で  せかい(じゅう)で
 Of the three  三の[中・内]で  さんの[なか・うち]で
 Of all  [全て・皆]の[中・内]で  [すべて・みんな]の[なか・うち]で

Word Note: 皆 is typically used in reference to people, but it can refer to everything as well.

1. その店は一番便利だと思う。
    I think that store is the most convenient.

2. 会社では渡辺さんが一番意地悪だね。
    Isn't Mr. Watanabe the meanest in the company?

3. あなたが今までの人生の中で一番悩んだ決断は何ですか?
    What has been the most difficult decision you've made in your life? 

4. こちらの教会は町で最も古いです。
    This church is the oldest in the town.

5. 富士山は日本中で一番高い山です。
    Mt. Fuji is the tallest mountain in all of Japan.

6. 最も深刻な都市問題は何ですか。
    What is the most serious urban problem?

7. エベレストは世界で一番高い山です。
    Mt. Everest is the tallest mountain in the world.

Suffix Note: ~山 isn't used with certain mountains outside of Japan. It's something you have to learn on a mountain by mountain basis. 


 最~

     There are other superlative words with the prefix 最~. These words are, thus, Sino-Japanese for the most part. However, there are some exceptions to this. For instance, 最安値 (all-time low), 最高値 (all-time high), 最大手 (largest company/industry leader), and 最果て(the farthest/furthest ends) are possible.  

 Strongest  最強  さいきょう  Worst  最低  さいてい
 Biggest  最大  さいだい  Worst  最悪  さいあく
 Beloved  最愛  さいあい  Last place  最下位  さいかい
 Best; tallest  最高  さいこう  Oldest  最古  さいこ
 Least  最少  さいしょう  First-class  最上  さいじょう
 Newest; latest  最新  さいしん  Best  最善  さいぜん
 Very middle  最中  さなか・さいちゅう  Most  最多  さいた

Word Note: 最低 is for things and 最悪 is for people. 最善 refers to greater good whereas 最高 is more broad and similar to usages like "that's the best". 最良 also means "best" as in "ideal". There is also the word 最適 which refers to something being "the most fitting". 

8.最悪の場合を覚悟する。
   To prepare for the worst.

9. 地球の最果て
    The utmost point of the earth

10. 現存する最古の寺  
      The oldest temple in existence

11. 最小の努力で最大の効果を上げるのが我々の目的です。 
      Achieving the largest results with the smallest efforts is our goal.

12. 最上階
      The top floor

13. 最新のニュースを聞いたか。
      Did you hear the latest news?

14. 彼は一試合最多奪三振の記録を作った。
      He set a record for strikeouts in one game.

15. 横浜に行く最短の道順を教えてあげました。
      I told them the shortest way to Yokohama.

16. 演説の最中に{立ち去った・席を立った}。
      I left in the middle of the speech.

17. 本州の最南端は潮岬だ。
      The southernmost part of Honshu is Shionomisaki.

18.  おき 鳥島 とりしま は日本の 最南端 さいなんたん にある。
      Okinotorishima is at the southernmost point of Japan.

19. 正直は最良の策。
      Honesty is the best policy.

あなたが今までの人生の中で一番悩んだ決断は何ですか?
What has been the most difficult decision you've made in your life? 

The Superlative Question

When making a superlative question, the first thing you must decide on is which interrogative you will use. The chart below illustrates the possible options.

 何  Comparison of a group  どれ  Used in a list format
 誰  About people  どこ  About a place

      When referring to a group such as in sports, で always follows and の中 is often used in between for more emphasis. If ~の中 is used and you are listing things with と, the last と that would normally be in the list--on the final noun--is deleted. 

20. スポーツでは何が一番好きですか。 
      Among sports, which do you like the best?

21. 犬と、猫と、ウサギの中では、どれが一番好きですか。
      Among dogs, cats, and rabbits, which do you like the best?

22. 日本の歌手では誰が一番好きですか。
      Among Japanese singers, who do you like the most?

23. どこが世界で一番暑いですか。
      Which place is the hottest in the world?

Grammar Note: In answering these questions, you simply use the normal superlative pattern.


第150課: The Imperative

     The imperative form of a verb or adjective is the 命令形. However, there are other patterns that make commands. 

Part of Speech Note: Adjectives are usually used with "連用形 + しろ" instead. 

命令形

 一段  五段  する  来る  くれる  いらっしゃる  下さる  仰る  なさる  形容詞  形容動詞
 -ろ・よ  -え  しろ・せい・せよ  来い  くれ(ろ・よ)  いらっしゃい  下さい  仰い  なさい  -かれ  -であれ

Usage Notes:

1. ~よ is the original 命令形, but ~ろ has been used in East Japan, at least, for centuries and has since supplanted the original form as the standard variant. Now, the original form gives a nostalgic feel when used today.

2. As for する,  しろ is typical, and せい (mostly used by higher up and older people) and せよ (which is quite formal) also give a more nostalgic feel.

3. The 命令形 of くれる is typically seen as くれ. ~てくれ can make a vulgar command.

4. いらっしゃる, 下さる, 仰る are honorific verbs. Their 命令形 are simplified, but in old-style speech and in some regions of Japan, you may still hear the original, non-contracted 命令形, which would be いらっしゃれ, くだされ, and おっしゃれ respectively.

5. Again, adjectives are rarely used in the 命令形, but there are some common set expressions where adjectives are in it. In this sense, it is bested to view them as set phrases. 

1. 善かれ悪しかれ
    Right or wrong

Form Note: あしかれ is the 命令形 of the Classical Japanese 形容詞 悪し which has fallen out of use. 

2. よかれと思って
    All for the best

6. であれ is often used as in the following. If it were used to make a command, it would be somewhat old-fashioned to say the least. 

3. 理由 りゆう なん であれ
    Whatever the reason may be

The Imperative

Respectful

     The grammatically correct form of the respectful command style is formed by adding an honorific prefix to the stem of a verb, then using the honorific verb なさる, to do, adding ~ます in its 命令形, ませ. ~下さい(ませ) may also be used as such, thus implying favor. 

 お+連用形 +なさいませ
 お+連用形 +下さい(ませ)

     Even in formal situations, the likelihood of you having to ask a superior to do something is unlikely. Note that for する verbs,these items are directly attached. So, ご受験くださいませ = "please take your honorable test".


Polite 

     The most common way to make the polite imperative is ~てください. To be less frank, you can use 下さいませんか. You may also attach ~なさい to the 連用形 of a verb. However, this usage is only used by a superior to an inferior.

 連用形+-て+ください(ませんか)
 連用形+-なさい

Etymology/Speech Style Note: ~なさい comes from ~なされ, and ~なされ can still be used by older people. This can then be contracted to ~な in casual speech.

Orthography Note: ください is generally only in ひらがな when used as a supplementary verb in this fashion. 

Base Constraint Note: One would think that you should be able to just use -ませ to make a polite imperative. However, this is highly restricted to set phrases like お帰りなさいませ (an extremely honorific way of saying welcome home), いらっしゃいませ (welcome!). To supplement this, ~なさい is used. 


Plain & Vulgar

     Although dependent on tone, the following patterns listed below from least to most vulgar may be used to tell someone to do something in plain speech. 

 て形(+語尾)
 命令形(+語尾)
 連用形+-たまえ
 連用形+-て+くれ

Usage Note: ~たまえ is used by mainly older men and it is often demanding and taunting.

Intonation Note: You can also use the non-past form with a high intonation and force to make a command. Ex. さっさと食べる! (East fast!) 

The 命令形 can be used when commanding training/exercise sessions. It is also used heavily among men, especially by superiors to underlings. It is also used when cheering for sporting events. It is also used when you have to be brief like during in an emergency and in traffic signs. All these situations apply to the negative imperative as well. 


 Examples

1. 早 ( ) ( ) いでくれ。
    Swim faster!

3. このボタンを ( ) せと 説明書 ( ) ( ) いてある。
    It says to press this button in the instruction manual.

4. 父 ( ) ( ) 勉強 ( ) しろと ( ) いました。
    My father told me to study.

5. 暑 ( ) いのなら 上着 ( うわぎ ) ( ) ぎなさい。
    If you're hot, then take off your coat.

6. 早 ( ) ( ) べなさい。
    Eat quickly.

7. 息 ( ) ( ) って、 ( ) いて!
    Inhale! Exhale!   

8. 名前 ( ) ( ) きなさい。
    Write your name.

9. 安心 ( ) しなよ。
    Calm down.

10. この 小包 ( こづつみ ) 船便 ( ふなびん ) ( ) ってくださいね。
      Please send this package by surface mail, k?

11. 11時 ( ) までに ( ) りなさい。
       Come back by 11 o'clock.

12. 急ぐなら新幹線で行きなさい。
      If you're in a hurry, take the bullet train.

13. もしも空を ( ) べるなら、 ( がけ ) から飛んでいけ!
      If you can fly, go fly off the cliff!

14. いらっしゃい!(Especially at home)
      Welcome! 

15. いらっしゃいませ。(Especially in a store)
      Welcome!

16. 入学 ( ) ( ) 、コンピューターを ( ) ってください。
      Before you enter college, please buy a computer.

17. テレビを 左側 ( ) ( ) いてください。
      Please place the TV to the left side.

18. ご 家族 ( ) 皆様 ( みなさま ) によろしくお ( ) ( ) さい。
      Please give my best wishes to your family.

19. まん タンにしてください。オイルもチェックしてください。クレジットカードで えますか。
      Please fill it up. Also, please check the oil. Can I pay by credit card?

20. まれ!
      Stop! 

21. どうぞお りください。
      Please come in.

22. 早 ( ) ( ) ろ!
      Go to bed now! 

23a. 名前 ( ) だけ(を) 大文字 ( おおもじ ) で書いてください。
23b. 名前だけ(を)大文字で書きなさい。
        Please write only your name in capital letters.

Sentence Note: 23b is likely to be used by a superior to an inferior or on instructions on something.  

24. しかし、飲んだくれて歌舞伎町で寝ている織江はあなたではない。
      However, Orie, who was dead drunk sleeping at Kabukichou, is not you.
From the commentary by 池田清彦 for 冷たい誘惑 by 乃南アサ.

Word Note: 飲んだくれる is a verb inspired by the slurring of 飲んでくれ, a slang word used ever since the Edo Period to describe drunkards that drink all day. It's no doubt the word was inspired by the slurred speech of people drunk, and as it is based off of an imperative phrase, it is mentioned here.  

25. あとを黒めてたもれ。  (古語的)
      Smooth over the rest.  
From 髭櫓 by 虎明狂.

Phrase Note: This sentence has the interesting phrase たもれ. This is from a sound change of {賜・給}れ. So, it is related to たまえ. This was used by elite people to lower individuals. Contexts are those in which the speaker makes it known that there won't be any dissent in doing so.  

The Negative Imperative

     The negative imperative, which is telling someone not to do something, is very similar to the imperative.


Respectful

     The way to create the respectful negative imperative is by adding an honorific prefix to the stem of a verb and adding なさいますな・下さいますな. Like the respectful imperative, the respectful negative imperative is reserved to most becoming situations.

26. 私のことは御心配下さいますな。
      Please do not worry about me. 

Usage Note: Though more honorific and polite in nature, ~ないで下さい is far more common even in really formal situations. However, there are still situations where respectful negative commands may be expected such as in letters and situations where highly sophisticated and proper 敬語 is expected.


 Polite

     Just like the polite imperative, there are two ways to show the polite negative imperative. The first way is by adding ~ないで to the 連用形 and then ending with 下さい(ませんか). The second way is by adding ~なさる to the 連用形 and ending with the particle な. However, this method is rare.

 連用形+-ないで+下さい(ませんか)
 連用形+なさる+な → -なさいますな

Plain & Vulgar

     The particle な makes the negative imperative. ~ないでくれ makes a vulgar negative command. ~ないで itself can make a casual negative command. 語尾 can greatly change the mood of a command. 


Examples

27. 屋内走 ( ) らないでくださいね。
     Please don't run in the house.

28. 切 ( ) らないでよ。
      Don't hang up!

29. めるな。
      Don't underestimate me.

30. 遠慮 えんりょ しないで。
      Don't hold back.

31. (お)酒 まないでください。
      Please do not drink sake/alcohol. 

32. 盗 ( ) みだけはするな。
      Just don't steal!

33. ああ、 ( ) らないでくれよ、すけべー!
      Ahhh, don't touch me you freak!

34. 教会中 ( ) にお ( ) しなさいますな。
      Please, no talking during church.

35. 心配 ( ) するな。
     Don't worry.

36. 馬鹿 ( ) なことをすんな。
      Don't be silly.

37. 入 ( ) るな!
      Don't enter!

38. 誰 ( ) ( ) くな。
      No one move. 

39. 決 ( ) して 約束 ( やくそく ) ( やぶ ) るなよ。
      Never break a promise!

40. 金意地汚 いじきたな すな。
      Don't put your greedy hands on money.

41. 死 ( ) なないでください。
      Please don't die.

42. 無理 ( ) しないでね。
      Take it easy.

43. 誤解 ごかい しないでください。
      Don't get me wrong.

44. 余計 よけい なことをべらべらしゃべるな。
      Don't chatter unnecessary things.

45. おどろ かないでください。
      Please don't be surprised.

46. パーティーに ( ) っても ( ) れるな。
      If you go to the party, don't be shy.