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ホーム文法imabi → imabi veteran 2

今日 IMABI - Veteran II


第351課: Idioms IV: 四字熟語

第352課: Idioms V: 諺

第353課: Dialectical 自他動詞

第354課: 音訓 (ON & KUN Readings)

第355課: 送り仮名

第356課: 四つ仮名

第357課: 変体仮名

第358課: 名乗り

第359課: 部首

第360課: 国字

第361課: 当て字

第362課: 旧字体 & 新字体

第363課: 同音の漢字による書き換え 

第364課: 交ぜ書き

第365課: 略字 & 幽霊字

第366課: Phonology I: Basic Information

第367課: Phonology 1.5: Consonants

第368課: Phonology II: Pitch (高低アクセント)

第369課: Phonology III: 連濁

第370課: Phonology IV: 露出形 VS 被覆形

第371課: Phonology V: 撥音添加 & 撥音化

第372課: Phonology VI: 促音化

第373課: Phonology VII: サ行とハ行の揺れ

第374課: 幼児語

第375課: Verlan (倒語)

第376課: 敵性語禁止


第351課: Idioms IV: 四字熟語

     四字熟語 literally means "four character compound word". Technically, the term refers to all words made up of four characters. In a narrow-sense, the word refers to four character set expressions. That is what we will be discussing. For academic punctuality, the term "四字成語" is preferred because it means "four character set phrase". However, most people refer to them as "四字熟語". Due to their origin, most can also be called "四字漢語". 


    What is an Idiom?

    Japanese people will easily tell you that the following is a set phrase.

弁慶の泣き所

     弁慶 べんけい means "strong man" and 泣き所 means "place where one cries". Together, the phrase refers to the shin. If you are kicked in the shin, even if you are a strong man, you are going to cry.

     Idioms are rated by "idiomaticity"--how idiomatic something is. Every Japanese person knows 四面楚歌 ( しめんそか )  (to be surrounded by enemies on all four sides) and 波瀾万丈 ( はらんばんじょう )  (stormy and full of drama). Phrases like 大学教育 (college education) are non-idiomatic. The idiomatic ones, though, are important to entrance exams in Japan, and they're often used in showing off to other people.

     Again, the term normally refers to such words that deviate from a literal direct translation. Some compounds create a problem. For example, many idioms in Japanese have been introduced through direct translation.

 A 四字熟語
 教室崩壊  きょうしつほうかい  Destruction of the classroom
 A Generic Idiom
 氷山の一角  ひょうざんのいっかく  Tip of the iceberg
 Idiom of the Body  鼻の差で  はなのさで  By a nose

     To the English speaker, these expressions are no doubt idiomatic. As for the typical 四字熟語, they are not 'deviant' from the original definition. Most 四字熟語 come from Buddhist texts/Chinese literature.

     It is to note that non-idiomatic (four character) expressions can over time obtain an idiomatic usage. 一時停止, which means "suspension", can now describe a guy stopping traffic because he won't go.


The 6 Sources

  1. From modern society-- 官官接待"bureaucrats entertaining bureaucrats using public funds".
  2. Made in Japan, many are reading with 訓読み--手練手管(てれんてくだ) "art of coaxing".
  3. From Chinese literature--臥薪嘗胆(がしんしょうたん) "enduring unspeakable hardships for the sake of vengeance". 
  4. Buddhist terminology--四苦八苦 "the four and eight kinds of suffering"
  5. The insertion of 之 which has been used in neo-classical and Chinese-style Japanese literature in place of の. These phrases are arguably not 四字熟語
  6. From 訓読, the process of reading 漢文. So, they're Classical Japanese sentences fit to Chinese syntax and pronunciation. These phrases are often considered anachronistic. As such, they tend to not be in dictionaries.

     At times, 四字熟語 originating from Chinese have deviated in meaning. 七転八倒(しちてんばっとう) means "writhing in agony" in Japanese and "very confused" in Chinese. There is also obvious significant phonetic deviation.

Analysis of 64 四字熟語

You aren't required to memorize them all, but they are great practice. There isn't a particular ordering of the idioms. 

一刀両断(いっとうりょうだん)
One-sword-both (sides)-cut into
1. To cut in two with a single blow
2. To take drastic measures

色即是空(しきそくぜくう)
Rupa-in other words-there is-vanity
1. All is vanity
Note: 色 (rupa) means all things have shape

手前味噌(てまえみそ)
My-miso
1. Self-flattery
Note: 手前 is used with its humble first person pronoun definition.

付和雷同
ふわらいどう
Attach-peace-thunder-same 
1. To follow people blindly.

暖衣飽食(だんいほうしょく)
Warm-clothes-tired of-eating
1. Well-fed and well-dressed
2. Being blessed materially
Note: May also be written as 煖衣飽食.

一期一会(いちごいちえ)
One-time-one-meet
1. Once in a lifetime (encounter)
Note: Of Japanese in origin

美人薄命(びじんはくめい)
Beauty-person-thin-life
1. A beautiful woman is destined to die young
2. Beauty and fortune seldom go together
3. The beautiful die young

月下氷人(げっかひょうじん)
Moon-under-ice-person
1. Matchmaker; go-between

唯我独尊(ゆいがどくそん)
Only-self-alone-honor
1. Self-righteousness
2. Holy am I alone

二股膏薬(ふたまたごうやく)
Two-sides-salve
1. Double-dealer
2. Moving back and forth between two sides in a conflict
Also read as ふたまこうやく, and it is Japanese in origin.

一石二鳥(いっせきにちょう)
One-stone-two-birds
1. Killing two birds with one stone
Note: Originally an English expression.

呉越同舟(ごえつどうしゅう)
Go-Etsu-same-boat
1. Bitter enemies in the same boat by fate
Note: From a Chinese story where Go and Etsu were old rivals that toppled the vessel when they had to be together, which in turn made them have to save each other.

順風満帆(じゅんぷうまんぱん)
Gentle-wind-full-sails
1. Smooth sailing; everything going smoothly

悪因悪果(あくいんあっか)
Evil-cause-evil-result
1. You reap what you sow
Note: Originally from Buddhist scriptures.

弱肉強食(じゃくにくきょうしょく)
Weak-meat-strong-eat
1. Survival of the fittest
2. Laws of the Jungle

寂滅為楽(じゃくめついらく)
Loneliness-destroy-to do-happiness
1. Freedom from one's desires
2. Nirvana is true bliss
Note: Originally from Buddhist scriptures

色恋沙汰(いろこいざた)
Sensual-love-affair
1. Love affair
2. Romantic entanglement

酔生夢死(すいせいむし)
Drunken-life-dream-death
1. Idling one's life away
2. Dreaming away one's life accomplishes nothing significant

十人十色(じゅうにんといろ)
Ten-people-ten-colors
1. To each his own
2. So many people, so many minds
3. Everyone has his own interests and ideas

朝三暮四(ちょうさんぼし)
Morning-three-evening-four
1. Being preoccupied with immediate superficial differences without realizing that there is no difference in substance
Note: From a story where a monkey feeder would feed a monkey three horse chestnuts in the morning and four in the evening and switched it around because he got mad.

異体同心
いたいどうしん
Different-body-different-mind
1. Being of one mind; acting in one accord/perfect harmony

会者定離
えしゃじょうり
Meeting-person-always-separates
1. Those who meet must part
Note: Originated from Buddhist scriptures

生者必滅
しょうじゃひつめつ
Living-people-certainly-die
1. All living things must die
Note: Originated from Buddhist scriptures

我田引水
がでんいんすい
Own-field-draw-water
1. Self-seeking
2. Feathering one's own nest
3. Drawing water for one's own field
Originated from the rich agrarian society of old China and Japan.

五里夢中
ごりむちゅう
Five-ri (2.44 miles)-fog-inside
1. Totally at a loss; in a fog

古色蒼然
こしょくそうぜん
Old-color-blue-is
1. Antique-looking
2. With the patina of age

羊頭狗肉
ようとうくにく
Sheep-head-dog-meat
1. Crying wine and selling vinegar; using a better name to sell inferior goods
2. Extravagant advertisement

 

黒風白雨(こくふうはくう)
Black-wind-white-rain
1. Sudden rain shower in a dust storm

高山流水(こうざんりゅうすい)
Tall-mountain-running-water
1. Beauty of nature
2. Beautifully played music
3. Tall mountains and rushing water

花鳥風月
かちょうふうげつ
Flower-bird-wind-moon
1. The beauties of nature

三々五々(さんさんごご)
Three-three-five-five
1. In small groups

一望千里(いちぼうせんり)
One-hope-thousand-ri
1. Sweeping expanse

五風十雨(ごふうじゅうう)
Five-wind-ten-rain
1. Halcyon weather/times

九死一生(きゅうしいっしょう)
Nine-deaths-one-life
1. Narrow escape from death

五十知命(ごじゅうちめい)
Fifty-wisdom-life
1. At 50 one comes to know the will of Heaven
Note: This is a Confucius saying.

朝雲暮雨(ちょううんぼう)
Morning-clouds-evening-rain
Sexual liaison

三千世界(さんぜんせかい)
Three-thousand-worlds
1. The whole universe

一文半銭(いちもんはんせん)
One-mon-half-sen
1. Meager sum of money

一文不通(いちもんふつう)
One-sentence-block
Totally illiterate

一陽来復(いちようらいふく)
One-sun-return
The return of spring

一利一害(いちりいちがい)
One-profit-one gain
1. Advantage and its disadvantage

一挙一動(いっきょいちどう)
One-action-one-move
1. One's every move

一死報国(いっしほうこく)
One-death-patriotism
1. Dying for one's country

浅学非才(せんがくひさい)
Shallow-learning-no-ability
1. Lack of learning and ability

円満具足(えんまんぐそく)
Satisfactory-completeness
1. Complete, tranquil, and in harmony

再三再四(さいさんさいし)
Re-three-re-four
1. Repeatedly

人心一新(じんしんいっしん)
Person-heart-one-new
1. Complete change in public sentiment

一心同体(いっしんどうたい)
One-heart-same-body
1. One in body and soul

一路平安(いちろへいあん)
One-road-security
Bon voyage

一路順風(いちろじゅんぷう)
One-road-gentle-wind
1. Everything going well

心機一転(しんきいってん)
Heart-move-turn
Change in attitude

意気投合(いきとうごう)
Spirit-congeniality
1. Find a kindred spirit

才子多病(さいしたびょう)
Genius-child-many-diseases
1. Talented people tend to be delicate
2. Men of genius tend to be of delicate health

九牛一毛(きゅうぎゅういちもう)
Nine-cows-one-hair
1. A drop in the ocean

一衣帯水(いちいたいすい)
One-clothes-obi-water
1. Being separated by a narrow stretch of water

清風明月(せいふうめいげつ)
Pure-wind-bright-moon
1. Refreshing breeze and the bright moon

純一無雑(じゅんいちむざつ)
Pure-one-no-disarray
1. Pure in heart

下意上達(かいじょうたつ)
Lower idea-advance
1. Conveyance of lower class opinions to the powers that be

急転直下(きゅうてんちょっか)
Sudden-change-directly-under
1. Suddenly and precipitately

悠々自適(ゆうゆうじてき)
Leisure-leisure-self-capable
1. Otium cum dignitate
2. Living a life of leisure and dignity

海千山千(うみせんやません)
Ocean-thousand-mountain-thousand
1. A sly old dog of much worldly wisdom
Note: Japanese in origin

乾坤一擲(けんこんいってき)
Universe-one-off away
1. Play for all or nothing

厚顔無恥(こうがんむち)
Heavy-face-no-shame
1. Brazen and unscrupulous; shameless

傍目八目
おかめはちもく
Side-eye-eight-eyes
1. A bystander's vantage point
2. Onlookers of a game see more than the actual players do

Additional 四字熟語

 

 一分一厘  いちぶいちりん  Not even a bit
 一網打尽  いちもうだじん  Wholesale arrest
 暗雲低迷  あんうんていめい  Dark clouds hanging low
 曖昧模糊  あいまいもこ  Ambiguous
 悪戦苦闘  あくせんくとう  Hard struggle
 一瞬絶句  いっしゅんぜっく  Rendered speechless for a moment
 一生懸命  いっしょうけんめい  With all one's might
 一心不乱  いっしんふらん  With heart and soul
 一体全体  いったいぜんたい  What on earth?
 迂闊千万  うかつせんばん  Very careless
 宇宙開闢  うちゅうかいびゃく  Since the dawn of time
 容貌端正  ようぼうたんせい  To have handsome and clean-cut features
 有史以来  ゆうしいらい  Since the dawn of history
 和洋折衷  わようせっちゅう  A blending of Japanese and Western styles
 和光同塵  わこうどうじん  Wise men softening their light while with the mundane world
 老少不定  ろうしょうふじょう  Death comes to old and young alike
 劣弱意識  れつじゃくいしき  Inferior complex
 縷々綿々  るるめんめん  To go on and on in tedious detail
 流転生死  るてんしょうじ  The cycle of transmigration
 風声鶴唳  ふうせいかくれい  To be frightened by the slightest noise
 風林火山  ふうりんかざん  Swift as wind, quiet as forest, fierce as fire, and immovable as mountains
 武運長久  ぶうんちょうきゅう  Continued luck in the fortunes of war
 複雑多岐  ふくざつたき  Labyrinthine
 表裏一体  ひょうりいったい  The two sides of the same coin
 比翼連理  ひよくれんり  Perfect conjugal harmony between husband and wife
 百人百様  ひゃくにんひゃくよう  So many men, so many ways
 眉目秀麗  びもくしゅうれい  Having a handsome face
 飛耳長目  ひじちょうもく  Being well-versed on something
 煩悶懊悩  はんもんおうのう  Anguish
 万緑一紅  ばんりょくいっこう  One red flower standing out in a see of green vegetation
 万事承知  ばんじしょうち  Being well aware of
 八方美人  はっぽうびじん  A woman who looks beautiful from all angles
 拈華微笑  ねんげみしょう  Heart-to-heart communication
 如是我聞  にょぜがもん  Thus I hear
 如露如電  にょろにょでん  Existence is as incorporeal as the morning dew or flash of lightning
 南無八幡  なむはちまん  I beseech your aid against my enemy!
 内剛外柔  ないごうがいじゅう  Being gentle on the outside but tough on the inside
 土崩瓦解  どほうがかい  Complete collapse
 道聴塗説  どうちょうとせつ  Shallow-minded mouthing of secondhand information
 闘志満々  とうしまんまん  Brimming with fighting spirit
 東西古今  とうざいここん  All times and places
 桃紅柳緑  とうこうりゅうりょく  The beautiful scenery of spring
 同工異曲
 どうこういきょく  Different in appearance but the same in content
 天網恢恢  てんもうかいかい  Heaven's vengeance is slow but sure
 恬淡虚無  てんたんきょむ  Rising above the trivia of life and remaining calm and selfless
 天真流露  てんしんりゅうろ  Manifestation of one's natural sincerity
 天地晦冥  てんちかいめい  The world is covered in darkness
 天空海闊  てんくうかいかつ  The open sky and serene sea
 天下泰平  てんかたいへい  Peaceful and tranquil
 痛快淋漓  つうかいりんり  To be extremely delightful
 痴話喧嘩  ちわげんか  Lover's quarrel
 跳梁跋扈  ちょうりょうばっこ  Evildoers being rampant and roaming at will
 寵愛一身  ちょうあいっしん  To stand highest in one's master's favor
 忠言逆耳  ちゅうげんぎゃくじ  Good advice is harsh to the ear
 躊躇逡巡  ちゅうちょしゅんじゅん  Hesitation and vacillation
 魑魅魍魎  ちみもうりょう  All sorts of weird creatures
 着眼大局  ちゃくがんたいきょく  To take a broad view of things
 智慧不惑  ちえふわく  A wise man never wavers
 知行合一  ちこうごういつ  The doctrine of the unity of knowledge and action
 単刀直入  たんとうちょくにゅう  Going right to the point
 男尊女卑  だんそんじょひ  Male domination of women
 多岐亡羊  たきぼうよう
 Truth is as hard to find as a sheep lost in a vast plain
 大漁貧乏  たいりょうびんぼう  Impoverishment of fisherman due to a bumper catch
 大胆巧妙  だいたんこうみょう  Bold and clever
 大山鳴動  たいざんめいどう  A big fuss over nothing
 大器晩成  たいきばんせい  Great talents mature late
 則天去私  そくてんきょし  Following heaven and abandoning self
 造反有理  ぞうはんゆうり  To rebel is justified
 先憂後楽  せんゆうこうらく  Hardship now, pleasure later
 戦々恐々  せんせんきょうきょう  To be filled with trepidation
 絶体絶命  ぜったいぜつめい  Desperate situation
 切磋琢磨  せっさたくま  Cultivating one's mind by studying hard
 世上万般  せじょうばんぱん  Everything in this world
 青天白日  せいてんはくじつ  To be cleared of all charges
 正邪善悪  せいじゃぜんあく  Right and wrong
 政権亡者  せいけんもうじゃ  One who is obsessed with political power
 酔眼朦朧  すいがんもうろう  With drunken eyes
 垂涎三尺  すいぜんさんじゃく  Avid desire
 衰退一途  すいたいいっと  Being on the wane
 頭寒足熱  ずかんそくねつ  Keeping the head cool and the feet warm
 人馬一体  じんばいったい  Unity of rider and horse
 心頭滅却  しんとうめっきゃく  Clearing one's mind of all mundane thoughts
 神色自若  しんしょくじじゃく  Perfect composure
 心身一如  しんしんいちにょ  Body and mind as one
 辛酸甘苦  しんさんかんく  Hardships and joy
 支離滅裂  しりめつれつ  Incoherent
 諸行無常  しょぎょうむじょう  All worldly things are transitory
 四面楚歌  しめんそか  To be surrounded by enemies on all sides
 生者必滅  しょうじゃひつめつ  All living things must die
 純真無垢  じゅんしんむく  Pure and innocent
 秋風落莫  しゅうふうらくばく  Forlorn and helpless
 遮二無二  しゃにむに  Recklessly
 詩人墨客  しじんぼっかく  Poets and artists
 残念無念  ざんねんむねん  What a pity!
 昨非今是
 さくひこんぜ
 Complete reversal of values

 


第352課: Idioms V: 諺

     諺(ことわざ), proverbs, are often short sayings, 言い習わし. A proverb shows some sort of virtue, a common truth that anyone can relate to. A proverb may also show moral, satire, truth, and a whole array of important cultural items in a short and concise way. Free translation is often needed to make them sensible to English speakers. You don't have to be Japanese to learn Japanese proverbs. This is a bigoted argument that you should never listen to. If you're human and are capable of acquiring new information, you can learn Japanese proverbs. 

The first sentence of each example will be in Japanese script. The second will be the same sentence in かな. The third sentence shows the literal translation and the fourth sentence shows the idiomatic or general translation. If anymore information needs to be made about a given expression, a fifth line will be used. 

漢字 to learn this week: 鳶、鰹、鷲、鷗、鱒、髭、麹、宏、蜃、禽、麿、蟻、雹、豹、賑、藁、虻、蝦、蕊、葱  

 

案ずるより生(う)むが易し。
Giving birth is easier than worrying about it.
Fear is often greater than the danger.

天は自ら助くるものを助く。
Heaven helps those who helps themselves.  

鰻(うなぎ)の寝床。
Sleeping grounds of eels.
Long/thin building or room. 

全ての道はローマに通ず。
All roads lead to Rome. 

見ぬが花。
The thing that does not see is the flower.
1. Reality can't compete with imagination.
2. Prospect is often better than possession.

寝耳に水
Water in the ears when one is asleep
Unexpected and shocking 

一年の計は元旦にあり。
Sum of the year is at New Year’s.
The whole year's plans should be made on New Year's.  

魚心あれば水心
If a fish has the mind of being one with the water, the water also has the mind of being one with the fish
If you scratch my back, I'll scratch yours.

一を聞いて十を知る。
Hear one and know ten.
To understand it all from only one part.

猫に小判。
A koban to a cat.
1. Cast pearls before swine.
2. Give valuable to someone who doesn't value it.
3. Caviar to the general.
4. Really big waste of resources.

Cultural Note: A koban is an oval coin used in currency in Japan made either of gold or silver.

漁夫の利
A fisherman's profit
Profiting while others fight 

毒をもって毒を制す。
To use poison against poison.
To fight fire with fire. 

宝の持ち腐れ
A held jewel rotting
Unused possessions 

尻切れトンボ
A dragonfly with its ass cut off
Unfinished business 

七転び八起き。
Seven falls and stand up on eight.
1. Keep trying when life knocks you down.
2. Always rise after repeated failures. 

ペンは剣よりも強し。
The pen is mightier than the sword.

どんぐりの背比べ。
Comparing the height of acorns.
To have no outstanding characteristics. 

言わぬが花。
The thing that does not speak is the flower.
Silence is golden.

諸刃の剣
A double-edged sword 

火のないところには煙は立たぬ。
Smoke doesn't rise from a place that doesn't have fire.
Where there is smoke, there is fire. 

藪を突付いて蛇を出す。
Poke through a bush and a snake will come out.
1. To stir up trouble for oneself.
2. Let sleeping dogs lie.

豚に真珠。
A pearl to a pig.
Cast pearls before swine. 

鶴の声
A crane's voice
A powerful voice decides an argument 

月夜に提灯(ちょうちん)。
A paper lantern in a moonlit night
Superfluousness

井の中の蛙大海を知らず。
The frog in the well doesn't know of the great ocean.  
A person who is ignorant of the world. 

馬の耳に念仏。
A sutra in a horse's ear.
A nod is as good as a wink to a blind man.

縁側の下の力持ち。
A strong person underneath the veranda.
Someone of great assistance in the background.

ローマは一日にして成らず。
Rome wasn't built in a day. 

口は禍の元。
The mouth is the source of disaster. 

良薬口に苦し。
Good medicines tastes bitter in the mouth.
Good advice is hard to swallow.

借りてきた猫。
A borrowed cat.
Being quiet and meek. 

住めば都。
If residing, the capital.
Wherever you live, you come to love it.

多々益々弁ず。
The more, the better. 

河童も川流れ。
Even an excellent swimmer can get carried down a river.
Even Homer sometimes nods.
Everyone makes mistakes.

蚤(のみ)の夫婦
A flee couple
A couple in which the woman is taller than the man 

上には上がある。
There is a top on the top.
There's always someone better than you. 

石の上にも三年。
On top of a stone for three years.
One who endures wins through perseverance.

落花(らっか)枝に帰らず。
A fallen blossom doesn't go home to its branch.
What's done is done.

沈む瀬あれば浮かぶ瀬あり。
If the current sinks, it will rise again.
Life has its twists and turns. 

為せば成る。
If you do, it will happen.
You can do anything you have your mind set on doing.  

乞食を三日すればやめられぬ。
If you beg for three days, you won't be able to quit.
Once a good-for-nothing, always a good-for-nothing.

急がば回れ。
If hurried, go around.
Slow and steady wins the race.
When in a hurry it is faster to take a roundabout.

噂をすれば影(がさす)
Shadows if you gossip
Speak of the Devil

前門の虎、後門の狼
A tiger at the front gate and a wolf at the back gate. 
Out of the frying pan, into the fire.

弘法筆を択ばず。
Koubou doesn't choose the brush.
An expert doesn't blame his tools.
A bad workman always blames his tools. 

早起きは三文の得。
Waking up early gets you three mon.
The early bird catches the worm. 

年寄りの冷や水。 
An old person's cold water.
Old people acting reckless.

来年のことを言えば鬼が笑う。
Demons laugh if you talk of next year.
No one knows what tomorrow brings. 

光陰(こういん)矢の如し。
Time is like an arrow.
Time flies.

一寸先は闇。
A sun inward is darkness. 
The future is unpredictable.

身から出た錆
Rust from the blade
What goes around comes around. 

捕らぬ狸の皮算用をするな。
Don't count the tanuki skins that you haven't caught yet.
Don't count your chickens before they're hatched.
Note: A tanuki is an indigenous animal in Japan that looks like a raccoon.

過ぎたるはなお及ばざるが如し。
Doing too much is the same as doing naught.
Doing too little and too much are equally bad. 

転石苔(てんせきこけ)を生せず。 
A rolling stone gathers no moss.
1. Those who are active make progress.
2. Those who frequently change jobs can't be successful in life. 

塵(ちり)も積もれば山となる。
When even dust piles up, it becomes a mountain.
1. Little things add up.
2. Little and often fills the purse.
3. Many a little makes a nickle.

損して得取る。
Take a loss, then take a gain.
One step back, two steps forward.

三度目の正直
The third's honesty
Third time's a charm.  

釈迦に説法
Teaching Buddhism to Buddha
An idiot trying to teach a know-it-all 

脳ある鷹(たか)は爪(つめ)を隠す。
A hawk with talent hides its claws.
1. Still water runs deep.
2. A wise man keeps some of his talents hidden.
3. The one who knows most often says the least.

頭を隠して尻(しり)を隠さず。
Hiding one's face but not one's ass.
Don't expose your weak spot when protecting yourself.

三人寄れば文殊の智慧(ちえ)。
If three gather, Manjusri wisdom.
Two heads are better than one.

Buddhism Note: Manjusri is the bodhisattva of Wisdom.

溺れる者は藁(わら)をも掴む。
A drowning person will even grasp straw. 

仏の顔も三度。
Even the face of Buddha three times.
To try a saint's patience.
There are limits to one's patience.

悪妻は六十年の不作。
A bad wife is the bad harvest of sixty years.
A bad wife is the ruin of her husband.

触らぬ神に祟りなし。
An undisturbed god doesn't wreak havoc.  
Let sleeping dogs lie.

悪事千里を走る。
Running from a wicked deed 1000 ri.
1. Ill news runs apace.
2. Bad news travels fast.

枯れ木も山の賑わい
Dead trees are also a mountain's liveliness
Dead trees are better than no trees. 

猫も杓子(しゃくし)も
Even cats and bamboo ladle.
Anybody; anything.

旅の恥は掻き捨てて。
Get rid of the humiliation of travel.
Once over the border you can do anything.

青雲の志。
The will of a blue sky.
Lofty ambitions.

雲泥の差。
Separation between clouds and mud.
A vast difference. 

初心忘るべからず。
We mustn't forget our beginner's spirit. 

 小人閑居して不善を為す。
Small people in free time do vice.
An idle brain is the devil's shop.

二兎を追う者は一兎をも得ず。
He who chases two rabbits won't catch one.
Do what you can accomplish rather than wasting your energy at trying to do the impossible.

門前市(もんぜんいち)をなす。
 To produce a market outside a gate.
To have a constant stream of visitors.

他人の飯を食う。
To eat another's person's feed.
To experience the hardships of the world everyday.

情けは人の為ならず。
Kindness is not for others.
Compassion is not for other people's benefit.

餅は餅屋
As for mochi, a mochi store.
Leave things to the experts. 

宵越しの金を持たぬ。
 To not have the money to pass the evening.
To spend one's money as quickly as one earns it.

青年重ねて来たらず。
Prime years don't return.
You're only young once. 

腐っても鯛(たい)
Even if it rots, (it's still a) sea bream
If something has value, it doesn't matter what shape it's in.  

石の上にも三年
Three years on top of a rock
Persistence leads to success. 

李下瓜田( りかかでん)
 A melon field below a plum tree.
Leave no room for scandal.

三つ子の魂百まで
The spirit of a three year old until 100
As the twig is bent, so grows the tree.

かわいい子には旅をさせよ。
Make pretty kids take trips.
Have kids experience challenges of life. 

すずめの涙
A sparrow's tear
A very small amount 

焼餅焼くとて手を焼くな。
Don't burn your hand even when you're making yakimochi.
Don't be susceptible to folly because of jealousy. 

李下の冠を正さず。
Not correcting a crown below a plum tree.
To avoid the appearance of evil.

腹八分目に医者いらず
You don't need a doctor if your stomach is only 8/10ths full.
It's best to eat in moderation. 

出る杭は打たれる。
The stake that sticks out will get hammered.
The nail that sticks out gets hammered down.

知らぬが仏。
The one who does not know is Buddha.
Ignorance is bliss.

笑う門には福来(きた)る。
Good fortune comes in the laughing gate.
Good fortune and happiness will come to the home of those who smile.

猿も木から落ちる。
Even monkeys fall from trees.
1. Everyone makes mistakes.
2. Pride comes before a fall.

泥棒を捕らえて縄を綯(な)う。
Catching a thief and tying him up.
Hastening to do something after an incident.

人は見かけによらぬもの
Don't judge people by their looks. 

花より団子。
Dumplings than flowers.
1. To prefer substance over style.
2. People are more interested in the practical over the aesthetic.

井の中の蛙(かわず)大海を知らず。
 A frog in a well doesn't know of the big ocean.
1. To know nothing of the world.
2. Used to encourage someone to get a wider perspective.

鳴く猫はねずみを捕らぬ。
Loud cats don't catch mice.
Empty vessels make the most sound. 

濡れぬ先の傘。
The dry end of an umbrella.
Better safe than sorry. 

弘法(こうぼう)にも筆の誤り。
Even Koubou made mistakes with the brush.
Anyone makes mistakes.
Even experts have their shortfalls.

Note: Koubou, posthumous name, was a Buddhist priest famous for his calligraphy.

寄らば大樹の陰
Look for a big tree for shade.

目には目を、歯には歯を。
An eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth. 

河童の川流れ。
A kappa swept away by the river.
Even experts screw up.  

石橋を叩いて渡る。
Hitting a stone bridge and crossing.
Safety on top of safety. 

立つ鳥跡を濁さず。
It is common courtesy to clean after yourself. 

蓼(たで)食う虫も好き好き。
Even knot-weed eating insects have various tastes.
There is no accounting for taste.

喉元(のどもと)過ぎれば熱さを忘れる。
If it passes the throat, you forget the heat.
Danger past and God forgotten. 

時は金なり。
Time is money. 

人のふり見て我がふり直せ。
Watch other's actions, and fix one's own.
One man's fault is another's lesson.

生兵法(なまびょうほう)は大怪我の基(もと)。
Crude tactics is the source of great blunders.
A little learning is a dangerous thing. 

隣の芝生は青い。
The next door lawn is green.
The grass is always greener on the other side. 

隣の花は赤い。
The flowers next door are red.
Grass is always greener on the other side. 

郷(ごう)に入っては郷に従え。
When entering a village, obey it.
When in Rome, do as the Romans do.

焼け石に水。
Water on burning rocks.
Something bound to fail due to inadequacies. 

男心と秋の空。
A man's heart and the autumn sky.
Both a man's heart and the autumn sky are fickle.

玉に瑕(きず)
A flaw on a gem

二階から目薬
Eye drops from the second floor
Something that can't be done no matter what.

駄目で元々
Nothing to lose 

仏の顔も三度
The buddha's face thrice
To try the patience of a saint. 

痘痕(あばた)も笑窪
Pockmarks and dimples
Love is blind.

匙(さじ)を投げる。
To throw the space.
To throw in the towel. 

鴨が葱(ねぎ)をしょってくる。
A duck comes back with a leek on its back.
A stroke of luck.

無い袖(そで)は振れぬ。
Can't wave without a sleeve. 
A man can't give what he doesn't have.

濡れ衣を着せる。
To make someone wear wet clothes.
To make someone innocent look guilty. 

覆水盆に返らず。
Spilled water doesn't go back to the tray.
It's no use crying over spilled milk.

終わりよければ全てよし。
All's well that ends well. 

泣き面に蜂(はち)。
A bee to a crying face.
1. One misfortune comes after another.
2. Misfortunes never come alone.
3. When it rains, it pours.

叩けば埃が出る。
If you strike it, dust will come out.
Everything has flaws. 

頭隠して尻隠さず。
To hide your head but not your ass.
To fail to cover up all your bad deeds. 

虻蜂(あぶはち)取らず
Neither catching the horsefly nor the bee.
To accomplish nothing.

犬猿の仲。
The relationship between dogs and monkeys.
Natural enemies. 

挨拶(あいさつ)は時の氏神(うじがみ)
Arbitration is time's god.
Arbitration is a gift from the gods.

千里の道も一歩から
A journey of a thousand miles starts with one step

惚れてしまえば痘痕(あばた)も笑窪。
There are scars and dimples even when falling in love.
She who loves an ugly man thinks him handsome.
Love is blind.

堪忍袋の緒が切れる。
For the string of a tolerance bag to snap.
To be out of patience.  

麻の中の蓬(よもぎ)。
Mugwort inside hemp
People become like those around them. 

朱に交われば赤くなる。
If you mix something with red, it too will become red.
People become like those around them.

絵に描いた餅(もち)。
Rice cake drawn in a picture.
A pie in the sky.

門前の小僧習わぬ経を読む。
A novice before a gate reading an untaught sutra.
1. To learn something without being taught it.
2. You learn, without realizing it, from what is around you.
3. A young monk outside the gate can read sutra he has never studied.  

前事を忘れざるは後事の師なり。
Not forgetting the past is the teacher of the future.

秋茄子(あきなす)は嫁に食わすな。
Do not feed autumn eggplant to your wife.
Autumn eggplants will reduce fertility and give a woman the chills.

備えあれば憂いなし。
If you're prepared, there need to be no worry.

袖振り合うも他生(たしょう)の縁。
Sleeves waving together is even karma from a past life.
Even a chance acquaintance is preordained. 

猫の首に鈴をつける。
To put a bell on a cat's neck.
Don't talk about doing the impossible.  

糠(ぬか)に釘(くぎ)。
A nail in rice bran.
All is lost that is given to a fool.

餅は餅屋。
Rice cake at a rice cake store.
Every man to his trade.

二足の草鞋(わらじ)。
Two pairs of sandals.
Having two different jobs.

猫を追うより皿を引け。
Take away the plate rather than chase the cat.
Attack the root of a problem.  


第353課: Dialectical 自他動詞

There are several intransitive verb forms unique to specific areas of Japan. There are many verbs with several transitive forms. However, as we have seen in previous lessons, they're all used extensively. They may just not mean the same things. The intransitive verb forms we'll see in this lesson are almost exclusively dialectal. The interesting thing about these words is that they fill in lexical gaps hard to explain away through 標準語. Some of them have weird origins, which makes things even more interesting. We'll even learn about a conjugation unique to only one dialect! Let's begin. 

Love Variation!

Because the process of deriving intransitive and transitive verbs is not completely straightforward, there is variation in how you should express transitivity on a case by case basis. Below are some common regional variation that you may encounter. The arrow indicates correct, Standard Japanese.

1. ガムが くつ にくっつかっている。 (東北弁)  → ガムが靴にくっついている。
  Gum is stuck to my shoes. 


Form Note: Speakers who use くっつかる use it as a more emphatic version of くっつく. This is one of those words which if you use it, you may not even notice it's dialectical until you realize no one else in the country uses it. 

2.  かい もと まる。  → 解が求められる・解が ととの う・解にたどり着く。  
  For a solution to be solved.  

Form Note: 求まる has existed but has fallen out of use except by some people in math. When people hear it for the first time, they are often taken back and think it is grammatically incorrect. 

3. 単語が覚わった。 ( 名古屋 なごや 岐阜 ぎふ )  →  覚えきった。 
  I got the words down. (memory)

Form Note: This form should be impossible as this would mean that it ultimately derived from 覚える + ある. 覚える shares 思える, and both can be classified as verbs of spontaneity. Other verbs like this include 見える and 聞こえる. They describe things that happen naturally on their own. But, 覚わる, a form which is supposed to be impossible accidentally came about and is used a lot in some areas of Japan. Another word that came about from a similar mistake is 報われる. The verb for "to reward" was 報ゆ. Rather than using the passive ending normally, which results in the modern 報いられる, the verb was analyzed as being 報う instead. Today, 報う, 報いる, 報われる, and 報いられる exist. The spontaneity verbs ended in ゆ in the past as well, so this may have something to deal with 覚わる coming about.  

4.  筋肉 きんにく きた わる。 (名古屋 Area?) →  筋肉が鍛えられる。
  For one's muscles to be built.

5. あごが鍛わった気がする。
    I feel like my jaw is hardened up. 

6. ロープが こお って むす ばらない。    ( 飛騨弁 ひだべん )    ロープが凍って結ぶことができない。
   The rope froze and I can't get a knot in it. 


 The Auxiliary Verb ~さる: Anti-Causative/Spontaneous Occurrence 

In 北海道弁 and other northern dialects, you may see さる attached to the 未然形 of verbs to create intransitive verb pairs. Examples of this include くっつかさる, 溶かさる = 溶ける, and 終わらさる = 終わる. However, it is not the case that speakers here don't use the regular intransitive forms. So, what exactly is さる used for? First, let's go over its conjugation. 

 一段 Verbs  未然形 + らさる  食べらさる
 五段 Verbs  未然形+ さる  読まさる

This is actual used to create spontaneity phrases just like 見える. Because these words are intransitive too, this is yet another means of 自動詞化. However, this is completely unique to 北海道弁. This conjugation doesn't exist in any other dialect area. The meaning is along the lines of not intending to do something, but conditions proceed in a way that you find yourself naturally in the situation.

7. この小説は面白くて、どんどん読まさります。
  This book is so interesting that I just end up reading more and more of it. 

This conjugation is perfect for not implying one's incapability or incompetence when used in the negative ~(ら)さんない. For instance, say your pen doesn't work. If you were to say in Standard Japanese このペンは書けない. It's unclear why you can't use the pen. Is it because the ink is out or because somehow you're too stupid to know how to use the pen? In 北海道弁, you can place all the blame on the natural order of things by saying the following.

8. このペン書かさんない。
     This pen won't write. 


第354課: 音訓 (ON & KUN Readings)

Due to the unique fixation of 漢字 to Japanese, a complex set of readings with different origins has produced the hardest method of reading 漢字 of all languages that use 漢字. This lesson will delve deeper into the 音訓 puzzle. A firm understanding of how to read 漢字 affects how efficiently you can acquire new words and new characters. 

漢字 & Meaning

漢字 are called ideograms, symbols that display meaning. However, their shapes alone don’t produce meaning itself. Words are produced by the human mind, and these words are attributed to these highly crafted arrangements of strokes we call 漢字. After all, only a human can understand 水 as water. This 漢字 to Mandarin Chinese speakers has the sound Shuǐ. This is what these people think when they see water and this symbol. However, in Japanese, there is more than one reading to this character. There is the native word for water mizu. There is also the 音読み from Chinese SUI. Both are attributed to 水.

Thus, in Modern Japanese, there are two language units distinguished in reading 漢字. 音, the sounds of characters as borrowed from various stages of Chinese languages, and 訓, native vocabulary attributed to these foreign characters. 

音読み

Although the history of 音読み is really complicated and the Japanese sound system has also changed over time, 音読み were in large part assimilated to the existing sound constraints of Japanese. Over time, this system of two kinds of readings, with characters often having more than one of each, has solidified and become what it is today.               

              As you have encountered numerous times no doubt in your Japanese studies, many 漢字 have more than one 音読み. This is because, as mentioned earlier, they come from different stages of Chinese. All words with 音読み are Sino-Japanese unless simply used for phonetic purposes. For example, although the word 世話 is pronounced as SEWA with 音読み, it is actually a native word.


The Four Kinds of 音読み

There are four kinds of 音読み generally recognized. Unlike other languages utilizing Chinese characters, older readings did not get totally replaced with new ones in Japanese. Rather, they are used together in a complex amalgam. As far as 音読み are concerned, many readings can be guessed on because of phonetics in the characters. As you will see, though, many shifts have occurred in these readings. This has all lead to many characters having the same readings.  


呉音: Sounds of Wu

The first wave of readings are called 呉音. These readings are the oldest and come from the Wu Dynasty. They entered Japanese during the 5th to 6th centuries. Many Buddhist and Ritsuryou System (律令) terms have these readings as well as many for basic vocabulary like SAN for 山.

Historical Note: The 律令 was the fundamental set of codes by which constituted in large part the early Japanese political system.

 世間  SEKEN  World; society  末期  MATSUGO  Hour of death
 男女  NAN'NYO  Men and women  正体  SHOUTAI  True identity
 経文  KYOUMON  Sutra  下人  GENIN  Menial
 極楽  GOKURAKU  Paradise  正直  SHOUJIKI  Honest
 成就  JOUJU  Success  会釈  ESHAKU  Nod; salutation
 工夫  KUFUU  Scheme  祇園  GION   Gion 
 白衣  BYAKUE  White robe  金色  KONJIKI  Gold color
 荼毘  DABI  Cremation  供米  KUMAI  Rice offering

Word Notes

1. NAN'NYO is an old-fashioned reading of 男女.  
2. Gion is the entertainment district of 京都.
3. BYAKUE is an old-fashioned reading of 白衣.  

There were many alterations to the actual pronunciations used at the time in Wu China. For instance, final –t became –chi such as NICHI for 日. –ng, which didn’t exist in Japanese, was dealt with randomly, sometimes being replaced with a back vowel like I or U. Other times, it was dropped altogether. However, in rare instances this final –ng became preserved as a medial g. Ex. SUGOROKU 双六.

Historical Notes:

1. These readings are also sometimes called 対馬音 つしまおん・つしまごえ and 百済音 くだらおん・くだらごえ because it is said that a Paekje monk by the name of Houmyou 法名 read the Vimalakirti Sutra (維摩経) with 呉音 at Tsushima.
2. Also, it is believed by some due to no actual written evidence that these readings may have actually been Korean alterations to some form of Chinese as they were introduced to the Japanese via the Korean peninsula.
3. Paekje, which is called Kudara by the Japanese, is one of the ancient Korean kingdoms.   


漢音: The Sounds of Han China

漢音 are readings borrowed during the 7th to 8th centuries in the Sui and Tang Dynasties. They were sent to Japan via emissaries. They were heavily propagated as the correct pronunciation of characters. Despite efforts by elites to eradicate呉音, they could not be taken out of already commonly used daily words with them. Thus, we have many characters to this day with more than one 音読み.

Several systematic changes can be seen when comparing 呉音 and 漢音. The most important phenomenon is denasalization that occurred in Chinese. In this sound change, the latter half of a nasal sound would become an oral sound. This would be reflected over into Japanese in the following ways.

 馬  MA → BA  日  NICHI → JITSU  美  MI → BI

There are exceptional cases where nasal endings were retained during the borrowing process such as NEN for 年.  

Another important phenomenon is the devoicing of voiced initials.

 定  JOU → TEI  従  JUU → SHOU  勤  GON → KIN 

It is important to remember that sound changes have also occurred in Japanese. So, these are the modern renderings of the readings. For instance, JOU for 定 was actually traditional spelled in かな as ぢやう. This would have reflected the pronunciation at the time. Also, keep in mind that despite efforts to propagate 漢音, not all such readings were able to displace 呉音.

For instance, the 漢音 of 和 and 話 is KWA, but this reading never made it to the present. Other similar instances did in this k-insertion. For example, 会’s E → KAI.

              It would take too long to go through every detail for every 漢字. So, we will now switch focus to how 漢音 have become used. The overwhelming majority of 漢字 have 漢音, and they were further propagated during the Meiji Restoration by being used to coin hundreds of words. Although 呉音 continued to have overwhelming influence in Buddhist texts, there are some instances were certain sects read particular sutras in 漢音. For instance, the 理趣経 of the 真言宗 is read with 漢音. So, the famous starting of sutras 如是我聞 (Thus, I hear) is pronounced as JOSHIGABUN rather than the typical NYOZEGAMON, which uses 呉音.

Example Words:  

 末期  MAKKI  Closing years; terminal  経世  KEISEI  Conduct of state affairs
 文人  BUNJIN  Literary person  土地  TOCHI  Land
 幕府  BAKUFU  Shogunate/bakufu  内裏  DAIRI  Imperial palace
 女児  JOJI  Female child  男女  DANJO  Men and women
 白衣  HAKUI  White robe  老若  ROUJAKU  Young and old
 口頭  KOUTOU  Oral  左右  SAYUU  Left and right
 遠近  ENKIN  Far and near  兵隊  HEITAI  Soldier
 達成  TASSEI  Achievement  質量  SHITSURYOU  Mass

Word Notes:

1. DANJO is the normal reading of 男女.
2. Notice how the different readings of 末期, まつご and まっき, have different meanings.
3. HAKUI is the normal reading of 白衣.
4. 老若 may also be seldom read with the 呉音 ROUNYAKU.   


唐音: T’ang Sounds

Although they weren’t actually borrowed during the T’ang Dynasty, 唐音 were borrowed later from the Kamakura to the Edo Periods. They are generally rare and seen mainly in Zen Buddhism, trade, food, and furnishing terminology.

Terminology Note: These sounds are also called 宋音・唐宋音.

 布団  FUTON  Futon  納戸  NANDO  Barn
 扇子  SENSU  Folding fan  北京  PEKIN  Beijing
 南京  NANKIN  Nanqing  瓶  BIN  Bottle
 行脚  ANGYA  Pilgrimage  普請  FUSHIN  Construction; community activities
 箪笥  TANSU  Dresser  杜撰  ZUSAN  Sloppy
 団栗  DONGURI  Acorn  炭団  TADON  Charcoal briquette
 餡  AN  Read bean paste  湯麺  TANMEN  Tang mian 
 繻子  SHUSU  Satin  楪子  CHATSU  Type of lacquerware
 杏子  ANZU  Apricot  椅子  ISU  Chair
 石灰  SHIKKUI  Plaster  胡散  USAN  Suspicious
 胡乱  URON  Fishy  橘飩  KITTON  Mashed sweet potatoes
 暖簾  NOREN  Shop entrance curtain  饅頭  MANJUU  Manjuu 
 湯湯婆  YUTANPO  Hot water bottle  看経  KANKIN  Silent reading of sutra
 明  MIN  Ming Dynasty  鈴  RIN  Bell
 提灯  CHOUCHIN  Paper lantern  茴香  UIKYOU  Fennel 

Word Note: SHIKKUI is now normally spelled as 漆喰. 石灰 is typically read with the 漢音 SEKKAI to mean "lime" as in limestone. 


慣用音: Traditional Sounds 

慣用音 are mishap readings that have somehow changed since being incorporated into Japanese. Important examples include the following.

 立  RYUU → RITSU  輸  SHU → YU 
 攪拌 (Agitation)  KOUHAN → KAKUHAN  執  SHUU → SHITSU
 洗滌 (Washing)  SENDEKI → SENJOU  涸渇 (Drying up)  KOKUKATSU → KOKATSU

 慣用音 Classification Controversy 

Currently, any reading that deviates from 呉音, 漢音, and 唐音 are considered 慣用音. This means that several different situations are lumped together.


Change Influenced by 訓読み       

At times, 音読み were manipulated due to 訓読み. For example, 早速 should be pronounced SOUSOKU but it is instead pronounced as SASSOKU, with the sa- coming from a native prefix seen in words like sanae 早苗 (rice seedlings) and saotome 早乙女 (young woman). There is also 奥意 OKUI (true intention) and 奥地 OKUCHI (hinterland) which should be OUI and OUCHI respectively, but the 音読み OU/IKU has changed to OKU for most speakers. Thus, these extraordinary readings have become labeled as 慣用音.


Changes to Final –

Many 音読み in traditional orthography ended in ふ. It is agreed by most scholars that f used to be p in Old Japanese, and eventually became ɸ by Middle Japanese. Due to this effect, readings such as てふ for 蝶 became ちょう.

Plosive and fricative sounds in the final position were preserved with 促音 in words like 合戦 KASSEN (match; engagement), 入声 NISSHOU (initial tone), and 法度 HATTO (ordinance). On the other hand, these finals were typically replaced with う. Thus, you get many common words like 合成 GOUSEI (synthesis), 甲子園 KOUSHIEN (Koshien), and 入賞 NYUUSHOU (winning a prize). There are also instances where ふ → つ. For instance, 立 RYUU → RITSU, 圧 OU → ATSU, 執SHUU → SHITSU. These changes from the original readings are still classified in many 漢和辞典 as 慣用音.


音読み Confusion

When a 漢字 has more than one 音読み and they have become specialized for particular meanings and the expected reading is not used, this accidental misuse of a reading is deemed to be a 慣用音. One of the best examples of this is 罷免 (discharge). 罷 is supposed to be read as HAI when the character is used to mean “to tire” and HI when used to mean “to stop”. Yet, instead of being read as HAIMEN, the word is read as HIMEN. Thus, this usage of HI is classified as a 慣用音.


Readings with Unknown Origins

There are also readings with unknown origins. These readings, despite obviously coming from Chinese variants, are lumped into the term 慣用音.

For example, 茶 is typically read as CHA, but this reading is not a 呉音, 漢音, or 唐音. In order, those readings are actually DA, TA, and SA. So, CHA is classified as a 慣用音. Another odd example is the reading PON for 椪. It is typically believed to be from Taiwanese, and all of its other readings are unknown. Thus, it is classified as a 慣用音.


Lots of Homophones     

Due to the fact that so many waves of 音読み have been incorporated into Japanese with heavy simplification due to assimilation into the Japanese sound system, many words sound alike. Just typing こう results in dozens of options. There are a lot of homophones in Mandarin Chinese, but at least there is more variety in its phonology. Thankfully, the majority of homophones are avoided in the spoken language. Of course, there are exceptions. For example, the reading EKI for 駅, 益, 液, 易, and 役 are commonly used.

訓読み

訓読み have not been immune to change. After all, if a language doesn't change, it’s dead. 訓読み are from native words, and the reason they exist is because the Japanese already had their own language when 漢字were introduced. Although there are plenty of 訓読み that have essentially not changed at all over the course of time such as yama 山 and kusa 草, others like ( あや ) うい → ( あぶ )

ない have.


 Sino-Japanese 訓読み

There are actually some words of Chinese that were borrowed way before 漢字 were, and they are so integral in the language that they are viewed as native words. Important examples include the following.

 馬  うま  銭  ぜに  梅  うめ

 Number of 訓読み a Character 

The number of 訓読み a character usually has also changed over time. As time progressed, most characters have come to have only one 訓読み. However, it still doesn't take much effort to find blatant anomalies like 生, which has lots of readings.

 生きる  いきる  To live  生-  なま-  Raw  生む  うむ  To give birth
 生す  むす  To grow (moss)  生す  なす  To give birth  生う  おう  To spring up
 生{える・やす}  はえる・はやす  To cultivate  生る  なる  To bear seed  生  き  Undilated
 生  うぶ-  Innocent; birth-  生  -ふ  Thick growth      

 Just to think, there are more irregularities and 音読み to keep in mind as well. 


 Kinds of Words with 訓読み

Typically, the majority of 訓読み are used to write independent words, with all of the examples such far being just that.

 雨  あめ  雲  くも  日  ひ  火  ひ  喜び  よろこび
 歌う  うたう  思い  おもい  高い   たかい   花   はな   鼻   はな

There are some that are etymologically compound words but have since been fixated to the point that they are treated as simple words.

 湖  みずうみ  志  こころざし  快い  こころよい  瞼   まぶた 
 炎  ほのお  橘  たちばな  睫  まつげ  雷  かみなり 

              There are also instances where several characters have received the same 訓読み. This shouldn't be surprising given how many 漢字 exist. The hardest part about this is that options typically have specific nuances, which causes correct spelling to be more difficult.

 はかる  計る・測る・量る・諮る・図る・謀る
 とる  取る・捕る・執る・採る・撮る・獲る・摂る・盗る・録る

              Today, 訓読み are generally not used to write ancillary words such as particles and other function words. However, there are exceptions and many such words still do have 漢字 spellings.

 迄 = まで   也 = なり  御 = おん・お・み-  程 = ほど  秤 = ばかり  位 = くらい
 哉 = かな  幾 = いく-  に就いて = について  様に = ように  事 = こと  物 = もの

Word Notes:

1.  なり is the Classical copula.
2. ほど, ばかり, and くらい as particles are usually not written in 漢字.
3. 事 and 物 when used for more grammatical purposes are typically not written in 漢字.
4. Other speech modals like について and ように are usually only written in 漢字 in formal writing.  


 Loanwords with 訓読み 

訓読   くんよ みmay also be loanwords and can be as 5 morae long, often caused by compound words as mentioned before. The reason why loanwords may sometimes be classified as 訓読み is because a lot of characters for things like measurements and stuff were coined during the Meiji Restoration. These, thus, would be 国字 (Japanese-made characters) and would otherwise be expected to not have 音読み.

Meters:「粉(デシメートル)」、「糎(センチメートル)」、「粍(ミリメートル)」 ― 「籵(デカメートル)」、「粨(ヘクトメートル)」、「粁(キロメートル)」

Liters:「竕(デシリットル)」、「竰(センチリットル)」、「竓(ミリリットル)」 ― 「竍(デカリットル)」、「竡(ヘクトリットル)」、「竏(キロリットル)」

Grams: 「瓰(デシグラム)」、「甅(センチグラム)」、「瓱(ミリグラム)」 ― 「瓧(デカグラム)」、「瓸(ヘクトグラム)」、「瓩(キログラム)」。「瓲(トン)」はおまけ。


 送り仮名

Many 訓読み have 送りがな requirements. Despite government efforts, though, 送りがな is still rather random for lots of words. For instance, wakaru is typically spelled as 分かる. However, it can also be spelled as 分る, 判る, 解る, and 解かる.


 Sound Changes

There also readings morphologically limited to certain situations. For instance, vowel shifts when creating compound words often cause many students to mispronounce words because they don’t understand them.

For instance, E → A and I → O are extremely common. They are also important to researchers that suggest Old Japanese had an 8 vowel system.

 雨 + 雲 → あまぐも  手 + 綱 → たづな  手 + 紙 → てがみ  木 + 霊 → こだま  目+ ゆ+ 毛 → まゆげ 

As you can see, there is also voicing (連濁) to keep in mind, and these sound changes may not happen in all compounds as 手紙 suggests.   


名乗り 

There are also 訓読み called 名乗り that are used in names. A given name could be read in many ways. There are usually readings that are more prominent. The sheer number of 名乗り has actually gone down over time, but it still causes headaches for natives and learners on how to properly read a person’s name.

秀吉・秀義・英義・英吉・英喜・秀芳・英良・秀好・秀良・秀泰・栄良・英美・秀房・秀由・秀剛・秀嘉・秀衛・秀佳, etc. = ひでよし

音読み & 訓読み Combined

The large majority of words, 音読み and訓読み are combined and used together. Furthermore, the majority of words with 音読み are used in compounds (熟語), and the majority of 訓読み are used in isolation or with 送りがな. However, there are instances of 音読み used in isolation, and there are also instances of 訓読み used in compounds.

Aside from this, the main issue is that there are times when they are combined and used together! There are two such instances. The first is when a compound is 音 and 訓 are compounded (重箱読み), and the second is when a compound is 訓 and 音 are compounded (湯桶読み).


重箱読み

重箱 is a multi-tiered box, and it has been used in the word 重箱読み because it is a perfect example of an 音 and 訓 combination. Other examples include the following.

 路肩  ROkata  Road shoulder  番組  BANgumi  TV program 
 木目  MOKUme  Grain of wood  客間  KYAKUma  Parlor
 台所  DAIdokoro  Kitchen  茶筒  CHAzutsu  Tea caddy
 団子  DANgo  Dumplings  反物  TANmono  Fabric
 額縁  GAKUbuchi  Frame  本屋  HON'ya  Book store
 残高  ZANdaka  Balance (bank)  新顔  SHINgao  New face
 職場  SHOKUba  Work place  役場  YAKUba  Town hall

 湯桶読み

A 湯桶 is a pail-like wooden container used to carry and serve hot liquids, and it is used in the word 湯桶読み because it is a perfect example of a 訓 and 音 combination. Other examples include the following.

 場所  baSHO  Place  身分  miBUN  Social position
 消印  keshi'IN  Postmark  古本  furuHON  Old book
 見本  miHON  Sample  夕刊  yuuKAN  Evening edition
 荷物  niMOTSU  Luggage  踏台  fumiDAI  Stool; stepping stone
 雨具  amaGU  Rain gear  薄化粧  usuGESHOU  Light makeup 
 高台  takaDAI  High ground  手帳  teCHOU  Notebook
 手数  teSUU  Bother  鶏肉  toriNIKU  Chicken (meat)
 闇市場  yamiSHIJOU  Black market  湯茶  yuCHA  Hot water and tea
 野宿  noJUKU  Sleeping outdoors  大損  ooZON  Major loss
 太字  futoJI  Boldface  細字  hosoJI  Small type
 冬景色  yukiGESHIKI  Snowy landscape  雪化粧  yukiGESHOU  Covered in snow



第355課: 送り仮名

送り仮名 in its simplest understanding is かな used for conjugation purposes. However, the rules for 送り仮名are not quite set in stone. Though variant spellings in this regard are disappearing in replace of one spelling, literature is still pervaded with variant spellings.

Natives still show relative inconsistency in the matter. This is because guidelines by the government have not been crafted to the point that they should touch on individual spelling practices. 

Resource Note: Much of this information is adopted from the Ministry of Education guidelines for 送り仮名 usage, which can be found at  http://www.bunka.go.jp/kokugo_nihongo/joho/kijun/naikaku/okurikana/index.html.

About 送り仮名

In writing words in 漢字 and making clear what reading should be used, it has become orthodox to affixかな. For instance, in order to read 送 as おくる rather than ソウ or even some conjugation likeおくらない, る is affixed to it. However, things that do have 漢字spellings but are replaced with かな, 交ぜ書き, is not called 送り仮名.  

Rules for properly using 送り仮名 have been passed by the government, and it wouldn’t be surprising if these guidelines were modified again. However, even the preface of the guidelines published in 1973 admits that these rules do not pervasively apply to every aspect of Japanese. For instance, standards in science, the arts, and special fields are immune to having to follow these rules, which is why there have been plenty of mentions of how to address these situations thus far.

However, it is without a doubt that these guidelines do play a substantial role in orthography used in broadcast, official documents, newspapers, etc.

In studying the use of 送り仮名, you must first distinguish words in two groups: those that conjugate and those that don’t. Compound words are also important to consider. Though these different faces of 送り仮名 are rather complex, there are basic principles to keep in mind that work for the majority of cases.

Rule 1

If a word conjugates, it will have 送り仮名 affixed.

 憤る  いきどおる  To resent  承る  うけたまわる  To undertake; to hear/know (humble)
 書く  かく  To write  生きる  いきる  To live
 考える  かんがえる  To think  陥れる  おちいれる  To trick into; assault (castle); drop into
 助ける  たすける  To help  催す  もよおす  To hold (event); feel (sensation)
 荒い  あらい  Rough; wild  潔い  いさぎよい  Gallant; unsullied
 賢い  かしこい  Wise  濃い  こい  Thick
 薄い  うすい  Thin  主な  おもな  Main

Irregularities

1. Adjectives that end in しい・じい such as 美しい and 凄まじい(terrible) were historically 美し and 凄まじ. So, this is why し・じ haven’t been dropped in the spellings.

2: Native suffixes that create adjectives such as か, らか, andやか are also left as 送り仮名. 

 細かな  こまかな  Fine; detailed  静かな  しずかな  Quiet  暖かな  あたたかな  Warm
 平らかな  たいらかな  Level; peaceful  柔らかな  やわらかな  Tender; meek  和やかな  なごやかな  Harmonious
 健やかな  すこやか  Vigorous  鮮やかな  あざやかな  Vivid; adroit  穏やかな  おだやかな  Calm; gentle

3: The following words are irregular.

 明らむ  あからむ  To break dawn  味わう  あじわう  To taste; savor
 哀れむ  あわれむ  To pity  慈しむ  いつくしむ  To be affectionate to
 教わる  おそわる  To be taught  脅かす  おどかす・おびやかす  To menace
 関わる  かかわる  To be concerned with  食らう  くらう  To eat/drink (Vulgar)
 異なる  ことなる  To differ  逆らう  さからう  To defy
 捕まる  つかまる  To be caught  群がる  むらがる  To swarm; gather
 和らぐ  やわらぐ  To be mitigated  揺する  ゆする  To shake; jolt
 明るい  あかるい  Bright  危ない  あぶない  Dangerous
 危うい  あやうい  Dangerous  大きい  おおきい  Big
 少ない  すくない  Few  小さい  ちいさい  Small
 冷たい  つめたい  Cold  平たい  ひらたい  Flat
 新たな  あらたな  New  同じ  おなじ  Same
 盛んな  さかんな  Popular; enthusiastic  平らな  たいらな  Flat; smooth

Rule 2

Derivations are included in 送り仮名.

1. Conjugations/derivations of verbs.

 Derivation  Base Word  Derivation  Base Word  Derivation  Base Word
 動かす  動く  照らす  照る  語らう  語る
 浮かぶ  浮く  生れる  生む  押える  押す
 捕える  捕る  勇ましい  勇む  輝かしい  輝く
 喜ばしい  喜ぶ  晴れやかだ  晴れる  及ぼす  及ぶ
 積もる  積む  聞こえる  聞く  頼もしい  頼む
 起こる  起きる  落とす  落ちる  暮らす  暮れる
 冷やす  冷える  当たる  当てる  終わる  終える
 変わる  変える  集まる  集める  定まる  定める
 連なる  連ねる  交わる  交える  混ざる・混じる  混ぜる
 恐ろしい  恐れる  恨めしい  恨む  痛ましい  痛む

2. Words including an adjectival root.

 Derivative  Base Word  Derivative  Base Word  Derivative  Base Word
 重んずる  重い  若やぐ  若い  怪しむ  怪しい
 悲しむ  悲しい  苦しがる  苦しい  確かめる  確かだ
 重たい  重い  憎らしい  憎い  古めかしい  古い
 細かい  細かだ  柔らかい  柔らかだ  清らかだ  清い
 高らかだ  高い  寂しげだ  寂しい  可愛げ  可愛い

3. Things with nouns in them.

 Verb  Base Noun  Verb  Base Noun  Verb  Base Noun  Verb  Base Noun
 汗ばむ  汗  先んずる  先  春めく  春  後ろめたい  後ろ

許容: When there is no worry of being misread, 送り仮名 may be abbreviated as in the following words.

 浮かぶ → 浮ぶ  生まれる → 生れる  押さえる → 押える   捕らえる → 捕える 
 晴れやかだ → 晴やかだ  聞こえる → 聞える  積もる → 積る  起こる → 起る
 落とす → 落す  暮らす → 暮す  当たる → 当る  終わる → 終る
 変わる → 変る      

Note: The following words are deemed to follow Rule 1 instead: 明るい・荒い・悔しい・恋しい. 

Rule 3

Excluding words dealt with via Rule 4, nouns shouldn’t have 送り仮名.

 月  鳥  花  山  男  女  彼  何  草  上  下

Irregularities

1.

 辺り  哀れ  勢い  幾ら  後ろ  傍ら  幸い  幸せ  全て  互い  便り  半ば
 半ば  情け  斜め  独り  誉れ  自ら  幸い          

2. With the counter つ: 一つ, 二つ, 三つ, 四つ, 五つ, 六つ, 七つ, 八つ, 九つ, 幾つ 

Rule 4

Nouns that come from a conjugatable part of speech or those made with the suffixes ~さ, ~み, or ~げ abide by the 送り仮名 spellings of the base word.

 動き  仰せ  恐れ  薫り  香り  曇り  調べ  届け  願い  晴れ  当たり  代わり  向かい   狩り
 泳ぎ  答え  祭り  群れ  憩い  愁い  極み  初め  近く  遠く  暑さ  大きさ  正しさ  確かさ
 明るみ  哀しみ  憎しみ  重み  惜しげ  可愛げ                

 Irregularities

The following words do not have 送り仮名.

 謡  虞  趣  氷  印  頂  帯  畳  卸  煙
 謡  恋  次  隣  富  恥  話  光  舞  折
 謡  組  肥  並  巻  割   掛 

Note: 送り仮名is only lost when their verbal sense is lost. Ex. 話し VS 話, 氷り VS 氷.

許容: In the case when there is no worry of a word being misread, 送り仮名 may be dropped in the following fashion for the words below.

 曇り → 曇  届け → 届  願い → 願  晴れ → 晴  当たり → 当り  代わり → 代り  狩り → 狩
 向かい → 向い  祭り → 祭  群れ → 群  憩い → 憩  答え → 答  問い → 問  

Rule 5

The final mora in adverbs, attributes, and conjugations is usually 送り仮名.

 Adverbs  必ず  更に  少し  既に  全く  再び  最も
 Attributes  来る  去る          
 Conjunctions  及び  且つ  但し        

Irregularities

・With more 送り仮名:

 明くる  大いに  直ちに  並びに  若しくは

・With no 送り仮名: 又

Adverbs/Conjunctions from Verbs/Adjectives or + particles:

 併せて 〔併せる〕  至って 〔至る〕  恐らく 〔恐れる〕  絶えず 〔絶える〕  例えば 〔例える〕
 努めて 〔努める〕  辛うじて 〔辛い〕  少なくとも 〔少ない〕  互いに 〔互い  必ずしも 〔必ず〕

Rule 6

In regards to compound words excluding those dealt with via Rule 7, 送り仮名 is determined by the individual components’ 音訓.

1. Examples of words that conjugate:

 書き抜く  流れ込む  申し込む  打ち合せる  長引く  若返る  裏切る  旅立つ  聞苦しい
 薄暗い  草深い  心細い  待遠しい  軽々しい  女々しい  気軽だ  望み薄だ  

2. Examples of words that do not conjugate:

 石橋  竹馬  山津波  後ろ姿  斜め左  花便り  独り言  卸商  水煙  目印
 物知り  落書き   雨上がり   墓参り   日当たり  夜明かし  先駆け  巣立ち  手渡し  入り江
 合わせ鏡  封切り  教え子  生き物  落ち葉  預かり金  寒空  深情け  愚か者  行き帰り
 乗り降り  抜け駆け  田植え  飛び火  伸び縮み  作り笑い  暮らし向き  売り上げ  取り扱い  乗り換え
 引き換え  歩み寄り  申し込み  移り変わり  長生き   早起き   苦し紛れ   大写し   次々   常々 
 近々  深々  休み休み  行く行く            

許容: When there is no worry of being misread, 送り仮名 can be dropped in the following fashion in the example words.

 書き抜く → 書抜く  申し込む → 申込む  打ち合わせる → 打ち合せる・打合せる
 雨上がり → 雨上り  申し込み → 申込み・申込  向かい合わせる → 向い合せる
 日当たり → 日当り  引き換え → 引換え・引換  立ち居振る舞い → 立ち居振舞い・立ち居振舞・立居振舞
 封切り → 封切  有り難み → 有難み  呼び出し電話 → 呼出し電話・呼出電話
 夜明かし → 夜明し  暮らし向き → 暮し向き  移り変わり → 移り変り
 入り江 → 入江  飛び火 → 飛火  合わせ鏡 → 合せ鏡
 抜け駆け → 抜駆け  待ち遠しい → 待遠しい  売り上げ → 売上げ・売上
 田植え → 田植  預かり金 → 預り金   取り扱い → 取扱い・取扱
 落書き → 落書   聞き苦しい → 聞苦しい  乗り換え → 乗換え・乗換
 待ち遠しさ → 待遠しさ    

Note: In cases like こけら落とし, さび止め, 洗いざらし, 打ちひも whether either the front or end part of the word is written in かな instead of in漢字, you should not abbreviate 送り仮名 out.  

Rule 7

Compounds may or may not have 送り仮名 according to convention.

1.The first in the guidelines with this rule are particular words of domain in which  conventional spelling is recognized.

ア: Names of positions and titles:

 関取  頭取  取締役  事務取扱

イ: Handicraft words that end in 「織」、「染」、「塗」、「彫」、「焼」等.

 《博多》織  《型絵》染  《春慶》塗  《鎌倉》彫  《備前》焼

ウ; Others:

 書留  気付  切手  消印  小包  振替  切符  踏切  手当
 仲買  両替  割引  組合  売値  買値  倉敷料  作付面積  請負
 借入《金》  小売《商》  取扱《所》  取扱《注意》  繰越《金》  乗換《駅》  取次《店》  取引《所》  乗組《員》
 引受《人》  引換《券》  《代金》引換  引受《時刻》  振出《人》  待合室  見積《書》  売上《高》  貸付《金》
 申込《書》                

2. Spellings that are generally conventional.

 奥書  木立  子守  献立  座敷  試合  字引  場合  羽織  葉巻  番組  番付  日付
 水引  物置  物語  役割  屋敷  夕立  割合  合図  合間  植木  置物  織物  貸家
 敷石  立場  建物  並木  巻紙  浮世絵  絵巻物  仕立屋          

Notes:

1. Even when the items in 《》 are different, these guidelines still apply.

2. This list is not exhaustive. Therefore, as far as convention may be recognized, similar words are to be dealt with likewise. When it is hard to determine whether Rule 7 should be applied or not, use Rule 6.  

Specific Exceptions

Words specifically mentioned in the Cabinet guidelines from words within the bounds of the 常用漢字表, which includes not only lists of general characters but general readings with exceptions. 

つく  The reasoning for this is that the verb comes from the use of a suffix, つく.

お巡さん  This spelling is motivated by convention.

える 立退 

Note: Alternatively, 送り仮名 within compound words such as this are often dropped. Thus, 差支える and 立退く. For compounds nouns, all 送り仮名 can be dropped. Ex. 話し合い・話合い・話合.

The following nouns were deemed to not ever have 送り仮名.

 息吹  桟敷  時雨  築山  名残  雪崩  吹雪  迷子  行方



第356課: 四つ仮名

Yotsugana refers to the four Kana ジ, ヂ, ズ, and ヅ. More strictly speaking, however, it refers to these characters' distinctive pronunciations in Kyoto during the Heian Period. In Modern Japanese, though, how these four are pronounced and used is quite different depending on dialect, and modern spelling changes complicate matters. This lesson will try to take a deeper look into the issue so that you have full control over it. 

Curriculum Note: This lesson uses IPA symbols. 

The History of the Pronunciation of ジ, ヂ, ズ, & ヅ

In Kyoto (京都) from the late 12th century to the early 14th century, the unvoiced sounds シ, チ, ス, ツ were pronounced as [ɕi] , [ti] , [su] , and [tu] respectively. ɕ is the Japanese sh sound, which is different in articulation than the English sh, and it has been pronounced as such for essentially all of Japanese's written history. However, the pronunciations of チ and ツ have not been so stable. 

チ and ツ were plosives (sounds that stops all airflow), like the other t-sounds of Japanese, at the time. The voiced equivalents ジ, ヂ, ズ, and ヅ were respectively [ʑi] , [di] , [zu] ,  [du]. Today, the ʑ is the j-sound found inside words. The sounds シ, ジ, ス, and ズ were all fricatives (sounds that force air through a narrow channel). This was audible in Kyoto speech at the time, which is why the distinctions were shown in writing. Had any of these sounds been the same, we would possibly not have some Kana.

Problems with this analysis exist. There are words in which /z/ and /d/ have been interchangeable since the ancient period. This still happens in dialects today. For instance, some speakers of Japanese pronounce 全然 as "denden".

Examples of interchangeability in 四つ仮名 can be found in the word for whale.  クジラ and クヂラ can both be found in the Kanchi'in Ruijumeigishō (観智院本『類聚名義抄』) Dictionary of 1251.  Also during this time, people in the Kanto Region of Japan were mixing [zu] and [du] and [ji] and [di] in many words. It is believed that the spread of making these four sounds into two pairs of homophonous sounds started there. And, in the Tohoku Region, all four became homophonous to dzɯ̈.

From the early 14th century to the late 16th century, チ, ツ, ヂ, and ヅ became affricated (starting as a stop but releasing as a fricative). This made them [ʑi] ,[zu] , [ʥi] , and [ʣu] respectively, causing the differences between them narrower. From then on, people would mix up ジand ヂ and ズ and ヅ. So, although 水 was traditionally spelled as  みづ, みず became more common. Likewise, 本寺 is supposed to be ほんじ, but ほんぢ was also used. By the end of the 16th century in places like Niigata, pronunciations had already shifted to the Modern Tokyo pronunciations. However, in places like Kyushu far removed from where these sound changes were taking place, the traditional distinctions were maintained. 

From the 17th century to the late 19th century, this trend continued to spread. By the end of the 17th century, ヂ /ʥi/ became ジ [ʑi] and ヅ /ʣu/ became ズ [zu] even in Kyoto. However, the current conditional sound changes seen in Modern Tokyo speech started to develop. The affricate pronunciations returned before ん. And, depending on dialect, the affricate pronunciations were used in the word initial position. So, words that traditionally started with [ʑi] were regularly being pronounced with [ʥi] instead.

Certainly by the end of the 17th century, the pronunciations in Tokyo had already become what they are today. So, today ジ = [ʑi], ヂ [ʥi] =, ズ = [zɯ],  and ヅ = [dzɯ]. ɯ represents the Standard Japanese pronunciation of う, and [u], which is like the English u, is found in other dialects of Japanese. This will be reflected in the transcriptions throughout this lesson. So, take note of these small details.  

Regional Note: Much of this history is centered around Kyoto. Remember that 四つ仮名 started to be confused in other parts of Japan far more quickly. These regions eventually influenced Kyoto speech to bring about the changes mentioned in this discussion. Once the current changes had developed in Niigata and Kyoto, they would then be transplanted into what would become 標準語. Later in this lesson, we will see the paths other dialects took.  

Spelling Problems

How these sounds should be written is not easy because of dialectical variation. The first book to standardize 四つ仮名 spellings was the 1695  ( けん ) ( しゅく ) ( りょう ) ( ) ( しゅう . The first four characters when read with their native readings are examples of 四つ仮名. 蜆 = 蜆 (kind of clam), 縮み = ちぢみ (shrinkage), 涼み = すずみ (cooling off), and 鼓 = つづみ (hand drum). It proposed maintaining spelling differences, though only the elite and educated would care. What can be seen in the examples, however, is the still standing rule of when a sound is doubled but voiced, you use the 四つ仮名 variant for that sound. So, although 縮み is pronounced as チジミ, you still write it as チヂミ. Why? Well, that's the big question.

Fine, influential people want to maintain a system they've learned and propagated. However, it turns out that even literary geniuses such as 松尾芭蕉 didn't always spell things to standard. You can find him spelling 出づ, the classical form of 出る, as 出ず.

1. ついに みち ふみたがえて石の巻といふ みなと に出ず。
   We ended up going the wrong way and entered a harbor called Ishinomaki. 

In the Meiji Period, traditional orthography was maintained, but with the turn of the 20th century, 四つ仮名 spelling simplified to じ and ず respectfully, only allowing ぢ and づ used for 連濁  and agreement such as in つづく. However, you can find examples like つまづく (to stumble) being spelled as つまずく, ignoring etymological voicing altogether.

So, should students lose points for writing out 鼻血 as はなじ? I would because it's standardized as such, but does that mean the current system shouldn't be altered? There are two paths that could be taken to resolve the problem.

1. Align spellings to Modern Japanese pronunciation.
2. Revert back to the traditional spellings of 四つ仮名.

Either way, the spellings of many words would be changed, but they would be changed to spellings that have been used in the past and in some cases are still being used. Why should we care, though? Only those that like script reform and debates over orthography would probably care, but it's important to know as 四つ仮名 allows us to study Japanese pronunciation in more detail. 

Modern Handling of 四つ仮名

Though the exact pronunciation of 四つ仮名 fluctuates among Tokyo speakers, updates to the government's standard on this have been made as recently as 1986. Though the government's suggestions have no legal bearing on people, traditional distinctions such as 葛 (vine) being くず and 屑 (trash) being くづ have become abandoned. The same goes for 富士 (Fuji) and 藤 (wisteria), which were ふじ and ふぢ respectively.

Even so, we still have はなぢ, おこづかい (allowance), きづく (to notice), and つづく as exceptions, though the reason for why they are spelled that way is systematic and based on etymology. At one point, you could write a doubled voiced sound with ゞ (this character is an example of an 踊り字), but sadly this easy fix to the problem has not been used frequently since the end of the war. You still see it in the company name いすゞ, however. This spelling also happens to be easily accessible when typing. 

So, what about cases such as つまづく・つまずく? つまづく is a clear combination of 爪 (nail) and the suffix -付く, but in the minds of speakers, the compound origin of this phrase has been lost to the point that both spellings are common. This may seem like a wishy-washy standard, but it is exactly how people decide whether both spellings are allowed for etymologically compound words in which ぢ and づ are produced.

However, what has caused great debate is the blatant ignoring of obvious compounding and using じ and ず anyway. The most egregious example is spelling the suffix ~中 as じゅう instead of ぢゅう. Another bad example is 稲妻 (lightning), clearly made of いな+ づま, being spelled as いなずま. 


 In Names

As you can imagine, if names can be read in so many different ways and spelled in so many different ways in 漢字, 四つ仮名 in names is rather random. For example, 千津子 is typically read as ちづこ, but some people read it as ちずこ. There isn't any pronunciation difference, and both readings can be used to type the name. 


 Changing the Spellings of the Readings of 漢字

Though to a degree, this is what's going on above, the most fundamental changes to Japanese script in regards to 四つ仮名 has been the fundamental altering of spellings to じ and ず that were historically  ぢ or づ since being acquired from Chinese. For instance, 地 had the readings チ and ヂ, being acquired at different times. So, words like 地震 came into Japanese as ヂシン, not ジシン. Furthermore, the word is still pronounced as ヂシン. See the problem?  The reason for changing the spelling is that the reading ヂ came in as such  and was not a change due to 連濁.


 Reality and the Ignoring of Dialectical Pronunciations

Of course, 地 is not the only example. 頭痛 should be づつう and 直に should be ぢきに, but that is just not how they're spelled anymore. This is despite the fact that there are still areas of Japan where 四つ仮名 distinctions are maintained. Even when writing out the dialects of these regions, it is not policy to distinguish them correctly in writing in favor of the standardized spellings.


Picture Notes:
1. This is a distribution based on the speech of older speakers. Many regions marked as other colors have been progressively changing to 二つ仮名弁. It is to note, though, that 一つ仮名弁 still hold strong to various degrees in Tohoku and Izumo. Izumo is the other part of green in the Chuugoku Region (中国地方) to the west of the Kinki Region (近畿地方).
 
2.The map does a poor job giving clarity to Okinawa, where several other Japanese languages have developed over the centuries. They should not be confused with this phenomenon as other major sound inventory changes have occurred in them, and as you can expect, these changes are not the same. It's just as bad to assume that those sound changes would be the same as thinking the sound changes in English and German have been the same over time. 

 
Example Words
 
A lot has been said about what 四つ仮名. You've seen examples of words that have had their spellings changed and why, and you should have a sense as to why some things may have alternative spellings. The chart below will try to compile this information together with many examples so that the facts discussed so far become more concrete.
 
 Word  Spell Change?  Original  New  Word   Spell Change?   Original   New
 泉  Yes  いづみ  いずみ  案じる  No  案じる  案じる
 味  Yes  あぢ  あじ  言伝て  No  ことづて  ことづて
 雫  Yes  しづく  しずく  埋める  Yes  うづめる  うずめる
 傷  No  きず  きず  築く  Yes  きづく  きずく
 それじゃ  Yes  それぢゃ  それじゃ  ずつ  Yes  づつ  ずつ
 ネズミ  No  ネズミ  ネズミ  恥  Yes  はぢ  はじ
 短い  No  みじかい  みじかい  譲る  Yes  ゆづる  ゆずる
 水  Yes  みづ  みず  羊  No  ひつじ  ひつじ
 虹  No  にじ  にじ  つづら  No  つづら  つづら*
 沈む  Yes  しづむ  しずむ  頷く  Yes/No  うなづく  うなづく・うなずく
 
*: つづら (wig) may be shortened to づら, making it one of the only examples where づ is allowed at the beginning of a word. Another similar example is 痔 (hemorrhoids), which although is historically and currently spelled as じ, and can be written as ぢ in emphatic instances. 

 
Reverting Back?
 
Because [ʑi] and [ʥi] are allophones (variants using in specific environments) of the same sound and [zɯ]  and [dzɯ] are allophones of the same sound in Standard Japanese, these speakers still technically could re-institute previous pronunciations of words to go back to how 四つ仮名 was used. In singing, there is a tendency to affricate ぢ and づ, but aside from this, most speakers are generally unaware that there are seemingly two set of pronunciations in 四つ仮名: the fricative and the affricate pronunciations.
 
Most people will think 頭痛 as ずつう despite the fact that they probably pronounce it as づつう. People don't tend to notice these things if they aren't contrasting elements. Because these pronunciations no longer contrast words anymore, it's hard for speakers to even notice the definition, much less intentionally re-institute them into words they were once in.
 
The idea is nice at its surface, but the problem is that those that support re-instituting proper distinctions in pronunciation in 四つ仮名 typically don't know much about linguistics. Nor do they typically accurate describe the actually phonological processes going on. Many are unaware that words used to begin with ヂ and ヅ, and they sounded differently than words that begin with  ジ and ズ.
 
It's also not the case that there aren't any examples of ジ and ズ becoming  ヂ and ヅ. After all, we have seen already all words beginning in ジ and ズ be pronounced initially with ヂ and ヅ instead in Standard Japanese. And, again, in the day when spelling wasn't standardized, in areas that 四つ仮名 were being heavily confused with each other, you could see words like 鯨 spelled as  くじら or くぢら. This suggests not just interchangeability in writing but interchangeability in pronunciation.

 
Typing Issues 
 
Another problem is typing. To type ぢ and づ, you usually type di and du respectively. When Japanese speakers go from Romaji to Japanese input, they often mess up just like foreigners and type in ji and zu respectively, only to find out that the spelling doesn't show up. As time goes on, however, future IME systems may simply 四つ仮名 input to go along with any potential further simplification of them.  

四つ仮名 in Dialects

As has been discussed thus far, 四つ仮名 have been and continue to be pronounced differently in different dialects. As the picture above demonstrates, a dialect could fall under one of four categories in respect to 四つ仮名. 

一つ仮名弁: Dialects in which じ = ぢ=ず=づ
二つ仮名弁: Dialects in which じ = ぢ≠ ず=づ
三つ仮名弁: Dialects in which じ = ぢ≠ ず≠ づ
四つ仮名弁: Dialects in which じ ≠ ぢ ≠ ず ≠ づ

標準語 is a 二つ仮名弁, just in case you didn't know. However, as we've seen, there are certain environments that allow for all four distinct pronunciations to be used. This categorization tells not how exactly they are pronounced but how they are used contrastively. In 四つ仮名弁, these sounds are all used to contrast words. So, the main focus in this section will be to study how exactly 四つ仮名 are pronounced in various dialects of Japanese.


 一つ仮名弁

 In 一つ仮名弁, there are two ways of saying them all based on specific dialect. If you are a speaker of Kita-ou'u Dialect (far north in Tohoku) or Unpaku Dialect (in Izumo), you pronounce them all as [ʣï]. The vowel is in between い and う as the two vowels merged in this region. If you are a speaker of Minami-ou'u Dialect, you pronounce them all as [ʣɯ̈]. Because of this, these dialects have been given the stereotypical name ズーズー弁. 


 四つ仮名弁

The completely opposite of 一つ仮名弁 are 四つ仮名弁. However, even though a dialect may have all four as separate sounds, these separate sounds are not uniformly the same throughout these dialects. Many parts of Kyushu, Kouchi Prefecture (高知県), the south of Nara Prefecture (奈良県南部), and Narada in Yamanashi Prefecture (山梨県奈良田) are all areas with 四つ仮名弁.

In 高知県, dialects may have the following pronunciations: ジ = [ʑi], ズ = [zu], ヂ = [di] ~ [dzi], ヅ= [du] ~ [dzu]. In Kagoshima Dialect (鹿児島弁),  ジ =[ʑi], ズ = [zu], ヂ = [ʥi], and ヅ = [ʣu].


 The Oddity of Narada Dialect in Yamanashi Prefecture

Narada is strength with its unique pronunciations: ジ = [ði], ズ = [ðu/dzu/zu], ヂ = [ɖʐi], ヅ = [ɖu/du]. It is also important to note that ツ = [tu] in this dialect. The ð is in English words like "that". These speakers would at least have less difficulty in one sound in English than other Japanese speakers. However, these speakers are dwindling very quickly as many are converting their speech to 標準語 standards.

Narata Dialect is first transitioning into a 三つ仮名弁  with most speakers not distinguishing じ and ぢ, though they may still not be exactly like in Standard Japanese. For the most part,  the pronunciation reflects traditional orthography, but there are some words in Narada Dialect in which the sounds have flipped. So, for instance 葛 = 屑 as くず. Although 渦 was うづ, it is rendered as うず, which means it is either pronounced as [uzu], [udzu], or [uðu].  

Research Note: To hear sound files of Narada Dialect for this information, see http://home.hiroshima-u.ac.jp/ikonishi/narada/narada_tu&du.html


 三つ仮名弁

三つ仮名弁 are not that common, but some speakers may naturally pronounce 四つ仮名 in this way at times regardless of dialect. Anyway, in these dialects such as 大分弁, ジ = ヂ, butズ doesn't sound like ヅ, which are [zu] and [dzu] respectively. 


 二つ仮名弁

As was said before, there is variation even among 二つ仮名弁. In 京都弁 where the allophonous (varying in specific environments) pronunciation rules developed, most speakers now lightly affricate all these sounds except AFTER ん. In recent years due to the contact of peoples from different parts of the country, and because script reform has gotten rid of the need to notice any traditional differences in pronunciation, most dialects are becoming 二つ仮名弁. 

Transcription Note: Symbols in IPA (International Phonetic Alphabet) are used in this lesson to make transcription as accurate and easy as possible. To look up glyphs that you don't understand, simply copy and paste the problematic ones into Wikipedia where you can find audio tapes for them.


第357課: 変体仮名

      In Classical Japanese works there are many かな that may seem very odd to the novice beginner. These かな are called 変体仮名. No, not へんたい as in 変態 but as in 変体.

    変体仮名 are simply historical variants of the now standard ひらがな today. So, each mora had several possible ひらがな. The problem was not so in カタカナ as variants were made obsolete early in its development. 変体仮名 came from 万葉仮名, and many 変体仮名 originated from different 漢字. 

変体仮名

変体仮名 were made obsolete in 1900 as one of the final reforms of the Meiji Reformation ( 明治維新). However, they still play a role in calligraphy, billboards, and authentic copies or replications of Classical works. 変体仮名 is also referred to as 異体仮名, making it clear that they can still be viewed as variants used at the author's will. It must be known, though, that not a lot of people know how to read them. 

    変体仮名  have played a very important role in writing ever since conception. People of the arts could liberally chose to their heart's desire what かな they wished to use, a continuation of the privilege people had when Japanese was still written in 万葉仮名.

     変体仮名 are for the most part somewhat evolved forms of 万葉仮名 cursive style characters, from which other standard ひらがな derive from as well. As many 漢字 share the same 音読み, 変体仮名 inevitable came from a lot of characters, and many were made to represent the same sound.

     変体仮名 are still seldom used. Many soba restaurant signs remind people of the character's glory-days and martial art centers and centers devoted to the preservation of historical events display them. Expect to see these characters by just going to a battlefield marker.

    変体仮名 are not able to be viewed on computers. However, we will study by looking at the characters from this table from http://www10.plala.or.jp/koin/koinhentaigana.html 

読み あ・を



字母
う・は
                     
き・こ
   
ぎ・ご
                   
         
け・と
  計・斗  
げ・ど
               
こ・ね こ・き
           
ご・ぎ
   
                   
     
          寿 寿
               
         
       
         
             
           
       
         
               
と・け
  斗・計      
ど・げ
       
ね・こ
は・う
           
                     
                     
       
                   
               
       
                   
           
               
               
ま・め
む・も・ん む・も・ん む・も・ん
め・ま も・む・ん
も・む・ん も・む・ん や・よ
よ・や








を・あ ・む・も ん・む・も ん・む・も    
   

    Try learning 5 a day once you reach IMABI IV and you will be fine. Also, if you are interested in learning the cursive form of characters, this will also greatly lessen the stress of learning another writing system.

Origins of 変体仮名

     One thing that is important to know and that can greatly help you memorize 変体仮名 is to recognize where they originated. The following chart shows where all かな have derived from. The abbreviations 平, 片, and 変 will stand for ひらがな, カタカナ, and 変体仮名 respectively. 

 

A

I

U

E

O

 

 安

 阿

 悪 愛安 阿

 以

 伊

 意 移 以 伊

 異

 宇

 有 雲 宇 右

 憂 鵜 羽

 衣

 江

 要 盈

 衣 得

 縁

 

 於

 於

K

 加

 可 加 嘉 閑

 賀 我 家 香

 佳

 幾

 起 幾 喜 支

 木 貴 期 記

 季

 季季

 久

 具 久 九 求

 供 倶

 計

 介

 希 斗

 計 介 遣 気

 稀

 己

 古 故 許 胡

 子 興 期

S

 左

 散

 左 佐 散 斜

 乍 砂 狭 差

 之

 志 之 新 四

 斯 事 師

 寸

 須

 春 須 寿 数

 受

 世

 勢 世

 聲 瀬

 曽

 楚 曽 所 処

 蘇

T

 太

 多

 多 堂 田 當

 知

 千

 知 千 遅 地  馳 智

 川

 徒 川 津 都

 頭

 天

 天 亭

 帝 伝

 轉 低

 弖

 止

 登 東 度 砥

 土 斗

N

 奈 那 難 名

 南 菜

 仁

 丹 仁 爾 尼

 而 耳 児

 奴

 怒 努 駑

 

 禰

 禰 年

 根 熱

 音 寝

 念 子

 乃

 能 野 乃 濃

 迺 農

H

 波

 八

 者 葉 盤 八

 波 婆 半 芳

 羽

 比

 飛 悲 比 日

 非 妣

 不

 婦 布 不

 部

 遍 弊

 辺 倍

 幣 変

 保

 保 本 報 奉

 穂

M

 末

 満 万 末 麻

 馬 真 間

 美

 三

 美 見 三 微

 身

 武

 牟

 無 舞 牟 无

 女

 免 面

 馬

 毛

 毛 茂 母 裳

 无

 

Y

 也

 屋 夜 耶 也

 哉

-

 以

-

 由

 由 遊 游

-

 衣

-

 與

 与 余 代 夜

 

R

 羅

 羅 良

 利

 里 利 李 理

 梨

 留

 

 流

 留 累 流 類

 礼

 連 礼

 麗

 呂

 露 呂 路 侶

 楼 婁

W

 和

 王 和 倭

 為

 井

 井 為 遺 委

-

 宇

-

 恵

 衛 恵

 

 遠

 乎

 越 遠 乎 緒



第358課: 名乗り

Reading names is extremely difficult. Personal names, surnames, and place names are all very difficult for learners of Japanese and Japanese natives to know how to read properly. Though a lifetime of experience in the language makes the process easier, there is not a foolproof way of being 100% certain 100% of the time. Despite this difficulty, this lesson will attempt to explain various aspects you can find in the readings of names.  

Names, though, are truly important to people. The famous author known by the name of 森鷗外 upon his death gave the following statement in his will: 余ハ石見人森林太郎トシテ死セント欲ス。墓ハ森林太郎ノ外一字モホルベカラズ (I wish to die as Iwamijin Mori Rintarou. Do not carve any other letters other than Mori Rintarou on my grave. He was a native of Iwami, a part of present day Chiba Prefecture. His given name was 森林太郎, and he wished to die that way. In Japanese culture a lot of thought is put into a name. Think of this as you learn more about names. 

人名用漢字

Though there have been many characters used in name in both Chinese and Japanese for a very long time, in attempts to practically narrow down the number of characters and readings that could be used in names, a list of characters not already in the list of general use characters was created by National Language Committee in 1951. Although it has been updated several times since, it is enforced by the Ministry of Justice.

People can only have the 2136 常用漢字, 861 人名用漢字, and かな in their names. Any character outside of this is considered as a 表外字. Additions to the list are being considered in accordance to requests from parents. The increase of name characters is being done in attempts to increase the list of general use characters. In fact, in 2010 121 characters from the 人名用漢字表 were put into the 常用漢字表. This trend will probably continue as the use of 漢字 is re-surging due to typing technology and people's cultural pride in the use of 漢字 becomes ever stronger.

 丑  丞  乃  之  乎  也  云  亘・亙  些  亦
 亥  亨  亮  仔  伊  伍  伽  佃  佑  伶
 侃  侑  俄  俠  俣  俐  倭  俱  倦  倖
 偲  傭  儲  允  兎  兜  其  冴  凌  凜・凛
 凧  凪  凰  凱  函  劉  劫  勁  勺  勿
 匁  匡  廿  卜  卯  卿  厨  厩  叉  叡
 叢  叶  只  吾  吞  吻  哉  哨  啄  哩
 喬  喧  喰  喋  嘩  嘉  嘗  噌  噂  圃
 圭  坐  尭・堯  坦  埴  堰  堺  堵  塙  壕
 壬
 夷  奄  奎  套  娃  姪  姥  娩  嬉
 孟  宏  宋  宕  宥  寅  寓  寵  尖  尤
 屑  峨  峻  崚  嵯  嵩  嶺  巌・巖  已  巳
 巴  巷  巽  帖  幌  幡  庄  庇  庚  庵
 廟  廻  弘  弛  彗  彦  彪  彬  徠  忽
 怜  恢  恰  恕  悌  惟  惚  悉  惇  惹
 惺  惣  慧  憐  戊  或  戟  托  按  挺
 挽  掬  捲  捷  捺  捧  掠  揃  摑  摺
 撒  撰  撞  播  撫  擢  孜  敦  斐  斡
 斧  斯  於  旭  昂  昊  昏  昌  昴  晏
 晃・晄  晒  晋  晟  晦  晨  智  暉  暢  曙
 曝  曳  朋  朔  杏  杖  杜  李  杭  杵
 杷  枇  柑  柴  柘  柊  柏  柾  柚  桧・檜
 栞  桔  桂  栖  桐  栗  梧  梓  梢  梛
 梯  桶  梶  椛  梁  棲  椋  椀  楯  楚
 楕  椿  楠  楓  椰  楢  楊  榎  樺  榊
 榛  槙・槇  槍  槌  樫  槻  樟  樋  橘  樽
 橙  檎  檀  櫂  櫛  櫓  欣  欽  歎  此
 殆   毅  毘  毬  汀  汝  汐  汲  沌  沓
 沫  洸  洲  洵  洛  浩  浬  淵  淳 渚・渚
 淀  淋  渥  湘  湊  湛  溢  滉  溜  漱
 漕  漣  澪  濡  瀕  灘  灸  灼  烏  焰
 焚  煌  煤  煉  熙  燕  燎  燦  燭  燿
 爾  牒  牟  牡  牽  犀  狼  猪・猪  獅  玖
 珂  珈  珊  珀  玲  琢・琢  琉  瑛  琥  琶
 琵  琳  瑚  瑞  瑶  瑳  瓜  瓢  甥  甫
 畠  畢  疋  疏  皐  皓  眸  瞥  矩  砦
 砥  砧  硯  碓  碗  碩  碧  磐  磯  祇
 祢・禰  祐・祐  祷・禱  禄・祿  禎・禎  禽  禾  秦   秤  稀
 稔  稟  稜  穣・穰   穹  穿  窄  窪  窺  竣
 竪  竺  竿  笈  笹  笙  笠  筈  筑  箕
 箔  篇  篠  簞  簾  籾  粥  粟  糊  紘
 紗  紐  絃  紬  絆  絢  綺  綜  綴  緋
 綾  綸  縞  徽   繫  繡  纂  纏  羚  翔
 翠  耀  而  耶  耽  聡  肇  肋  肴  胤
 胡  脩  腔  脹  膏  臥  舜  舵  芥  芹
 芭  芙  芦  苑  茄  苔  苺  茅  茉  茸
 茜  莞  荻  莫  莉  菅  菫  菖  萄  菩
 萌・萠  萊  菱  葦  葵  萱  葺  萩  董  葡
 蓑  蒔  蒐  蒼  蒲  蒙  蓉  蓮  蔭  蔣
 蔦  蓬  蔓  蕎  蕨  蕉  蕃  蕪  薙  蕾
 蕗  藁  薩  蘇  蘭  蝦  蝶  螺  蟬  蟹
 蠟  衿  袈  袴  裡  裟  裳  襖  訊  訣
 註  詢  詫  誼  諏  諄  諒  謂  諺  讃
 豹  貰  賑  赳  跨  蹄  蹟  輔  輯  輿
 轟  辰  辻  迂  迄  辿  迪  迦  這   逞
 逗  逢  遥・遙  遁  遼  邑  祁  郁  鄭  酉
 醇  醐  醍  醬  釉  釘  釧  銑  鋒  鋸
 錘  錐  錆  錫  鍬  鎧  閃  閏  閤  阿
 陀  隈  隼  雀  雁  雛  雫  霞  靖  鞄
 鞍  鞘  鞠  鞭  頁  頌  頗  顚  颯  饗
 馨  馴  馳  駕  駿  驍  魁  魯  鮎  鯉
 鯛  鰯  鱒  鱗  鳩  鳶  鳳  鴨  鴻  鵜
 鵬  鷗  鷲  鷺  鷹  麒  麟  麿  黎  黛
 鼎                  

The following 常用漢字 have 旧字体 variants that are allowed in names.

 亞 (亜)  惡(悪)  爲(為)  逸(逸)  榮(栄)    衞(衛)  謁(謁)  圓(円)   緣(縁)  薗(園)   應(応)
 櫻(桜)  奧(奥)  橫(横)  溫(温)  價(価)  禍(禍)  悔(悔)  海(海)  壞(壊)  懷(懐)  樂(楽)
  渴(渇)  卷(巻)  陷(陥)  寬(寛)  漢(漢)  氣(気)
 祈(祈)  器(器)  僞(偽)  戲(戯)  虛(虚)
  峽(峡)  狹(狭)  響(響)  曉(暁)  勤(勤)  謹(謹)  駈(駆)  勳(勲)  薰(薫)  惠(恵)  揭(掲)
 鷄(鶏)  藝(芸)  擊(撃)  縣(県)  儉(倹)  劍(剣)  險(険)  圈(圏)  檢(検)  顯(顕)  驗(験)
 嚴(厳)  廣(広)  恆(恒)  黃(黄)  國(国)  黑(黒)  穀(穀)  碎(砕)  雜(雑)  祉(祉)  視(視)
 兒(児)  濕(湿)  實(実)  社(社)  者(者)  煮(煮)  壽(寿)  收(収)  臭(臭)  從(従)  澁(渋)
 獸(獣)  縱(縦)  祝(祝)  暑(暑)  署(署)  緖(緒)  諸(諸)  敍(叙)  將(将)   祥(祥)  涉(渉)
 燒(焼)  奬(奨)  條(条)  狀(状)  乘(乗)  淨(浄)  剩(剰)  疊(畳)  孃(嬢)  讓(譲)  釀(醸)
 神(神)  眞(真)  寢(寝)  愼(慎)   盡(尽)  粹(粋)  醉(酔)  穗(穂)  瀨(瀬)  齊(斉)   靜(静)
 攝(摂)  節(節)  專(専)  戰(戦)  纖(繊)   禪(禅)  祖(祖)  壯(壮)  爭(争)  莊(荘)  搜(捜)
 巢(巣)  曾(曽)  裝(装)  僧(僧)  層(層)   瘦(痩)  騷(騒)  增(増)  憎(憎)   藏(蔵)  贈(贈)
 臟(臓)  卽(即)  帶(帯)  滯(滞)  瀧(滝)  單(単)  嘆(嘆)  團(団)  彈(弾)  晝(昼)  鑄(鋳)
 著(著)  廳(庁)  徵(徴)  聽(聴)  懲(懲)   鎭(鎮)   轉(転)   傳(伝)   都(都)   嶋(島)   燈(灯) 
 盜(盗)   稻(稲)   德(徳)   突(突)   難(難)   拜(拝)   盃(杯)   賣(売)   梅(梅)   髮(髪)   拔(抜) 
 繁(繁)   晚(晩)   卑(卑)   祕(秘)   碑(碑)   賓(賓)   敏(敏)   冨(富)   侮(侮)   福(福)   拂(払) 
 佛(仏)   勉(勉)   步(歩)   峯(峰)   墨(墨)   飜(翻)   每(毎)   萬(万)   默(黙)   埜(野)   彌(弥) 
 藥(薬)   與(与)   搖(揺)   樣(様)   謠(謡)   來(来)   賴(頼)   覽(覧)   欄(欄)    龍(竜)   虜(虜)
 凉(涼)   綠(緑)   淚(涙)   壘(塁)   類(類)   禮(礼)          

名乗り

The word 名乗り has several definitions, but before we hone in on the one to be the focus of this lesson, we'll begin by looking at its definitions from the fifth edition of the 広辞苑.

な-のり【名告・名乗】
①自分の名・素性などを告げること。また、その名。特に武士が戦場でおこなうもの。
To tell your name/lineage. Or, that name. Particularly what warriors do on the battlefield. 
②売物の名を呼びあるくこと。
To walk around calling out one's things to sell.
③公家および武家の男子が、元服後に通称以外に加えた実名。通称藤吉郎に対して秀吉と名乗る類。
Real name aside from one's alias after attaining manhood for boys of the Imperial Court and military families. The sort seen with labeling oneself as Hideyoshi versus the alias Fujikichirou.
漢字の、通常の読みとは別に、特に名前に用いる訓。
Kun readings used particularly in names aside from the normal readings of a Kanji.
⑤能や狂言の構成部分の一。登場人物が自己の身分や、そこに来た趣旨などを述べるせりふ。
A compositional part of Noh and Kyogen. Speech made by characters to tell one's status and intentions on coming. 

名乗り in this lesson refers to meaning 4, which refers to special 訓読み in personal names and surnames. These readings are those that have been historically attributed to names and are well established readings that people have chosen for names for a long time.

Many names in Japanese, though, are made with just standard readings of characters. In fact, some of the most common surnames are as such.

 鈴木  すずき  山田  やまだ  山本  やまもと  山口  やまぐち  川端  かわばた
 夏目  なつめ  本田  ほんだ  澤田  さわだ  川崎  かわさき  杉本  すぎもと
 加納  かのう  竹中  たけなか  石井  いしい  田口  たぐち  坂本  さかもと
 大坪  おおつぼ  田村  たむら  片山  かたやま  辻本  つじもと  石田  いしだ
 清水  しみず  細野  ほその  沼田  ぬまた  根本  ねもと  野呂  のろ

Spelling Note: Old characters such as 澤 instead of 沢 is common in names.  

Reading Note: 清水, although an irregular reading, also happens to be a common word spelled this way. So, しみず will be treated as a standard reading.  

Special readings can be used with other special readings or regular readings. There is no rule that a 名乗り reading must be used with another 名乗り reading. In fact, there is no standardization on the use of 名乗り. 名乗り will be in bold in the following examples. 

 飯田  いいだ (Surname)  新潟  にいがた (Place name)  圭輔  けいすけ (Personal name)
 希  のぞみ (Personal name)  秀吉  ひでよし (Personal name)  英雄  ひでお (Personal name)

There is some concern as to how far one can use 名乗り and what should even be considered 名乗り. In Japan parents have complete liberty in how they wish for to read their child's name. However, the overwhelming majority of Japanese believe that parents should only give names to their children that the intended reading can be figured out. Attributing a reading that is not a standard reading or a 名乗り recognized in dictionaries (and most importantly the public) is not popular.


 Names of Famous Literary Figures

 ペンネーム  読み  本名  ペンネーム  読み  本名
 二葉亭四迷  ふたばてい しめい  長谷川辰之助  森鷗外  もり おうがい  森林太郎
 与謝野昌子  よさの しょうこ  与謝野志よう  永井荷風  ながい かふう  永井壮吉
 正宗白鳥  まさむね はくちょう  正宗忠夫  高浜虚子  たかはま きょし  高濱清
 武者小路実篤  むしゃのこうじ さねあつ  々  平塚らいてう  ひらつか らいちょう  奥村明
 高村光太郎  たかむら こうたろう  高村光太郎  菊池寛  きくち かん  菊池寛
 室生犀星  むろう さいせい  室生照道  佐藤湖鳴  さとう ちょうめい  佐藤春夫
 金子光晴  かねこ みつはる  金子安和  尾崎士郎  おざき しろう  々
 川端康成  かわばた やすなり  々  草野心平  くさの しんぺい  々
 井上靖  いのうえ やすし  々  唐十郎  から じゅうろう  大鶴義英
 樋口一葉  ひぐち いちよう  樋口夏子  国木田独歩  くにきだ どっぽ  国木田哲夫
 夏目漱石  なつめ そうせき  夏目金之助  田山花袋  たやま かたい  田山録弥
 長谷川時雨  はせがわ しぐれ  長谷川ヤス  北原白秋  きたはら はくしゅう  北原隆吉
 志賀直哉  しが なおや  々  斉藤茂吉  さいとう もきち  々
 宇野浩二  うの こうじ  宇野格次郎  芥川龍之介 あくたがわりゅうのすけ  々
 宇野千代  うの ちよ  々  山本周五郎  やまもと しゅうごろう  清水三十六
 佐多稲子  さた いねこ  佐多イネ  種田山頭火  たねだ さんとうか  種田正一
 太宰治  だざい おさむ  津島修治  島崎藤村  しまざき とうそん  島崎春樹
 三島由紀夫  みしま ゆきお  平岡公威  大田翔子  おおだ しょうこ  々
 吉行淳之介  よしゆき じゅんのすけ  々  寺山修司  てらやま しゅうじ  々
 泉鏡花  いずみ きょうか  泉鏡太郎  石川啄木  いしかわ たくぼく  石川一
 野上弥生  のがみ やえこ  野上ヤヱ  中里介山  なかざと かいざん  中里弥之介
 宮本百合子  みやもと ゆりこ  宮本ユリ  萩原朔太郎  はぎわら さくたろう  々
 山本有三  やまもと ゆうぞう  山本勇造  横光利一  よこみつ りいち  横光利一
 梶井基次郎  かじい もとじろう  々  小林多喜二  こばやし たきじ  々
 堀辰雄  ほり たつお  々  坂口安吾  さかぐち あんご  坂口炳五
 中原中也  なかはら ちゅうや  々  壺井栄  つぼい さかえ  々
 火野葦平  ひの あしへい  玉井勝則  椎名麟三  しいな りんぞう  大坪昇
 大岡昇平  おおおか しょうへい  々  島尾敏雄  しまお としお  々
 柳田國男  やなぎた くにお  々  三木露風  みき ろふう  三木操
 有島武郎  ありしま たけお  々  葛西善蔵  かさい ぜんぞう  々
 広津和郎  ひろつ かずろう  々  原民喜  はら たみき  々

Reading Notes:

1. 志よう = しょう
2. 壮吉 = そうきち
3. 奥村明 = おくむら はる
4. 高村’s real name is read as たかむら みつたろう.
5. 菊池’s real name is read as きくち ひろし.
6. 清水三十六 is read as しみず さとむ.
7. 君威 = きみたけ
8. 石川一 = いしかわ はじめ.
9. 横光利一’s real name is read as よこみつ としかず.
10. 三木操 = みき みさお. 

Even though you may never read even one novel of all of these literary figures, at least knowing how to correctly read their names will impress natives as you will inevitably encounter their names being invoked for whatever reason. 


 Using Rare 名乗り

 Using rare 名乗り that still appear in dictionaries may cause problems as well. Consider the character 和, which has the 名乗り reading とし. Even so, it is usually read as わ or かず in names. If you were to name your male child the common name さとし but spell it as 佐和, people may understandably mistakenly read it as the common female name read as さわ, which is normally spelled that way.

This is not to say that ambiguous reading of names isn't a problem, which is why it's so difficult to read the names of people you personally don't know correctly for the first time. Gender ambiguity in names has actually been used by people who change the reading of their name when they get a gender change, and people can also choose to leave the reading of their name ambiguous to have slightly more privacy in their identity.


きらきらネーム 

However, there are names called きらきらネーム that are really flashy names with cute (and some would say bizarre readings). For instance, people have named children 光宙 with the reading ぴかちゅう. On this end of the spectrum, how to read the name is not necessarily that difficult. Yet, societal consequences for names such as this is highly debated. These names may also be called DQNネーム.

 天響(てぃな)  緑輝(さふぁいあ)  火星(まあず)  姫凛(ぷりん)  七音(どれみ)  月(あかり)
 希星(きらら)  陽(ぴん)  神生理(かおり)  星影夢(ぽえむ)  美々魅(みみみ)  姫奈(ぴいな)
 園風(ぞふぃ)  男(あだむ)  束生夏(ばなな)  晴日(はるひ)  精飛愛(せぴあ)  宝物(おうじ)

止め字

Choosing what the final letter of a name is--止め字--is an important decision, and the decision is highly based on what the previous sound. A lot of parents decide the final character before thinking about the rest of the name they want to give to their child. 


 止め字 for Girl Names

 ア  亜, 明, 愛, 阿, 有, 綾, 安  星愛
 イ  衣, 依, 伊, 意  真衣, 優衣
 エ  絵, 恵, 江, 慧, 枝, 瑛, 映,
 依, 永, 重, 笑, 詠, 栄, 英
 千恵, 澄江, 沙恵, 沙絵, 真理江,
 真梨恵, 春恵
 オ  央, 生, 於, 緒, 桜, 欧  伽緒
 オリ  織  香織, 沙織, 詩織
 カ  花, 華, 香, 果, 歌, 夏, 加,
 馨, 霞, 佳, 鹿, 伽, 茄, 賀,
 可, 嘉, 樺
 涼香, 穂乃果, 美香, 実夏, 智香, 千香, 麗華,
 玲花, 怜香, 玲果, 晴香, 陽香, 舞香, 麻衣香,
 澄香, 純美花
 キ  樹, 貴, 輝, 希, 紀, 季, 規,
 岐, 記, 起, 姫, 木, 祈, 芸,
 黄, 来, 稀, 葵, 綺, 嬉, 伎
 沙樹, 早希, 真貴, 美樹, 玉樹
 コ  子, 鼓, 湖, 胡, 古, 虹, 瑚  菜々子, 萌子
 サ  沙, 紗, 砂, 左, 茶,  彩, 咲, 早, 冴, 採,
 嵯, 裟, 瑳
 美沙, 千紗, 理沙, 莉紗, 茉莉沙
 ジ  路  
 ス  朱, 寿, 須  
 スミ・ズミ  澄, 純  伽純
 セ  瀬, 勢, 世, 星、 静  
 チ  千, 地, 知, 智, 小, 稚  
 ツ・ヅ  津, 都, 鶴、 通  
 ツキ・ヅキ  月  
 ト  都, 渡, 登, 富, 音  
 ナ  那, 奈, 菜, 南, 名, 七   鈴菜, 鈴奈, 陽菜, 綾奈, 彩那, 絢奈, 佑奈,
 夕菜, 優那, 沙奈, 紘奈, 宏奈, 茉奈, 玲菜, 陽菜
 ナミ  浪, 波   
 ネ  音, 根, 嶺  朱音, 鈴音, 桃音 
 ノ  乃, 野, 農, 能, 濃  志乃, 知野 
 ハ  葉, 羽, 波  
 ヒ  日, 陽, 斐  
 ブ  舞  
 ホ  穂, 保, 帆, 歩, 朋  奈保, 菜穂, 真帆, 夏帆
 マ  麻, 摩, 磨, 万, 茉, 真, 舞, 雅, 満  
 ミ  美, 未, 巳, 見, 実, 海, 満, 水, 光, 身、 味, 泉  愛美, 留美, 晴見, 裕未, 聡美
 メ  女, 芽  
 モ  萌, 望  
 ヤ  耶, 矢, 弥, 夜, 也, 野, 椰  
 ユ  由, 優, 悠, 友, 愉, 佑, 侑, 有  
 ユキ  雪, 幸  
 ヨ  世, 夜, 容, 代, 葉, 与, 予, 依, 陽  小夜, 沙世
 ラ  良, 羅, 楽  
 リ  里, 莉, 理, 梨, 璃, 利, 李, 理, 吏  真理, 万理, 茉莉, 真里, 絵里, 恵理, 絵梨,
 衣里, 汐里, 芽里, 優里, 友梨
 リン  鈴, 林, 凛  
 ル  留, 瑠, 流  
 レイ  礼, 怜, 伶, 嶺, 麗, 玲  
 ワ  和, 輪, 羽, 環  

 止め字 for Boy Names

 キ  貴, 輝, 樹   祐樹, 優輝, 航輝
 ゴ  吾, 悟  信吾, 真悟, 賢吾, 涼吾
 シ  史, 士, 司, 志, 至  靖史, 建志, 忠士, 雅司, 慶至
 ジ  自, 二  達自, 浩二
 スケ  介, 助, 甫, 輔  大輔, 康介
 タ  太, 汰  雄太, 謙太, 隆太, 翔太
 ダイ  大  佑大, 航大
 タケ  健  剛健
 ト  人, 斗, 登  流斗, 勇人, 駿斗, 健人
 ドウ  童  義童
 ノリ  則, 典, 紀  忠典, 勝紀
 ヘイ  平  陽平, 昭平, 哲平, 晃平
 マ  真, 馬, 磨  和馬, 優馬, 達馬, 卓磨
 ヤ  也, 矢  信也, 徹也, 竜也, 智也
 ユキ  之  弘之, 尚之, 敏行, 智之
 ラ  羅  森羅
 ロウ  郎, 朗  健太郎, 舜太郎, 晃太郎



第359課: The 214 部首

Classifying Kanji is controversial. The first classification attempt was done by Xu Shen in his work "Shuōwén Jiězì 說文解字", creating the 六書 りくしょ . The 六書 is the categorization of characters by 6 principles. There is still great debate on them since his work was so broad.


 The 六書

  • Principle I:  Principle I refers to 象形文字. These characters are pictograms that resemble what they mean. It is generally the case that they were more similar to what they represented in the beginning, but due to stylistic alterations and simplifications, these sorts of characters tend to no longer apparently resemble what they stand for.
    Ex. 日 (sun/day), 月 (moon/month), 山 (mountain), 鳥 (bird), 木 (tree), 魚 (fish), 龍 (dragon)
  • Principle II: Principle II refers to 指示文字. These characters are compound pictograms, more often referred to as ideograms.   
    Ex. 一 (one), 二 (two), 三 (three), 上 (above), 下 (below)
  • Principle III: Principle III refers to 会意文字. These characters are compound ideograms, more complex than those characters classified under Principle II.
    Ex. 休 (rest), 森 (forest/grove), 好 (like), 明 (bright), 信 (believe). 
  • Principle IV: Principle IV refers to 形成文字. About 90% of characters are in this type. They are composed generally of two parts: one of a limited set of character (the semantic indicator, often graphically simplified) which suggests the general meaning of the compound character, and another character (the phonetic indicator) whose pronunciation suggests the pronunciation of the compound character.
    Ex. 河 (river), 湖 (lake), 流 (flow), 沖 (offing), 江 (inlet). In these characters, the left side provides meaning and the right side provides sound. 
  • Principle V: Principle V refers to 転注文字. These are 漢字 with common origin that have evolved differently.
    Ex. 老 (Old) & 考 (Thought)
  • Principle VI: Principle VI refers to 仮借文字. These rebus characters cover cases where an existing character is used to represent an unrelated word with similar or identical pronunciation
    Ex. 自 originally meant "nose" instead of "oneself". The meaning of nose has been given to 鼻. Ex. 萬 is from a pictogram of a scorpion, but through phonetic association with the word for 10,000, it lost its meaning of scorpion.  
    Ex. 北 = "north" but meant "back", which is now 背.
    Ex. 四 originally meant tonsils, but this meaning has been given up to 泗 to mean "sniffle". The original character for four, 亖, is no longer used as an effect. 

偏旁冠脚

    The usage of 部首 is often referred to as "偏旁冠脚(へんぼうかんきゃく)". This method relies on the fact that there is generally 1 or more different radicals in a character and 4 main locations where the "true" radical may be located. As 90% of all characters are 形声文字, the "true" radical should almost always be apparent. Due to simplification, though, some characters are impossible to categorize appropriately. When such cases exist, you must rely on your knowledge of 旧字体. However, most 新字体 are easily assigned a 部首.

     The number of 部首 has been a controversial issue. As the characters evolved, so did their parts. As it is not as if this evolution caused the creation of completely different radicals, we often classify variants of the same thing as a single 部首. It is here where the classification of 部首 is different in China and Japan. In Japan, there is a somewhat agreement classification with 214 distinct 部首.

     In listing radicals, there are two accepted steps: counting the strokes of the radical and figuring out the 音読み and listing in a 五十音図 style ordering. For example, a character that has 3 strokes whose radical has an 音読み with the first letter K would be before a character with that same amount of strokes but with the first letter T. Voiced consonants, in dictionaries, are shown after their non-voiced counterparts with the only issue being h. In this case, h is first, b is second, and p is last. When searching for words or characters, you must understand that the small y かな are treated as full characters.

     There are some radicals whose strokes may be counted differently depending on one's viewpoint and choice of font. For example, the 部首 瓜,  阝, 鬼, and 臣 are considered to have 5, 3, 10, and 7 strokes in Japan respectively but are considered to have 6, 2, 9, and 6 in China respectively. To find the 部首 of a character, a system of different positions has been created to pinpoint where it is normally located.


           THE STANDARD PATTERNS

  • Busyu - hen.png : The 部首 is on the left. For example, 略's 部首 is 田 and its phonetic is 各.
  • Busyu - kanmuri.png : The 部首 is on the top. For example, 歩's 部首 is 止 and its phonetic is 少.
  • Busyu - ashi.png : The 部首 is on the bottom. For example, 志's phonetic is 士 and its 部首 is 心.
  • Busyu - tare.png :The 部首 is on the top and side of a character. For example, 房's 部首 is 戸 and its phonetic is 方.  
  • Busyu - nyou.png :The 部首 is on the side on the bottom of a character. For example, 起's 部首 is 走 and its phonetic is 己. 
  • Busyu - kamae(1).png :The 部首 surrounds the phonetic. For example, 国's 部首 is 口and its phonetic is 玉. 

        脚の変形: Irregularities of the Ashi pattern.

  • Busyu - ashi(2).png: In this irregularity, the 部首 is on the top and the bottom. For example, 亘's radical is 一 on the top and the bottom and the phonetic is 日.
  • Busyu - ashi(3).png: In this irregularity, the 部首 is in the middle. For example, 昼's phonetic is 尺 and its 部首 is 日and 一.

        構の変形: Irregularities of the 構 pattern.

  • Busyu - kamae(2).png: In this irregularity, the 部首 surrounds the phonetic with a bottom opening. For example, 間's 部首 is 門 and its phonetic is 日.
  • Busyu - kamae(3).png: In this irregularity, the 部首 surrounds the phonetic with a top opening. For example, 凶's radical is 凵 and its phonetic is メ.
  • Busyu - kamae(4).png: In this irregularity, the 部首 surrounds the phonetic with an opening on the right side. For example, 医's radical is 匚 and its phonetic is 矢.
  • Busyu - kamae(5).png: In this irregularity, the 部首 is only on the top and the right side. For example, 式's radical is 弋 and its phonetic is 工.
  • Busyu - kamae(6).png: In this irregularity, the 部首 surrounds the phonetic only on the sides. For example, 街's radical is 行 and its phonetic is 圭.

The 214 部首

THE 214 BUSHU ACCORDING TO THE 康熙(こうき)字典

 #  Radical  Stroke Number  Name    Popular/Normal Name  Meaning
 1.  一  1  一部  いちぶ  イチ  ”One" radical
 2.  丨  1  |部  こんぶ  たてぼう  ”Bar" radical
 3.  丶  1 丶部  ちゅぶ  テン  ”Dot" radical
 4.  丿  1  丿部  へつぶ  の  ”Slash" radical
 5.  乙・  1  乙部  おつぶ  おつ、おつにょう、つばり  ”Fish-hook" radical
 6.  亅  1  亅部  けつぶ  はねぼう、かぎ  ”Hook" radical
 7.  二  2  二部  にぶ  に  ”Two" radical
 8.  亠  2  亠部  とうぶ  なべぶた、け(い)さんかんむり  ”Top" radical
 9.  人・亻  2  人部  じんぶ  ひと、にんべん、ひとがしら、ひとやね  ”Person" radical
 10.  儿  2  儿部  じんぶ  にんにょう、ひとあし  ”Legs" radical
 11.  入  2  入部  にゅうぶ  いる、いりがしら、いりやね、にゅう  ”Enter" radical
 12.  八  2  八部  はちぶ  はち、はちがしら  ”Eight" radical
 13.  冂  2  冂部  けいぶ  けいがまえ、まきがまえ、どうがまえ、えんがまえ  ”Down-box" radical
 14.  冖  2  冖部  べきぶ  わかんむり、べきかんむり  ”Cover" radical
 15.  冫  2  冫部  ひょうぶ  にすい  ”Ice" radical
 16.  几  2  几部  きぶ  つくえ、きにょう、つくえきにょう、かぜかんむり、かぜがまえ  ”Table" radical
 17.  凵  2  凵部  かんぶ  かんにょう、うけばこ、したばこ  ”Up-box" radical
 18.  刀・刂  2  刀部  とうぶ  かたな、りっとう  ”Sword" radical
 19.  力  2  力部  りょくぶ  ちから  ”Strength" radical
 20.  勹  2  勹部  ほうぶ  つつみがまえ  ”Wrap" radical
 21.  匕  2  匕部  ひぶ  ひ、さじ、さじのひ  ”Spoon" radical
 22.  匚  2  匚部  ほうぶ  はこがまえ  "Right-open-box" radical
 23.  匸  2  匸部  けいぶ  かくしがまえ  ”Hiding enclosure" radical
 24.  十  2  十部  じゅうぶ  じゅう  ”Ten" radical
 25.  卜  2  卜部  ぼくぶ  ぼく、ぼくのと、うらない

 ”Divination" radical

 26.  卩・⺋  2  卩部  せつぶ  ふしづくり、まげわりふ  ”Seal" radical
 27.  厂  2  厂部  かんぶ  がんだれ  ”Cliff" radical
 28.  厶  2  厶部  しぶ  む  ”Private" radical
 29.  又  2  又部  ゆうぶ  また  ”Again" radical
 30.  口  3  口部  こうぶ  くち、くちへん  ”Mouth" radical
 31.  囗  3  囗部  いぶ  くにがまえ  ”Enclosure" radical
 32.  土  3  土部  どぶ  つち、つちへん  ”Earth" radical
 33.  士  3  士部  しぶ  さむらい、さむらいかんむり  ”Scholar" radical
 34.  夂  3  夂部  ちぶ  ふゆがしら、ちかんむり、のまたかんむり  ”Go" radical
 35.  夊  3  夊部  すいぶ  すいにょう、すいにゅう、なつあし  ”Go slowly" radical
 36.  夕  3  夕部  せきぶ  ゆうべ、ゆう、た  ”Evening" radical
 37.  大  3  大部  だいぶ  だい、だいがしら、だいかんむり  ”Big" radical
 38.  女  3  女部  じょぶ  おんな、おんなへん  ”Woman" radical
 39.  子  3  子部  しぶ  こ、こども、こへん、こどもへん  ”Child" radical
 40.  宀  3  宀部  べんぶ  うかんむり  ”Roof" radical
 41.  寸  3  寸部  すんぶ  すん  ”Inch" radical
 42.  小  3  小部  しょうぶ  しょう、しょうがしら、なおがしら  ”Small" radical
 43.  尢・尣  3  尢部  おうぶ  まげあし、だいのまげあし、おうにょう  ”Lame" radical
 44.  尸  3  尸部  しぶ  しかばね、しかばねかんむり、かばねだれ  ”Corpse" radical
 45.  屮  3  屮部  てつぶ  てつ、めばえ  ”Sprout" radical
 46.  山  3  山部  さんぶ  やま、やまへん  ”Mountain" radical
 47.  巛・川  3  巛部  せんぶ  かわ、まがりがわ、さんぽがわ  ”River" radical
 48.  工  3  工部  こうぶ  こう、たくみ、たくみへん  ”Work" radical
 49.  己・已・巳  3  己部  きぶ  おのれ  ”Self" radical
 50.  巾  3  巾部  きんぶ  はば、はばへん、きんへん、きんべん  ”Turban" radical
 51.  干  3  干部  かんぶ  ほす、かん、いちじゅう  ”Dry" radical
 52.  幺  3  幺部  ようぶ  いとがしら  ”Thread" radical
 53.  广  3  广部  げんぶ  まだれ  ”Dotted cliff" radical
 54.  廴  3  廴部  いんぶ  えんにょう、えんにゅう、いんにょう  ”Long stride" radical
 55.  廾  3  廾部  きょうぶ  こまぬき  ”Two hands" radical
 56.  弋  3  弋部  よくぶ  しきがまえ  ”Shoot" radical
 57.  弓  3  弓部  きゅうぶ  ゆみ、ゆみへん  ”Bow" radical
 58.  彐・彑  3  彐部  けいぶ  けいがしら、いのこがしら  ”Snout" radical
 59.  彡  3  彡部  さんぶ
 さんづくり、かみかざり  ”Bristle" radical
 60.  彳  3  彳部  てきぶ  ぎょうにんべん  ”Step" radical
 61.  心・忄・㣺  4  心部  しんぶ  こころ・りっしんべん・したごころ  ”Heart" radical
 62.  戈  4  戈部  かぶ  ほこがまえ、ほこづくり、たすき、かのほこ  ”Halberd" radical
 63.  戶・戸  4  戶部  こぶ  と、とかんむり、とだれ、とびらのと  ”Door" radical
 64.  手・扌  4  手部  しゅぶ  て、てへん  ”Hand" radical
 65.  支  4  支部  しぶ  しにょう、えだにょう、じゅうまた  ”Branch" radical
 66.  攴・攵  4  攴部  ぼくぶ  ぼくづくり、ぼくにょう、のぶん、しぶん、とまた  ”Strike" radical
 67.  文  4  文部  ぶんぶ  ぶん、ぶんにょう、ふみづくり  ”Writing" radical
 68.  斗  4  斗部  とぶ  と、ます、とます  ”Dipper" radical
 69.  斤  4  斤部  きんぶ  おの、おのづくり  ”Ax" radical
 70.  方  4  方部  ほうぶ  かたへん、ほうへん  ”Square" radical
 71.  无  4  无部  むぶ  なし、むにょう、すでのつくり  ”Not" radical
 72.  日  4  日部  にちぶ  にち、ひへん  ”Day" radical
 73.  曰  4  曰部  えつぶ  ひらび、いわく  ”Say" radical
 74.  月  4  月部  げつぶ  つき、つきへん  ”Moon" radical
 75.  木  4  木部  もくぶ  き、きへん  ”Tree" radical
 76.  欠  4  欠部  けんぶ  あくび、かける  ”Lack" radical
 77.  止  4  止部  しぶ  とめる、とめへん  ”Stop" radical
 78.  歹  4  歹部  がつぶ  かばねへん、がつ、がつへん、しにがまえ、いちたへん  ”Death" radical
 79.  殳  4  殳部  しゅぶ  ほこ、ほこづくり、るまた  ”Weapon" radical
 80.  毋  4  毋部  ぶぶ  なかれ  "Do not" radical
 81.  比  4  比部  ひぶ  ならびひ、くらべる  "Compare" radical
 82.  毛  4  毛部  もうぶ  け  "Hair" radical
 83.  氏  4  氏部  しぶ  うじ  "Clan" radical
 84.  气  4  气部  きぶ  きがまえ  "Air" radical
 85.  水・氵・氺  4  水部  すいぶ  みず・さんずい・したみず  "Water" radical
 86.  火・灬  4  火部  かぶ  ひ、ひへん、れんが、れっか  "Fire" radical
 87.  爪・爫  4  爪部  そうぶ  つめ、そうにょう、つめかんむり  "Nail" radical
 88.  父  4  父部  ふぶ  ちち  "Father" radical
 89.  爻  4  爻部  こうぶ  

 "Yao" radical

 90.  爿・丬  4/3  爿部  しょうぶ  しょうへん  "Half tree trunk" radical
 91.  片  4  片部  へんぶ  かた、かたへん  "Slice" radical
 92.  牙  4/5  牙部  がぶ  きば  "Fang" radical
 93.  牛・牜  4  牛部  ぎゅうぶ  うし、うしへん  "Cow" radical
 94.  犬・犭  4  犬部  けんぶ  いぬ、けものへん  "Dog" radical
 95.  玄  5  玄部  げんぶ  げん  "Profound" radical
 96.  玉・王・玊  5  玉部  ぎょくぶ  たま、たまへん、ぎょくへん、おうへん  "Jade" radical
 97.  瓜  5  瓜部  かぶ  うり  "Melon" radical
 98.  瓦  5  瓦部  がぶ  かわら  "Tile" radical
 99.  甘  5  甘部  かんぶ  あまい、かん  "Sweet" radical
 100.  生  5  生部  せいぶ  いきる、うまれる、せい、しょう  "Life" radical
 101.  用・ 甩  5  用部  ようぶ  もちいる、よう  "Use" radical
 102.  田  5  田部  でんぶ  た、たへん  "Field" radical
 103.  疋  5  疋部  しょうぶ  ひき  "Bolt of cloth" radical
 104.  疒  5  疒部  だくぶ  やまいだれ  "Disease" radical
 105.  癶  5  癶部  はつぶ  はつがしら  "Dotted tent" radical
 106.  白  5  白部  はくぶ  しろ、しろへん  "White" radical
 107.  皮  5  皮部  ひぶ  けがわ、ひのかわ  "Skin" radical
 108.  皿  5  皿部  べいぶ  さら  "Plate" radical
 109.  目・罒  5  目部  もくぶ  め、めへん  "Eye" radical
 110.  矛  5  矛部  ぼうぶ  ほこ、ほこへん  "Spear" radical
 111.  矢  5  矢部  しぶ  や、やへん  "Arrow" radical
 112.  石  5  石部  せきぶ  いし、いしへん  "Stone" radical
 113.  示・礻  5  示部  しぶ  しめす、しめすへん、ねへん  "Spirit" radical
 114.  禸  5  禸部  じゅうぶ  ぐうのあし  "Track" radical
 115.  禾  5  禾部  かぶ  いね、いねへん、のぎ、のぎへん  "Grain" radical
 116.  穴  5  穴部  けつぶ  あな、あなかんむり  "Hole" radical
 117.  立  5  立部  りゅうぶ  たつ、たつへん  "Stand" radical
 118.  竹  6  竹部  ちくぶ  たけ、たけかんむり  "Bamboo" radical
 119.  米  6  米部  べいぶ  こめ、こめへん  "Rice" radical
 120.  糸・糹  6  糸部  べきぶ  いと、いとへん  "Thread" radical
 121.  缶  6  缶部  ふぶ  ほとぎ、ほとぎへん、かん  "Can" radical
 122.  网・罒・罓  6  网部  もうぶ  あみがしら・よんがしら・あみめ  "Net" radical
 123.  羊  6  羊部  ようぶ  ひつじ、ひつじへん  "Sheep" radical
 124.  羽  6  羽部  うぶ  はね  "Wing" radical
 125.  老・耂  6/4  老部  ろうぶ  おいがしら・おいかんむり  "Age" radical
 126.  而  6  而部  じぶ  しこうして  "And" radical
 127.  耒  6  耒部  らいぶ  すきへん、らいすき  "Plow" radical
 128.  耳  6  耳部  じぶ  みみ、みみへん  "Ear" radical
 129.  聿・肀  6/4  聿部  いつぶ  ふでづくり  "Brush" radical
 130.  肉・月  6/4  肉部  にくぶ  にく・にくづき  "Meat" radical
 131.  臣  6/7  臣部  しんぶ  しん  "Minister" radical
 132.  自  6  自部  じぶ  みずから  "Own" radical
 133.  至  6  至部  しぶ  いたる、いたるへん  "Arrive"radical
 134.  臼  6  臼部  きゅうぶ  うす  "Mortar" radical
 135.  舌  6  舌部  ぜつぶ  した  "Tongue" radical
 136.  舛  6・7  舛部  せんぶ  ます、まいあし  "Oppose" radical
 137.  舟  6  舟部  しゅうぶ  ふね、ふねへん  "Boat" radical
 138.  艮  6  艮部  ごんぶ  こんづくり、ごんづくり、ごん、ねづくり  "Stopping" radical
 139.  色  6  色部  しょくぶ  いろ  "Color" radical
 140.  艸・艹  6/3  艸部  そうぶ  くさかんむり 、くさ、そうこう  "Grass" radical
 141.  虍  6  虍部  こぶ  とらがしら  "Tiger" radical
 142.  虫  6  虫部  きぶ  むし、むしへん  "Bug" radical
 143.  血  6  血部  けつぶ  ち、ちへん  "Blood" radical
 144.  行  6  行部  こうぶ  ゆきがまえ、ぎょうがまえ  "Walk enclosure" radical
 145.  衣・衤  6  衣部  いぶ  ころも、ころもへん  "Clothes" radical
 146.  襾・覀・西  6  襾部  あぶ  にし  "West" radical
 147.  見  7  見部  けんぶ  みる  "See" radical
 148.  角  7  角部  かくぶ  つの、つのへん  "Horn" radical
 149.  言・訁  7  言部  げんぶ  ごんべん  "Talk" radical
 150.  谷  7  谷部  こくぶ  たに  "Valley" radical
 151.  豆  7  豆部  とうぶ  まめ  "Bean" radical
 152.  豕  7  豕部  しぶ  いのこ、いのこへん  "Boar" radical
 153.  豸  7  豸部  ちぶ  むじなへん  "Badger" radical
 154.  貝  7  貝部  ばいぶ  かい、かいへん  "Shell" radical
 155.  赤  7  赤部  せきぶ  あか、あかへん  "Red" radical
 156.  走  7  走部  そうぶ  はしる、そうにょう  "Run" radical
 157.  足  7  足部  そくぶ  あし、あしへん  "Foot" radical
 158.  身  7   身部  しんぶ  み、みへん  "Body" radical
 159.  車  7  車部  しゃぶ  くるま、くるまへん  "Vehicle" radical
 160.  辛  7  辛部  しんぶ  からい  "Bitter" radical
 161.  辰  7  辰部  しんぶ  しんのたつ  "Morning" radical
 162.  辵・辶  7/3  辵部  ちゃくぶ  しんにょう  "Walk" radical
 163.  邑・阝  7/3  邑部  ゆうぶ  おおざと  "City" radical
 164.  酉  7  酉部  ゆうぶ  ひよみのとり、とりへん、さけつくり  "Wine" radical
 165.  釆  7  釆部  はんぶ  のごめ、のごめへん  "Distinguish" radical
 166.  里  7  里部  りぶ  さと、さとへん  "Village" radical
 167.  金  8  金部  きんぶ  かね、かねへん  "Gold" radical
 168.  長  8  長部  ちょうぶ  ながい  "Long" radical
 169.  門  8  門部  もんぶ  もんがまえ、かどがまえ  "Gate" radical
 170.  阜・阝  8  阜部  ふぶ  こざとへん  "Mound" radical
 171.  隶  8  隶部  たいぶ  れいづくり  "Slave" radical
 172.  隹  8  隹部  すいぶ  ふるとり  "Tailed bird" radical
 173.  雨  8  雨部  うぶ  あめかんむり  "Rain" radical
 174.  靑・青  8  青部  せいぶ  あお  "Blue" radical"
 175.  非  8  非部  ひぶ  あらず  "Wrong" radical
 176.  面  9  面部  めんぶ  めん  "Face" radical
 177.  革  9  革部  かくぶ  かわへん、つくりがわ  "Leather" radical
 178.  韋  9・10  韋部  いぶ  なめしがわ  "Tanned leather" radical
 179.  韭  9  韭部  きゅうぶ  にら  "Leek" radical
 180.  音  9  音部  おんぶ  おと、おとへん  "Sound" radical
 181.  頁  9  頁部  けつぶ  おおがい  "Leaf" radical
 182.  風  9  風部  ふうぶ  かぜ  "Wind" radical
 183.  飛  9  飛部  ひぶ  とぶ  "Flight" radical
 184.  食・飠  9/8  食部  しょくぶ  しょくへん  "Food" radical
 185.  首  9  首部  しゅぶ  くび  "Neck" radical
 186.  香  9  香部  こうぶ  かおり  "Smell" radical
 187.  馬  10  馬部  ばぶ  うまへん  "Horse" radical
 188.  骨  10  骨部  こつぶ  ほねへん  "Bone" radical
 189.  高・髙  10  高部  こうぶ  たかい  "Tall" radical
 190.  髟  10  髟部  ひょうぶ  かみがしら  "Long hair" radical
 191.  鬥  10  鬥部  とうぶ  たたかいがまえ、とうがまえ  "Fight" radical
 192.  鬯  10  鬯部  ちょうぶ  ちょう、においざけ  "Sacrificial wine' radical
 193.  鬲  10  鬲部  れきぶ  かなえ、れき  "Tripod" radical
 194.  鬼  10  鬼部  きぶ  おに、きにょう  "Demon" radical
 195.  魚  11  魚部  ぎょぶ  うお、うおへん  "Fish" radical
 196.  鳥  11  鳥部  ちょうぶ  とり  "Bird" radical
 197.  鹵  11  鹵部  ろぶ  ろ、しお  "Salt" radical
 198.  鹿  11  鹿部  ろくぶ  しか  "Dear" radical
 199.  麥・麦  11  麦部  ばくぶ  むぎ、ばくにょう  "Wheat" radical
 200.  麻  11  麻部  まぶ  あさ、あさかんむり  "Hemp" radical
 201.  黃・黄  12  黄部  こうぶ  き  "Yellow" radical
 202.  黍  12  黍部  しょぶ  きび  "Millet" radical
 203.  黑・黒  12/11  黒部  こくぶ  くろ  "Black" radical
 204.  黹  12  黹部  ちぶ  ち、ぬいとり、ふつへん  "Embroidery" radical
 205.  黽  13  黽部  ぼうぶ  べんあし、べん、かえる  "Frog" radical
 206.  鼎  13  鼎部  ていぶ  てい、かなえ  "Tripod" radical
 207.  鼓  13  鼓部  こぶ  つづみ  "Drum" radical
 208.  鼠  13  鼠部  そぶ  ねずみ  "Mouse" radical
 209.  鼻  14  鼻部  びぶ  はな、はなへん  "Nose" radical
 210.  齊・斉  14/8  斉部  せいぶ  せい  "Even" radical
 211.  齒・歯  15/12  歯部  しぶ  は、はへん  "Tooth" radical
 212.  龍・竜  16/10  竜部  りゅうぶ  りゅう  "Dragon" radical
 213.  龜・亀  16/11  亀部  きぶ  かめ  "Turtle" radical
 214.  龠  17  龠部  やくぶ  やく、ふえ  "Flute" radical

Chart Note: Some variants have been omitted due to the unavailability of the respectful glyphs.

Name Note: If you learn any of the names, you should focus on the popular ones.


第360課: 国字 (Japanese-made Kanji)

The development of 国字 is nothing less than fascinating. Despite having already borrowed thousands of 漢字 from mainland China and created its own syllabaries, hundreds of 漢字 have also been made by the Japanese. These 国字, also known as 和(製漢)字, have even at times been sent back to be used in China. 

Curriculum Note: There is a resource page with a lot of 国字. This page, however, is coverage concerning 国字 in lesson format.  

What are 国字?

国字 have come and gone. By the beginning of the Heian Period (794~1185 A.D), around 400 such characters were recorded in the 新撰字鏡(しんせんじきょう), an early 漢和辞典. Of all the 国字 that have been created, only a relatively small percentage are still extremely important characters. However, this is not meant to disregard those that are important. For instance, 働 was made in Japan and is now used in China to mean “work” as well. It has even acquired its own 音読み ドウ. Another important case is 腺, which surprisingly only has the 音読み セン. It was coined in translating medical texts in Dutch to mean “gland”.

              There are have only been 10 国字in the 常用漢字表: 働 (to work), 畑 (field), 込 (to put into, etc.), 枠 (frame), 搾 (to squeeze), 峠 (mountain pass), 塀 (earthen wall), 栃 (horse chestnut), 腺 (gland), 匁 (monme). The latter was taken out in 2010. There are also others as 人名用漢字 such as 笹 (bamboo grass) and 麿 (phonetic "maro" in names).

The large majority of 国字, though, are not included in these lists as they are in large point used in writing the names of plants and animals. Examples include 鰯 (sardines), 鴫 (snipe), 樫 (oak tree), 橡 (sawtooth oak), 椚 (sawtooth oak), etc. A lot of this is due to the fact that there are some things that are just not found in China that are in Japan, so the Japanese felt the need to create characters for these things.  

Making 国字

For the most part, 国字 were created with the 六書 principles kept in mind. Here are a few examples.

 鱈  Created with the cod fish that can be caught when it’s snowing in mind.
 樫  Created with the hard Japanese oak tree in mind.
 辻  Created with crossroads in a path in mind.
 畑  Created with slash and burn agriculture in mind.
 雫  Created with rain falling down in mind.
 俥  Created with a rickshaw in mind.  

              Although the majority of 国字 do not have 音読み, there are rare instances where some were made with漢字 phonetics in mind.

 腺  Created with the radical meat plus 泉 (セン). Thus, 腺’s sound is セン.
 塀  Created with the radical ground plus 屏 (ヘイ).

              Some, though, were created by combining characters.

 粂  久 (ク)  + 米 (メ). Thus, read as くめ. It is seen in names.
 麿  麻 has the reading マ, and 呂 has the reading ロ. So, 麿 = まろ. It is seen in names.

        国訓    

There are even some characters that may also be found in China whose meanings are so different in Japanese that it begs the question whether such characters changed usage once brought to Japan or happened to be made in Japan as well. The two main examples of this are the following characters.

 Character  Chinese Meaning  Japanese Meaning
 偲  Suddenly  To recollect
 鮎  Sheatfish  Ayu fish
 藤  Vine  Wisteria
 沖  To rinse; minor river  Offing/open water

Important 国字 to Study

Though there are many easily searchable lists of 国字 online, below are the most important ones that you should study. Some of these are far rarer than others. So, the table will label these characters with a scale of 1-10 for importance with 10 being extremely important and 1 being minimally important.

If you are hoping to do well on the most difficult 漢字 tests like the 漢検1級, then try learning them all and more. If you want to just know those that show up frequently in literature, you may want to only learn half of them. 

 国字  重要度  意味  音訓  国字  重要度  意味  音訓 
 畑  10  Field  はたけ  働  10  To work  ドウ・はたら(く)
 込  10   To put into  こ(む)  枠  10  Frame  わく
 峠  10  Ridge  とうげ  搾  10  To squeeze  サク・しぼ(る)
 腺  9  Gland  セン  匂  9  Smell  にお(い)
 辻  9  Crossroads  つじ  辷  8  To slip  すべ(る)
 雫  8  Raindrop  しずく  凧  8  Kite  たこ
 笹  8  Bamboo grass  ささ  俥  8  Rickshaw  くるま
 畠  8  Field  はたけ  躾  8  Behavior  しつけ
 喰  8  To eat  くら(う)  癪  8  Spasm  シャク
 凪  8  Calm; lull  なぎ  鰯  8  Sardine  いわし
 鋲  8  Tack  ビョウ  榊  8  Sakaki  さかき
 膵  8  Pancreas  スイ  襷  7  Sash  たすき
 枡  7  Measure  ます  桝  7  Measure  ます
 噺  7  Chat  はなし  鯰  7  Catfish  なまず
 鑓  7  Spear  やり  栃  7  Horse chestnut  とち
 褄  7  Skirt; hem  つま  鱈  7  Cod  たら
 俣  7  Crotch; fork  また  鱚  7  Sillago  きす
 颪  7  Wind from mountains  おろし  埖  7  Trash  ごみ
 錺  7  Metal jewelry  かざり  梺  7  Mountain base  ふもと
 縅  7  Braid of armor  おどし  麿  7  Maro  まろ
 蓙  7  Mat  ござ  迚  6  A lot  とても
 鞆  6  Archer arm protector  とも  簗  6  Girder  やな
 裃  6  Samurai garb  かみしも  硴  6  Oyster  かき
 毟  6  To pull out (hair)  むし(る)  毮  6  To pull out (hair)  むし(る)
 裄  6  Sleeve length  ゆき  俤  6  Vestige  おもかげ
 栂  6  Hemlock  つが  叺  6  Straw bag  かます
 籾  6  Unhulled rice  もみ  鴫  6  Snipe  しぎ
 鶇  6  Thrush  つぐみ  閊  6  To be obstructed  つかえ(る)
 杢  6  Woodworker  もく  椙  6  Japanese cedar  すぎ
 柾  6  Spindle tree  まさき  梻  6  Grave tree  しきみ
 聢  6  Certainly  しかと  杣  6  Timber  そま
 鳰  5  Grebe  にお  鵤  5  Grosbeak  いかる
 〆  5  Letter ending mark  しめ  怺  5  To endure  こらえ(る)
 渕  5  Edge  ふち  鯑  5  Yellow fish; 寿司 eggs  かずのこ
 鮗  5  Gizzard shad  このしろ  圷  5  Low ground  あくつ
 糀  5  Malt   こうじ   鶎  5  Goldcrest  きくいた
 椚  5  Horse chestnut  くぬぎ  橡  5  Horse chestnut  くぬぎ
 桛  5  Reel; skein  かせ  鎹  5  Clamp  かすがい
 嬶  5  Wife  かかあ  遖  5  Good job!  あっぱれ
 籏  5  Banner  はた  鰙  5  Japanese smelt  わかさぎ
 圦  5  Penstock; sluice  いり  綛  4  Reel; skein  かすり・かせ
 鱩  4  Sailfin sandfish  はたはた  鎺  4  Habaki  はばき
 籡  4  Temple (clothing)  しんし  纐  4  Tie-dying  コウ
 硲  4  Gorge  はざま  㐂
 4  To be joyful  よろこ(ぶ)
 魸  4  Catfish  なまず  椛  4  Colored leaves  もみじ
 鮴  4  Flathead  ごり  鞐  4  Fastener  こはぜ
 艝  4  Sled  そり  轌  4  Sled  そり
 鯏
 4  Chub; dace  あさり・うぐい  饂
 4  Udon  ウン
 燵
 4  Foot warmer  タツ  鵥  4  Eurasian jay  カケス
 蛯
 4  Shrimp  えび  軈
 4  At last  やがて
 鯱
 4  Killer whale  しゃち(ほこ)  簓
 4  Bamboo whisk  っさら
 鯲  3  Lamprey  どじょう  鵇  3  Crested ibis  とき
 鮟
 3  Anglerfish  アン  鱇
 3  Anglerfish  コウ
 蚫  3  Abalone  ホウ・あわび  苆  3  Finish (plaster, etc.)  すさ
 魞  3  Fish trap  えり  逧
 3  Ravine  さこ・たに
 鵆  3  Plover  ちどり  鯐  3  Young striped mullet  すばしり
 鶍  3  Crossbill  いすか  鮖  3  Bullhead  かじか
 躮  3   Son/brat  せがれ  鮇  2  Charr  いわな
 鯎
 2  Japanese dace   うぐい  鰘
 2  Mackerel scad  むろあじ
 屶
 2  Wide blade knife  なた  熕  2  Big cannon  おおづつ
 塰  2  Fisherman  あま  鱛
 1  Lizardfish  えそ
 袰  1  Awning  ほろ  弖  1  The phoneme te  て

第361課: あて字

あて字 is a blanket term for irregular readings in Japanese. However, there is a more exact definition of it that separates it from other special cases that this lesson will go in depth in. 

熟字訓

Consequently, in using 漢字 to write Japanese, there are plenty of instances in which the set readings of characters are still not efficient to spell particular native words. Thus, to compensate this problem, one solution is to attribute a particular reading of a set of characters for a certain instance, ignoring the phonetic values of the 漢字 chosen. Thus, the characters are chosen for semantic value. This is called 熟字訓 or 義訓. 

This, as you would imagine, causes major problems. As we have seen with 国字, many characters had to be created to write the names of fish and what not. The other option chosen that was not mentioned in that lesson was the plethora of 熟字訓 created for the same purpose. Thus, from the perspective of the avid Japanese reader and prospecting Japanese learner, spelling is an arduous task to say the least.

Luckily, very few instances of 熟字訓 are taught in school. Thus, the average number known by even natives is relatively few. So, in the case of literature, they are generally given reading aids. However, due to the sheer number of them, you will and have surely already encountered them.

It must also be noted that not all 熟字訓 are for native words. There are instances of it for loanwords. However, the large majority of examples are still native words.


Native Word Examples

 大人  おとな  Adult  時雨  しぐれ  Drizzle  梅雨  つゆ  Rainy season
 五月雨  さみだれ  May rain  紫陽花  あじさい  Hydrangea  紅葉  もみじ  Colored leaves
 田舎  いなか  Countryside   今日   きょう  Today  今朝  けさ  This morning
 昨日  きのう  Yesterday  明日  あす・あした  Tomorrow  去年  こぞ  Last year
 狗母魚  えそ  Lizardfish  薔薇  ばら  Rose  梔子  くちなし  Gardenia
 向日葵  ひまわり  Sunflower  硫黄  いおう  Sulfur  意気地  いくじ  Self-confidence
 乙女  おとめ  Maiden  母屋  おもや  Main building  河岸  かし  River bank
 風邪  かぜ  A cold  仮名  かな  Kana   為替  かわせ  Exchange 
 雑魚  ざこ  Small fry  桟敷  さじき  Gallery  素人  しろうと  Novice
 玄人  くろうと  Expert  仲人  なこうど  Go-between  若人  わこうど  Young person
 数珠  じゅず  Rosary  師走  しわす  12th month  雪崩  なだれ  Avalanche
 博士  はかせ  Professor  下手  へた  Bad at  土産  みやげ  Souvenir
 木綿  もめん  Cotton  寄席  よせ  Vaudeville  水母  くらげ  Jellyfish

Indigenous Cultural Items Note: Many 熟字訓 are for indigenous/cultural items. Clearly, China wouldn't have had a spelling for them as they wouldn’t be Chinese things.

 神楽  かぐら  Kagura  出汁  だし  Dashi  太刀  たち  Longsword
 祝詞  のりと  Ritual prayer  お神酒  おみき  Sacred sake  大和  やまと  Yamato
 相撲  すもう  Sumo  草履  ぞうり  Zori  小豆  あずき  Azuki bean
 浴衣  ゆかた  Yukata  竹刀  しない  Fencing stick  手水  ちょうず  Water for washing hands 

Classification Note: Although 意気地 and仮名 happen to have readings the resemble actual readings of the characters, because they are chosen primarily for meaning, they are classified as 熟字訓.

Counter Note: Remember that many counter expressions are irregular in this regard. Consider the days of the month like 一日, 二日, etc. Also consider 一人 and 二人 which are half 熟字訓 because of the -り reading of 人. There's also the important exception for 20 years old, 二十歳 ( はたち ) .

Archaism Note: こぞ  is now an archaism. Also, 師走 is the 12th month of the lunar calendar.


Loanword Examples

 煙草  タバコ  Tobacco  燐寸  マッチ  Match
 煙管  キセル  Pipe  硝子  ガラス  Glass
 洋燈  ランプ  Lamp  麦酒  ビール  Beer 

外来語 Note: Most loanwords are normally written in カタカナ. However, there are instances where really old loans such as タバコ are frequently written in ひらがな and 漢字. By the end of the Meiji Period, there were already hundreds of loans that were given 漢字spellings, and they were frequently used up until after World War II. Even so, if you read a lot of literature, you will undoubtedly encounter more example of this. As they are tested to some degree in the upper levels of the 漢検, learning these spellings is not completely trivial. Also, if you read anything from the late 1800s or early 1900s, they obviously show up in large number.


 Part 熟字訓

There are also instances where only part of a word is 熟字訓. Again, there are a lot of examples regarding indigenous items, plants, and what not. However, it’s important to note that irregular changes to 音読み are also classified as 熟字訓.

 日和  ひより  Weather  息子  むすこ  Son  一言居士  いちげんこじ  Ready critic
 笑顔  えがお  Smiling face  息吹  いぶき  Breath  海原  うなばら  Seabed
 浮気  うわき  Affair  果物  くだもの  Fruit  心地  ここち  Sensation
 清水  しみず  Pure water  三味線  しゃみせん  Shamisen  白髪  しらが  Grey hair
 砂利  じゃり  Gravel  読経  どきょう  Sutra chanting  友達  ともだち  Friend
 子供  こども  Friend  名残  なごり  Vestige  上手  じょうず  Good at
 眼鏡  めがね  Glasses  行方  ゆくえ  Whereabouts  蚊帳  かや  Mosquito net
 達磨  だるま  Daruma  八百屋  やおや  Greengrocer  伝馬船  てんません  Sculling boat

 Battle with Loanwords

In their heyday, loanwords brought another problem. For the examples we've seen thus far, there weren't Japanese equivalents. But, there have also been borrowings even though Japanese equivalents already existed. So, what better thing to do then attribute the loanword to the existing spellings! This is exactly what happened and the way one knew for sure how to read them was with ルビ. Though the practice is no longer near as common, you'll no doubt find some examples.

 北極光  ほっきょくこう  オーロラ  Aurora  郷愁  きょうしゅう  ノスタルジア  Nostalgia
 珈琲店  こーひーてん  カフェ  Cafe  火酒  かしゅ  ウォッカ・ヴォッカ  Vodka
 接吻  せっぷん  キッス  Kiss  情調  じょうちょう  ムード  Mood
 短艇  たんてい  ボート  Boat  並木道  なみきみち  アベニュー  Avenue
 裁縫機械  さいほうきかい  ミシン  Sewing machine  喞筒  そくとう  ポンプ  Pump

 漢語 → 和語 

Although not considered 熟字訓 by some, there is a tendency in writing to impose the native word on the Sino-Japanese word and indicate the intended reading with ルビ.

 漢語  和語  漢語  和語
 暫時  しばらく  失敗  しくじる 
 墳墓  墓  生活   暮し

あて字

     あて字 is the use of 漢字 for phonetic purposes only. The meanings of the characters are, thus, ignored. Characters used in this fashion are called 借字. 音読み being borrowed for this are called音借, and 訓読み being borrowed for this are called 訓借.

There are also words spelled with a mixture of 音借 and 訓借. There is also a strong tendency to choose characters that help with meaning. These may resemble 熟字訓, but 熟字訓 clearly show no relation between the characters and their phonetic values.

Words like this can easily be written in かな. They may also have alternative non-あて字 spellings. Such spellings are common for loanwords, but as you can imagine, there are also plenty of native word examples. There are also 漢語 examples.

Spelling Note: あて字 can also be spelled as 当(て)字 and 宛字.


Native Word Examples 

 寿司  すし  Sushi  合羽  かっぱ  Raincoat
 野良  のら  Wild  波止場  はとば  Pier
 出鱈目  でたらめ  Random  滅茶苦茶  めちゃくちゃ  Wreck; absurd
 芽出度い・目出度い  めでたい  Auspicious  浦山敷  うらやましく  Enviously
 沢山  たくさん  A lot  滅多  めった  Seldom
 珍紛漢紛・珍糞漢糞・陳奮翰奮
 ちんぷんかんぷん  Nonsense  兎に角  とにかく  Anyway

 Loan Word Examples

 瓦斯  ガス  Gas  珈琲  コーヒー  Coffee  曹達  ソーダ  Soda
 護謨  ゴム  Rubber  羅紗  ラシャ  Woolen cloth  沙翁  シェークスピア  Shakespeare
 倶楽部  クラブ  Club  型録  カタログ  Catalog  場穴  バケツ  Basket
 浪漫  ロ(ウ)マン  Romance  咖[喱・哩]  カレー  Curry  亜細亜  アジア  Asia
 欧羅巴  ヨーロッパ  Europe  亜米利加  アメリカ  America  加奈陀  カナダ  Canada

Spelling Note: 珈琲 may still be frequently seen on coffee cans, store signs, etc.

Although あて字, because certain loans have been attributed to particular single characters, they are felt to be 訓読み.

 頁  ページ  Page  米  メートル  Meter  瓦  グラム  Gram  片  ペンス  Pence  釦   ボタン  Button

 

Country Names

All country names have been given あて字. Some are the same as used in Chinese, and if you watched the 2008 Beijing Olympics, you no doubt saw all of the country names in 漢字. However, there are still many differences as the sound systems of Mandarin and Japanese are quite different.

Some Chinese spellings had great influence. For instance, the spelling for England, 英吉利, begins with 英. So, although the pronunciation of 英吉利 is イギリス, 英 is frequently used in words regarding England. 英語 and 英国 are perfect examples. The first (or second if the first is taken) character of the spellings for the countries are used as abbreviations for them.

亜米利加 ( アメリカ )  →  米 ベイ  露西亜 ( ロシア )  → 露 ロ  濠太剌利 ( オーストラリア )  → 豪・濠 ゴウ  

As you would expect, there are often options. There are even あて字 spellings for important international cities such as Paris (巴里). These spellings were more common in the heyday of writing loans in 漢字 at the beginning of the 20th century. But, some remain important. Because these spellings in particular are featured in the upper levels of the 漢検, for those that truly love 漢字, by all means try to learn them all. For the casual, normal Japanese learner, it may help to learn the spellings of some of the most important countries and cities. Wikipedia has a lovely chart with a comparison between the Japanese and Chinese spellings. 国名の漢字表記一覧


第362課: 旧字体 & 新字体

     In 1945 a lot of the most commonly used complex characters were simplified. The now defunct characters are called 旧字体. Ironically, the term has two simplified characters in it. So, the term should be written as 舊字體 to follow old orthography. 新字体, of course, are the resultant simplified forms. 

旧字体 and 新字体

      Simplification took a more passive role in Japan as only a handful of methods were used to simplify a handful of 漢字. In the following decade after reform, typesets were still not entirely equipped to comply with simplification. So, it is very easy to find publications from the 1950s with 旧字体. 旧字体, because of their lasting cultural impression, similar to 変体仮名, were often referred to as 正字(体), meaning "correct characters". Many felt that 新字体 deserved to keep their 略字 status. In modern usage, 旧字体 can still be seen in personal and geographical names. It is still important to learn 旧字体 because they have been used throughout Japanese literary history.

Making 新字体 a Reality

     The major methods used to create 新字体 forms are:

  •  Unifying variants
  •  Phonetic replacement
  •  Part removal
  •  Cursive script
  •  Radical Change

Unifying Variants

     At times there were variants of a character. For example, 島 could be seen as 嶋, 嶌 and 島 before reform. The radical in 近 has one dot but originally had two. For characters that are not in the 常用漢字 List, it is still common to see two dots. Other differences between the written and printed form were resolved in favor of the written form in many other characters such as the 八 change to 丷 in Kanji such as 判.


Phonetic Replacement

     A lot of characters classified under the 六書 as 形成文字(けいせいもじ) had their phonetic replaced with another character with the same phonetic without regards to the possible change in meaning in some cases. This allowed many characters to become much simpler. The process continues on in colloquial 略字 handwriting with カタカナ. 

 旧字体  新字体  ON Reading Used for Simplification
 圍  囲  イ
 廰  庁  チョウ
 膽  胆  タン

Part Removal

     Characters often got parts taken out during simplification. Duplicate parts were either reduced completely or considerably simplified to cut down stroke count. Some 旧字体 that were simplified this way became the same as an already existing character. The instances that this is so is far from many, but some like 藝 to 芸 caused problems. The latter character was a character with an 音読み of ウン and is in the name of Japan's first public library, 芸亭(うんてい).

 旧字体  新字体
 蟲  虫
 壘  塁
 縣  県

  Cursive Script   

     漢字 have massive appearance change and stroke reduction when written in cursive/grass script. The resultant script, at times, gave shape to a more solidified and simple 略字 that were made proper in reform. 

 旧字体  新字体  旧字体  新字体
 圖  図  覺  覚
 晝  昼  樂  楽
 學  学  靑  青

     Radical Change

     Radical change happened primarily from the use of cursive script. With such a simple change like this, many characters received a reduction in stroke number of as much as 2 or 3 strokes. An example of such radical change would be the change of 神 to 神 where the radical on the left changed to fit its cursive form. 


新字体 Extension

     Simplification was only applied to standardized 漢字, but it is common to see patterns used in 新字体 affect non-常用漢字i. 略字 are simplifications that are considered improper but are not uncommon.

 旧字体  新字体  旧字体  新字体
 潑  溌  曾  曽
 欅  﨔  鬱  欝
 鷗  鴎  頰  頬

List of 旧字体

 旧字体  新字体  旧字体  新字体
 萬  万  與  与
 兩  両  竝  並
 乘  乗  亂  乱
 豫  予  爭  争
 亞  亜  佛  仏
 假  仮  會  会
 傳  伝  伴  伴
 體  体  餘  余
 倂  併  價  価
 侮  侮  僞  偽
 儉  倹  僧  僧
 免  免  兒  児
 黨  党  具  具
 內  内  圓  円
 册
 冊  寫  写
 Slashes look like ン
 冬  處  処
 兇  凶  判  判
 Strokes are slashes in 月
 前  劍  剣
 劑  剤  剩  剰
 勵  励  勞  労
 效  効  敕  勅
   勉  勝  勝
 勤  勤  勸  勧
 勳  勲  包  包
 區  区  醫  医
 半  半    卑
 單  単  卽  即
 釐  厘  嚴  厳
 參  参    又
 雙  双  收  収
 敍  叙  臺  台
 號  号  吳  呉
 土 changed from stake with two lines  周  咊、龢  和
 八 changed to 丷  咲  啓  啓
 喝  喝  營  営
 嘆  嘆  囑  嘱
 器、噐  器  團  団
 圍  囲  圖  図
 國  国  圈  圏
 壓  圧  坪  坪
 墮  堕  塀  塀
 壘  塁  塚  塚
 鹽、盬  塩  增  増
 墨  墨  壞  壊
 壤  壌  壯  壮
 聲  声  壹  壱
 賣  売  變  変
 奧  奥  奬  奨
 姬  姫    娯
 孃  嬢  學  学
 寶  宝  實  実
 寒  寒  寬  寛
 寢  寝  對  対
 壽  寿  專  専
 將  将  尊  尊
 尙  尚  盡  尽
 屆  届  屬  属
 層  層  嶽  岳
 峽  峡  峯  峰
 嶌、嶋  島  Strokes are slashes in 月
 崩
 巢  巣  卷  巻
 帶  帯  歸  帰
 幤  幣  平  平
 廳  庁  廣  広
 廢  廃  廉  廉
 廊  廊  獘  弊
 辨、瓣、辯  弁  貳  弐
 弱  弱  强  強
 彈  弾  當  当
 徑  径  從  従
 德  徳  徵  徴
 應  応  戀  恋
 恆  恒  惠  恵
 悔  悔  惱  悩
 惡  悪  情  情
 慘  惨    慈
 愼  慎  慨  慨
 憎  憎  懷  懐
 懲  懲  戰  戦
 戲  戯  戾  戻
 拂  払  拔  抜
 擇  択  擔  担
 拐  拐  拜  拝
 據  拠  擴  拡
 擧  挙  挾  挟
 插  挿  搜  捜
 揭  掲  搖  揺
 攜、擕  携  攝  摂
 擊  撃  敏  敏
 敎  教  數  数
 敷  敷  齊  斉
 齋  斎  斷  断
 旣  既  舊  旧
 曐  星  晝  昼
 晚  晩  晴  晴
 曉  暁  暑  暑
 曆  暦  朗  朗
 朕  朕  Strokes are slashes in 月
 朝
 條  条  來  来
 樞  枢  榮  栄
 櫻  桜  棧  桟
 梅  梅  Strokes are slashes in 月
 棚
 檢
 検  樓  楼
 樂  楽  槪  概
 樣  様  權  権
 橫  横  欄  欄
 缺  欠  歐  欧
 士 changed to 木  款  歡  歓
 步  歩  齒  歯
 歷  歴  殘  残
 毆  殴  殺  殺
 殼  殻  每  毎
 氣  気  冰  氷
 沒  没  澤  沢
 淨  浄  淺  浅
 濱  浜  海  海
 淚  涙  淸  清
 渴  渇  濟  済
 涉  渉  澁  渋
 溪  渓  氵+廴+ 咼  渦
 溫  温  港  港
 灣  湾
 濕  湿
 滿  満  玄 were separate  滋
 瀧  滝  滯  滞
 桼  漆  漢  漢
   潔  潛  潜
 瀨  瀬  燈  灯
 灰  灰  爐  炉
 點  点  爲  為
 燒  焼  煮  煮
 犧  犠  狀  状
 獨  独  狹  狭
 獵  猟  獻  献
 獸    獣  甁  瓶
 畫  画  畍
 界
 畔  畔  畱、畄  留
 疊  畳  疏  疎
 癡  痴  瘉  癒
 發  発  益  益
 盜  盗  譼  監
 縣  県  眞  真
 硏  研  碎  砕
   碑  禮  礼
 玄 were separate  磁  社  社
 祈  祈  祉  祉
 祖  祖  祝  祝
 神  神  祥  祥
 禪  禅    禍
 福  福  祕  秘
 稱  称  稻  稲
 穀  穀  穗  穂
 穩  穏  突  突
 竊  窃  窗、囱、牎、牕、窻  窓
 竆  窮  龍  竜
 竸  競    節
 粹  粋  肅  粛
 精  精  絲  糸
 納  納    終
 經  経  繪  絵
 絕  絶  繼  継
 續  続   緜
 綿
 總  総  綠  緑
 緖  緒  練  練
 緣  縁  繩  縄
 縱  縦  繁  繁
 纖  繊  罐  缶
 署  署  飜  翻
 者  者  First slash has no line above it
 耕
 秏  耗  聖  聖
 聽  聴  膽  胆
   脱  腦  脳
 腕  捥  臟  臓
 臭  臭  舍  舎
 舖  舗  藝
 芸
 莖  茎  莊  荘
   著  藏  蔵
 薰  薫  藥  薬
 虛  虚  虜  虜
 虞  虞  蟲  虫
 蠶  蚕  螢  蛍
 蠻  蛮  眾  衆
 衞  衛  裝  装
 裡  裏  褐  褐
 襃  褒  霸  覇
   視  覺  覚
 覽  覧  觀  観
 觸  触  譯  訳
 證  証  評  評
 譽  誉    誤
 說  説  読  讀
   請  諸  諸
 謁  謁  謠  謡
 謹  謹  讓  譲
 豐  豊    賓
 贊  賛    贈
 踐  践  轉  転
 輕  軽  辭  辞
 邊  辺  送  送
 遞  逓  逸  逸
 遲  遅  郞  郎
 鄕  郷  都  都
 醉  酔  釀  醸
 釋  釈  鐵  鉄
 鑛  鉱  錢  銭
 鑄  鋳  鍊  錬
 錄  録  鎭  鎮
 兏、镸  長  關  関
 鬪  闘  陷  陥
 險  険  隆  隆
 隨  随  隱  隠
 隸  隷  雜  雑
   難  雪  雪
 靈  霊  靜  静
 響  響    頻
 賴  頼  顏  顔
 顯  顕  類  類
 飮
 飲  馱  駄
 驛  駅  驅  駆
 騷  騒  驗  験
 髓  髄  髙  高
 髮  髪  鷄  鶏
 麥  麦  黃  黄
 黑  黒  默  黙
 鼻  鼻  齢  齡
 龜
 亀  剝  剥
 齅  嗅  嘲  嘲
 塡  填  彌  弥
 捗  捗  曾  曽
 溺  溺  煎  煎
 瘦  痩  箸  箸
 艷  艶  葛  葛
 蔽  蔽  賭  賭
 遡  遡  頰  頬
 餠  餅  麵  麺

Variant Notes: Radical changes that affected all characters such as 餠 to 餅 in respect to the radical on the left, two dots to one for characters such as 近 have been omitted from the chart. When a character is not supported by UNICODE, a description is given instead.


第363課: Phonetic Re-Spellings of Uncommon Kanji (書き換え)

Part of the orthography reforms that were put in place by the Japanese Language Council (国語審議会) in 1956 involved the rewriting of words which contained Kanji outside of the designated list of common-use characters (当用漢字表) by replacing one or more characters with ones that had the same phonetic (音読み). The practice of substituting one Kanji for another is referred to as 書き換え, which simply means "rewriting." 

This practice, however, is not as radical as it may seem. As you will see in this lesson, many of the examples of replacing very similar characters with each other, with the ultimate spelling being the less complicated spelling which may have actually been in use prior to these standardization reforms.  

Though it has been a long time since these reformed spellings were implemented, all traditional spellings of words are still easily typed with modern word processors. As such, you will still see many of the original spellings introduced in this lesson. It is because of this that knowing about them is important to have full literacy. 

The Ironic Complication of Simplification

A lot of factors have contributed to the mess in orthography 書き換え has caused. One such factor was the concept of 代用字, characters chosen to unilaterally replace another character. This is the main contributing factor to examples aside from unifying spellings. 

An extremely important thing to note as you read through the many examples presented in this lesson is how much of an impact the practice of 書き換え has had on both the written and spoken language. You will notice that the overwhelming majority of examples are exemplary of the written language. A lot of words that had their spellings altered simply fell out of use. In fact, only about 40% of the words listed in the charts can be classified as common even in the spoken language.    

Orthography Note: Spellings used in example sentences are stilted toward using replaced characters. This is because the traditional spelling(s) of many of these words have fallen almost entirely out of use. However, if you wish to substitute newer spellings with older ones, you may do so but at the risk of the reader potentially not being able to read the word.  

 意味  読み  元の用字  変化後  意味  読み  元の用字  変化後
 Recitation  あんしょう  暗誦・諳誦  暗唱  Dark night  あんや  闇夜  暗夜
 Intention  いこう  意嚮  意向  Reparation  いしゃりょう  慰藉料  慰謝料
 Garment  いしょう  衣裳  衣装  Gloom  いんえい  陰翳  陰影
 Genius  えいさい  穎才  英才  Wisdom  えいち  叡智  英知
 Protection  えんご  掩護  援護  Favor  おんぎ  恩誼  恩義

1. 今学期より 漢詩暗誦 ( かんしあんしょう ) スキルという授業が開かれます。
    A new course called "Chinese Poem Recitation"will be given starting this semester. 

2. 去年のハロウィンで、ナチスの 軍服 ( ぐんぷく ) 連想 ( れんそう ) させるとされる 衣装 ( いしょう ) を着たアイドルグループがイスラエルから 抗議 ( こうぎ ) を受けるというニュースがあった。
There was a news report in last year's Halloween about a pop idol group which wore outfits reminiscent of Nazi military uniforms.  

3. 原子爆弾被爆者 ( げんしばくだんひばくしゃ ) 援護 ( えんご ) すること。
   Helping atomic bomb victims.

4. 厳しい 入学試験 ( にゅうがくしけん ) に合格して入学してくるほど英才であれば、そうした学生はすでに大学教育に 相応 ( ふさわ ) しい学力を持っているでしょう。
If someone is the kind of genius who is admitted into a university after having passed a harsh entry exam, that student already has the academic ability becoming of a college education. 

5. 比喩 ( ひゆ ) 陰影 ( いんえい ) ( ) んだ文章だからこそ、読者の方々の心に響かせるでしょう。
Because it is a such a prose filled with metaphors and subtleties, it is sure to reverberate in the minds of readers. 

6. 古代の 叡智 ( えいち ) は素晴らしいなと思っています。
    I think that ancient wisdom is amazing. 

7. 長い暗夜にも必ず夜明けがある。
    Dawn will always break even for the longest of dark nights. 

8. ( すで ) 支出 ( ししゅつ ) した 治療費 ( ちりょうひ ) と今後かかるであろう治療費を含めてこれから 加害者 ( かがいしゃ ) 慰謝料 ( いしゃりょう ) を求めようと思っています。
I intend to hereafter seek reparation from the perpetrator for medical expenditures I've already incurred as well as those I expect to incur in the future. 

Controversy Note: 援護 and 掩護 are technically different words. 援護 refers to rescuing those in trouble whereas 掩護 refers to protecting allies from enemy attack. 

 意味  読み  元の用字  変化後  意味  読み  元の用字  変化後
 Rotation  かいてん  廻転  回転  Blaze  かえん  火焰  火炎
 Scuffling  かくとう  挌闘  格闘  Lively  かっぱつ  活潑  活発
 Intermittent  かんけつ  間歇  間欠  Vital  かんじん  肝腎  肝心
 Scarce  きしょう  稀少  希少  Badge  きしょう  徽章  記章
 Miracle  きせき  奇蹟  奇跡  Colorful story  きだん  綺談  奇談
 Counseling  きょうかい  教誨  教戒  Lethal weapon  きょうき  兇器  凶器

Controversy Note: 記章 and 徽章 are technically different words. 記章 refers to an insignia used to commemorate something. 徽章 refers to a badge indicating affiliation.  

Controversy Note: 奇談 and 綺談 are technically different words. 奇談 refers to strange stories. 綺談 refers to well-crafted stories. 

Controversy Note: 教戒 and 教誨 are technically different words. 教戒 refers to admonishing. 教誨 refers to doing pastoral work to prisoners. 

9. 格闘技を習いたいと思っているのですが、なかなかどれを選べばいいのか分かりません。
    I'd like to study martial arts, but I'm not quite sure which one I should choose.

10. 肝心なところをしっかりと理解してほしい。
      I want you to firmly understand the essentials.

11. 家が腫れ上げる火炎に飲まれ瞬く間に爆発した。
      The home was swallowed in bellowing flames and exploded in an instant. 

12. 彼は見ての通り元気で活発な少年です。
  As you can see, he is a lively and active youth.

13. 度重なる奇蹟に驚きました。
  I was surprised at the repeated miracles.

14. もし凶器を持って「殺すぞ」と脅した時、相手が「やってみな」などと言い返したとします。 
Let's suppose that you threaten someone by saying "I'll kill you" while holding a deadly weapon and your opponent retorts back "I'd like to see you try."

15. 貴子は、ここまで長々と話を聞かされた以上、偶然でも奇跡でも構わないから、その美容師の記憶力に間違いがないことを祈るだけだと思いながら、ひたすら黙って立っていた。 
Seeing that she had been made to listen to this long-winded talk, Takako earnestly stood there silently as she felt there was no other recourse but to pray that there was no doubt in the stylist's memory, whether it be by sheer coincidence or by miracle.
From 凍える牙 by 乃南アサ.

 意味  読み  元の用字  変化後  意味  読み  元の用字  変化後
 Fishing  ぎょろう  漁撈  漁労
 Talent  ぎりょう  伎倆
 技量
 Compartment  くかく  区劃  区画  Excavation  くっさく  掘鑿  掘削
 Admonition  くんかい  訓誡  訓戒  Smoking (food)  くんせい  燻製  薫製
 Washout  けっかい  決潰  決壊  Rising to action  けっき  蹶起  決起
 Farewell  けつべつ  訣別  決別  String music  げんか  絃歌  弦歌

16. 漁労設備 ( ぎょろうせつび ) が船ごとに異なるのは仕方がない。
      It can't be helped that fishing equipment differs per bus. 

17. 技量 ( ぎりょう ) ( みが ) くために ( さら ) なる 研修 ( けんしゅう ) が必要だ。
  Further training is needed to improve skills. 

18. 海外の 行政区画 ( ぎょうせいくかく ) を「 ( けん ) 」と ( やく ) 基準 ( きじゅん ) は何でしょうか。
      What is the standard for translating overseas administrative districts as "prefectures"?

19. 鬼怒川 ( きぬがわ ) 防波堤 ( ぼうはてい ) 決壊 ( けっかい ) し、家が次々と 濁流 ( だくりゅう ) に飲まれてしまった。
      The Kinugawa seawall broke and house after house was swallowed up by a muddy stream. 

20. 故郷 ( こきょう ) 決別 ( けつべつ ) し、自分なりの思いの地で 生活再建 ( せいかつさいけん ) 専心 ( せんしん ) したいと思う。
      Saying farewell to my hometown, I'd like to devote myself to resettling akin to my own mind.

21. 3本の 運河 ( うんが ) 掘削量 ( くっさくりょう ) を減らすために、 ( いく ) つかの 人造湖 ( じんぞうこ ) を作る計画が出された。
A plan to construct several man-made lakes was brought up to reduce the amount of excavation work for the three canals. 

22. 豆腐 ( とうふ ) 燻製 ( くんせい ) 挑戦 ( ちょうせん ) しました。
      I challenged myself with smoking tofu.

23. 政府に 搾取 ( さくしゅ ) され続けてきた国民が 決起 ( けっき ) して 与党幹部 ( よとうかんぶ ) らを 打倒 ( だとう ) することに成功した。
The citizens, who had continued to be exploited by the government, succeeded in overthrowing the party leaders by rising to action.

 意味  読み  元の用字  変化後  意味  読み  元の用字  変化後
 Solemn  げんぜん  儼然  厳然  Precipice  けんそ  嶮岨  険阻
 Crossing  こうさ  交叉  交差  Deduction  こうじょ  扣除  控除
 Ore  こうせき  礦石  鉱石  Funeral offering  こうでん  香奠  香典
 Far-reaching  こうはん  広汎  広範  Excitement  こうふん  亢奮・昂奮  興奮
 Public relations  こうほう  弘報  広報  Reconciliation  こうわ  媾和  講和

24. 爆薬 ( ばくやく ) 設置 ( せっち ) して 鉱山 ( こうざん ) 爆破 ( ばくは ) することで 鉱石 ( こうせき ) ( ) ( ) こすことができる。
    You can dig up ore by setting off dynamite in a mine. 

25. 日本は1951年9月8日にサンフランシス 講和条約 ( こうわじょうやく ) 締結 ( ていけつ ) 占領 ( せんりょう ) から 開放 ( かいほう ) され 正式 ( せいしき ) 終戦 ( しゅうせん ) となりました。
Japan entered into the Treaty of San Francisco on September 8th, 1951, which released Japan from occupation and officially ended the war.

26. この道の 特色 ( とくしょく ) のひとつは 比較的 ( ひかくてき ) 険阻 ( けんそ ) 坂道 ( さかみち ) が多いことである。
  One characteristic of this road is that there is a lot of relatively steep slopes.

27. 所得税控除 ( しょとくぜいこうじょ ) を受けるためには、 確定申告 ( かくていしんこく ) の手続きを行う必要があります。
  In order to receive an income tax credit, having a final tax form done is necessary. 

28. 経営 ( けいえい ) ( かん ) する 広範 ( こうはん ) な知識を身につける使命を持っているんです。
  I have a mission to acquire far-reaching knowledge in management.

29. ヒトの 骨格 ( こっかく ) とチンパンジーの骨格と比べてみましょう。 
  Let's compare the skeletal structures of humans and chimpanzees.

30. 自分と 大差 ( たいさ ) ないと思う、きっかけ一つ間違えただけだと思うのに、貴子と彼女たちとの間には、 厳然 ( げんぜん ) たる違いがあった。
Although Takako felt they weren't so different from herself, and although she felt that they had only messed up on one chance, there was a solemn difference between them and her.  
From 凍える牙 by 乃南アサ.

31. 駅に向かって歩きながら、貴子の中で奇妙な 興奮 ( こうふん ) ( ) き起こっていた。
    As Takako walked toward the train station, a curious excitement welled up inside her.
From 凍える牙 by 乃南アサ.  

 意味  読み  元の用字  変化後  意味  読み  元の用字  変化後
 Running dry  こかつ  涸渇  枯渇  Physique/framework  こっかく  骨骼  骨格
 Employment  こよう  雇傭  雇用  Root/basis  こんてい  根柢  根底
 Acetic acid  さくさん  醋酸  酢酸  Turmoil  こんめい  昏迷  混迷
 Idle spectating  ざし  坐視  座視  Traffic jam  ざっとう  雑沓  雑踏
 Compliment/eulogy  さんじ  讃辞  賛辞  Irrigating  さんすい  撒水  散水
 Stimulus  しげき  刺戟  刺激  Corpse  したい  屍体  死体

Controversy Note: 混迷 and 昏迷 are technically different words. 混迷 refers to being bewildered with no insight to be had. 昏迷 refers to being stupefied, or in medical terms, being in a coma. 

32. 世界の 資源 ( しげん ) 枯渇 ( こかつ ) しつつある。
    The world's resources are running dry.

33. 雇用証明書 ( こようしょうめいしょ ) 提出 ( ていしゅつ ) してください。
  Please submit employment verification.

34. 雑踏対策 ( ざっとうたいさく ) 軽視 ( けいし ) されていた。
    Congestion countermeasures had been neglected.

35. 工事現場 ( こうじげんば ) 散水車 ( さんすいしゃ ) を運転する。
    To drive a sprinkler trunk at a construction site.

36. 死んだ後も、朽ちることのない死体と ( ) してしまったのだった。 
     Even after death, he transformed into a corpse which experienced no decay.

37. あの ( ころ ) は、刑事ごっこをしているようで、新たな刺激に包まれつつも、何とも気楽なものだった。 
At that time, it seemed like (she) was playing detective,and while she was surrounded with new stimuli, she was quite at ease.
From 凍える牙 by 乃南アサ.

38. 自分が今まで信じ、 ささ えにしていたものは 根底 こんてい から くつがえ されてしまった。
   What I had believed and supported was overturned from the ground up.

 意味  読み  元の用字  変化後  意味  読み  元の用字  変化後
 Wheeled vehicle  しゃりょう  車輛  車両  Collection  しゅうしゅう  蒐集  収集
 Being resolved  しゅうそく  終熄  終息  Settlement  しゅうらく  聚落  集落
 Impediment  しょうがい  障碍・障礙  障害  Effacement  しょうきゃく  銷却  消却
 Advancement  しょうじょ  陞叙  昇叙  Impatience  しょうそう  焦躁  焦燥
 Barrier  しょうへき  牆壁  障壁  Distillation  じょうりゅう  蒸溜  蒸留

Controversy Note: 収集 and 蒐集 are technically different words. 収集 refers to people/things "gathering" and 蒐集 refers to collecting lots of things/material out of interest/for study. 

Controversy Note: 障壁 and 牆壁 are technically different words. 障壁 refers to an obstruction. 牆壁 refers to fences and walls.

39. 高額車輛 ( こうがくしゃりょう ) 輸送 ( ゆそう ) する場合に輸送コストは 割高 ( わりだか ) になってしまうが、セキュリティー上の理由から利用されることが多い。
Transporting high-cost rail cars means transport costs are comparatively high, but they are used a lot for security reasons.

40. 意識 ( いしき ) して 前向 ( まえむ ) きに 思考 ( しこう ) することが必要なのは不安と 恐怖 ( きょうふ ) 焦燥感 ( しょうそうかん ) ( ) られているときなどでしょう。
It is necessary to consciously think positively whenever one is frantic with anxiety, fear, and impatience.

41. 韓国の ( ぱく ) 大統領は 慰安婦問題 ( いあんふもんだい ) が日本との 外交 ( がいこう ) 障壁 ( しょうへき ) になっていると発言した。
South Korea President Park remarked that the issue of comfort women was an obstacle in diplomacy with Japan.

42. 名簿 ( めいぼ ) から名前を 消却 ( しょうきゃく ) する。
  To erase one's name from the register.

43. 集落 ( しゅうらく ) 全焼 ( ぜんしょう ) し200人が犠牲となった。 
      The whole settlement burned down, resulting in 200 victims.

 意味  読み  元の用字  変化後  意味  読み  元の用字  変化後
 Epistle  しょかん  書翰  書簡  Lyricism  じょじょう  抒情  叙情
 Trial  しれん  試煉  試練  Corrosion  しんしょく  浸蝕  浸食
 Stretching  しんちょう  伸暢  伸長  Permeation  しんとう  滲透  浸透
 Interrogation  じんもん  訊問  尋問  Degeneration  すいたい  衰頽  衰退
 Inhabiting  せいそく  棲息  生息  (Leading) edge  せんたん  尖端  先端
 Acute/radical  せんえい  尖鋭  先鋭  Screening  せんこう  銓衡  選考
 Cleaning  せんじょう  洗滌  洗浄  Sensationalism  せんじょう  煽情  扇情

Controversy Note: 洗浄 and 洗滌 are technically different words. 洗浄 refers to cleansing in a religious sense. 洗滌 refers to cleaning with water/medicine.  

Controversy Note: 生息 and 棲息 are technically different words. 生息 refers either to "living one's life" or plants living. 棲息 refers either to (animal) habitation.

Controversy Note: 先端 and 尖端 are technically different words. 先端 refers to the end of something long. 尖端 refers either to the tip of something sharp or the start of a trend/period. 

44.  郵便書簡 ( ゆうびんしょかん ) とは 封筒兼用 ( ふうとうけんよう ) 便箋 ( びんせん ) のことです。
        A letter-card is letter paper combined with an envelope.

45. 最初の 試練 ( しれん ) にチャレンジしたが失敗に終わった。
     I challenged the first trial, but I ended in failure.

46. 中国は21世紀になっても膨張主義で 隣国 ( りんこく ) を次々と 侵食 ( しんしょく ) していった。
Even into the 21st century, China eroded into its neighboring countries one after another under expansionism.

47. 沖縄に対する 偏向 ( へんこう ) が日本社会に 浸透 ( しんとう ) している。
       A bias toward Okinawa has percolated into Japanese society.

48.  扇情的 ( せんじょうてき ) な見出しの記事のほうが読者を増やすのが当たり前だ。
        It’s only natural that sensational headlines are what increases readers.

49.  洗浄剤 ( せんじょうざい ) 塩素系 ( えんそけい ) 漂白剤 ( ひょうはくざい ) などを誤って飲んだ時、すぐに水で口をすすいでから、コップ1~2杯の牛乳または水を飲んでください。
When you accidentally ingest detergent or chlorine bleach, immediately rinse your mouth with water and then drink one or two cups of milk or water.  

漢字Note: すすぐ in the meaning of “to rinse out (one’s mouth)” can be spelled as 漱ぐ. 

 意味  読み  元の用字  変化後  意味  読み  元の用字  変化後
 Arbitrariness  せんだん  擅断  専断  Death in battle  せんぼつ  戦歿  戦没
 Inlaying  ぞうがん  象嵌  象眼  Fellowship  じょうぎ  情誼  情義
 Integration  そうごう  綜合  総合  Rivalry  そうこく  相剋  相克
 Annihilation  そうめつ  剿滅  掃滅  Growing in clusters  そうせい  簇生  族生
 Hindrance  そし  沮止  阻止  Communication  そつう  疏通  疎通
 Faded color  たいしょく  褪色
 退色  Entreaty  たんがん  歎願  嘆願
 Indoor heating  だんぼう  煖房  暖房  Wisdom/wit  ちえ  智慧   知恵
 Knowledge  ちしき  智識  知識  Remark/annotation  ちゅうしゃく  註釈  注釈

Controversy Note: 情義 and 情誼 are technically different words. 情義 refers to humanity in a sense of duty. 情誼 refers to cordiality with others.  

Reading Note: 族生・簇生 may alternatively be read as ぞくせい.

50. 様々な生物の 棲息分布 ( せいそくぶんぷ ) が大きく変わってしまったら生態系が段々と壊れていくのだろう。
If the habitats of various creatures were to greatly change, the ecosystem would likely gradually collapse.

51. 路上 ( ろじょう ) で私服警官に 尋問 ( じんもん ) を受ける。
  To be questioned by a plain‐clothes officer on the street.

52. この部分の 伸長 ( しんちょう ) は、 土壌中 ( どじょうちゅう ) でのみ起こり、光が当たると 停止 ( ていし ) してしまう。
The elongated growth of this area only occurs when it is in soil and halts whenever light hits it. 

53. 政府主催 ( せいふしゅさい ) 全国戦没者追悼式 ( ぜんこくせんぼつしゃついとうしき ) が行われた。
      A government sponsored national memorial service for war dead was held. 

54. 職務上の 権限 ( けんげん ) ( ) えた 専断的 ( せんだんてき ) な行為をしてはならない。
      One mustn't commit arbitrary acts that go beyond the authority of one's work duties.

55. 繊細 ( せんさい ) 金属象嵌 ( きんぞくぞうがん ) 草花 ( くさばな ) 模様 ( もよう ) を表す。
      To represent a flower design with delicate metal inlay. 

56. 義理と人情の 相克 ( そうこく ) ( なや ) む。
      To be distressed over the rivalry between duty and humanity.

57. 周りと 意思疎通 ( いしそつう ) ができなくても、身振り手振りで何となく分かり合えるようになるのではないかと思います。
I think that even if you couldn't mutually understand with those around you that you would somehow be able to understand each other with gestures.  

58. 暖房を付けると電気代がぐんと上がってしまう。
      One's electric bill drastically goes up when the heater is turned on.

59. 心理学の知識を生かす仕事って何でしょう。
     What are some jobs that utilize knowledge in psychology?

60. Wordでの注釈の付け方がわかりません。 
      I don't know how to add annotations in Word.

61. 決して 進歩 しんぽ 阻止 そし するためではない。
  It is never to obstruct progress.

62.  侵入者 しんにゅうしゃ 掃滅 そうめつ せよ。
  Annihilate intruders. 

63.  専門的 せんもんてき かつ 総合的 そうごうてき 意見 いけん まと めました。
  I have compiled expert and comprehensive opinion (on the matter).

 意味  読み  元の用字  変化後  意味  読み  元の用字  変化後
 Order  ちゅうもん  註文  注文  Strange occurrence  ちんじ  椿事  珍事
 Precipitation  ちんでん  沈澱  沈殿  Collision  ていしょく  牴触・觝触  抵触
 Courteous  ていちょう  鄭重  丁重  Polite  ていねい  叮嚀  丁寧
 Anchorage  ていはく  碇泊  停泊  Notebook  てちょう  手帖  手帳
 Tumbling  てんとう  顚倒  転倒  Emulation  とうしゅう  蹈襲  踏襲
 Stoppage  とぜつ  杜絶  途絶  Immorality  はいとく  悖徳  背徳
 Revocation  はき  破毀  破棄  Exposure/disclosure  ばくろ  曝露  暴露
 Crushing  はさい  破摧  破砕  Fermentation  はっこう  醱酵  発酵
 Excerpt  ばっすい  抜萃  抜粋  Insurrection  はんらん  叛乱  反乱

Controversy Note: 珍事 and 椿事 are technically different words. 珍事 refers to a rare event. 椿事 refers to unexpected occurrence usually with a negative nuance. 

Controversy Note: 破棄 and 破毀 are technically different words. 破棄 refers to ridding of an agreement/contract. 破毀 refers to repealing a ruling upon appeal.  

Meaning Note: 沈殿・沈澱 means "precipitation as in the formation of a solid in chemistry.  

64. 釈放嘆願書 ( しゃくほうたんがんしょ ) 署名 ( しょめい ) する。
  To sign an acquittal petition. 

65. 化学の 実験操作法 ( じっけんそうさほう ) として 沈殿 ( ちんでん ) が利用される場合がある。
  There are instances in which precipitation is used as a chemical experimental procedure.

66. 一人一人のお客さんと丁寧に向き合って仕事をすることが大事です。
  It is important to work while facing each and every customer politely. 

67. 転倒 ( てんとう ) しない限り、ガソリンが出てくることはないはずです。
     So long as you don't tumble (in it), there shouldn't ever be gasoline coming out of it.

68. 米軍の 犯罪 ( はんざい ) 暴露 ( ばくろ ) したマニング ( いっ ) 等兵 ( とうへい ) が20の 容疑 ( ようぎ ) について有罪の 評決 ( ひょうけつ ) を受けた。
Private First Class Officer Manning received a guilty verdict on twenty counts for exposing US military crimes.

69. 背徳行為 ( はいとくこうい ) をしなくても 罪悪感 ( ざいあくかん ) を持つことはあります。
      There are times I have a sense of guilt even when I don't do something immoral.

70. 各地で反乱が起きている。
     Revolts are happening everywhere.

71. ワインはブドウを 発酵 ( はっこう ) させて作ります。
  Wine is made by fermenting grapes.

72. 気に入っているフレーズを 抜粋 ( ばっすい ) して一冊の本にする。
  To turn phrases one likes and has extracted into a book.

73. お手数ですがメールを破棄してくださいますようお願いいたします。
     We apologize for the trouble, but we ask that you would please destroy e-mails.

74. ノースウェスト 準州 ( じゅんしゅう ) 点在 ( てんざい ) する町から町への 航空輸送 ( こうくうゆそう ) 途絶 ( とぜつ ) したら、多くの人が 孤立状 ( こりつじょう ) 態になってしまい、 深刻 ( しんこく ) 食糧不足 ( しょくりょうぶそく ) 直面 ( ちょくめん ) せざるを得ないだろう。
If air transport between town and town dotting the Northwest Territories were suspended, many people would be isolated and would have to face severe food shortage.

75. トランプ大統領は 就任 しゅうにん したら間もなく、オバマ 前政権 ぜんせいけん 方針 ほうしん 踏襲 とうしゅう しない 意向 いこう 正式 せいしき 表明 ひょうめい した。 
No sooner after President Trump had taken office, he officially expressed his intent not to follow suit with Former President Obama's policies. 

 意味  読み  元の用字  変化後  意味  読み  元の用字  変化後
 Baseless rumor  ひご  蜚語  飛語  Cipher/mark  ふちょう  符牒  符丁
 Compilation  へん  篇  編  Editing  へんしゅう  編輯  編集
 Nurturing  ほいく  哺育  保育  Obstruction  ぼうがい  妨碍・妨礙  妨害
 Abandonment  ほうき  抛棄  放棄
 Defense  ぼうぎょ  防禦  防御
 Bandage  ほうたい  繃帯  包帯  Huge/swelling  ぼうだい  厖大  膨大
 Kitchen knife  ほうちょう  庖丁  包丁  Adviser  ほさ  輔佐  補佐
 Groping for  もさく  摸索  模索  Vulgar/crude  やひ  野鄙  野卑
 Welding  ようせつ  熔接  溶接  Greed/desire  よく  慾  欲
 Theory/reason  りくつ  理窟  理屈  Clever  りこう  悧巧  利口
 Pillage  りゃくだつ  掠奪  略奪  Comprehension  りょうかい  諒解  了解
 Contour  りんかく  輪廓  輪郭  Linkage  れんけい  連繫  連係
 Alliance  れんごう  聯合  連合  Curve/bend  わんきょく  彎曲  湾曲

Controversy Note: 膨大 and 厖大 are technically different words. 膨大 refers to getting larger and is traditionally just a verb. 厖大 refers to extent/amount being large and is traditionally just an adjective. 

Controversy Note: 保育 and 哺育 are technically different words. 保育 refers to raising a child/infant. 哺育 refers to mammals (including humans) nursing. 

Controversy Note: 妨害 and 妨碍・妨礙 are technically different words. 妨害 refers to obstruction in a roadway. 妨碍・妨礙 refers to causing harm to someone and obstructing the execution of something.

76. インターネット上の 流言飛語 ( りゅうげんひご ) ( たい ) する 規制 ( きせい ) 是非 ( ぜひ ) 理論的 ( りろんてき ) 検討 ( けんとう ) すべく、 討論会 ( とうろんかい ) が行われた。
A debate took place to logically consider the pros and cons of regulations on wild groundless Internet rumors

77.  常日頃 ( つねひごろ ) から 寿司屋 ( すしや ) とかで『あがり』などの 符丁 ( ふちょう ) を使う人を恥ずかしく思わないんですか。
Aren’t you ashamed of people who always use the coded speech of venues such as sushi restaurants, for example, “agari (for tea).”  

78. トランプ氏は本当にロシアの 選挙妨害 ( せんきょぼうがい ) を認めるのか。
  Will Mr. Trump really admit to Russian obstruction in the election?

79. 一緒に課題を考え、一緒に解決の道を 模索 ( もさく ) しましょう。
     Together, let’s think of tasks and fumble for ways of solving them.  

80.  ( かた ) いまま 無理 ( むり ) やり 包丁 ( ほうちょう ) で切っていました。
      I was forcibly cutting it with a kitchen knife while it was still hard.

81. 犯人は、コンビニから 商品 ( しょうひん ) 略奪 ( りゃくだつ ) したりパトカーに火をつけたりしていたということです。
 The criminal I said to have plundered a convenience store, set a police car on fire, and other things.

82. 湾曲 ( わんきょく ) した 海岸線 ( かいがんせん ) が見えてきた。
A curved coastline came into view.

83. アラブ 連合共和国 ( れんごうきょうわこく ) は1958年にエジプト共和国とシリア共和国と連合して作られた国家でした。
The United Arab Republic was a nation created in 1958 by the unification of the Republic of Egypt and the Syrian Republic.  

84. そうしたら、何が正しいのかという 理性的 ( りせいてき ) 観点 ( かんてん ) に立って、つまり 理屈 ( りくつ ) ( かな ) った説明ができ、相手を説得することができるでしょう。
And then, when you take a logical point of view of what’s correct, in other words, when you can make an explanation that’s rational, you should be able to persuade your opponent.

85.  溶接環境 ( ようせつかんきょう ) における 換気設備 ( かんきせつび ) のメンテナンスでは、サービス 技術者 ( ぎじゅつしゃ ) の安全を確保する必要があります。
It is necessary to secure the safety of service technicians during maintenance on the ventilation equipment in the welding environment.

86.  野卑 ( やひ ) 言葉遣 ( ことばづか ) いは絶対にいけません。
Vulgar speech is never tolerable.

87. トランプ氏は13日、政権の ( かなめ ) となる 次期首席大統領補佐官 ( じきしゅせきだいとうりょうほさかん ) 共和党全国委員長 ( きょうわとうぜんこくいいんちょう ) のラインス・プリーバス氏を 起用 ( きよう ) すると発表しました。 
On the 13th, Mr. Trump announced that he will appoint Reince Priebus, Republican National Committee Chairman, to be his administration’s pivotal appointee as the President Elect’s White House Chief of Staff.    

88. 彼女は昌代の包帯を巻かれた手をさすり、「怖かったわよね」「痛かったでしょう」などと言った。
She stroked the bandaged hands of Masayo as she repeatedly said, "I bet it was so scary" and "I’m sure it hurt."
From 凍える牙 by 乃南アサ. 

89. つまり、今回の事件については、ホシの 輪郭 ( りんかく ) が非常に ( つか ) みにくいということだった。
In other words, for this case, it was going to be extremely difficult to get a hold of a sketch of the perpetrator.
From 凍える牙 by 乃南アサ.


 Unofficial Examples of 書き換え

 The Japanese Language Council, incidentally, didn't do such a good job at covering every instance of 書き換え that would be necessary to comply with their overarching initiative. As such, the community at large implemented its own simplifications, many of which are still in common use. 

 意味  読み  元の用字  変化後  意味  読み  元の用字  変化後
 Dumbbell  あれい  啞鈴  亜鈴  Atrophy  いしゅく  萎縮  委縮
 Getting rich quick  いっかくせんきん  一攫千金
 一獲千金  Spoliation  いんめつ  湮滅  隠滅
 Conjecture  おくだん  臆断  憶断  Cowardice  おくびょう  臆病  憶病
 Roundworm  かいちゅう  蛔虫  回虫  Excursion  かいゆう  回游・洄游  回遊
 Itemization  かじょうがき  箇条書き  個条書き  Resolute  かっこ  確乎  確固
 Form/posture  かっこう  恰好  格好  Physique  かっぷく  恰幅  格幅
 Function  かんすう  函数  関数  Dignity  かんろく  貫禄  貫録
 Alms  ぎえん  義捐  義援  Gleeful  きき  嬉々  喜々
 Defamation  きそん  毀損  棄損  Drive/spirit  きはく  気魄  気迫
 Sophistry  きべん  詭辯  奇弁・危弁  Divertimenti  きゆうきょく  嬉遊曲  喜遊曲

90.  木原刑事 ( きはらけいじ ) 光畑容疑者 ( みつはたようぎしゃ ) 気魄 ( きはく ) に押されて後ずさりした。
      Detective Kihara recoiled from being intimidated by the zeal of the suspect Mitsuhata.

91. これは 名誉毀損罪 ( めいよきそんざい ) に問われる内容でしょうか。
      Is this the sort of stuff one can be accused of libel for?

92. 一般の角度に対する 三角関数 ( さんかくかんすう ) を得るためには、三角関数について成り立つ何らかの定理を 指針 ( ししん ) として、定義の拡張を行う必要がある。
In order to get a trigonometric function for a general angle, it’s necessary that you expand its definition by using some theorem which holds as an index.  

From the Wikipedia page on 三角関数.

93. 母親が 萎縮 ( いしゅく ) したり、謝ったりする必要はありません。
    There is no need for mother to cower or apologize.

94. 両手に鉄の{亜鈴・ダンベル}を持ち上げる。
      To lift an iron dumbbell with both hands.

95. 猫は、 回虫 ( かいちゅう ) を持ったネズミや 小鳥 ( ことり ) といった 小動物 ( しょうどうぶつ ) を食べた場合や、 感染 ( かんせん ) した母猫の乳を子猫が飲んだ場合などにも、回虫に感染することがある。
Cats may be infected with roundworms by eating mice, small birds, and other small animals with them and kittens may also be infected by drinking milk from their mothers if infected.

96.  犯則嫌疑者 ( はんそくけんぎしゃ ) 逃避 ( とうひ ) ( ) しくは証拠を 湮滅 ( いんめつ ) する恐れがあって緊急を ( よう ) する場合には、事後に 令状交付 ( れいじょうこうふ ) 請求 ( せいきゅう ) することができる。
When there is an urgent concern that a tax evader may flee or destroy evidence, you are able to request a warrant a posteriori.

97. 東日本大震災の 復興支援 ( ふっこうしえん ) のために 義援金 ( ぎえんきん ) 寄付 ( きふ ) しました。
     I donated contributions for the recovery efforts for the Great East Japan Earthquake.

 意味  読み  元の用字  変化後  意味  読み  元の用字  変化後
 Feast/banquet  きょうえん  饗宴  供宴  Bridgehead  きょうとうほ  橋頭堡  橋頭保
 Conjugation (math)  きょうやく  共軛  共役  Contribution  きょきん  醵金  拠金
 Contribution  きょしゅつ  醵出  拠出  Imprisonment  きんこ  禁錮  禁固
 Uniformity  きんせい  均斉  均整  Fumigation  くんじょう  燻蒸  薫蒸
 Pious  けいけん  敬虔  敬謙  Indignant  げきこう  激昂  激高
 Scapula/shoulder blade  けんこうこつ  肩胛骨  肩甲骨  Building-to-land ratio  けんぺいりつ  建蔽率  建坪率
 Fascination  げんわく  眩惑  幻惑  Custody/abduction  こういん  勾引  拘引
 Cultivator/tiller  こううんき  耕耘機  耕運機  Exacerbated  こうしん  昂進・亢進  高進
 Joint management  ごうべん  合辦  合弁  Harmonious  こんぜん  渾然  混然
 Three-forked road  さんさろ  三叉路  三差路  Article for pawning  しちぐさ  質種  質草

98.  薫蒸 ( くんじょう ) とは 有害生物 ( ゆうがいせいぶつ ) 駆除 ( くじょ ) する方法のひとつです。
       Fumigation is one way of exterminating pests.

99. 私のことなんですが、 敬虔 ( けいけん ) 無視論者 ( むしろんしゃ ) と言っていいかもしれません。
      Although this is about me, it’s probably safe to call me a pious atheist.

100.  激昂 ( げっこう ) して 審判(員) ( しんぱんいん ) ( ねら ) って投げつける。
        To indignantly target and pelt an umpire/referee.

101.  鉄鋼関連 ( てっこうかんれん ) 合弁事業契約 ( ごうべんじぎょうけいやく ) を結ぶ。
    To sign a steel-related joint venture contract.

102.  上陸作戦 ( じょうりくさくせん ) を成功させるには、 橋頭堡 ( きょうとうほ ) ( きず ) くことが 不可欠 ( ふかけつ ) 条件 ( じょうけん ) である。
In order to make a landing operation succeed, establishing a bridgehead is an essential condition.

103. 一度見たら忘れられない 均整 ( きんせい ) の取れた形と色になっています。
        It has a balanced form and color that you won’t be able to forget just by looking at it once.

104. 私が借りようとしている 借家 ( しゃくや ) ですが、 立地 ( りっち ) 三差路 ( さんさろ ) に面した場所です。
Although this is about the rental home I’m trying to rent, it’s the place where the lot faces a three-forked road.

105.  肩甲骨 ( けんこうこつ ) の筋肉を動かして刺激することで 基礎代謝 ( きそたいしゃ ) があがる。
       Moving and stimulating the muscles of the scapula raises one’s basal metabolism.

106. 世界中の 共産主義者 ( きょうさんしゅぎしゃ ) はロシアや中国などといった国々に 幻惑 ( げんわく ) されていた。
      The communists of the world had been enchanting by countries such as Russia and China.

107. 今回のケースでは、 暴行 ( ぼうこう ) が複数回に ( およ ) んでいたため、 禁固 ( きんこ ) 150年の 判決 ( はんけつ ) となった模様だ。
In this case, because the assaults had amounted to several times, it seems that the verdict was a 150 year prison sentence.

108.  第四十七条 ( だいよんじゅうしちじょう )    機構 ( きこう ) は、 救済給付 ( きゅうさいきゅうふ ) の支給に要する費用に ( ) てるため、 石綿 ( いしわた ) 使用量 ( しようりょう ) 指定疾病 ( していしっぺい ) 発生 ( はっせい ) 状況 ( じょうきょう ) その ( ) の事情を 勘案 ( かんあん ) して 政令 ( せいれい ) で定める要件に該当する 事業主 ( じぎょうぬし ) から、 毎年度 ( まいねんど ) 特別拠出金 ( とくべつきょしゅつきん ) 徴収 ( ちょうしゅう ) する。
From the 石綿による健康被害の救済に関する法律
Article 47: The Agency will impose special contributions annually to business owners who meet the requirements prescribed by the ordinance—taking into consideration the usage amount of asbestos, outbreak conditions of designated diseases, and other circumstances—in order to allot the costs for providing relief benefits. 

 意味  読み  元の用字  変化後  意味  読み  元の用字  変化後
 Purple spot  しはん  紫斑  紫班  Acclimation  じゅんか  馴化  順化
 Compliance  じゅんしゅ  遵守  順守  Law observance  じゅんぽう  遵法  順法
 Homeliness  じゅんぼく  醇朴  純朴  Swift horse  しゅんば  駿馬  俊馬
 Loquacity  じょうぜつ  饒舌  冗舌  Tapeworm  じょうちゅう  絛虫  条虫
 Meal  しょくじ  食餌  食事  Newly compiled  しんせん  新撰  新選
 Heart rate  しんぱく  心搏  心拍  Compiler  せんじゃ  撰者  選者
 Anthology  せんしゅう  撰集  選集  Compiling  せんしゅう  撰修  選修
 Vanguard  せんぺい  尖兵  先兵  Prominence  たいとう  擡頭  台頭
 Unattainable goal  たかねのはな  高嶺の花  高根の花  Determined/resolute  だんこ  断乎  断固
 Lottery/raffle  ちゅうせん  抽籤  抽選  Bird's-eye view  ちょうかん  鳥瞰  鳥観

109. 10歳の娘がアレルギー ( せい ) 紫斑病 ( しはんびょう ) 発症 ( はっしょう ) しました。
        My ten year old daughter has developed an allergic purpura.

110. きょうは、前回と異なる種類のキュウリも同じ環境に 順化 ( じゅんか ) するか検証してみたが、驚くことに 二酸化炭素濃度 ( にさんかたんそのうど ) 低下 ( ていか ) 実生 ( みしょう ) 光合成 ( こうごうせい ) 悪影響 ( あくえいきょう ) ( およ ) ぼしてしまって、成長を妨げたことがわかりました。
Today, we tested to see whether a different species of cucumber would accumulate to the same environment as the last one, but to our surprise, we found out that the decrease in the density of carbon dioxide had adverse effects on the photosynthesis of the seedlings, impairing its growth.  

111. こういう事件が今でも多発していることに ( かんが ) みると、純朴すぎて利用されまくるという人が世間には多いことに 危惧 ( きぐ ) を覚えるでしょう。
In the light of this sort of incident occurring frequently even now, you get apprehended with the sense of uneasiness that there is a lot of people in this world that are too naïve and constantly used.

112.  条虫 ( じょうちゅう ) 退治 ( たいじ ) するとともに 体外 ( たいがい ) 排出 ( はいしゅつ ) するための 治療 ( ちりょう ) を行う必要があります。
Along with exterminating the tapeworms, treatment for expelling them from the body is necessary.

113.  心拍数 ( しんぱくすう ) を測るためには、心拍計を使えばわかるはずです。
        To measure heart rate, you should be able to figure it out by using a heart rate monitor.

114.  鳥瞰図 ( ちょうかんず ) を英語に訳すと何と言うんでしょうか。
        How would you translate “bird’s-eye view” into English?

115. もう一度 抽籤 ( ちゅうせん ) してみたが、また落ちてしまった。
        I cast a lot once more, but I lost again.

116. きのう、 石川淳 ( いしかわじゅん ) という作家の 新書版撰集 ( しんしょばんせんじゅう ) を手に入れました。
        I obtained a selection of new published works of the author Jun Ishikawa.

117. 私もパク・クネ政権に 断固 ( だんこ ) として反対です。
        I too am adamantly against Park Geun Hye’s administration.

118. 中国政府も他の国と同じように、何故トランプ氏がこんなに強く 台頭 ( たいとう ) してきたのかすっかり 困惑 ( こんわく ) しているに違いない。
The Chinese government, in the same way as other nations, is also no doubt utterly puzzled as to why Mr. Trump has so strongly come to the forefront.  

119. いつも 饒舌 ( じょうぜつ ) な私が思わず無言になってしまった。
        I myself, who is always verbose, went silent.

120. 昔ながらの 伝統 ( でんとう ) 遵守 ( じゅんしゅ ) しながらも、現代でしか味わえない感覚をも 追求 ( ついきゅう ) し、人生をより 色彩豊 ( しきさいゆた ) かにすることができる。
One is able to have a richer colorful life by also pursuing sensations only possible to experience in the present whilst acting in accordance to time-honored traditions.  

 意味  読み  元の用字  変化後  意味  読み  元の用字  変化後
 Tossing and turning in bed  てんてんはんそく  輾転反側  展転反側  Buttocks  でんぶ  臀部  殿部
 Winning (lottery)  とうせん  当籤  当選
 Ruins  はいきょ  廃墟  廃虚
 Comprador  ばいべん  買辦  買弁  Chalk  はくあ  白堊  白亜
 Pulsation  はくどう  搏動  拍動  Disturbance  はらん  波瀾  波乱
 Speck/fleck  はんてん  斑点  班点  Incompetence  ひさい  菲才  非才
 Aimlessly  ひょうぜん  飄然  漂然  Revealing  ひれき  披瀝  披歴
 Allegory  ふうゆ  諷喩  風諭  Expatiation  ふえん  敷衍  敷延
 Fractional distillation  ぶんりゅう  分溜  分留  Pigtail/queue  べんぱつ  辮髪  弁髪
 Flatness  へんぺい  扁平  偏平  Prevention  ぼうあつ  防遏  防圧
 Bearing/presenting  ほうじ  捧持  奉持  Mellow  ほうじゅん  芳醇  芳純

121. 起床時間 ( きしょうじかん ) の5時半まで 輾転反側 ( てんてんはんそく ) していました。
        I was tossing and turning in bed until 5:30, the time I get up.

122. 臀部 ( でんぶ ) の痛みは 老若男女 ( ろうにゃくなんにょ ) ( ) わず ( あらわ ) れる 症状 ( しょうじょう ) だ。
        Gluteal pain is a symptom that emerges without regard to age or sex.

123. 廃墟 ( はいきょ ) ( くず ) れ始めたところ、 魔法 ( まほう ) 絨毯 ( じゅうたん ) が来てくれた。  
        Just when the ruins began to crumble, a magic carpet came to the rescue.

124. 宝籤 ( たからくじ ) 当籤 ( とうせん ) したら 翌年 ( よくとし ) 税金 ( ぜいきん ) はどうなるんだろう。
         I wonder what my taxes would be like the next year after winning the lottery.

125. 俳諧 ( はいかい ) は、 基本的 ( きほんてき ) には社会に対して 否定的 ( ひていてき ) 風諭 ( ふうゆ ) ( ふく ) まない。
        Haikai poems, as a rule, do not contain negative allegories toward society.

126. 辮髪 ( べんぱつ ) 男子 ( だんし ) 頭髪 ( とうはつ ) ( ) り、 後頭部 ( こうとうぶ ) だけを長く ( ) ばして ( ) み、 背後 ( はいご ) に長く ( ) らす 髪型 ( かみがた ) のことである。
The queue is a male hairstyle with the head shaven, the hair at the back of the head lengthened and braided and hanging long down the back.  

127. テロに対しての 防遏 ( ぼうあつ ) は、人によって ( きず ) かれ、人によって守られる。
        Hindrance against terrorism is built by people and protected by people.

128. ( あま ) くて 芳醇 ( ほうじゅん ) なワインを楽しましょう。
        Enjoy sweet and mellow wine.

129. 一週間くらい前に 扁平 ( へんぺい ) なイボができ、色は ( うす ) 褐色 ( かっしょく ) で、あまり目立ちませんが、ちょっと痛いのでどうしたらいいか分かりません。
About a week ago, a flat wart formed; the color is a light brown and it doesn’t really stand out, but since it does hurt a little, I’m not sure what to do.  

130. 十字架 ( じゅうじか ) 捧持 ( ほうじ ) する人を「クロスベアラー」と呼ぶ。
        A person holding a crucifix is called a “cross-bearer.”

131. 白亜紀 ( はくあき ) 代表 ( だいひょう ) する 恐竜 ( きょうりゅう ) といえば、T・レックスでしょう。
        Speaking of a dinosaur that represents the Cretaceous Period, there’s T Rex.

132. 通貨危機 ( つうかきき ) 波乱 ( はらん ) ( ) ( ) こしている。
       The monetary crisis is causing a storm of troubles.

133. 浅学 ( せんがく ) にして 菲才 ( ひさい ) ( )
        Lack of learning is a lack of ability.

134. インドを 統治 ( とうち ) するイギリス人の 世界観 ( せかいかん ) 披瀝 ( ひれき ) する映画である。
        This is a movie which reveals the worldview of Englishmen who ruled India.

135. 下記が 加齢 ( かれい ) による 拍動 ( はくどう ) の変化を示す 図表 ( ずひょう ) である。
        Below is a chart which shows the change in heart beat due to aging.

136. 足に赤い 斑点 ( はんてん ) ができた。
        A red speckle formed on my foot.

137. 飄然 ( ひょうぜん ) として風の ( ごと ) ( ) ( ) る。
        To fade away aimlessly like the wind.

138.これはキリスト教の基本的な立場を 敷衍 ( ふえん ) したものと考えられます。
       This is thought to be an amplification of the fundamentals of Christianity.

 意味  読み  元の用字  変化後  意味  読み  元の用字  変化後
 Swelling  ぼうちょう  膨脹  膨張  Stronghold  ほうるい  堡塁  保塁
 Thumb  ぼし  拇指  母指  Pulse  みゃくはく  脈搏  脈拍
 Picturesque  めいび  明媚  明美  Fellowship  ゆうぎ  友誼  友宜
 Fine horse  ゆうしゅん  優駿  優俊  Calmly  ゆうぜん  悠然  裕然
 Transport ship  ゆそうせん  油槽船  油送船  Public opinion  よろん  輿論  世論
 Straggling  らくご  落伍  落後  Over-hunting  らんかく  濫獲  乱獲
 Over-mining  らんくつ  濫掘  乱掘  Over-production  らんさく  濫作  乱作
 Over-production  らんぞう  濫造  乱造  Desultory reading  らんどく  濫読  乱読
 Reckless deforestation  らんばつ  濫伐  乱伐  Reckless firing  らんぱつ  濫発  乱発
 Laving spending  らんぴ  濫費  乱費  Misappropriation  らんよう  濫用  乱用

139. 宇宙が 膨張 ( ぼうちょう ) していることが理解されるとすぐに、宇宙は過去には今より小さかったはずであることが認識された。
Immediately once it was understood that the universe was expanding, it was recognized that the universe in the past had to have been smaller than it is now.

140. 緊張した時など 脈拍 ( みゃくはく ) が早くなることがある。
      There are times when one’s pulse gets faster such as when one is tense.

141.  母指対向性 ( ぼしたいこうせい ) とは 霊長類 ( れいちょうるい ) 特徴 ( とくちょう ) の一つである。
        The ability to oppose the thumb is one characteristic of primates.

142. どんな 明媚 ( めいび ) 山水 ( さんすい ) でも近寄ってみれば 小汚 ( こぎたな ) 雑草 ( ざっそう ) などがその 下地 ( したじ ) になって ( すそ ) を引いているのでしょう。
No matter how scenic landscape may be, when you approach it, you will surely see that dirty weeds and such form the groundwork of the scenery and trail the bottom of it.

143. 社会から 落伍 ( らくご ) していってしまう。
       To straggle out of society.

144. 信念をやり通せば世論を動かすことができる。
        When you achieve your convictions, you are able to mobilize public opinion.

145. その魚は 乱獲 ( らんかく ) のため 絶滅危惧種 ( ぜつめつきぐしゅ ) となっている。
        That fish has become an endangered species due to overfishing.

146.  解雇権 ( かいこけん ) 濫用 ( らんよう ) すると、解雇は 無効 ( むこう ) となる。
        If you abuse the right to discharge (an employee), the discharge becomes invalid.

147.  紙幣 ( しへい ) 乱発 ( らんぱつ ) をするとなぜ 物価 ( ぶっか ) 上昇 ( じょうしょう ) するのか。
        Why do prices increase when you over-issue bank notes?  

148. 金持ちの家に生まれた子供は必ずしも 財産 ( ざいさん ) 乱費 ( らんぴ ) するとは限らない。
Children who are born in wealthy households do not always necessarily reckless spend their fortunes.

149. 内容のない小説を乱作する作家になんてなりたくない。
I do not want to become the kind of author who mass-produces works which have no substance.

 意味  読み  元の用字  変化後  意味  読み  元の用字  変化後
 Guardrail  らんかん  欄杆・闌干  欄干 Water brash  りゅういん  溜飲  留飲
 Distillation  りゅうしゅつ  溜出  留出  Outdoing  りょうが  凌駕  陵駕
 Inclination  りょうけん  料簡  了見  Shouts of encouragement  れいせい  厲声  励声
 Two reams  れん
 嗹  連  Japanese person  わじん  倭人  和人

150. 彼は 夜景 ( やけい ) 見惚 ( みと ) れて、 欄干 ( らんかん ) ( もた ) れて ( たたず ) んだ。
        He stood and gazed in wonder at the nightscape while leaning against the bannister.

151. 真実の愛は全てを 凌駕 ( りょうが ) する!
    True love is superior over everything.

152.  倭人 ( わじん ) が単純に日本人になったと断言できない。
         One cannot affirmatively state that the “wajin” simply became the Japanese people.

153.  各製品 ( かくせいひん ) 留出温度 ( りゅうしゅつおんど ) 推定 ( すいてい ) するモデルの開発を進めている。
(They are) furthering development of a model to estimate the distillation temperature of each product.

154. 日本代表が勝利して 溜飲 ( りゅういん ) が下がった。 
I felt relieved when the Japanese delegation was victorious.

155. 見知らぬ男に時間で買われるのを、こんな息苦しくなるような部屋で、雑誌を読みながら何時間でも待っているなんて、今時の娘たちは、どういう 了見 ( りょうけん ) なのか、滝沢にはまったく理解できない。
Takizawa could not understand at all what sort of motives female youth these days had that drove them to wait for hours as they read magazines in such a suffocating room as this to be bought by the hour by men they didn’t know.
From 凍える牙 by 乃南アサ.


第364課: 交ぜ書き

交ぜ書き is when a single phrase consists of 漢字 that have been substituted with かな. This practice came about from language policies pushed by the National Language Council to curb the difficulty of learning Japanese orthography.

Today, the list of characters for general use has recently been updated in light of the fact that typing has made such a list irrelevant, as well as other changes to the orthography including 交ぜ書き. Although substituting 漢字 for かな has always been at the discretion of the writer, strictly abiding by the 常用漢字表 has resulted in words commonly written half in 漢字 and half in かな in the media and official texts. 

用例

The number of words written in 交ぜ書き is rather high, but change in public opinion toward the abandoning of 交ぜ書き as much as possible is becoming more prevalent. Because the practice is also used in the gradual implementation of 漢字 in education*, this is a facet of the writing system that will have to be dealt with on a case-by-case basis. Nevertheless, below are real examples extracted from news articles to demonstrate this phenomenon. 

*: Even this practice is being phased out by utilizing ふりがな over untaught characters.  

1. 女性に多い 子宮 ( しきゅう ) がんの一種、「子宮体がん」の 治療 ( ちりょう ) ( さい ) 、がん 細胞 ( さいぼう ) が残っているかどうかを 画像 ( がぞう ) 診断 ( しんだん ) できる 検査法 ( けんさほう ) 福井大学 ( ふくいだいがく ) 医療 ( いりょう ) チームが開発し、治療を終えた女性が今月、出産したと発表しました。
The medical treatment team of the University of Fukui has developed a way to examine whether cancer cells remain with image diagnosis for “cancer of the uterine body,” a kind of uterine cancer prevalent in women.
From NHK on 1/30/17.

漢字 Note: 子宮がん = 子宮癌. 

2. おたふくかぜはムンプスウイルスが原因の 感染症 ( かんせんしょう ) で、 ( おも ) にせきなどによる ( ) まつで感染し、発熱や耳の下の ( ) れなどを引き起こします。
The mumps is an infectious disease caused by the mumps virus. Infection is mainly spread by spraying from coughing, and it induces fever and swelling under the ears.
From NHK on 1/29/17.

漢字 Note: 飛まつ = 飛沫. 

3. そして、 一連 ( いちれん ) 実験中 ( じっけんちゅう ) に、 ( のう ) の中でどのように記憶が作られたのか 観察 ( かんさつ ) したところ、 電気刺激 ( でんきしげき ) 恐怖 ( きょうふ ) の記憶と ( あま ) い水の記憶は、それぞれ脳のへんとう ( たい ) と呼ばれる場所で異なる 神経 ( しんけい ) 細胞の 集団 ( しゅうだん ) ( たくわ ) えられましたが、2つの細胞の集団が、一部で重なり合うと、両方の記憶がつながることがわかったということです。
And now during a series of experiments, after observing how memories are created inside the brain, memories of fear toward electric stimulus and memories of sweet water were each respectively collected in different neuron masses in places in the brain called amygdala, but it was fond out that when a portion the two cell masses overlap, both sets of memories are connected.
From NHK on 1/29/17.

漢字 Note: へんとう体 = 扁桃体. 

4. 専門家は、ウイルスのまん ( えん ) ( きわ ) めて 深刻 ( しんこく ) なレベルにあると 警鐘 ( けいしょう ) ( ) らしています。
Experts are raising the alarm that the spread of the virus has reached an exceedingly severe level.
From NHK on 1/26/17.

漢字 Note: まん延 = 蔓延. 

5. グループでは、あらかじめすい ( ぞう ) ができないよう 遺伝子 ( いでんし ) を操作したラットの 受精卵 ( じゅせいらん ) にマウスのiPS細胞を入れ、 体内 ( たいない ) にマウスのすい臓をもつラットを作り出すことに成功しました。
In the group, success was had in creating rats which had mouse pancreases in their bodies by injecting in advance mouse iPS cells into fertilized rat eggs, which had the genes operating the pancreas not work
From NHK on 1/26/17.

漢字 Note: すい臓 = 膵臓. 

6. 事故を受けて日本バレーボール 協会 ( きょうかい ) は先月、 中垣内次期監督 ( なかがいちじきかんとく ) けん 責処分 ( せきしょぶん ) にしています。
In response to the accident, the Japan Volleyball Association gave an official reprimand Coach Nakagai for next term last month.
From NHK on 1/30/17.

漢字 Note: けん責 = 譴責. 

7.  和歌山県御坊市 わかやまけんごぼうし の小中学校や 幼稚園 ようちえん かよ う子どもなど700人以上が 下痢 げり おう などの 症状 しょうじょう うった えた問題で、 児童 じどう や生徒の 便 べん からノロウイルスが 検出 けんしゅつ されたことが県の調査でわかりました。
In the case of over 700 children attending elementary schools and kindergartens of Gobo City in Wakayama City having symptoms including diarrhea and vomiting, it has been uncovered in a prefectural investigation that the norovirus has been detected in the stool of children and students.  
From NHK on 1/28/17.

漢字 Note: おう吐 = 嘔吐. 

8. 27日の 判決 ( はんけつ ) 札幌地方裁判所 ( さっぽろちほうさいばんしょ ) 田尻克已裁判長 ( たじりかつみさいばんちょう ) は、「 凶器 ( きょうき ) を準備して ( おそ ) ったうえ 被害者 ( ひがいしゃ ) が倒れても ( しつ ) よう暴行 ( ぼうこう ) ( くわ ) え、 残虐 ( ざんぎゃく ) 計画的 ( けいかくてき ) 犯行 ( はんこう ) だ」と 指摘 ( してき ) しました。
In a verdict on the 27th, Judge Katsumi Tajiri of Sapporo District Court pointed out, “on top of having prepared a deadly weapon and assaulted the victim, further acts of relentless violence were dealt even after the victim had collapsed, which is a heartless and deliberate criminal offense.”   
From NHK on 1/27/17.

漢字 Note: 執よう = 執拗. 

9. うつ びょう 発症 はっしょう した 元社員 もとしゃいん の男性に 違法 いほう 長時間労働 ちょうじかんろうどう をさせたとして 書類送検 しょるいそうけん された 大手電機 おおてでんき メーカー、 三菱電機 みつびしでんき と当時の上司について、 横浜地方検察庁 よこはまちほうけんさつちょう 嫌疑不十分 けんぎふじゅうぶん 不起訴 ふきそ にしました。
In regards to a police report having been sent to Mitsubishi Electric and the boss at said time for making a former male employee work illegal long shifts which induced depression, the Yokohama District Public Prosecutors Office has decided not to prosecute due to lack of suspicion.
From NHK on 1/27/17.

漢字 Note: うつ病 = 鬱病・欝病. 

10. 会場には、 犠牲者 ( ぎせいしゃ ) 19人分のろうそくが並べられ、はじめに全員で ( もく ) とうをささげ、 追悼 ( ついとう ) しました。
At the venue, candles for the 19 victims were lined up, and all participants began by offering a silent prayer as they mourned.
From NHK on 1/26/17.

漢字 Note: 黙とう = 黙祷. 

11. また、採用試験とは別に、教育委員会の人事に介入し、教育長が依頼を断るとどう喝したなどと指摘されている点については、持ち込まれた人事上の要望や意見を口頭で伝えたことは認めたものの、人事について指示したり、どう喝したりした事実はないと主張しました。
Additionally, apart from the employment examination affair, in regards to being remonstrated for interfering with the personnel affairs of the Board of Education and having blackmailed the committee whenever he Superintendent of Education denied are request among other things, although he has admitted to having orally expressed his wishes and opinions for human affairs referred to him, he insists that there is no truth in him having made any instructions regarding personal affairs or having blackmailed.

漢字 Note: どう喝 = 恫喝.  

12. この中で、民間議員は、世界の経済政策の不確実性によって、日本経済も大きな影響を受ける可能性があるとして、自由貿易体制の維持・強化に貢献するとともに、変動に動じない強じんな国内経済を構築するため、引き続き賃金の上昇や働き方改革に取り組むよう提言しました。
Amidst this, congressmen in civilian occupations have recommended that effort needs to be made for continued increase in wages and revolutionizing ways of work to build a tough domestic economy that isn’t perturbed by fluctuations along with contributions to the maintenance and strengthening of free trade agreements, citing that there is a possibility of the Japanese economy being greatly affected by the uncertainty in the world’s economic policies.
From NHK on 1/25/17.

漢字 Note: 強じん = 強靭.

13. イージス 巡洋艦 ( じゅんようかん ) はタグボートにえい ( こう ) され、 基地 ( きち ) ( もど ) ったということで、けが ( にん ) はいませんでした。
The Aegis cruiser was towed by a tug boat and returned to the base; no one was injured.
From NHK on 2/1/17.  

漢字 Note: えい航 = 曳航; けが人 = 怪我人. 

 

 #  Mazegaki  True Spelling  Romanization  Definition
 1.  危ぐ  危惧  Kigu  Misgiving; apprehension
 2.  愛きょう  愛嬌  Aikyou  Amiability
 3.  えん恨  怨恨  Enkon  Enmity; grudge
 4.  喝さい  喝采  Kassai  Applause
 5.  真ちゅう  真鍮  Shinchuu  Brass
 6.  けん責  譴責  Kenseki  Censure; reprimand
 7.  しゅん工、しゅん功  竣工、竣功  Shunkou  Completion
 8.  ち密  緻密  Chimitsu  Elaborate
 9.  双へき  双璧  Souheki  Matchless people; pair of bright jewels
 10.  全ぼう  全貌  Zenbou  The whole story
 11.  晩さん  晩餐  Bansan  Dinner
 12.  分水れい  分水嶺  Bunsuirei  Watershed; divide
 13.  復しゅう  復讐  Fukushuu  Revenge
 14.  和ぼく  和睦  Waboku  Making peace with; bury the hatchet
 15.  ら致  拉致  Rachi  Abduction
 16.  らく印  烙印  Rakuin  Brand; stigmatization
 17.  ほう助  幇助  Houjo  Abetment
 18.  明りょうな  明瞭な  Meiryou na  Clear; obvious; precise; articulate
 19.  憂うつ  憂鬱  Yuu'utsu  Depression; melancholy; gloom; dismal
 20.  片りん  片鱗  Henrin  Glimpse
 21.  れき死  轢死  Rekishi  Getting killed by being run over by a train
 22.  美ぼう  美貌  Bibou  Beauty; good looks
 23.  ばい菌  黴菌  Baikin  Germ; bacteria; bug
 24.  ぜい弱な  脆弱な  Zeijaku na  Weak; fragile; vulnerable
 25.  終えん  終焉  Shuuen  End; demise
 26.  さく裂  炸裂  Sakuretsu  Burst; explosion
 27.  研さん  研鑽  Kensan  Study
 28.  花こう岩  花崗岩  Kakougan  Granite
 29.  欺まん  欺瞞  Giman  Falsehood; fraud; deceit
 30.  外とう  外套  Gaitou  (Over)coat
 31.  警ら  警邏  Keira  Patrol
 32.  う回  迂回  Ukai  Detour
 33.  苦もん  苦悶  Kumon  Agony; pang; anguish
 34.  かく乱  霍乱  Kakuran  Heatstroke
 35.  円すい  円錐  Ensui  Cone
 36.  祈とう  祈祷  Kitou  Prayer; devotion
 37.  啓もう  啓蒙  Keimou  Enlightenment
 38.  進ちょく  進捗  Shinchoku  Progress
 39.  断がい  断崖  Dangai  Cliff; bluff
 40.  どう喝  恫喝  Doukatsu  Intimidation; threat
 41.  どう猛な  獰猛な  Doumou na  Fierce; savage; ferocious
 42.  はえ縄  延縄  Haenawa  Trawl line
 43.  比ゆ  比喩  Hiyu  Similitude; comparison; metaphor; simile
 44.  らつ腕  辣腕  Ratsuwan  Competent; shrewd
 45.  まい進  邁進  Maishin  Pushing forward; strive
 46.  ろう城  篭城  Roujou  Holding up a castle; shutting oneself up in a room
 47.  払しょく  払拭  Fusshoku  Sweeping away; eradicate
 48.  はく製  剥製  Hakusei  Stuffed specimen
 49.  便せん  便箋  Binsen  Writing paper
 50.  明せきな  明晰な  Meiseki na  Clear; precise
 51.  補てん  補填  Hoten  Compensation
 52.  山ろく  山麓  Sanroku  The foot of a mountain
 53.  混とん  混沌  Konton  Chaos
 54.  こん包  梱包  Konpou  Packing
 55.  ごう音  轟音  Gou'on  Roar
 56.  完ぺきな  完璧な  Kanpeki na  Perfect; faultless; impeccable
 57.  し好  嗜好  Shikou  Taste; liking; fancy
 58.  そう快な  爽快な  Soukai na  Refreshing
 59.  投かん  投函  Toukan  Dispatch
 60.  石こう  石膏  Sekkou  Gypsum; plaster; alabaster
 61.  痴ほう  痴呆  Chihou  Dementia
 62.  信ぴょう  信憑  Shinpyou  Credence
 63.  同せい  同棲  Dousei  Living together
 64.  棟りょう  棟梁  Touryou  Master builder
 65.  どん欲な  貪欲な  Don'yoku na  Greedy; insatiable; voracious; mercenary; lustful; acquisitive
 66.  すい星  彗星  Suisei  Comet
 67.  軟こう  軟膏  Nankou  Ointment
 68.  ねつ造  捏造  Netsuzou  Fabrication; forgery; fiction
 69.  怒とう  怒涛  Dotou  Angry waves
 70.  惨たん  惨憺、惨澹  Santan  Miserable; wretched
 71.  破たん  破綻  Hatan  Bankruptcy
 72.  えい航  曳航  Eikou  Tow
 73.  いん石  隕石  Inseki  Meteorite
 74.  きゅう覚  嗅覚  Kyuukaku  Smell; scent
 75.  改しゅん、悔しゅん  改悛、悔悛  Kaishun  Penance
 76.  こう配  勾配  Koubai  Inclination; slope; incline; grade; gradient
 77.  常とう  常套  Joutou  Conventionality; triteness
 78.  せん光  閃光  Senkou  Flash; sparkle; glance
 79.  鉄つい  鉄槌、鉄鎚  Tettsui  Punish severely
 80.  石けん  石鹸  Sekken  Soap
 81.  黙とう  黙祷  Mokutou  Silent prayer; tacit prayer
 82.  余ろく  余禄  Yoroku  Extra profit
 83.  もん絶  悶絶  Monzetsu  Faint in agony
 84.  辺ぴな  辺鄙な  Henpi na  Remote; out-of-the-way
 85.  ろう屋  牢屋  Rouya  Prison
 86.  憤まん  憤懣  Funman  Changrin; anger; resentment; indignation; irritation
 87.  老かいな  老獪な   Roukai na  Cunning; craft
 88.  べっ甲  鼈甲   Bekkou  Tortoiseshell
 89.  ひん死  瀕死   Hinshi  Dying; moribund
 90.  配ぜん  配膳   Haizen  Setting a table
 91.  たく鉢  托鉢   Takuhatsu  Monk's begging
 92.  しゃく熱  灼熱   Shakunetsu  Tropical; sultry
 93.  教べん  教鞭   Kyouben  Teaching
 94.  死がい  死骸   Shigai  Corpse; carcass; body; bone; remain
 95.  軽べつ  軽蔑   Keibetsu  Contempt; scorn; disdain; despise
 96.  安ど  安堵   Ando  Relief
 97.  隠ぺい  隠蔽   Inpei  Concealment
 98.  けん引  牽引   Ken'in  Traction
 99.  し尿  屎尿   Shinyou  Human waste
 100.  でき愛  溺愛   Dekiai  Dotage; fondness
 101.  ゆう出  湧出   Yuushutsu  Gush; pour; flow
 102.  泡まつ  泡沫   Houmatsu  Bubble
 103.  酒こう  酒肴   Shukou  Sake and side dish; food and drink
 104.  位はい  位牌   Ihai  Buddhist memorial tablet
 105.  漏えい  漏洩   Rouei  Leakage
 106.  こん睡  昏睡   Konsui  Coma
 107.  うっ憤  鬱憤   Uppun  Grudge; anger; resentment
 108.  巣くつ  巣窟   Soukutsu  Den; nest
 109.  自ちょう  自嘲   Jichou  Self derision
 110.  灯ろう  灯篭   Tourou  Garden lantern
 111.  ふ頭  埠頭   Futou  Pier
 112.  要さい  要塞   Yousai  Fortress
 113.  辛らつな  辛辣な   Shinratsu na  Severe; bitter; sharp; acid; pointed; poignant; biting; cutting
 114.  霊きゅう車  霊柩車   Reikyuusha  Hearse
 115.  ろ過  濾過   Roka  Percolation; filtration
 116.  秘けつ  秘訣   Hiketsu  Secret
 117.  親ぼく  親睦   Shinboku  Friendship
 118.  だ液  唾液   Daeki  Saliva
 119.  洞くつ  洞窟   Doukutsu  Cave; ghotto; cavern
 120.  ばい煙  煤煙   Baien  Soot; smoke
 121.  失そう  失踪   Shissou  Disappearance
 122.  改ざん  改竄   Kaizan  Falsification; manipulation; violence
 123.  えん曲  婉曲   Enkyoku  Euphemism; roundabout
 124.  けん制  牽制   Kensei  Tow
 125.  なつ印  捺印   Natsuin  Signet; stigmitization
 126.  土のう  土嚢   Donou  Sandbag
 127.  装てん  装填   Souten  Charge; load
 128.  抜てき  抜擢   Batteki  Selection; choose
 129.  はく離  剥離   Hakuri  Detachment; coming/peeling off; separation
 130.  はく落  剥落   Hakuraku  To peel off
 131.  ばく進  驀進   Bakushin  Dash; hurtle
 132.  ねん挫  捻挫   Nenza  Sprain; twist
 133.  しゅう恥  羞恥   Shuuchi  Bashfulness; shyness
 134.  遮へい  遮蔽   Shahei  Shield from
 135.  付せん  付箋   Fusen  Post-it; tag; docket
 136.  容ぼう  容貌   Youbou  Looks; appearance; feature; countenance 
 137.  わい曲  歪曲   Waikyoku  Distortion; twists and turns; twist
 138.  落いん  落胤   Rakuin  The son/daughter of (literary); nobleman's illegitimate child
 139.  防じん  防塵   Boujin  Dust protector
 140.  排せつ   排泄   Haisetsu  Excrement
 141.  殺りく  殺戮    Satsuriku  Slaughter; genocide; carnage
 142.  こん倒  昏倒   Kontou  To faint unconscious
 143.  ばん回  挽回   Bankai  Recovery; retrieve; restoration
 144.  親せき  親戚    Shinseki  Relatives
 145.  平たんな  平坦な   Heitan na  Flat; level; even
 146.  風ぼう  風貌   Fuubou  Feature; countenance
 147.  ひな形  雛形   Hinagata  Model; form
 148.  ごう慢な  傲慢な   Gouman na  Arrogant
 149.  こう着  膠着   Kouchaku  Adhesion; agglutination; stalemate
 150.  かん腸  浣腸   Kanchou  Enema
 151.  炭そ菌  炭疽菌   Tansokin  Anthrax
 152. りょう線  稜線   Ryousen  Mountain ridge
 153.  悲そうな  悲愴な   Hisou na  Sorrowful; mournful
 154.  えん世  厭世   Ensei  Pessimism; misanthropy
 155.  がい骨  骸骨   Gaikotsu  Skeleton
 156.  かい書  楷書   Kaisho  Standard/block style
 157.  刺しゅう  刺繍   Shishuu  Embroidery
 158.  けん怠  倦怠   Kentai  Ennui; boredom
 159.  卑わいな  卑猥な   Hiwai na  Obscene; vulgar; profane
 160.  標ぼう  標榜   Hyoubou  Profress
 161.  へん平  扁平   Henpei  Flat; flat-footed; depressed
 162.  へき地  僻地   Hekichi  Remote place; out-of-the-way place; isolated district; backwater
 163.  流ちょうな  流暢な   Ryuuchou na  Fluent; facile; smooth
 164.  きゅう舎  厩舎   Kyuusha  Riding stable
 165.  編さん  編纂   Hensan  Proofreading; editing; compilation; cutting
 166.  風さい  風采   Fuusai  Appearance; look; figure
 167.  こん身  渾身   Konshin  With all one's might
 168.  飛しょう体  飛翔体   Hishoutai  Flying object
 169.  残がい  残骸   Zangai  Wreckage; ruin; wreck
 170.  敏しょうな  敏捷な   Binshou na  Lithe; prompt; nimble; speedy
 171.  集じん  集塵   Shuujin  Collecting dust
 172.  変ぼう  変貌   Henbou  Transfiguration; transformation
 173.  さい銭  賽銭   Saisen  Money offered at a Shinto shrine
 174.  かく乱  撹乱   Kakuran  Disturbance; perturb
 175.  謙そん  謙遜   Kenson  Humility; humbleness; modisty
 176.  覚せい剤  覚醒剤   Kakuseizai  Stimulant
 #  Mazegaki  True Spelling  Romanization  Definition
 1.  危ぐ  危惧  Kigu  Misgiving; apprehension
 2.  愛きょう  愛嬌  Aikyou  Amiability
 3.  えん恨  怨恨  Enkon  Enmity; grudge
 4.  喝さい  喝采  Kassai  Applause
 5.  真ちゅう  真鍮  Shinchuu  Brass
 6.  けん責  譴責  Kenseki  Censure; reprimand
 7.  しゅん工、しゅん功  竣工、竣功  Shunkou  Completion
 8.  ち密  緻密  Chimitsu  Elaborate
 9.  双へき  双璧  Souheki  Matchless people; pair of bright jewels
 10.  全ぼう  全貌  Zenbou  The whole story
 11.  晩さん  晩餐  Bansan  Dinner
 12.  分水れい  分水嶺  Bunsuirei  Watershed; divide
 13.  復しゅう  復讐  Fukushuu  Revenge
 14.  和ぼく  和睦  Waboku  Making peace with; bury the hatchet
 15.  ら致  拉致  Rachi  Abduction
 16.  らく印  烙印  Rakuin  Brand; stigmatization
 17.  ほう助  幇助  Houjo  Abetment
 18.  明りょうな  明瞭な  Meiryou na  Clear; obvious; precise; articulate
 19.  憂うつ  憂鬱  Yuu'utsu  Depression; melancholy; gloom; dismal
 20.  片りん  片鱗  Henrin  Glimpse
 21.  れき死  轢死  Rekishi  Getting killed by being run over by a train
 22.  美ぼう  美貌  Bibou  Beauty; good looks
 23.  ばい菌  黴菌  Baikin  Germ; bacteria; bug
 24.  ぜい弱な  脆弱な  Zeijaku na  Weak; fragile; vulnerable
 25.  終えん  終焉  Shuuen  End; demise
 26.  さく裂  炸裂  Sakuretsu  Burst; explosion
 27.  研さん  研鑽  Kensan  Study
 28.  花こう岩  花崗岩  Kakougan  Granite
 29.  欺まん  欺瞞  Giman  Falsehood; fraud; deceit
 30.  外とう  外套  Gaitou  (Over)coat
 31.  警ら  警邏  Keira  Patrol
 32.  う回  迂回  Ukai  Detour
 33.  苦もん  苦悶  Kumon  Agony; pang; anguish
 34.  かく乱  霍乱  Kakuran  Heatstroke
 35.  円すい  円錐  Ensui  Cone
 36.  祈とう  祈祷  Kitou  Prayer; devotion
 37.  啓もう  啓蒙  Keimou  Enlightenment
 38.  進ちょく  進捗  Shinchoku  Progress
 39.  断がい  断崖  Dangai  Cliff; bluff
 40.  どう喝  恫喝  Doukatsu  Intimidation; threat
 41.  どう猛な  獰猛な  Doumou na  Fierce; savage; ferocious
 42.  はえ縄  延縄  Haenawa  Trawl line
 43.  比ゆ  比喩  Hiyu  Similitude; comparison; metaphor; simile
 44.  らつ腕  辣腕  Ratsuwan  Competent; shrewd
 45.  まい進  邁進  Maishin  Pushing forward; strive
 46.  ろう城  篭城  Roujou  Holding up a castle; shutting oneself up in a room
 47.  払しょく  払拭  Fusshoku  Sweeping away; eradicate
 48.  はく製  剥製  Hakusei  Stuffed specimen
 49.  便せん  便箋  Binsen  Writing paper
 50.  明せきな  明晰な  Meiseki na  Clear; precise
 51.  補てん  補填  Hoten  Compensation
 52.  山ろく  山麓  Sanroku  The foot of a mountain
 53.  混とん  混沌  Konton  Chaos
 54.  こん包  梱包  Konpou  Packing
 55.  ごう音  轟音  Gou'on  Roar
 56.  完ぺきな  完璧な  Kanpeki na  Perfect; faultless; impeccable
 57.  し好  嗜好  Shikou  Taste; liking; fancy
 58.  そう快な  爽快な  Soukai na  Refreshing
 59.  投かん  投函  Toukan  Dispatch
 60.  石こう  石膏  Sekkou  Gypsum; plaster; alabaster
 61.  痴ほう  痴呆  Chihou  Dementia
 62.  信ぴょう  信憑  Shinpyou  Credence
 63.  同せい  同棲  Dousei  Living together
 64.  棟りょう  棟梁  Touryou  Master builder
 65.  どん欲な  貪欲な  Don'yoku na  Greedy; insatiable; voracious; mercenary; lustful; acquisitive
 66.  すい星  彗星  Suisei  Comet
 67.  軟こう  軟膏  Nankou  Ointment
 68.  ねつ造  捏造  Netsuzou  Fabrication; forgery; fiction
 69.  怒とう  怒涛  Dotou  Angry waves
 70.  惨たん  惨憺、惨澹  Santan  Miserable; wretched
 71.  破たん  破綻  Hatan  Bankruptcy
 72.  えい航  曳航  Eikou  Tow
 73.  いん石  隕石  Inseki  Meteorite
 74.  きゅう覚  嗅覚  Kyuukaku  Smell; scent
 75.  改しゅん、悔しゅん  改悛、悔悛  Kaishun  Penance
 76.  こう配  勾配  Koubai  Inclination; slope; incline; grade; gradient
 77.  常とう  常套  Joutou  Conventionality; triteness
 78.  せん光  閃光  Senkou  Flash; sparkle; glance
 79.  鉄つい  鉄槌、鉄鎚  Tettsui  Punish severely
 80.  石けん  石鹸  Sekken  Soap
 81.  黙とう  黙祷  Mokutou  Silent prayer; tacit prayer
 82.  余ろく  余禄  Yoroku  Extra profit
 83.  もん絶  悶絶  Monzetsu  Faint in agony
 84.  辺ぴな  辺鄙な  Henpi na  Remote; out-of-the-way
 85.  ろう屋  牢屋  Rouya  Prison
 86.  憤まん  憤懣  Funman  Changrin; anger; resentment; indignation; irritation
 87.  老かいな  老獪な   Roukai na  Cunning; craft
 88.  べっ甲  鼈甲   Bekkou  Tortoiseshell
 89.  ひん死  瀕死   Hinshi  Dying; moribund
 90.  配ぜん  配膳   Haizen  Setting a table
 91.  たく鉢  托鉢   Takuhatsu  Monk's begging
 92.  しゃく熱  灼熱   Shakunetsu  Tropical; sultry
 93.  教べん  教鞭   Kyouben  Teaching
 94.  死がい  死骸   Shigai  Corpse; carcass; body; bone; remain
 95.  軽べつ  軽蔑   Keibetsu  Contempt; scorn; disdain; despise
 96.  安ど  安堵   Ando  Relief
 97.  隠ぺい  隠蔽   Inpei  Concealment
 98.  けん引  牽引   Ken'in  Traction
 99.  し尿  屎尿   Shinyou  Human waste
 100.  でき愛  溺愛   Dekiai  Dotage; fondness
 101.  ゆう出  湧出   Yuushutsu  Gush; pour; flow
 102.  泡まつ  泡沫   Houmatsu  Bubble
 103.  酒こう  酒肴   Shukou  Sake and side dish; food and drink
 104.  位はい  位牌   Ihai  Buddhist memorial tablet
 105.  漏えい  漏洩   Rouei  Leakage
 106.  こん睡  昏睡   Konsui  Coma
 107.  うっ憤  鬱憤   Uppun  Grudge; anger; resentment
 108.  巣くつ  巣窟   Soukutsu  Den; nest
 109.  自ちょう  自嘲   Jichou  Self derision
 110.  灯ろう  灯篭   Tourou  Garden lantern
 111.  ふ頭  埠頭   Futou  Pier
 112.  要さい  要塞   Yousai  Fortress
 113.  辛らつな  辛辣な   Shinratsu na  Severe; bitter; sharp; acid; pointed; poignant; biting; cutting
 114.  霊きゅう車  霊柩車   Reikyuusha  Hearse
 115.  ろ過  濾過   Roka  Percolation; filtration
 116.  秘けつ  秘訣   Hiketsu  Secret
 117.  親ぼく  親睦   Shinboku  Friendship
 118.  だ液  唾液   Daeki  Saliva
 119.  洞くつ  洞窟   Doukutsu  Cave; ghotto; cavern
 120.  ばい煙  煤煙   Baien  Soot; smoke
 121.  失そう  失踪   Shissou  Disappearance
 122.  改ざん  改竄   Kaizan  Falsification; manipulation; violence
 123.  えん曲  婉曲   Enkyoku  Euphemism; roundabout
 124.  けん制  牽制   Kensei  Tow
 125.  なつ印  捺印   Natsuin  Signet; stigmitization
 126.  土のう  土嚢   Donou  Sandbag
 127.  装てん  装填   Souten  Charge; load
 128.  抜てき  抜擢   Batteki  Selection; choose
 129.  はく離  剥離   Hakuri  Detachment; coming/peeling off; separation
 130.  はく落  剥落   Hakuraku  To peel off
 131.  ばく進  驀進   Bakushin  Dash; hurtle
 132.  ねん挫  捻挫   Nenza  Sprain; twist
 133.  しゅう恥  羞恥   Shuuchi  Bashfulness; shyness
 134.  遮へい  遮蔽   Shahei  Shield from
 135.  付せん  付箋   Fusen  Post-it; tag; docket
 136.  容ぼう  容貌   Youbou  Looks; appearance; feature; countenance 
 137.  わい曲  歪曲   Waikyoku  Distortion; twists and turns; twist
 138.  落いん  落胤   Rakuin  The son/daughter of (literary); nobleman's illegitimate child
 139.  防じん  防塵   Boujin  Dust protector
 140.  排せつ   排泄   Haisetsu  Excrement
 141.  殺りく  殺戮    Satsuriku  Slaughter; genocide; carnage
 142.  こん倒  昏倒   Kontou  To faint unconscious
 143.  ばん回  挽回   Bankai  Recovery; retrieve; restoration
 144.  親せき  親戚    Shinseki  Relatives
 145.  平たんな  平坦な   Heitan na  Flat; level; even
 146.  風ぼう  風貌   Fuubou  Feature; countenance
 147.  ひな形  雛形   Hinagata  Model; form
 148.  ごう慢な  傲慢な   Gouman na  Arrogant
 149.  こう着  膠着   Kouchaku  Adhesion; agglutination; stalemate
 150.  かん腸  浣腸   Kanchou  Enema
 151.  炭そ菌  炭疽菌   Tansokin  Anthrax
 152. りょう線  稜線   Ryousen  Mountain ridge
 153.  悲そうな  悲愴な   Hisou na  Sorrowful; mournful
 154.  えん世  厭世   Ensei  Pessimism; misanthropy
 155.  がい骨  骸骨   Gaikotsu  Skeleton
 156.  かい書  楷書   Kaisho  Standard/block style
 157.  刺しゅう  刺繍   Shishuu  Embroidery
 158.  けん怠  倦怠   Kentai  Ennui; boredom
 159.  卑わいな  卑猥な   Hiwai na  Obscene; vulgar; profane
 160.  標ぼう  標榜   Hyoubou  Profress
 161.  へん平  扁平   Henpei  Flat; flat-footed; depressed
 162.  へき地  僻地   Hekichi  Remote place; out-of-the-way place; isolated district; backwater
 163.  流ちょうな  流暢な   Ryuuchou na  Fluent; facile; smooth
 164.  きゅう舎  厩舎   Kyuusha  Riding stable
 165.  編さん  編纂   Hensan  Proofreading; editing; compilation; cutting
 166.  風さい  風采   Fuusai  Appearance; look; figure
 167.  こん身  渾身   Konshin  With all one's might
 168.  飛しょう体  飛翔体   Hishoutai  Flying object
 169.  残がい  残骸   Zangai  Wreckage; ruin; wreck
 170.  敏しょうな  敏捷な   Binshou na  Lithe; prompt; nimble; speedy
 171.  集じん  集塵   Shuujin  Collecting dust
 172.  変ぼう  変貌   Henbou  Transfiguration; transformation
 173.  さい銭  賽銭   Saisen  Money offered at a Shinto shrine
 174.  かく乱  撹乱   Kakuran  Disturbance; perturb
 175.  謙そん  謙遜   Kenson  Humility; humbleness; modisty
 176.  覚せい剤  覚醒剤   Kakuseizai  Stimulant

 


第365課: 略字 & 幽霊字

     略字 are unofficial variants of 漢字. 幽霊字 are characters that were supposedly accidentally created in the JIS character sets.  

略字

    There are typically two meanings of 略字.

  1. A generally used character shortened in handwriting.
  2. Characters not included in the 常用漢字 list but are simplified with patterns used during script reform.

     A very similar term is 俗字. They have circulated quite well but are not deemed proper. These characters may be called 異体字 in 漢字 dictionaries.


EXAMPLES OF 略字

 州  卅  The 3 ` are changed to 一.
 属  尸+虫  The 禹 is replaced with 虫.
 個  TRON 2-2635.gif  固 is replaced with 口.
 薄    専 is replaced with 云. Similar characters are changed likewise.
 喜  七X3  Replaced with three 七.
 品  TRON 2-4E58.gif  Characters with 品 are abbreviated likewise.
 機  木+キ  The character may also be abbreviated with the top right part changed to  TRON 3-EC6C.gif.
 劇  虎+リ  豕 is taken out.  
 門  RYAKUJI 2-0000.gif  This radical change may be applied to other characters.
 藤  艸冠+ト  The grass radical + the Katakana ト.
 潟  氵+写  Taken from the simplification of 写.
 層  尸+ソ  曽 is replaced with the Katakana ソ.
 魔  广+マ  Also the simplification of 摩.
 点  奌  灬 is replaced with 大. Also happens to 魚.
 闘  RYAKUJI 2-0000.gif+ 斗  Two simplifications at once.
 第  TRON 2-243D.gif  A simplification originating from cursive script. 
 都    者 is changed to 土+日.
 寸    The ` is moved to the top right corner.
 議  言+ギ  義 replaced with the Katakana ギ.
 魚  鱼  灬 replaced with 一. This can happen with any character. 
 選    己己 replaced with ツ.
 堅    臣 is often replaced with リ.
 権    Following the simplification made in China. 
 曜  旺  Pattern is not normally continued in similar characters.
 職  耺・耳+ム  Patterns are not normally continued in similar characters.
 衛    The right half can be replace with the Katakana ヱ.
 止  と  This radical may be replaced with the Hiragana と.
 経  圣  Also a common practice in replacing 軽.
 神    申 replaced with ヤ with ` in the lower right.
 風    Inner radical may be replaced with two `.

Resource Note: There are many more 略字 in existence exclusively used in Japan. However, there will be extreme personal differences, and the mentioning of them here should not be treated as a green light to use them whenever. They should only be used in personal handwriting. For those who wish to see more, visit the following page: http://hac.cside.com/bunsho/1shou/39setu.html

幽霊字

     幽霊字 are characters found in JIS with uncertain origin, meaning, readings, or any number of these issues. The number of 幽霊字 is uncertain, and because JIS has been expanded since the initial discovery, more are bound to be discovered. It has also turned out that many 幽霊字 are actually 略字. This could give a slight reason to why they may have been added. Below is a chart with characters deemed to be 幽霊字. 

 垉  ホウ  Break; collapse
 
 壥  テン  Shop  
 彁  カ、セイ  No meaning  
 暃  ヒ  Be separated  
 汢   ねた  Marsh  
 穃  ヨウ  No meaning  
 粫  ジ、メン、うるち  Gluten-free grain  
 蟐  ジョウ、もみ  Mantis  
 鍄  キョウ、リョウ  Clamp  
 駲  シュン、ジュン  Horse's butt  
 垈  タイ、ダイ、ぬた  Wetlands  国字
 妛  シ、あなど(る)、おろか、みだる、みにく(い)  Ugly; contempt
 From a 外字 without 一
 恷  キュウ、ク  Be contrary; nice  
 椦  ケン、まげもの  Wickerwork  A mistake of 橳
 熕  おおづつ  Cannon  国字
 粐  コ、ロ、ぬか  Rice-bran  
 糘  すくも  Chaff  国字
 袮  チ、デイ、ネ  Ancestral Shrine  
 閠  ギョク、ケイ、ジュン、うるう  Intercalation  A mistake of 閏
 鵈  とび  Kite (bird)  
 墸  チョ  Hesitate  A mistake of 躇
 岾  はけ、やま  Mountain  
 挧  ウ、とち  Japanese horse chestnut  
 橸  まさ  Straight grain  
 碵  いしずえ  Cornerstone  
 粭  すくも  Chaff  国字
 膤  セツ、そり、ゆき、たら  Snow  国字
 軅  たか、やがて  After all  A mistake of 軈
 靹  ケツ、とも  Archer's arm protector  A mistake of 鞆

 


第366課: Phonology I: Basic Information

In this first introductory lesson to the study of Japanese phonology, we will go over the vowels in great detail. Though dialectical and historical information create a more correct and bigger picture for Japanese as a whole, we will refrain from focusing on these details at this time and focus primarily on Standard Japanese phonology.  

Some new terminology will be necessary to properly study phonology. Another thing that must be understood is that the use of IPA--International Phonetic Alphabet--symbols will be necessary in transcribing Japanese at this point. Symbols will be explained, but there will be no wavering in their implementation.  

Curriculum Note: This lesson is under the process of being remodeled to only discuss vowels. So, please forgive me for its current status as a stub article.  

Vowels

The Japanese vowel space is significantly less complex than any variety of English.  If we were to map the Japanese vowel space, it would look like the chart to the left. Now,this chart uses one ad hoc character that is not the typical IPA symbol for it so that you at least know at this point that the Japanese u is still not the English u.   

 The Japanese /a/ is rather low like in English, but it is pronunciation wise a central vowel (though the phonology treats it as a back vowel). The Japanese /i/ is very similar to English. However, there is no lip spreading like there is for English speakers, and because Japanese phonology has no tense and lax distinction for high vowels like English does (beat vs bit), the actual value of a Japanese /i/ could easily sometimes sound like an "ih" to English speakers.

     What do we mean by low and high and front and back? The diagram to the left is a rough representation of the vowel space inside your mouth and the position of your tongue. High vowels are made with your tongue high and the opposite is true for low vowels, and in between are mid vowels. Your tongue is raised to the back for back vowels and in the front for front vowels and in the center for central vowels. 

   The high-back vowel in Japanese is unrounded and if there is any lip protrusion it is actually lip compression, very similar to the Japanese /w/. [ɯᵝ] is the correct IPA notation for this sound. For speakers outside of East Japan, this vowel is actually closer to [u]. Meaning, there is lip rounding and it is then almost identical to the English vowel. However, this is not the case for Standard Japanese spoken in Tokyo and surrounding areas. 

      Aside from the positions being slightly different, the Japanese /e/ and /o/ are not that much different. Though, one important detail to not overlook is that these vowels are never diphthongized in Japanese. Meaning, when you pronounce them, the vowel quality is maintained and does not shift to another vowel in the vowel space. This is obligatory for many vowels in English but it is forbidden for all vowels in Japanese. This is something that English speakers in particular have a problem with understanding and should be something that you take especial attention to. 


 Time and Quality

     Japanese vowels are usually always pronounced as monophthongs because they essentially remain unchanged. The word "eye" was used as an example to find an equivalent to あ. However, the word "eye" is pronounced as a diphthong and the Japanese vowel is only equivalent to that sound's onset. Diphthongization does exist to an extent in Japanese. For example, the combination あい is often not so moraic and resembles a diphthong depending on the speaker. To test whether this is true or not, you would have to examine individual speaker variation. 

     Long vowels are treated as two separate morae. Pitch often rises or falls in long vowels. Vowel sequences are also not spoken as one unit for the same reason. Morae are ideally supposed to be spoken with the same amount of time. However, っ, a moraic obstruent, disrupts this and causes a pause and intensification of the following phoneme. Things like the fact it's humanly impossible to exactly say each sound unit with the same time and other things like moraic obstruents, vowel length, and diphthongization make this ideal slightly unrealistic. 

Note: Diphthongs exist in certain varieties of Japanese which will not be discussed in this lesson. 

Elongation & Nasalization

Vowel length differences create contrast in Japanese. A long vowel is a vowel two morae long. The vowel sequence ei often becomes [e:] in Standard Japanese, and many words spelled with ou are pronounced as [o:] instead. You can find long vowels in words of all sorts of origins. 

 酢 (Vinegar) VS 吸う (To inhale)  ビル (Building) VS ビール (Beer)  里 (Village) VS 砂糖 (Sugar)
 この (This) VS 効能 (Efficacy)  外 (Outside) VS 相当 (Befitting)  木 (Tree) VS 紀伊 (Kii)
 炉 (Hearth) VS 牢 (Jail)  血 (Blood) VS 地位 (Position)   二 (Two) VS 二位 (2nd place) 

Nasalization

Technically, vowels are natural nasalized to some extent in Japanese before nasal sounds.  

sẽɴ̩  = Line
tãɴ̩  = Phlegm
jã.ma = Mountain
kãɴ̩  = Can

Devoicing

       High vowels are frequently devoiced in East Japanese dialects including Standard Japanese, though it is a feature almost non-existent elsewhere in Japan. Its restrictions are not that difficult to figure out, but you will need to put some thought into this to understand. 

       The existence of devoicing of high vowels means that there are two allophones of /i/ and /ɯᵝ/. They are represented in IPA as [i, ɯᵝ] and [i̥ ɯ̥ᵝ] repectively. The dot you see simply stands for being unvoiced.  

ki-da  =  Is a tree
tɕi̥.ka.i  = Close
ɯmi   = Sea
ni.ho.ŋ̩.go   = Japanese language
tsɯ.jɯ   = Rainy season
ki.se.tsɯ   = Season
ga.sɯ̥ = Gas
haɕi = Bridge
haɕi̥  = Chopsticks

The rule is this:

 Low pitch V[+high] → V̥ / C[-voice]___ {C[-voice]}

Getting to the chase, devoicing happens between two unvoiced consonants importantly not in a stressed syllable. 


第367課: Phonology 1.5: Consonants

In this lesson, we will learn about the particulars of Japanese consonant pronunciation and the rules behind it in the context of Japanese phonology. Terms will be defined as necessary, and connections to English will be made occasionally, though this will be limited due to the overwhelming dialectical diversity found across the English speaking world.

Lesson Note: This lesson assumes that you have basic knowledge of IPA symbols. However, as IPA symbols and terminology are defined in this lesson, you do not necessarily have to know them prior to reading this lesson. Additionally, [] will be used to encase phonemic descriptions whereas // will encase phonological phonemes of the language.

Consonants 子音

Stops 

A stop is a sound that stops air flow completely. The Japanese non-nasal stops are [p, b, t, d, k, g]. If we were to organize these by voicing and place of articulation, we would get the following chart.

   Bilabial  Alveolar  Velar
 [-V]  [p]   [t]   [k] 
 [+V]  [b]  [d]  [g]

For this analysis of Japanese phonology, unvoiced consonants will be treated as the unmarked pronunciation of consonants in Japanese as there is convincing evidence to support that the addition of voicing in Japanese was an invent which the language did not start out with.

Bilabial sounds are made with the bringing together of the upper and lower lips, and the two languages don’t differ greatly here. Though the Japanese [t] and [d] are alveolar like in English, they are pronounced with the tongue tip almost touching the back of the upper teeth, which is not the case in English. For some speakers, they will sound fully dental like we find in Spanish.

The voiced velar [g] has an interesting [+nasal] allophone [ŋ] word medially and after the syllabic uvular nasal /ɴ/, which will be discussed in length later on. /ɴ/ is not in square brackets because it is important to view it here as a phoneme because it coarticulates with /g/, and its pronunciation is determined by how /g/ realizes. The two allophones of /g/, [g, ŋ] are in overlapping distribution. The latter is optional and must be only used in the said environments, but [g] can be freely used anywhere /g/ can appear.

In English, the unvoiced stops are heavily aspirated, especially in word initial position with a vowel following. Japanese does not have this default per say, and if a Japanese person does aspirate them, it is never going to be as strong as the average English speaker. However, aspiration is stronger in Japanese on average than Spanish.  Sometimes, you will hear people especially when singing in particular genres with well-pronounced aspiration, which may in fact be a sign that they are aware of the general means of aspiration in English. As there is nothing in Japanese defining the use of aspiration, it will be all over the place. So, just because you find a speaker with a lot of aspiration or a speaker with no aspiration does not negate this statement. Rather, it would be a validation of this not being an important or working aspect of Japanese phonology.


Fricatives

Fricatives are very noisy sounds. This turbulence which is often interpreted as hissing is created by forcing air flow in the oral cavity to go through a narrowed opening in the vocal tract, which then causes this major turbulence. You are essentially making friction with your tongue and mouth, which is why these sounds are called fricatives. Japanese has quite a few of them, and most are not quite exactly found in English.

   Bilabial  Alveolar  Alveolo-Palatal  Palatal  Velar  Glottal
 [-V]  ([ɸ])  [s]  [ɕ]  ([ç])    [h]
 [+V]  ([β])  [z]  [ʑ]    ([ɣ])  

Chart Note: In this chart, we include phonemes and allophones of phonemes that happen to be pronounced as fricatives. To distinguish them in the chart, allophones of phonemes pronounced as fricatives are shown in parentheses. 

Terminology Note: Many texts will use alveolo-palatal interchangeably with alveo-palatal, but in strict terms, the former is correct for Japanese phonology. In fact, these sounds are given separate IPA characters, which are used in the chart above. We will not use other non-standard IPA characters such as APA symbols to respond Japanese phonemes or allophones.

Alveolo-palatal sounds in Japanese involve no rounding of the lips with the blade of the tongue behind the alveolar ridge and the body of the tongue raised toward the palate. This is unlike alveolar sounds which are made on or slightly before the alveolar ridge.

Phonemically, there are only five fricatives in Japanese, but we see the rest of the space is nearly filled up when we include allophones of other (non-)fricative phonemes. In the first column, we see [ɸ] and [β]. The first is an allophone of /h/ when it is followed by the back unrounded vowel [ɯᵝ]. The latter is an optional allophone of /b/ in rapid speech in word medial position, but it is not that common, and even in such rapid and or vulgar speech in which it would appear, it is not a guarantee that it will even appear.

[s] and [z] are fundamental fricatives of Japanese. [s]’s hissing effect is slightly more amplified in Japanese to many English ears, but this is minute and would not be a feature shared by all Japanese speakers. [z] is often restricted by speakers in word medial position, and in Standard Japanese, it is not supposed to appear word initially. /z/ when word initial or after the uvular [ɴ] is pronounced with the affricate allophone [dz]. We will learn more about affricates in the next section. We will say that because this splicing is so dependent on speaker variation that these allophones are in free variation with [dz] being the most frequent pronunciation.

The alveolopalatal fricatives [ɕ] and [ʑ] have an odd status in Japanese phonology. Some reconstructions of older forms of Japanese suggest that [s] and [z] were in fact [ɕ] and [ʑ] or at least such with [-low] vowels such as [i] and [e] because to this day, there are dialects in which [si] and [se] are realized as [ɕi] and [ɕe] respectively. These sounds became phonemes in Japanese through the introduction of loanwords from Chinese.

In Standard Japanese, /s/ has the obligatory allophone [ɕ] before the high front vowel [i]. This makes /s/ partially neutralized with [ɕ]. This allophonic variation existed before the introduction of the phoneme [ɕ]. The same came be said for /z/ which must become [ʑ] before [i]. This means that the phoneme [ʑ] becomes indistinguishable from the allophone [ʑ] of /z/.

 Unlike [z] and [dz] which are still in free variation, [ʑ] is disappearing. Regardless of location, it is replaced entirely by the allophone [dʑ]. In Standard Japanese, the traditional distinguish is aimlessly being maintained by NHK and the like is to use the affricate pronunciation word initially or after [ɴ] and use the fricative pronunciation elsewhere.

The palatal [ç] is an obligatory phoneme of [h] before the high vowel [i] in Standard Japanese, but this is only typical of Eastern Japanese dialects. So, [hi] can be found in other dialects.

Like the bilabial fricative, the velar fricative [ɣ] is an optional allophone of /g/ in rapid and or vulgar speech, but this is somewhat more common. As it is not an obligatory feature, many speakers cannot even pronounce it. This allophone only appears word medially.

The glottal fricative [h] is very similar to the English [h] and can be accompanied by vocal cord vibration intervocalically just like in English. To many English speakers, it may sound slightly more tense than the English [h] but relatively weak before the low-mid vowel [a].


Affricates 

We have actually already said a lot about the affricatives of Japanese. As far as manner of production is concerned, an affricate is the combination of a stop and a fricative. In Japanese, the voiced alveopalatal fricatives and voiced affricatives have essentially collapsed together with the alveopalatal fricative pronunciation being the standard pronunciation. The alveopalatal fricative pronunciations linger on as increasingly rarer allophones of the affricates.

   Alveolar  Alveolopalatal
 [-V]  [ts]  [tɕ]
 [+V]  [dz]
 [dʑ]

[ts] has traditionally been an allophone of /t/ before the back unrounded vowel [ɯᵝ], but due to the introduction of loanwords from modern foreign languages, it has now become a phoneme of Japanese. It has also independently become a phoneme in other Japanese dialects aside from the help of borrowings.

[tɕ] has traditionally been an allophone of /t/ before the high front vowel [i] but became a phoneme of Japanese through borrowings from Chinese, and thanks to borrowings from modern foreign languages, it may now be used with all of the vowels of Japanese. It has traditionally been not paired with the mid-vowel [e].

The voiced affricates [dʑ] and [dz] initially came in the language via Chinese borrowings in Middle Japanese. They were maintained as distinct sounds from the voiced fricatives, but the voiced fricatives began to partially neutralize with the voiced affricatives before high vowels. Complete collapse has occurred for many speakers in which all voiced fricatives become voiced affricatives. Once [z] disappears, we will then be able to say complete collapse has occurred for all speakers. It is important to note that in some reasons, [dz] has become [d]. This means that /d/, /z/, and /dz/ are completely neutralized for some speakers.  


Approximants

Approximants is not the best term in the world, but it refers to liquids and glides which are all sonorants. Sonorants are sounds created with no obstruction to air flow and are continuant. Liquids differ from glides in that liquids are [+consonantal] and glides are not. Glides are treated phonologically as consonants in Japanese, but their articulation most resembles a vowel.

   Alveolar  Palatal  Velar
 liquid [+V]  [ɾ]    
 glide [+V]    [j]  [w]

The alveolar tap/flap [ɾ] does have allophones. It is neither the English [l] nor [ɻ]. It is often described as sounding like the English [d], though the English [d] is semi-voiced whereas the Japanese [ɾ] is fully voiced and created by merely tapping the alveolar ridge. This tap exists obligatorily in American English two sonorants in an unstressed syllable and in Canadian English optionally in the same environment. However, due to the striking differences in environments of this sound in the two languages, coarticulation makes them sound quite different. Before [i] and [j], it usually sounds like the tap [ɾ], but before [o], it often sounds like the alveolar approximant [ɺ], It may also be a trill, [r], in vulgar or casual speech.

The palatal glide [j] is seen only with [a, o, ɯᵝ] in native and Sino-Japanese vocabulary. [je] has been introduced in loans, but it is frequently replaced with [i.e] especially by the older generation. [yi] has not been successfully introduced though a Katakana diglyph does exist for it (イィ). All Japanese stops and fricatives are palatalized to enlarge the Japanese phonemic inventory.

   Bilabial  Alveolar  Velar
 Stop [-V]  [pj]  [tj= tɕ]  [kj]
 Stop [+V]  [bj]  [dj= dʑ]  [gj]
 Fricative [-V]    [sj=ɕ]  
 Fricative [+V]    [zj= ʑ]  

This chart shows that phonologically the sounds in the alveolar column are combinations of a stop/fricative with a palatal glide as the underlining representation. However, this underlining representation does not reflect the surface pronunciation, which is shown to the right. [ɕ] and [ʑ] with [i] is the result of palatalization, but it is not resultant from the juxtaposition of a palatal glide. After palatalized consonants, traditionally only the vowels [a, i, ɯᵝ] would follow. The vowel [e] has only been accepted after palatalized consonants in recent modern loanwords.

The Japanese [w] is not accompanied with the large protrusion and rounding of the lips like in English and is compressed like its true vowel counterpart [ɯᵝ]. An ad hoc IPA representation of this is a double arrow ⇔ below w, but this is not standard by any means. This phoneme is now mostly restricted to [a] in native words. It survives with [o] among a decent minority in but one morpheme, [-(w)o] (accusative marker). In loans, it is seen with all vowels but [ɯᵝ]. When wu is transcribed, it is typically spelled out as [ɯᵝ:], but attempts are being made to somehow introduce it as seen in the Katakana diglyph ウゥ.  

Labialization used to be a secondary feature of pronunciation in the past. [kw] and [gw] were once phonemes of Japanese but have since collapsed completely with [k] and [g] respectively. These phonemes have arguably been re-introduced via modern loanwords, but most speakers would pronounce something like kwo as [kɯᵝ.o] instead.


Nasals

There were two stops which we did not see in our discussion above, [m, n]. These sounds are undoubtedly phonemes of Japanese, but the one nasal sound that causes headaches for learners and confusion for natives is the syllabic/moraic uvular nasal [ɴ]. In totality, it has at least seven allophones which are arguably in complementary distribution in normal circumstances. This sound coarticulates with the following sound, making this progressive nasal assimilation.

   Bilabial  Alveolar  Alveolopalatal  Palatal  Velar  Uvular
 nasal [+V]  [m]  [n]  [nj]  [ɲ]  [ŋ]  [ɴ]

Before bilabials, /ɴ/ becomes [m]. Before non-approximant alveolars, it becomes [n]. These two cases are not examples of partial neutralization because they are [+syllabic] whereas the phonemes /m/ and /n/ are [-syllabic]. They are different by one feature. Before velars, it becomes [ŋ]. Before alveo-palatal and palatal sounds, it is respectively an alveo-palatal [nj] and palatal [ɲ] respectively. Before approximants and vowels, it is either [ĩ,ɯ̃ᵝ]. The first appears before [i], but the latter occurs before everything else. This shows us that [a], despite being a central vowel, is treated like a back vowel in Japanese phonology.


Consonant Gemination

Japanese arguably has long consonants/geminates. They can be transcribed like vowels with a colon (technically a symbol that looks like a colon with triangles on top of each other instead of circles), or by doubling the consonant letter. One can interpret this as consonant fortition or glottal stop inserting before the consonant or something like it because the result is a consonant that is arguably usually two morae (though it is internalized by natives as two morae regardless if it is truly phonetically uttered as such or not).

 Thus, the symbol Q has been used by some Japanese phonologists who believe it is a moraic obstruent. At the end of vowels in abrupt utterances, a glottal stop is realized, and because the Kana scripts treat these two things as the same sound, some have argued that underlining, a phonemic glottal stop precedes a consonant to make it a geminate in Japanese. The argument, though, that Q is an archiphoneme which realizes as the sound that follows next is more plausible.

 Anyway, there are restrictions to ‘consonant gemination in Japanese’. Aside from rare loans and geminate nasals from the juxtaposition of a nasal stop and the syllabic /ɴ/, geminates are supposed to be unvoiced. According to Kawahara (2006), Japanese has a suffix -ɾi that contains a "floating mora" that triggers gemination in certain cases (e.g. |tap| +|ri| > [tappɯᵝɾi] ('a lot of'). When this leads to a geminated voiced obstruent, a moraic nasal appears instead as a sort of "partial gemination" (e.g. |zabu| + |ri| > [zambɯᵝɾi] ('splashing').


Summary Chart of All Japanese Sounds including those restricted as Allophones

 

 Bilabial

 Alveolar

 Alveolo-palatal

 Palatal

 Velar

 Uvular

 Glottal

 Nasal

 m

 n

 n̠ʲ

 ɲ

 ŋ

 ɴ

 

 Plosive

 b, p

 t, d, ts 

 tɕ, dʑ

 

 k, g

 

 ʔ

 Fricative

 ɸ, β

 s, z, dz

 ɕ, (ʑ)

 ç

 (Ɣ)

 

 h

 Trill

 

 r

 

 

 

 

 

 Liquid

 

 ɽ, ɾ, ɺ

 

 

 

 

 

 Glide

 

 

 

 j

 w͍

 

 

 Moraic Obstruent

 

 

 

 

 

 

 Q




参照: 

1. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_phonology
2. An Introduction To Japanese Linguistics, Natsuko Tsujimura (1996)
3. Kawahara, Shigeto (2006). "A Faithfulness ranking projected from a perceptibility scale: The case of [+ Voice] in Japanese". Language 82

   Bilabial  Alveolar  Alveolo-palatal  Palatal  Velar  Uvular  Glottal
 Nasal  m  n  n̠ʲ    ŋ  N'  
 Plosive  b, p  t, d, ts   tɕ, (dʲ)ʑ    k, g    ʔ
 Fricative  ɸ, β  s, z, dʲz  ɕ, ʑ  ç  Ɣ    h
 Trill    r          
 Flap    ɽ, ɾ, ɺ          
 Approximant        j  w͍    
 Moraic Obstruent
             Q


   Bilabial  Alveolar  Alveolo-palatal  Palatal  Velar  Uvular  Glottal
 Nasal  m  n  n̠ʲ    ŋ  N'  
 Plosive  b, p  t, d, ts   tɕ, (dʲ)ʑ    k, g    ʔ
 Fricative  ɸ, β  s, z, dʲz  ɕ, ʑ  ç  Ɣ    h
 Trill    r          
 Flap    ɽ, ɾ, ɺ          
 Approximant        j  w͍    
 Moraic Obstruent
             Q


   Bilabial  Alveolar  Alveolo-palatal  Palatal  Velar  Uvular  Glottal
 Nasal  m  n  n̠ʲ    ŋ  N'  
 Plosive  b, p  t, d, ts   tɕ, (dʲ)ʑ    k, g    ʔ
 Fricative  ɸ, β  s, z, dʲz  ɕ, ʑ  ç  Ɣ    h
 Trill    r          
 Flap    ɽ, ɾ, ɺ          
 Approximant        j  w͍    
 Moraic Obstruent
             Q

 


   Bilabial  Alveolar  Alveolo-palatal  Palatal  Velar  Uvular  Glottal
 Nasal  m  n  n̠ʲ    ŋ  N'  
 Plosive  b, p  t, d, ts   tɕ, (dʲ)ʑ    k, g    ʔ
 Fricative  ɸ, β  s, z, dʲz  ɕ, ʑ  ç  Ɣ    h
 Trill    r          
 Flap    ɽ, ɾ, ɺ          
 Approximant        j  w͍    
 Moraic Obstruent
             Q

 



第368課: Phonology II: Pitch (高低アクセント)

An accent is the combination of phonetic properties attributed to words. English exhibits a stress system called a "stress accent (強弱アクセント)" in which syllables differ in how much stress is put on them. Japanese, on the other hand, has a "pitch accent (高低アクセント)" system in which syllables only differ in pitch. 

To demonstrate how pitch accent is utilized in Japanese, consider the following example well-known to demonstrate how it is sometimes what makes sentences understood correctly.  

1. ニワニワ・ワ・ニワトリガイル。(庭には2羽鶏がいる。)
    L H  H L   H  L L H H H H H H 

As important as pitch might be to help bring clarity to a sentence, its use is not uniform throughout Japan. You should expect each major dialect to exhibit its own unique twist to the same formula. Some Japanese dialects don't even utilize pitch to distinguish words. The point of this lesson, however, is to become familiar with the Standard Japanese pitch accent system.

Technicality Note: It is humanly impossible to transition immediately from low to high pitch or vice versa. Changes are gradual with natural curvatures.  

Standard Japanese Pitch Accent System

Unlike its neighboring language Chinese, Japanese is not considered to be tonal because pitch accent isn't fundamental to interpreting it. Pitch may be used to distinguish words every now and then, but this is not consistent throughout dialects, and pitch is not viewed as an intrinsic part of the language's lexicon. A foreigner could incidentally mess up the pitch of every syllable in a sentence and still likely be understood provided other aspects of pronunciation are fine. This is unlike Chinese in which messing up the tone of the world will inevitably change the word or make whatever you're attempting to say hard to understood.  

       As far as the rules of Standard Japanese's pitch accent system, there are four basic patterns to consider. These rules are designed with the forethought that affixes will attach to words. For instance, particles, auxiliary verbs, etc. influence the pitch accent of a phrase. 

 頭高型  The pitch starts high, drops suddenly, then steadily goes down.  \_
 中高型  The pitch rises, reaches a maximum, then drops suddenly.  /\
 尾高型  The pitch rises then drops when it reaches an attached element.  / ̄(\)
 平板型  The pitch rises from start to end.  / ̄( ̄) 

     Examples

 Rule 1

 Rule 2

 Rule 3

 Rule 4

 háɕì (chopsticks)

 hàɕí (bridge)

 

 haɕi (edge)

 ímà (now)

 ìmá (living room)

 

 

 kákì (oyster)

 kàkí (fence)

 

 kaki (persimmon)

 níhòN' (two long items)

 nìhóN' (Japan)

 

 

 ámè (rain)

 

 

 ame (candy)

 ásà (morning)

 àsá (hemp)

 

 

 káɽàsu (crow)

 tàmágò (egg)

 otoko (man)

 otona (adult)

Curriculum Note: IPA is used in this chart. 


東京弁のアクセント型一覧     

Kind / Syllable Count

2 Morae

3 Morae

4 Morae

5 Morae

平板式

平板型0

LH(H)
咲く, 鼻, 腰

LHH(H)
兎, 桜, 赤い 

LHHH(H)
洗濯, 鶏

LHHHH(H)
アルコール

 

 

 


 

 


尾高型

LH(L)
犬, 川, 花, 山

LHH(L)
男, 女, 二人

LHHH(L)
妹,弟, 極楽

LHHHH(L)
お正月

 


 

LHL(L)
心, 卵, 絵本

LHLL(L)
歩いた

LHLLL(L)
不完全

 

LHHL(L)
湖, 花嫁

LHHLL(L)
ありました

 

LHHHL(L)
面白い, 暖まる

頭高型①

HL(L)
雨, 猿, 秋, 窓

HLL(L)
命, クラス

HLLL(L)
大臣, 大きな

HLLLL(L)
アクセント

Terminology Notes:

1. 起伏 = Highs and lows
2. 平板 = Flat

Morae count doesn't change the basic patterns identified at the beginning. However, it is important to understand how these patterns are applied to words of different lengths. Take for instance the difference between 花 and 鼻. Without anything affixed to them, they are completely homophonous. However, when in phrases, they are distinguishable as being LH(L) and LH(H). 
 
Pitch contours in phrases is not necessarily just taking the individual pitch contours of words and putting them together. For instance, the pitch of 咲く is LH(H) and the pitch of 桃 is LH(H). When you say 桃が咲く, the pitch is LHHHH(H) instead of LHHLH(H). 
 
One aspect of 東京弁 is that although particles such as が, は, に, と, や, へ, も, を, から, and しか don't affect the pitch of nouns, の causes a similar assimilation of pitch. For instance, say you have 花 and 桃. The first is 尾高型 and the second is 平板型. However, when used with the particle の, their pitch contours become the same. The particle だけ optionally does the same as の.
 
3. ハナノヤマ↓  モモノヤマ
    花の山        桃の山

Notation Note: The down arrow shows a drop in pitch on the following affixed item.
 
What does this mean for 鼻の山 or 腿の山? Well, that is why puns exist to manipulate rules that cause such things to be possible. 
 
What about particles more than one morae? Except for から, しか, and だけ, the pitch of such particles, which include さえ, すら, だに, でも, のみ, まで, かな, とも, など, なり, のに, ので, and combinations, is determined by the pitch of the noun. If the noun is 平板型, the first morae of the particle is accented. If the noun is accented, then there is no pitch change in the particle.
 
4.  みでもうりものさ
 
 Despite there being so much apparently fluidity to pitch in Japanese, there is still innate pitch rules built into the language. Otherwise, how would continuously coined words and compounds be naturally assigned pitch? Of course, this "innate pitch" changes from generation to generation, and it's not completely constant across all Japanese speakers. So, those that say pitch allocation is unpredictable are not right. Pitch is indeed fluid, but it's not quite like a gas.

 
Systematic Rules for the Patterns 
 
There are rules, after all, to what kinds of words to expect in these patterns. Everything is subject to speaker variation, but the following guidelines will definitely help you sound a lot more like a native speaker. 
 
 Rule 1  All こそあど expressions are 平板型.   こ, そ, あ, こ, あ
 Rule 2  All nouns from 平板型 verbs are also 平板型.  あそび, たたみ, はじめ, たたかい
 Rule 3  3 morae names from verbs → 平板型  イサム, シゲル
 Rule 4  When the first part is 3(+) morae or 2(+) 漢字,  
 compounds with the following at the end are 
 平板型: 色, 組, 型, 玉, 寺(てら), 村, 山, 科, 家, 課, 
 語, 座, 派, 教, 産, 制, 線, 党, 病
 血液型, 耳鼻科, 人事課, キリスト教, 
 心臓病, 政治家
 Rule 5  Female names that end in 江, 枝, 恵, 代, 世  良枝, 正世
 Rule 6  Male names 3 morae (+) ending in 夫, 男, 雄, 助, 介, 
 輔, 吉, 作
 正夫, 和男, 寿輔(じゅすけ)
 Rule 7  4 morae onomatopoeic expressions with だ, に, or な
 affixed
 ざらざらだ, つるつるに, べたべたな
 Rule 8  Nouns from compound verb expressions → 平板型  試合, 立ち入り, 買い戻し, 取り扱い
 Rule 9  Interrogative are 頭高型.  れ, ぜ, 
 Rule 10  2 morae adjectives from the stems of adjectives 
 → 頭高型
 お, しろ, ろ, か, 
 Rule 11  2 morae names → 頭高型  真理, 綾, 哲(てつ)
 Rule 12  3 morae names from adjectives → 頭高型  敦(あつし), 清志, 毅(つよし)
 Rule 13  3 morae female names ending in 子 → 頭高型  喜世子, 華子, 千代子
 Rule 14  3 morae male names ending in 樹, 吾, 二, 次, 治, 太, 
 一, 市, 平, 兵衛, 郎 → 頭高型
 正樹, 信吾, 真二, 太郎, 四郎, 
 Rule 15  4 morae male names ending in 助, 輔, 介 → 頭高型 
 when the second morae is special, having a long vowel,
 ん, etc.
 庄助, 勘助, 泰輔
 Rule 16  Onomatopoeia independent or with と → 頭高型  らはら(と), れでれ(と), 
 んとん(と), るつる(と)
 Rule 17  Compound words with the first half at least 3 morae or 
 more than 2 漢字 → 中高型 ending with 子, 歌, 川, 豆, 
 虫, 器, 区, 市, 府, 部, 員, 駅, 園, 会, 海, 学, 群, 県, 省, 料,
 力, 湾
 受器, 千代田区, 子唄, 
 世田谷区, 動物園(どうぶつえん)
 Rule 18  4 morae (+) male names ending in 彦, 介, 輔, 助 → 
 中高型
 朝彦, 靖彦, 福助, 孝介
 Rule 19  3 morae female names ending in 子 with the first morae 
 devoiced → 中高型
 菊子, 比沙子, 富貴子, 芙紗子
 Rule 20  When verbs with 起伏式 pitch are sent to nouns, the 
 pitch goes to 尾高型. However, if 4 morae (+), the word
 could also be 平板型 or 中高型. 
 る → 降り↓ 帰る(える) 
 → 帰り(かえり↓
 集まる(あつまる) → あつまり↓
                           → あつまり
             → あつま
 
Notes: Lists are not exhaustive. The best way to look up the pitch of a word is still by looking it up in a pitch accent dictionary. NHK編『日本語発音アクセント辞典』 is a great choice.
 
Another thing to consider is 呼称. 呼称 don't fit within the bounds of these 20 rules because their pitch is determined by the pitch of the noun phrase itself, although independently they may have their own pitch accent assigned. For instance, the very important endings ~さん, ~ちゃん, and ~さま behave like most particles. The pitch does not change. If the name is 頭高型, it still is with them. With 君, there is typically no change, but if the name is 平板型, the resulting phrase may become 尾高型. Lastly, titles tend to be accented, but they don't have to be when the surname is accented. 

 Generational Change
 Of course, when options exist, you are simply asking for speaker variation. Even in the 首都圏, there is wide variation, which will only continue to be the case for as long people migrate in and out of the area. As that won't probably ever start, new trends will no doubt have to be written down as the "new rules" perhaps thirty years from now. As a matter of fact, there are many common words in the past century that have had a generational shift in pitch. 
 
 言葉  老年層  若年層
 赤蜻蛉  かとんぼ  あかとんぼ
 鬼が島  にがしま   おにがしま 
 朝日  あ  さひ 
 若葉  わば   かば
 熊  クマ↓  
 神  かみ↓  
 寿司  す  
 姉  あ  
 梅雨  つ  
 鍬  く  
 僕    ぼ
 姪    め

                                                                       Conjugation
 
As we have seen before, what you add to something significantly affects pitch. Are you using a 単純語? A 複合語? Are you using conjugations? What particle are you using? All of this plays a large role in Standard Japanese pitch accent. So far, we have yet to see how conjugations come into play. Again, as was the case with the previous 20 rules, morae count is crucial.
 
As for the variations of the copula, if the noun/形容動詞 is unaccented, then the resulting phrase is 尾高型. If the noun/形容動詞 is accented, there is no pitch change. 
 
5. 赤です (かです)   城です (しろです)  雲だ (もだ)  空港ではありません (くうこうではありません)
 
Adjectives and verb pitch allocation is quite challenging to say the least. As the number of morae and what endings you are using are all important, information here will be based off of http://accent.u-biq.org, which illustrates not only the pitch allocation of nouns, names, number phrases, etc., but it also demonstrates the pitch accent contours of verbs and adjectives of various morae counts in numerous forms.  
 
 拍数  Type 1  Type 2  Type 3  Type 4
 2拍動詞  LH  LH  HL  HL
 3拍動詞  LHH  LHH  LHL  LHL
 4拍動詞  LHHH  LHHH  LHHL  LHHL
 
Though types may have very similar pitch contours, the class of verb does cause different morae counts with certain conjugations. This accounts for seemingly minor differences. Also keep in mind that there are verbs/compound verbs longer than 4 morae. So, these charts can't account for everything. Given that Japanese is agglutinative (endings attach in chains onto inflectional items), there are numerous possibilities. This first table just accounts for the 辞書形.
 
Notice how pitch differs with the following forms. See any patterns depending on the ending? These patterns can be used with each other when dealing with long verbal phrases. Regardless of these charts, though, if you are really wanting to have better pitch accent, the best things to do just boil down to having a decent pitch accent dictionary and ear to mimic native speakers. In time, you'll see how this information comes out quite naturally.  http://accent.u-biq.org.is a great online source to learn more!
頭高型
 The pitch starts high, drops suddenly, then steadily goes down.  \_
中高型
 The pitch rises, reaches a maximum, then drops suddenly. 
 /\
尾高型
 The pitch rises then drops when it reaches an attached element.  / ̄(\)
平板型
 The pitch rises from start to end.  / ̄( ̄)

     Examples

 Rule 1
 Rule 2
 Rule 3
 Rule 4
 háɕì (chopsticks)  hàɕí (bridge)  
 haɕi (edge)
 ímà (now)
 ìmá (living room)
   
 kákì (oyster)
 kàkí (fence)
 
 kaki (persimmon)
 níhòN' (two long items)  nìhóN' (Japan)    
 ámè (rain)      ame (candy)
 ásà (morning)  àsá (hemp)    
 káɽàsu (crow)  tàmágò (egg)
 otoko (man)
 otona (adult)
頭高型
 The pitch starts high, drops suddenly, then steadily goes down.  \_
中高型
 The pitch rises, reaches a maximum, then drops suddenly. 
 /\
尾高型
 The pitch rises then drops when it reaches an attached element.  / ̄(\)
平板型
 The pitch rises from start to end.  / ̄( ̄)

     Examples

 Rule 1
 Rule 2
 Rule 3
 Rule 4
 háɕì (chopsticks)  hàɕí (bridge)  
 haɕi (edge)
 ímà (now)
 ìmá (living room)
   
 kákì (oyster)
 kàkí (fence)
 
 kaki (persimmon)
 níhòN' (two long items)  nìhóN' (Japan)    
 ámè (rain)      ame (candy)
 ásà (morning)  àsá (hemp)    
 káɽàsu (crow)  tàmágò (egg)
 otoko (man)
 otona (adult)
頭高型
 The pitch starts high, drops suddenly, then steadily goes down.  \_
中高型
 The pitch rises, reaches a maximum, then drops suddenly. 
 /\
尾高型
 The pitch rises then drops when it reaches an attached element.  / ̄(\)
平板型
 The pitch rises from start to end.  / ̄( ̄)

     Examples

 Rule 1
 Rule 2
 Rule 3
 Rule 4
 háɕì (chopsticks)  hàɕí (bridge)  
 haɕi (edge)
 ímà (now)
 ìmá (living room)
   
 kákì (oyster)
 kàkí (fence)
 
 kaki (persimmon)
 níhòN' (two long items)  nìhóN' (Japan)    
 ámè (rain)      ame (candy)
 ásà (morning)  àsá (hemp)    
 káɽàsu (crow)  tàmágò (egg)
 otoko (man)
 otona (adult)
頭高型
 The pitch starts high, drops suddenly, then steadily goes down.  \_
中高型
 The pitch rises, reaches a maximum, then drops suddenly. 
 /\
尾高型
 The pitch rises then drops when it reaches an attached element.  / ̄(\)
平板型
 The pitch rises from start to end.  / ̄( ̄)

     Examples

 Rule 1
 Rule 2
 Rule 3
 Rule 4
 háɕì (chopsticks)  hàɕí (bridge)  
 haɕi (edge)
 ímà (now)
 ìmá (living room)
   
 kákì (oyster)
 kàkí (fence)
 
 kaki (persimmon)
 níhòN' (two long items)  nìhóN' (Japan)    
 ámè (rain)      ame (candy)
 ásà (morning)  àsá (hemp)    
 káɽàsu (crow)  tàmágò (egg)
 otoko (man)
 otona (adult)

第369課: Phonology III: 連濁

Of all the phonological 'rules' to Japanese that gives learners and natives alike headaches the most, 連濁 is at the top of the list. The fact that it is not 100% known for what it is in Japanese academia may be way there are so many misinterpretations about what it is floating around online. However, what this lesson will try to do is address the phenomenon for what it is and try to outline potential restrictions on it, which is what trips everyone up.

It is believed that voicing came about in Japanese by a reduction of the particle の to n in between things and causing voiced to the next consonant after it.  

Voicing in Compounding

When you put two nouns together to create a new noun phrase in Japanese, the first mora of the second element often gets voiced. For instance, if your two nouns are 赤 and 玉, the resulting word is あかだま, not あかたま. There is no fundamental change in meaning to 玉. How it's realized in the resultant phrase is slightly different. 

It's extremely easy to find many examples of this voicing phenomenon (有声音化). For instance, consider the following. 

 赤紙  あかがみ  Red paper; draft paper; callup notice  白酒  しろざけ  Sweet white sake
 小皿  こざら  Small plate  板金  いたがね  Sheet metal
 生え際  はえぎわ  (Receding) hairline  堀端  ほりばた  Side of a moat
 青白い  あおじろい  Pale; bluish-white  笑顔  えがお  Smiling face
 白髪  しらが  White/grey hair  和毛  にこげ  Downy hair

We see that voicing can occur even when you prefix something to a noun like in 小皿, but it can also show up when the second element is an adjective like in 青白い. 笑顔 shows that the first element may even be truncated (えみ → え), but this doesn't stop the voicing of 顔. However, it's important to know that these things aren't being pointed out for the heck of it. These are merely observations, and you need to understand that little details like this are important to fully understanding a phonological rule as complex as 連濁 is. 

For instance, if we look back at 玉 from earlier, we see that it doesn't always become だま in compounds.

 替(え)玉  かえだま  Scapegoat  焼(き)玉  やきだま  Hot-bulb
 白玉  しらたま  White gem  金玉  きんたま  Balls (male)
 勾玉  まがたま  Comma-shaped bead  水玉  みずたま  Polkadot
 数数玉  ずずだま  Rosary bead  赤玉葱  あかたまねぎ  Red union

 Although not all individual meanings are given for each example word, you should realize that compounding does generate different phrases. You shouldn't just expect 白玉 to mean white ball/bead. In speaking of this word, notice how it is しらたま instead of  しろたま, しろだま (though this is an extant form), or しらだま. This, however, is yet another old and complicated phonological sound change. 

Another thing that has to be rectified with is the last example: 赤玉葱. Just because you see 玉 inside a word doesn't mean you can read it as だま. In reality, the compound is 赤+玉葱. Because there is a voiced sound in 玉葱, the voicing of た is prevented. We'll learn more about this sort of restriction later in this lesson. 

There used to be a long standing rule that if the last mora of the first element of the compound were voiced that the first mora of the second element couldn't be voiced. Yet, as this small list of examples shows, it doesn't take much time at all to find exceptions (数数玉).  

No 連濁 _/ Initial Word with Voiced Sound

There has been a long standing rule in Japanese that if the final mora in the first element of a compound that 連濁 should not occur in the second element. However, as we've already seen above, there are plenty of examples to this such as 数数玉. Exceptions below are in bold. 

 萩原  はぎはら  Reedy field  風邪引き  かぜひき  Catching a cold
 禍事  まがこと・まがごと  Ill-omen word  風邪声  かぜごえ  Hoarse voice
 風邪気味  かぜぎみ  Touch of a cold  風邪薬  かぜぐすり  Cold medicine
 水子  みずご  Stillborn fetus  筆箱  ふでばこ  Pencil box
 腕時計  うでどけい  Arm watch  袖口  そでぐち  Cuff; armhole
 帯紐  おびひも  Obi strap  革紐  かわひも  Leather strap

Notes

1. It's not surprising that there are some words that pivot between between regular and exceptions.
2. However, sometimes voicing is obligatory because the second element is used as a suffix and the reading is fixed. This is the case for 風邪気味, with ~気味 being the suffix.  

上清めば下濁る

The title of this section is an old Classical Japanese expression that states that if the top is not voiced that the bottom is. This clearly refers to 連濁,  the initial consonant of a latter element of a  compound word becoming voiced.

 We've seen how this typically works for nouns and sometimes with adjectival phrases, but 連濁 is actually seen in particles that come from nouns such as だけ, ばかり, and ぐらい. 

Before we really start looking at exceptions, we'll take some time to look at a lot of examples that do have 連濁 so that you might be able to some commonalities. 

 大和魂  やまとだましい  The Japanese spirit  砂埃  すなぼこり  Cloud of dust/sand
 手品  てじな  Trick (魔法など)  星空  ほしぞら  Starry sky
 夜空  よぞら  Night sky  青空  あおぞら  Blue sky
 舌鼓  したづつみ  Smacking one's lips  後れ毛  おくれげ  Straggling hair
 他人事  たにんごと  Other person's affairs  花時  はなどき  Flowering season
 唸り声  うなりごえ  Groan; growl  本棚  ほんだな  Bookshelf
 手紙  てがみ  Letter  手助け  てだすけ  Help
 寝床  ねどこ  Bed  棒縞  ぼうじま  Stripes
 人々  ひとびと  People  手袋  てぶくろ  Glove(s)
 時々  ときどき  Sometimes  面魂  つらだましい  Defiant look
 丸顔  まるがお  Round face  中底  なかぞこ  Insole
 道端  みちばた  Road side  居所  いどころ  Whereabouts
 炭火  すみび  Charcoal fire  秋口  あきぐち  Start of fall
 根絶やし  ねだやし  Extermination  引け時  ひけどき  Closing time
 蝙蝠傘  こうもりがさ  Western umbrella  八つ手  やつで  Fatsia
 逆剃り  さかぞり  Shaving upwards  出来心  できごころ  Sudden impulse
 帰り支度  かえりじたく  Preparing to go home  湯豆腐  ゆどうふ  Boiled tofu
 小太鼓  こだいこ  Small drum  湯飲み茶碗  ゆのみぢゃわん  Teacup
 目覚まし時計  めざましどけい  Alarm clock  返す返す  かえすがえす  Repeatedly
 足早に  あしばやに  At a quick pace 代わる代わる  かわるがわる  Alternately
 長引く  ながびく  To be prolonged  目立つ  めだつ  To stand out

Notes:

1. 連濁 usually involves native phrases, but as you can see, there are plenty of examples where 連濁 occurs when there is a Sino-Japanese element. However, if you look at all such examples, you see that there is still a native element somewhere.
2. There are times when 連濁 ends up producing an adverbial phrase, and these tend to be bizarre. 足早に is somewhat reasonable, but 返す返す and 代わる代わる involving doubling a verbal expression. These are set expressions, but it's interesting how 連濁 shows up in them.
3. As is the case with the last two examples, 連濁 can also happen in a verbal phrase with the first element being non-verbal. 

Lyman's Law

 This law, which is attributed to 本居宣長 in Japan and thus usually called 本居宣長の法則 by Japanese people, tries to explain why 連濁 doesn't occur when there is a voiced sound in the second element. The law states that 

if the latter consonant of the second element is a voiced obstruent, 連濁 does not occur.

 秋風  あきかぜ  Autumn breeze  神風  かみかぜ  Divine wind
 鳥籠  とりかご  Bird cage  紙芝居  かみしばい  Picture story show
 狐蕎麦  きつねそば  Kitsune soba  一人旅  ひとりたび  Travelling alone
 山火事  やまかじ  Forest fire/wildfile  着物姿  きものすがた  Dressed in a kimono

 Exceptions and Issues

One exception is ふん じば る (to tie fast). This is because ~ん is thought to make 連濁 easily occur. This is true as we've seen many words so far that seem to point to this fact like 他人事 and 本棚, and these words both have an initial Sino-Japanese element. However, words like 金玉 can't be explained with this law.

What's more, the linguist definition of what a voiced sound does not do much justice to figuring out how this voicing phenomenon works. If we ignore that vowels are voiced because they do not hinder or hasten 連濁, then we need to think of what sorts of consonants are voiced. Yes, anything with a ゛ or ゜ is voiced, but so are n, m, r, y, w sounds and ん.

As for the initial element, voicing is traditionally supposed to hinder 連濁. But, if ~ん 90% of the time hastens it, this causes a big problem aside from the many exceptions mentioned earlier. If these sounds are all supposed to hinder 連濁 if present in the second element, then why are there words like the following?    

 風車  かざぐるま  Windmill  乱れ髪  みだれがみ  Unraveled hair
 山川  やまがわ  Mountain-side river  雪玉  ゆきだま  Snowball
 風下  かざしも  Leeward  縄梯子  なわばしご  Rope ladder

連濁 has occurred in speech whether people have been literate or not. So, it's hard to think that the lack of diacritics on phonetically voiced consonants has brought about words like 風車. However, it is possible for these sounds to be the only ones phonologically treated as voiced sounds in the language.

Words like 風下 have no 連濁 because the 'voiced sound' in the final position in the first element prevents it.  縄梯子 なわばしご  screws things over, but if you treat 子 as a suffix, then you could say that なわ + はし → なわばし and that 子 is obligatorily read as ご in the same way ~気味 is read as ぎみ.

              The suffix excuse is useful for words like 独り子 (ひとりご) meaning "only child". But, in names ~子 is read as こ: 保子 ( やすこ ) 菊子 ( きくこ ) 淳子 ( じゅんこ ) . However, names should be treated separately altogether, which will be looked at again later in this lesson. 


 ~ん → Obligatory 連濁

 There are cases that ~ん makes 連濁 obligatory. This goes along well with what has been said thus far about ~ん making 連濁 easier to occur. The cases that seem to be obligatory are counter expressions. Consider the following. 

 三千  さんぜん  Three thousands  三階  さんがい  Three stories
 三軒  さんげん  Three houses  何階  なんがい  What floor?

 There are a few problems, though. Reading 三階 as さんがい is the most common way to read this word with differentiating from 三回 (3 times) being the main reason, but さんかい is still a possible reading that some speakers use, and the same goes for 何階 being read as なんかい. This voicing phenomenon has been weakening over time.    

1. 昨年暮れ   No 連濁
    The end of last year 

外来語 Hate 連濁

Loan-words typically have no 連濁. Whether both elements are from other languages or one element is from another language, it just doesn't happen. Now, there could be that one exception hidden in the great lexicon of Japanese--which would not be surprising given all the exceptions that do exist with how 連濁 should work--but we will not worry ourselves about it with this restriction. 

 和風ステーキ  Japanese-style steak  和風トイレ  Japanese-style toilet
 カラーテレビ  Color TV  レンタカー  Rental car
 肉カレー  Curry with meat  パトカー  Patrol car
 真鰈  Brown sole  ダンプカー  Dump truck

Notes:

1. Although 真鰈, read as まがれい, is not a loanword, the point is that although a loanword like カレー may have basically the same pronunciation as a native word like 鰈, 連濁 still doesn't occur in the loanword.
2. This typically applies to 漢語 (Sino-Japanese words) as well, but there are plenty of exceptional words with 連濁. A good example is 胸算用 (rough estimation in one's head) read as むなざんよう.
3. If you were to look through every word used in Japanese, you would find exception to this. For instance, 銀ぎせる (silver cigar pipe) exists, though it would almost certainly be 銀きせる today.  

Take for instance, also, the word 株式会社 (corporation), which is read as かぶしきがいしゃ. 株 may very well be a native word, but the rest is Sino-Japanese, yet 会社 is voiced. The easy excuse is to say that 会社 is treated as a suffix, so 連濁 not surprisingly occurs.

 However, 式 is also a suffix and there are no examples of it ever becoming voiced as じき. It may be easier to say that another factor that enables 会社 to be voiced here is that it has more affinity as a 'Japanese word'. Thus, 'more Japanese' phonological changes can be expected. In light of the following additional, exceptional examples with the Sino-Japanese word meaning sugar,  砂糖 さとう , this is probably the better analysis:  角砂糖 かくざとう  (cube sugar),  黒砂糖 くろざとう  (brown sugar),  氷砂糖 こおりざとう  (rock candy), and  白砂糖 しろざとう (white sugar). 
3. In speaking of Sino-Japanese words, there are times when suffixes sometimes get voiced and sometimes don't, and only convention seems to be a feasible explanation for the readings.

 案内所  あんないじょ  Information desk  停留所  ていりゅうじょ   Bus/tram stop 
 裁判所  さいばんしょ  Court(house)  発電所  はつでんしょ  Power plant

Branching of a Compound

When a word has 2(+) parts, voicing occurs depending on the branching constraint of the word. Branching of a word is often very subjective, which doesn't help bring definity to any phonological rule you can draw to explain restrictions on 連濁, but it does help to a degree. Branching essentially refers to where the main meaning of a compound lies. In other words, branching explains where the semantic weight of an expressions falls on. 

When a word is left-branched, devoicing may occur at the beginning of the second element. When a word is right-branched, voicing doesn't occur. Of course, there are exceptions to this. 

 Phrase  Reading  Definition  Branching
 目覚まし時計  めざましどけい  Alarm clock  Left
 株式会社  かぶしきがいしゃ  Corporation  Left
 着物虱  きものじらみ  Body lice  Left
 紋白蝶  もんしろちょう  Cabbage butterfly  Right
 物差し  ものさし  Ruler  Right
 早口  はやくち  Fast-talking  Right
 砂原  すなはら  Sandy plain  Right
 草原  くさはら  Grassland(s)  Right
 絵描き  えかき  Artist  Right
 後腐れ  あとくされ  Future trouble  Right
 雨降り  あめふり  Rainfall  Right
 小鳥  ことり  Small bird  Right
 尾白鷲  おじろわし  White-tailed eagle  Right (Exception)
 紋切り型  もんきりがた  Hackneyed/stereotypical phrase  Right then left

Notes:

1. Though both 小玉 and 小鳥 have the prefix 小-, because "bead" is already something that is usually of relatively small size, 小- becomes the most important detail in the word and thus makes the word a left-branching word. This also explains why 小部屋 is read as こべや.  
2. 偽薬箱 has two possible readings: にせぐすりばこ and にせくすりばこ. However, they don't mean the same thing, and it's because of the branching of the phrase. If the phrase branches leftward (にせぐすりばこ), it means "a box with fake medicine". If the phrase branches rightward (にせくすりばこ), it means "fake medicine-box".    
3. How branching works may explain when voicing occurs or doesn't occur with compound verb expressions. If both parts have equal weight, 連濁 doesn't occur and the phrase is treated as a right branching word. If the phrase is left branching and 連濁 consequently occurs. However, there are inconsistencies.

For 着替える, you can see both きかえる and きがえる. This is reasonable, but as the sense of かえる being more independent in origin fades away, voicing becomes more common and expected. This is why きがえる is the most common reading.

However, there are words like 眠り損なう that is typically read as ねむりそこなう because ~そこなう has been essentially standardized as being read as such. Yet, not all Japanese speakers agree and appear to either have dialectical reasons or reasons based on branching emphasis to say things like the following. 

2. 修一の大いびきは間もなくやんだけれども、信吾は眠りぞこなった
    Shuuichi's loud snoring stopped before long, but Shingo missed out on sleep.
From 山の音 by 川端康成.  

修一の大いびきは間もなくやんだけれども、信吾は眠りぞこなった。
From 山の音 by 川端康成.   

Dvandva

Dvandva is a fancy word from Sanskrit that refers to two things being conjoined together to represent an "and" relationship between two words. So, though the compound results in one word, the meaning of the phrase is still on the lines of "X and Y". When this is the case for a Japanese compound, 連濁 does not occur, and it can help the reader decide whether to read something as voiced or not with proper context. 

 山川  やまかわ  Mountains and rivers  足腰  あしこし  Legs and loins
 枝葉  えだは  Branches and leaves  雲霧  くもきり  Clouds and mist

An even more interesting word is 目鼻立ち. This expression means "facial features", but the first part, 目鼻, doesn't have 連濁 because of a dvandva relationship. However, the latter part does. So, it's read as めはなだち.  

Reading Note: Do not confuse this 山川 with the one earlier read as やまがわ meaning mountain-side river. 

Onomatopoeia

If you repeat a sound effect, you don't change unvoiced sounds to voiced sounds. You simply repeat as is. Now, there are pairs of onomatopoeia that differ in intensity with voicing indicated higher intensity, but this is clearly not the same thing as 連濁.

 さくさく (さくざく X) Crispy; crunchy; doing smoothly/clearly  ざくざく Cutting up roughly; lots of coins
 かさかさ (かさがさ X)  Rustle; dryness  がさがさ  Rummaging; rough feeling

Doesn't Matter

Though branching weight being equal may be a reason to explain why some words may either have 連濁 or not with no change in meaning, it is a fact that there are such words like this. Now, it is usually the case that one variant may be more common than the other, but when you consider speaker variation, this point becomes useless in the long run. 

 親木  おやき・おやぎ  Stock (tree)  根方  ねかた・ねがた  Root; lower part

 There are also times like the following that you may find something usually always voiced with 連濁 not be. In this example, being preceded by ん meant nothing. 

2. 「さっき、谷崎さんが来ました。八時半ころです。」と夏子は不器用に言った。
    Natsuko then awkwardly said, "Tanizaki-san came a while ago. It was around 8:30”.  
From 山の音 by 川端康成.

連濁 in Names

 Names, personal and place names, are hard to read. Just as is the case with spelling and pronunciation of names in English, there is no certainty of how to read names in Japanese. Sometimes 連濁 occurs and sometimes it doesn't. Sometimes a particular reading is the most common for a given name, but you can always meet someone with the "uncommon" reading. 

Sometimes voicing helps distinguish place names with the same spelling. Names that are abbreviations of X{の・ノ・乃・之}Y are read with Y unvoiced, but you would have to know the history of the place name in question.  

So, practically speaking, 連濁 in names is random, and you just have to learn how to read the names of the people and places you come across one by one. This is what native speakers have to do, so don't feel bad. 

 高田  たかだ・たかた  Surname  大田  おおた・おおだ  Surname
 豊橋  とよはし・とよばし  Place name/surname  旭川  あさひかわ・あさひがわ  Place name
 京橋  きょうばし  Place name  鶴橋  つるはし  Place name
 任三郎  にんざぶろう   Given name  池田  いけだ・いけた・いげだ  Surname


第370課: Phonology IV: 露出形 & 被覆形

Along with 連濁, you have probably also noticed that the vowel in a reading changes when used in a compound. For instance, あめ becomes あま in あまぐも. This lesson will try to shed led on this without having to go so deep into the history of Japanese. 

露出形 & 被覆形

Last lesson, the word 白玉 was brought up. Though it can be read as しろだま, the most common reading is しらたま. The first form of 白 is its 露出形, and the form しら- is its 被覆形. It turns out that there are three such vowel shifts in many native words.

 i―o  き + かげ → こかげ (木陰・木蔭)Tree shade
 e―a  め + ふた → まぶた (瞼・目蓋)Eyelid
 o―a  くろ + やみ → くらやみ (暗闇)   Darkness

The problem is that positing a rule as to when these sound changes should occur or not is troubling. For instance, 白 is often not read as しら in many compounds such as 白馬 (white horse) and 白熊 (polar bear). 

I―O/U

The i that changes to "o" in these words was not pronounced like the modern い. This i vowel will be spelled as ï. The 露出形 would end in ï, but the 被覆形 could either end in u or o/ə (the other o vowel).

 kï き + tati たち → kodati こだち (木立)Grove of trees
 kï き + nə の + ma ま → kənəma  このま (木の間)  In the trees
 tukï つき + yo よ → tukuyo つくよ (月夜)   Moonlit night
 pï ひ + teru てる → poteru ほてる (火照る)To feel hot
 kutï くち + wa わ → kutuwa くつわ (轡)    Bit
kami かみ + agari あがり →  kamuagari  (神上り) Ascension of a kami

Reading Note: つきよ is now the normal modern reading of 月夜. 

Polysynthesis is the chaining of things that can't stand alone in languages like Ainu. Verbal clause indefiniteness and transitive subject avoidance are two main characteristics. This prevents multiple verb doers from being expressed in a word and words themselves have multiple parts.

Why does this have to do with anything happening in Japanese? In the development of the 露出形 from 被覆形, an affix イ had the ability of making something indefinite definite to stand alone. So, one could call the 被覆形 the 抱合形 (polysynthetic form). This affix イ would replace the vowel in the 露出形. So, it's more so a sound replacement and the other way around.   

 This イ also provides the origin for the 連用形 of verbs. Its presence after the root of a verb has a nominalizing effect and rids it of indefiniteness. For verbs that have a 連用形 that ends in エ, as you will be said again later in this lesson, it ultimately derives from ア + イ. Because Japanese has historically shunned upon vowel sequences, it's also posited that イ is after the 連用形 of 一段 verbs.

The following is an example found in the 古事記 of イ being used to show an "instructive case". In most other situations including this case, it is an emphasizer first and foremost.  

1. 

忍坂 おさか 大室屋 おほむろや 人多 ひとさは に來入り居り人多に入り居りとも
厳厳 みつみつ し  久米 くめ の子が 頭槌 くぶつつ つつ 持ち 撃ちてし止まむ
厳厳し  久米の子等が頭槌 石槌持ち 今撃たば宜し 
A lot of people have come to the big cellar in Osaka. Even a lot of people were to enter, are the vigorous Kumebe not going to hit at their enemies with their war and stone hammers? It would be best for the vigorous Kumebe to strike them with their war and stone hammers now!  

There are even times when it acts like a subject marker. Does this remind anyone of Korean? 

2. 菟原壮士 天仰ぎ
    The man Urai looked up at the heavens
From the 万葉集.

This イ got used a lot, as you will continue to see. And, for 沼 (swamp), which is read as ぬま, it didn't need this 露出・被覆 contrast, but the reading ぬみ still existed from イ being attached to it.   

E―A 

There is a plethora of words with this sound change. Consider the following examples. 

 掌  たなごころ  Palm  手綱  たづな  Rein
 船大工  ふなだいく  Boat-builder  爪弾き  つまはじき  Ostracism
 船酔い  ふなよい  Seasickness  爪楊枝  つまようじ  Toothpick
 胸算用  むなざんよう  Rough mental estimate  金物  かなもの  Metal utensil
 胸毛  むなげ  Chest hair  上の空  うわのそら  Absent-mindedness
 声音  こわね  Tone of voice  風上  かざかみ  Windward
 酒屋  さかや  Liquor store  風下  かざしも  Leeward
 眉毛  まゆげ  Eyebrow  睫(毛)  まつげ  Eyelash
 天の川  あまのがわ  Milky Way  天の浮橋  あまのうきはし  Heavenly floating bridge
 雨傘  あまがさ  Umbrella  菅原  すがわら  Sugawara (surname)
 猪苗代  いなわしろ  Inawashiro (Place name)  苗水  なわみず  Water for rice nursery

Etymology Note: 天 and 雨 ultimately share origin.  


 Explaining the Origin of E in Japanese?

It turns out that very few native words actually start with an e-sound. Sure, we have 手, 瀬, 関, 寺, 目, 根, and 江. But, can you think of any others easily? In Old Japanese in the 奈良時代, there were 甲 and 乙 distinctions in other vowels like o, and they would have been treated as separate vowels. However, エ段 instances were always only 乙. Does this suggest the vowel "e" was not originally in Japanese?  

It's difficult to initially say this, though, taking 酒 as an example, that さか precedes さけ in origin when you can't read 甘酒 as あまざか. However, it's important to realize that あい → え(-) in many Modern Japanese dialects. We just need to find a reason for why such a change would have happened centuries ago. 

Words like 手綱 and 目蓋 show this /e/ → /a/ sound change in the word initial position. Inside words, we don't see this other forms. So, again, you don't see something like 白酒 read as しろざか. However, there is 白髪, which is read as しらが instead of しらげ. This, though, appears to be exceptional.

This is when the terms 露出形 and 被覆形 become useful. The form that does not have the affixing of "i" inside compounds is called the 被覆形. The 露出形 represents the affixing, which results in the sound change.  

There is also a grammatical aspect to this sound change. Let's consider 甘酒 again. 甘 is the root of an adjective. You can't add a particle to it, and for it to behave as a noun, you would need to affix さ or み to the root. It turns out that the イ used in creating the 露出形 of these words possessed a similar grammatical function.  

If you are still doubtful, there are a number of nouns posited to come from this イ attaching to the root of an adjective. 飴 and 岳 are believed to have come from 甘 and 高 respectively. Other evidence for this nominalizing イ is found in 或は (possibly). When after the 連体形  of verbs, it showed a focus. As for these nouns, however, this would have been a grammatically necessary add-on to be used.

Haven't you ever thought that the かが in 鏡 is related to 影? You would be right. Have you ever noticed that 音 read as ね reminds you of 泣く and 鳴る? These words are already semantically interrelated, and the expression 音を泣く even exists. The な in these words, then, must have become ね through this sound change caused by イ. 

 Of course, there are typically variations to any given method. There were also times when a consonant was inserted for whatever reason between イ and what it would attach to. This, unsurprisingly, is preserved and several words. For instance, although we may have gotten 毛 from カ + イ. カ +m + イ = 髪, another word for hair.

The list of words below also happen to show up in compounds in which there is no longer a 被覆形 because of the dropping of the final mora. Some of these have become new, standalone nouns.  

 Consonant Insertion in 被覆形  Words with Loss of 被覆形  New Independent Noun(s)?
 ハ + s + イ → 端  端数(はすう) Fraction  葉?, 歯?, 刃?, 端 〇
 ア + s + イ → 足  足掻(あが)く To struggle  No
 クス + r + イ → 薬  薬師(くすし) Doctor (Archaism)  No
 ト + r + イ → 鳥  鳥羽(とば) Toba  No
 カタ + t + イ → 形  形見(かたみ) Memento  形 〇, 肩 ? 

There are also a few examples where イ attaches to other things that didn't end in ア and replaced the vowel. This explains the relation between 奥 (inner part) and 沖 (offing). In the 万葉集, you can sometimes see this replacement even when something does end in ア. For instance, ワガ+ モコ (my love) ends up being read as わぎもこ.

Back then, Japanese didn't like chains of vowels, which would make such sound changes and vowel replacements uncommon. It also means that vowel deletion altogether should be present. For instance, the place name 明石 is read as あかし instead of as あかいし. 

There are other instances of vowels being interchanged. For example, 暦 means calendar, so why is it read as こよみ? The こ happens to be the same か as in 四日. Why do you use はた in はたち but はつ in はつか? It's because you remove ア and replace it with ウ. Lastly, 肩 may have very well come from 形, but the かつ in 担ぐ may very well be from 肩 with this sound change.  


 露出形 in Compounds?

So, what about instances when you can use the 露出形 in a compound? For instance, 風向き can also be read as かぜむき. Even so, かぜむき is actually rarer, and such exceptions can easily come about from centuries since this interwoven phonological phenomenon took root in Japanese. As another example, まなじり and めじり exist for "corner of the eye", but the latter comes about much later. And, the original is still the most common.  

Now, we are discussing the relation between the 露出形 and 被覆形 for e―a. Of course there are the other changes. But, these have to be looked at separately. So, be patient. 

O―A

This 露出・被覆 relationship is not as common, and it doesn't have anything to do with イ, unlike above for the other two cases. The motivation for the sound change is the same.  

 白髪  しらが  White/grey hair  暗がり  くらがり  Darkness

Instances of this are scattered in the language, but the most interesting one is しな・しの. This was a general word for a celestial body like the moon and sun, and always practically referred to one or the other. When to use which was maintained following the outlined guidelines, and the word can be spotted in Okinawan languages and in the mainland up to the 8th century.  

3. しなてる片岡山に、飯に飢て臥せる、その旅人あわれ。 
That poor traveler who is faced down starved of food at Kataoka Mountain, illuminated by the sources of light in the sky.
From a Song by 聖徳太子.

Sometimes, a particular form may avoided because the resulting word would be homophonous to an existing word. The one example that immediately comes to mind is 白身. This is the white of an egg or the white flesh of certain species of fish. This word is read as しろみ. It is not read as しらみ presumably because this word means louse (虱・蝨). 

At times, the use of a different form can change the meaning of the word. This is rather interesting considering that this 露出 and 被覆 relationship is supposed to be a fundamental principle for compounding. 

 白魚  しらうお = Icefish  しろうお = Ice goby

Instances of Loss of 被覆形

There have been some words where the 被覆形 has essentially disappeared from the language. This is not surprising as not all words share this kind of phenomenon. 

   露出形  被覆形  Now
 身  み  む  み
 茎  くき  くく  くき
 藻  め  も  も

As the last example shows, the 被覆形 becoming the standalone variant is not unheard of. Of course, there are still examples of rare words where older forms may still be present.  


第371課: Phonology V: 撥音添加 & 撥音化

There are two interesting phenomena that deal with ん. ん is known as the 撥音, which interestingly sounds the same as the word for pronunciation, 撥音. Anyway, the topics for this lesson are actually very easy. The first phenomenon, 撥音添加, involves the insertion of ん in phrases mainly before nasal sounds but also other voiced stops. 撥音化 refers to sounds becoming ん. There are obligatory instances of 撥音化 as well as colloquial/dialectical instances of it. Both sound changes involve many phrases with various social stigma added to them. So, this will probably be the hardest thing to grasp about these words. 

撥音添加

Long ago, there would not have been any uvular nasal ん in Japanese. As is reflected in older spelling, it no doubt came about from the contraction of む, which was the Japanese equivalent for final nasal consonants in Chinese loans. So, one could imagine that this "mu" in words from Chinese was actually being pronounced as a syllabic m. After all, the script had no way of writing out final consonants or syllabic consonants. It was only until modern spelling reform that む and ん were officially distinguished from each other as only referring to /mu/ and /N/ respectively. 

Anyway, most consonants can be made long in Japanese, so the nasal sounds are no exceptions. When this occurs, you get things like みな (Everyone) → みんな. This is usually the first example the comes into mind. However, as you should know, the form みんな has restrictions. For instance, it is forbidden from being used in polite forms such as in みなさん. Take note that さん actually comes from さまand is less polite than it. So, keep this in mind for the next section on 撥音化. 

So, we know that there is a general tendency for words with 撥音添加 tend to be less polite. However, the word for kite as in the bird is almost always とんび instead of とび for the majority of speakers. This is interesting because the word comes from the 連用形 of the verb 飛ぶ and all other similar examples are not treated so kindly as とんび.

There is also the tendency of 撥音添加 being for nasal sounds, but what about other voiced sounds? For instance, in casual/dialectical speech, など can appear as なんぞ. In older language and in some dialects, you can't even still find なんど. It may be tempting to call this 撥音添加, and many people do. However, in Middle Japanese, all voiced sounds had prenasalization. So, it would be best to analyze this words as the prenasalization becoming a fully nasal syllable. など, then, would be the deletion of ん. The same goes for とんび (鳶). How prenasalization came to be a feature of voiced consonants is uncertain for all words, but in these cases, it is clearly not from an intervening の. So, we can't call it 撥音化. Thus, this is just a finer case of 撥音添加. 


  List of 撥音添加 Examples

The following table will introduce you to the many examples you can find in Standard Japanese and also describe how they are used. 

 同じ → おんなじ  Colloquial  度 → たんび*  Casual/dialectical
 まま → まんま  Colloquial  とび → とんび*  Standard
 尖る (to become sharp) → とんがる  Colloquial  くだり → くんだり**  Standard but old
 クマバチ → クマンバチ***  Standard  黙り → だんまり  Standard
 小締まり → こぢんまり (snugly)****  Standard  金(かな) → 鉋(かんな)****  Standard
 こぶ → 昆布(こんぶ)*****  Standard  すで → すんで******  Set phrases
 すごい → すんごい*  Emphatic  見事 → みんごと  Emphatic
 あまり → あんまり  Casual/emphatic  真丸 → 真ん丸*******   Standard
 真中 → 真ん中*******  Standard  真前 → 真ん前*******  Standard

*: For instances other than double m and n, deletion of nasalization takes place rather than the addition of ん. However, we can still call this 撥音添加 because that's how the forms with ん came about. It's just it appears that voiced stops (other than m and n) came in at the start with pre-nasalization, and it's just that the modern forms without ん are the new forms. 
**: くんだり and くだり cannot be treated synonymous anymore and have become separate words. くんだり is a rather emphatic suffix that attaches to place names to show where one is going far off too, and it is now almost never seen in the spoken language. 
***: It is not certain whether the ん comes from の or not because it is clearly a compound. However, because not all compounding in Japanese requires the particle の, it is fair to say for this discussion that this word could very well either be an example of 撥音添加 or 撥音化 of の → ん.  
****: The first forms of these words no longer exist anymore. 鉋 = plane (for cutting wood). 
*****: The etymology of 昆布 is obscure as there are many historical terms for it in both Japan and China. ん deletion is not uncommon, and the mainstream of thought is that こぶ is a dialectical pronunciation brought about by this. If this is the case, then this is not a good example of 撥音添加 because the 音読み of 昆 is コン. Thus, the ん would not derive from the prenasalization of ぶ from an earlier pronunciation.
******: すんでの所・すんでのこと = very nearly.
*******: ん can be viewed as obligatory in these phrases. まなか exists but is rarely used. ままる exist as a surname, but it would not be used to mean "perfect circle" as a regular noun without 撥音添加. 

撥音化

撥音便 

The first major instance of 撥音化 to occur in Japanese is called 撥音便. 撥音便 refers to the 連用形 of 五段・四段 verbs ending in ぬ・ぶ・む going from に・び・み respectively to ん when used with the particle て and the auxiliary ~た. This began in the 平安時代 and was here to stay by the 室町時代. It is during the 鎌倉時代 when ん is fully treated as a separate phoneme in Japanese.  

 ナ行撥音便  死ぬ → 死に + た・て = 死んだ・死んで
 バ行撥音便  呼ぶ → 呼び + た・て = 呼んだ・呼んで
 マ行撥音便  読む → 読み + た・て = 読んだ・読んで

 History and Review of the Pronunciation of ん

Because of the nature of ん, the Japanese syllabic structure is called moraic rather than syllabic. However, there are some dialects in which ん is not moraic and forms CVC syllables. This aids in accent systems sounding more distinct because if ん is syllabic in some dialects and not in others, the dialects which treat it syllabically will allow pitch to rise and fall on it. Those which don't would not be able to do this. Regions of Japan which don't treat ん as a mora include northern 東北 and southern 九州. Treating ん as a mora, though, has existed as early as the late 平安時代. So, it's been around for a long time as such.

Another thing that you must not forget is the assimilation rules that go along with the modern ん. 

 Before bilabials  ん → [m]  3枚 = [sa
 Before n or z  ん → [n]  女 = [o
 Before velars  ん → [<ŋ]  珊瑚 (coral) = [sa<ŋ̩̩<ŋo]
 Before vowels, fricatives, and approximants  ん → [  単位 = [ta

Word Note: おんな is actually an example of 撥音化 because it comes from をむな. 


The Contraction of の

の has been contracted far before the moraic ん ever arrived. In fact, many believe that voicing in compounds is resultant of an intervening の contracting to prenasalization before the voiced consonant. An example of this would be 水. 水 is believed to derive from みのつ (身の津). Then, it contracted to みづ. づ would have been pronounced as [<ⁿdz]<.

の → ん examples from more modern Japanese are usually treated as being examples of 口語. In other words, you would most likely not use such contractions in the written language. For instance, んだ would more likely be のだ or のである. If we consider very common examples of this such as こんな (このよな), ここんとこ (ここのところ), 僕んち (僕の家), this statement holds true. こんな, そんな, あんな, どんな may be more likely as they are slightly older than the examples after them, but people still treat them as contraction and do avoid using them in writing. 


 Word Initial 撥音化

In many dialects, especially in 東北, ん can be seen word initially due to 撥音化. For instance, you may hear うまい pronounced as んめえ. A common example throughout this same region is んだ, which can be viewed as being cognate to うん、そうだ. Note that word initial ん in foreign transliteration does not count as 撥音化.


 ラ行 → ん

The most recent form of 撥音化 in Japanese is r-sounds going to ん. ら is frequently seen as ん in colloquial Standard Japanese in the negative. The most common example is 分からない. However, any ら in conjugation can be found seen as ん. The boundaries of ラ行撥音化 are not set in stone. Many feel that any instance of it is bad Japanese and consider such phrases to be 悪い or 汚い. This most likely stems from the fact that rates of usage of ラ行撥音化 are highest in other dialects, some of which that are not thought highly. There are limits to this sound change. For instance, phrases such as 降んなければ・降んなけりゃ (降らなければ) are still quite uncommon. 

り → ん is actually seen a lot in onomatopoeia where it is surprisingly accepted without any negative stigma. For example, you have surely heard きちんと a lot, but this actually is a variant of きっちりと. The two are slightly different at times now, but they still come from the same source. 

If you've ever heard people say すんな, you know of る becoming ん. This has become so pervasive that some speakers insert ん before な even when the verb doesn't end in る. So, you get things like 叫ぶんな. However, this is yet another sound change that is spreading slowly. So, you can still find people in 東京 who have never heard of this sound change extending into 撥音添加. る → ん in all situations when something follows is rather dialectical, but it does exist. Usage of phrases such as 寝んから (寝るから) and すんと (すると) vary greatly even around the capital according to origin, gender, and age. 

れ → ん is generally deemed to be even more dialectical or rough. For instance, けんど is commonly found in Japanese dialects instead of けれど or けど. In 東京弁, you can find the れ in passives and the potential contracted to ん in very colloquial/rough speech. For instance, 来らんない. Though, the potential form competes with ら抜き. So, 来らんない is not as common as 来れない.


第372課: Phonology VI: 促音化

促音添加 (the addition of a 促音) or 促音化 (sokuon-ization) is a feature that has long been associated with 俗語 in Japanese. Of course, slang or local vernaculars have always existed, and this phonological phenomenon that we will discuss in this lesson has a long history with such speech. Of course, the 促音 finds itself in Standard Japanese conjugation today. So, what are the certain environments or factors that have led and continue to govern 促音化? Another interesting thing to consider is the prevalent appearance of 促音 in loanwords. 

促音化

The definition of what 俗語 itself means has been in flux as well. By earlier definitions, essentially all spoken conversation today would be considered 俗語. Yet, that is certainly not a majority opinion in today’s terms. The changes we see today in Japanese such as いちかい → いっかい most certainly belonged to the speech to slang when it first began. Of course, today, just as in conjugation, such consonant gemination is standard in Modern Japanese.  

Knowing when a 促音 shows up in 和語 and 漢語 at the morphological and phonological level is not that difficult to figure out. Consider the following examples.

 Kind of Word  促音化  Before/No 促音化
 和語  会った = met  会う = to meet
 漢語   いっぱん (一般) = General  いちもん (一問) = one/first question
 オノマトペ  ぽきっと (tree/branch snap noise)  ぽきんと = ditto

In most instances in 和語 and 漢語, we know that 促音化 has been caused due to particular contractions meant for.

ち・つ・く are the three most likely sounds to cause 促音化. This is not to say we do not get others such as き and り affected in words such as 行った (went) and 刈った (cut/mowed). 

We can form a rule that states high vowels [i u] are dropped before k, t, s, h/f, and the consonant before them assimilates to that consonant. If the second consonant is an h/f, it changes to a p as h/f do not geminate in Japanese words (excluding loans as we will see later in this lesson).


 The Origin of 促音化

Historically speaking, 促音化 is not well recorded. The use of a small っ is a modern fix to the orthography, and previously a regular-sized つ may have been used, and the word may is used as the practice was far from universal. In fact, it is most common overall in Japanese literature to see a long consonant not marked as such. So, even if the writer wrote にき for 日記 (diary), we can still be quite certain that it was pronounced as にっき.

Then again, it is agreed upon that at one point, the pronunciation would have started out as being literal to the spelling. Thus, we would get につきwith this example. This would make gemination in Japanese far easier. Then again, this could be wrong and speakers may have easily shifted at one point to what it is now as the rule posited above is linguistically plausible and affects classes of sounds. Yes, one particular instance of gemination would have been necessary to trigger this event, but that’s a given.


 Distribution of 促音化

The distribution of 促音, as has been mentioned earlier, in native or nativized words, has a deep to vernacular speech. For instance, the following words should not have a 促音, but many speakers pronounce them with one anyway. This is because although the pattern is pervasive, there are still areas in the Japanese lexicon that it has not been universally applied.

 Word  無促音  促音化  Word  無促音  促音化
 水族館 (Aquarium)  すいぞくかん  すいぞっかん  適格 (Eligible)  てきかく  てっかく
 旅客機 (Passenger aircraft)  りょきゃくき  りょきゃっき  各国 (Every nation)  かくこく  かっこく

Any word with各 can have kaku contracted to kak if the next character starts with a k. However, it’s only OK because so many speakers have gotten used to and have begun using this newer pronunciation. The other words are still relatively uncommonly sokuonized outside of Western Japan, but in this part of the country, most people don’t use the standard 促音-less pronunciation at all. Of course, this could have a lot to do with honing in on this dialectical difference.

Lesson Note: The following situations involving 促音化 are complicated in regards to social attitude. Some things are strictly slangish/conversational and some things are standard pronunciations. Some forms are even moribund. Thus, these notes will need to be noted on a case by case basis.


Emphatic 促音化

As we see in onomatopoeic words and regular words at times, a 促音 may often be inserted for emphasis, and it’s basically always placed in the first mora.

 Very  とても → とっても  Latter colloquial  Nothing but  ばかり → ばっかり  Latter colloquial
 Closely  ぴたり → ぴったり  Both common  Certainly  しかと → しっかと  Both rare/literary
 To urge  せつく → せっつく  Latter most common  Exclusively  もはら → もっぱら  Latter only used
 As is  まま → まんま  Latter dialectical  Everyone  みな → みんな  Latter colloquial
 Same おなじ → おんなじ  Latter colloquial      

The last three are still examples of gemination. Don’t let spelling get the best of you. For others that are not geminated, you see them essentially get geminated with ~ん insertion. 

 Puzzle/mystery  なぞ → なんぞ  Latter is colloquial and uncommon.
 Kite (bird)  とび → とんび  Both are just as common.
 Down to  くだり → くんだり  Latter is rare but with a more specific meaning. 
 Just   ただ → たんだ  Latter is no longer used.
 Whenever  たび → たんび  Latter is colloquial/dialectical.
 To become sharp  とがる → とんがる  Latter is colloquial

It’s also important to note that sometimes the original form ends up no longer being used. This is the case for 専ら, which used to be read as もはら. Remember that Japanese wants h geminated as p rather than h.


 In Compound Verbs

 One thing that is still considered slang-ish is applying 促音化 to compounds. For instance, 追い, 取り, and the like often get added, but they usually get changed to 追っ and 取っ respectively. So, for instance, an emphatic form of はじめ is おっぱじめ. So, the same sound changes involving the 促音 we see with ~た and ~て is extended to compounding. It’s also important to note that gemination may result in ん insertion. However, the process is still the same. Below are more examples. 

 To poke  突きつく → 突っつく  The first form is not used.
 To greatly bind  引き曲げる → ひん曲げる   The base form is not used.
 To tie fast  踏み縛る → 踏ん縛る  Both are uncommon.
 Grapple  取り組み合い → 取っ組み合い  The first form is not used.
 To kick hard  蹴り飛ばす → 蹴っ飛ばす  The latter is colloquial yet common.
 To fly/jump forcefully  ぶち飛ぶ → ぶっ飛ぶ  The first form is not used.
 To throw away  打ち遣る → うっちゃる  The first is not used, but the latter is dialectical.
 To strongly tear  打ち千切る → ぶっ千切る  The first form is not used. 
 To pitch forward  突きのめる → つんのめる  The first is not used, but the latter is slang.

 In Compounds

促音化 is also often emphatically inserted at the boundary between two words in a native compound. This also holds true for when particular suffixes attach to a word. Sometimes it is part of the regular form of the word and sometimes it’s not. As this is a lesser extension of 促音化, this is to be expected. Below are some examples.

 To leave open  開け放す → 開けっ放す  The latter is colloquial but most common.
 All one’s  ありたけ → ありったけ  Only the latter is used.
 Loving deeply  首丈 → 首っ丈  Only the latter is used.
 City slicker  擦れ枯らし → 擦れっ枯らし  The latter is the most common.
 Salty  塩辛い → 塩っ辛い  Both are common.
 Sugary  甘たるい → 甘ったるい  The latter is colloquial.
 Ostracized child/miso scum  みそかす → みそっかす  The latter is colloquial. 

Exceptions' Note: Of course, there are also just exceptional cases that 促音化 appears. For instance, ぬすっと (thief) is certainly a contraction, but we don’t see all word with びと changed to っと.


促音化 in Loanwords

The remainder of this lesson will investigate the intricate yet rather regular distribution of the very prevalent 促音化 in loanwords.

Though the special timing of mora is not found in English, the 促音 shows up in many loans from English. It often comes about from the stress in the English word, but there are exceptions of this and other motivations (such as mimicking a non-Japanese sound).

 ロック (lock/rock)  タップ (tap)  ファックス (Fax)  レッドソックス (Red Sox)
 バッハ (Bach)  ゴッホ (Gogh)  ドップラー (Doppler)  タックスイーター (tax eater)
 スノ(ッ)ブ (snob)  マックス (max)  キャップ (cap)  プッシュボタン (push button)
 ピクニック (picnic)  スタッフ (staff)  アドホック (ad hoc)  フィッシング (fishing/phishing) 
 ハーフ (half (person))   X ハッフ  タフ (tough)  X タッフ
 パフ (puff)  X パッフ  サインアウト (sing-out)  X サインアウット
 バス (bus) X バッス   ログアウト (log-out)  X ロッグアウット

What can we make of all these examples? First, let’s consider segmental factors in these words. For instance, it’s very common to have gemination of p and k, but it is very rare to find geminate b’s and g’s in loanwords. We do find exceptions in which we do not get geminate k’s. Consider words such as アクト (act), ダクト (duct), タクト (tact), etc.

We also find exceptions such as スノッブ of consonants that tend not to geminate get geminated. Though, as this exception also demonstrates, exceptions tend to have a not so exceptional form, in this case スノブ. Then again, geminate h’s never appear in the rest of the Japanese lexicon but appear in loanwords like バッハ. Here, a fricative sound non-native to Japanese (and English for that matter) is being conformed as best as possible in the same way it would be replaced by k in English. What we do see is that gemination

As we’ve seen with バス, loanwords entering Japanese are less likely to have a 促音 if the consonant is an s. Japanese hates having geminate f’s too, but it surprisingly allows ssh, which we’ve seen already in words like プッシュ. Again, that’s not to say that there are exceptions. For instance, レッスン (lesson) and ワッフル (waffle) are not just exceptional but also very commonly used words. It appears that if the word ends in ン or ル that this restriction is lifted. So, how do we explain words like スタッフ? If it were three morae, it would be スタフ.

Most three morae words in Japanese have the accent on the second mora. If this were to happen, this would make the accent system completely contrary to its source stress accent. There are exceptional loans into Japanese like トマト (tomato) and タバコ (tobacco) with completely different pitches, but these are also much older loans relative to スタッフ. If you add the 促音, the problem is resolved. But, couldn’t the pitch accent have been arranged in a way that would have been less weird? What if the accent were on the first mora or the stress were flat? It would still be contrary to English, but it would not be out of the norm. After all, there are words like スミス (Smith) and プラス (plus) with accent on the first mora and words such as ブログ (blog) with flat pitch. However, both flat pitch and gemination does not occur. It’s as if gemination, accent shift, or pitch leveling are different options that don’t mix well.

Though Japanese phonological restraints may trump any foreign word’s original pronunciation, lax and tense distinction is maintained well in the borrowing process into Japanese. For instance, if it were not, then we would expect English words like cup” and “carp” to be borrowed in as the same word. However, this is not the case. Rather, we see that they are borrowed into Japanese as カップ・コップ (cup) and カープ (carp) respectively. If the length of the English syllable were to then end in a 促音, the morae count would exceed three morae, which would be quite long for such a short word in the original language. This is why we don’t see something like カーップ. 

This sort of avoidance is also connected to the avoidance of diphthongs even when the loanword should have one. For instance, Japanese say ステンレス instead of ステインレス for stainless. The overall idea in loanwords is that the word is almost certainly going to have a higher mora count than the original syllable count. So, eliminating features that would necessarily show up from being picky at sounding like the original language results in a more ‘practical’ loan. And, as we know, Japanese has no problem reducing things further if the resultant loan is still too long (Ex. バスケットボール → バスケ).

Consider the following words. Do you see a pattern?

 キャップ  キャプテン (captain)
 ファックス  ファクシミリ (facsimile)
 サックス (sax)   サキソフォン (saxophone)
 リラックス (relax)   リラクセーション (relaxation)
 リッスン (listen)   リスナー (listener)

The words on the left have a 促音 but the words on the right don’t. There is certainly a tendency for the 促音 to appear close to the end of the word, and it seems that the complexity and length of the word is another restriction. Of course, these restrictions are relative, but they help to explain what’s in front of us for now. A more probable reasoning for the lack of a 促音 in the long words on the right-hand column is that because the environment most suitable for gemination is not at the end of the word, it does not appear.

 Japanese does like to have regularity, though. If two syllables in the loanword are considered tense, this gets carried over. So, rather than getting タクス, you getタックス. How much of this has to deal with avoiding sounding like an existing Japanese word should be investigated more in depth.   


第373課: サ行とハ行の揺れ

Have you ever heard しと instead of 人, ひち instead of しち, or some people always pronouncing ひ as if it were し? This convolution of s and h is found all throughout Japan.

S → H? H → S?

S → H appears throughout Japan as it is a very natural sound that occurs in many world languages. It is possible to make some conclusions on where the speakers are who show this sound change in particular words (as it has not progressed to affecting all words with s), but because it is so easy to come about, there are several places in Japan where it has independently developed. This causes things to be more difficult for our studies as it allows for some reasons to show the sound change not fully taking root in the words it has affected. Thus, there is a true 揺れ in pronunciation of these words in Japanese.  


 Normal but not 'Lazy'

The typical Standard Japanese speaker often considers the sound change s to h a sign of lazy speech as h is easier to pronounce. Although ease of articulation is a motivation for sound change, it is not to say that the people who use this sound change are uneducated or lazy in speech. Thousands of speakers of West Japanese dialects who use ~へん are not stupid because of this. If they're stupid, it's because of another reason. Below are phrases from various parts of Japan with s → h.

 標準語  方言  標準語  方言
 捨てる  ふてる (和歌山弁)  そうだな  ほだな (山形弁) 

Dialect Note: Phrases are not necessarily limited to any said dialect. 


 し → ひ

Specifically, し and ひ are thought to be mixed up most frequently. They are very close in articulation, and it is not surprising that there are dialects with し → ひ and dialects with ひ → し or both. This usually only affects certain phrases, but it is fair to say that the scale was traditionally far larger. 

 標準語  方言  標準語  方言
 布団をしく  布団をひく  しちや (質屋)   ひちや (大阪・名古屋・京都・広島・松山)
 お七夜   おひちや  しつこい   ひつこい

There are even place names with s to h as part of the official name. 七福旅館 in 鳥取市 is read as ひちふくりょかん and 七宗町 in 岐阜県 is ひちそうちょう.   


 ひ → し

True 江戸っ子 are known for saying おしさま (お日様)はしがし(東)に昇る or しばち(火鉢)にし(火)を入れる. In reality, though, it would be hard to find anyone who still sounds like this in 東京. It's safe to say that for this part of the country, this is a traditional feature of pronunciation that some people either purposely do or is only used by people in older generations. Nevertheless, this sound change does show up throughout East Japan. 

 標準語  方言  標準語  方言
 おひさしぶりですね  おしさしぶりですね  ひやっこい  しゃっこい・しゃっけ (東北弁)

 Well-Known 関西弁 Examples of S → H

関西 dialects are frequently known as being where "s to h" is most prevalent. This is no doubt due to the fact that it has phrases such as はん (→ さん), へん (from the せん in ません), はる (from the さる in なさる), etc. There are even parts of the region where both へん and せん are used. Sometimes it may be hard to tell what's going on when a phrase is contracted further like in それなら → そんなら → ほんなら → ほな. But, don't let this get the best of you. 

1.  

標準語: かまわないよ。
関西弁: かまへん、かまへん

2.  

標準語: 50万円、貸してくれない?
関西弁: 50万円、貸してくれへん?

3.  

標準語: それなら買うよ。
関西弁: ほんなら買うわ。

4.  

標準語: それから、次に何をするの。
関西弁: へてから、次何すんねん。


 No True サ行圏 Or ハ行圏

In the end, it's hard to say where the サ行圏 and ハ行圏 of Japan is because at the individual dialect level, there are areas like Ibaraki Prefecture where words may be said with either s or h. In much of North and East Japan, ひ often becomes し. Yet, returning to Ibaraki, you can see す → ひ. In the far north in 津軽弁, s widely becomes h. So, you get へんへ for 先生. 

So, it is not as simple as saying anything southwest of Osaka uses h in the stereotypical phrases like ~はん or ひちや. If this can appear independently elsewhere in places like Ibaraki, then it shows how natural this sound change is.   


 出雲弁's Abnormality

関西弁 doesn't have near as much s → h instances as 出雲弁, although most likely did in the past. 出雲弁 is a rather different from the dialects spoken around it. It has phrases like 布団をひく (which is said by many speakers around the country) and oppositely 車にしかれる (for 車にひかれる). Intriguingly, this dialect also allows ひ to become ふ.

5. 

標準語: そんならゆきましょか。
出雲弁: ほなゆきまひょか。

6. 

標準語: 灯が灯る。
出雲弁:  とぼ ー。

7. 

標準語: 久しぶりだね。 
出雲弁:  ふさ しぶーだね。

なさる in West Japan dialects is usually a form of なはる. Consider the chart below. 

   未然形  連用衛  終止形  連体形  已然形
 仮定形
 命令形
 共通語  なさら  なさり  なさる  なさる  なされ(+ば)  なされ
 関西弁  なはら  なはり  なはる  なはる  なはれ(+ば)  なはれ
 出雲弁  なはら  なはい  なはー  なはー  なはら・なはりゃ  なはい

The conjugations for 関西弁 and 出雲弁 are the same aside from the fact that the latter's conjugations have other sound changes. 


第374課: 幼児語

These words are of great interest. What are some of the first expressions that a Japanese speaker learns? How do these words stay into their personal lexicon? Do they not get said again after childhood until one becomes a parent? In English there are several words like "birdy" or "potty" that get used frequently by children, but they often remain as important euphemisms for the rest of one's lives. This lesson will try to investigate into such phrases that exist in Japanese. 

幼児語

Like in English, there are several special phrases used a lot in the conversations of little kids but normally not at all in actual adult conversations. Some are simply used to try to get a small child to speak. Such words are often used to help young children practice making sounds by using words that are relatively easy to say. 

One source of child words are onomatopoeia used as a nouns. Some become verb phrases to replace the more difficult actually used phrase.

 幼児語  意味  幼児語  意味  幼児語   意味
 ニャンニャン・まーお  猫  ワンワン  犬  モーモー  牛
 ブ(ー)ブ(ー)  自動車  ポッポ  鳩  コッコー  鶏
 チッチ  排尿  ワンワン・モーモーする  四つん這いになる  ブンブン  蜂
 チュンチュン・小鳥  ねずみ  カーカー  烏  しーしー  小便

The repetition of sounds or whole words is also common. Many words contain only certain kinds of sounds. This is assimilation of speech to make things easier to say. 

 幼児語  意味  幼児語  意味  幼児語  意味
 まんま・んま  ご飯  ぶぶ  飲み水  ジージー  祖父
 うまうま  うまい  しゅっしゅ  汽車  たっち  立つ
 ぺっぺ  汚い  ぱちぱち(する)  拍手(する)  かえっこ  交換する
 ぴーぽぴーぽ  消防車  ぺろぺろ  飴ん棒  ぴー  笛
 おじょじょ  怖い  じょんじょ・ぞぞ  草履  ぜんぜ  銭
 くっく  靴  てて  手  のんの  伸ばす
 ぷう  おなら  すいすい  魚  ぽりぽり  おっぱい
 キューキュー  救急車  オンモ  表面  バーバー  祖母
 おめめ・めんめ  眼  ねんね  就寝・安心毛布  ト(ッ)ト  魚・お父さん・鳥
 じじ  字  かんかん  髪の毛  きれきれ  拭く
 きしゃぽっぽ  汽車  くさいくさい  大便  まっか(か)  赤い
 よしよし  撫でる  ずるっこ  苛める  ぺっ・げ(げ)  吐き捨てる
 たんたん  お風呂  ちゃんこ  座る  きれいきれい  洗う
 あちち  熱い  べべ  洋服  はあは  歯

Using ちゃん with onomatopoeia can also be used to refer to animal. For example, ワンちゃん (dog). This kind of abbreviation is common in making nicknames for your friends which can last life times. Some like うんこ for dog crap have become mainstream for all ages. Other words like this include 抱っこ (carrying in one's arms) and おんぶ (carrying on one's back). 

高い高い高い: This expression is used when lifting up your kid up and down in the air. 

Of course this is not exhaustive. Each household is different. Some people just try to avoid using these phrases with their kids and try to make them say the correct word. To others, they use these phrases to their kids a lot in trying to get them to speak. There is a lot of regional variety in these expressions as well. Many kids often try mimicking what things sound like and use those sounds to call those things.  


第375課: Verlan (倒語)

The title of this lesson includes a word that you probably have never seen before. To put it simply, this word specifically describes words that have undergone internal inversion. How the word gets inverted may differ from others. In Japanese this is technically referred to as 倒語. Usually, though, it is referred to as 逆(さ)読み. 

These sorts of readings have existed in Japanese for some time. The purpose of this inversion is to bring about some sort of emphasis. This sort of change is seen in various parts of any language regardless of one's generation. Though the use of these inversions is quite varied, they are generally treated as in-group lingo or 隠語. In Japanese 隠語 typically have negative stereotypes attached to them, and they will almost certainly only be known and used by a small group of people.

These sorts of words become most popular in Japan during the 江戸時代. Examples that were later passed down to the present day as the common word include しだらない (slovenly) → だらしない. Others that didn't quite catch on include words like キセル (tobacco pipe) → セルキ. Other examples like タネ (seed/subject matter) → ネタ ((joke) material/topping of nigirizushi) resulted into words with (slightly) different meanings.

These words got some publicity in the 1980s due to broadcast writers who previously wrote memos to publications (ハガキ職人) utilizing such expressions. A common example at the name was calling 六本木 ギロッポン. 

It's also important to note that at an individual level, 逆さ読み come about naturally.  

Examples

Below is a list of examples. Over time, notes of usage and example sentences will be added. Some of these words are r-rated words, but they are examples nonetheless of this phenomenon. Thus, they will be noted.

 倒語  意味  倒語  意味  倒語  意味  倒語  意味
 ロイク  黒人  ナオン  女  チャンカー  お母さん  チャンネー  お姉さん
 チャンバー  おばあさん  ザギン  銀座   オカジュー  自由が丘  ワイハ  ハワイ
 ジャーマネ  マネージャー  シータク  タクシー  クーイ  行く  ミーノ  飲む
 ダータ  ただ  ラーハ  腹  リーヘ  減る  シーメ  飯
 ベルター  食べる  マイウー  うまい  チョイモー  もうちょい  シーホー   欲しい
 ルーネー  寝る  クリソツ  そっくり  クリビツ  びっくり  テンギョー  仰天
 イタオドロ  驚いた  ルナドッホ  なるほど  ビーチ  ちび  ポコチン  ちんぽこ
 コーマン  おまんこ  パイオツ  おっぱい  カイデ  でかい  ビーチク  乳首
 チャイチ  ちっちゃい  シーアー  脚  ガイナー  長居  ソイホ(-)  細い
 トイフ(-)  太い  エーケー  毛  チータ  立つ・勃つ  オイニー  匂い
 サイクー  臭い  エーヘー  屁  ソーク(-)  糞  メーナ(-ン)  舐める
 パイイツ  いっぱい  パツキン  金髪  グラサン  サングラス  マーヒー  暇
 ロクブテ  手袋  コバルド  ドル箱        

It's also important to note that 逆読み are often used in brand names. Some examples include the following.

 HAKUBI C  HAKUBI from 美白  バソキヤ  From 焼きそば  EZAK  From 風邪

 More Historic Examples

  • 験を担ぐ: The 験 read as げん actually ultimately comes from an inversion of 縁起. Both this and 縁起を担ぐ exist, and both mean "to be superstitious. 
  • デカ: Police officers who would wear kimono instead of their uniforms in the 明治時代 were called 角袖巡査. This was then abbreviated to 角袖. Then, the middle syllables were dropped and the remaining were flipped to get デカ. This abbreviation was due in part to intermediary inversions such as そでかく and くそでか. It has since become a word meaning "detective".
  • ポシャる: From シャッポを脱ぐ. This essentially means "to surrender when on throws off one's hat", but this new verb now has a meaning similar to ”to fizzle/break down". 
  • 道路: Though it isn't from ロード, the thought is still interesting. People have noticed this since the 明治時代, it is still sometimes make people laugh when this is pointed out. 
Reading Phrases Backwards

Sometimes some phrases read backwards make sense, but sometimes you get just another sentence. These are often made as brain teasers or jokes. 

  • 雲雲崖にこんち旅なし: This makes no sense as is, but when you read backwards, you get a somewhat perverted joke → しなびたちんこに毛がもくもく
  • 問屋の米を買いたい買いたい: This is a little more X-rated. When you read backwards, yet get 痛い痛いおめこのやいと. おめこのやいと means "vagina moxibustion". 
  • 「予想」は「嘘よ」: This is just clever. 
  • 手袋を反対から言ってごらん!: Don't do this or else you'll be hit six times.

第376課: 敵性語禁止

During World War II, due to the fact that Japan was fighting Western powers, loan words of Western inspiration were targets of replacement with Japanese equivalents. If equivalents did not exist, they were to be coined. How far this practice went is controversial. There was no law that fully or partially banned English words. However, there were decrees sent out to broadcasting companies and organizations to rename things. 

Some of these words have continued to live on and have helped Japanese further in nuance splitting. Others never made it onward, but this lesson is designed to introduce you to the scope of this language reform. 

This lesson is not about why this happened in Japan, nor is it about what things should be. Rather, this is purely about the words affected or created and their current usage. Although background information will have to be given and words such as "the Japanese Empire" and "wartime" will be used out of necessity, they are by no means employed to be offensive. 

軽佻浮薄

This four character idiom essentially means "frivolous and thoughtless". This word was used in reference to English words (and words from other Western languages) in a time the Japanese Empire was in war with these nations, particularly starting in 1940. With this word in mind, it fueled the boycott movement of these words for their 敵性 (inimical character). 

From a point of law, there was no rule put in place by the government labeling words of foreign origin as either "軽佻浮薄" and "敵性", and from a practical level, the nation still possessed relations with certain nations and the language had been borrowing words from Indo-European languages since the 1950s. Thus, a reversal of centuries of borrowing (although generally light up until the Meiji Restoration), would essentially be possible as any changes in the lexicon of the language would be most effectively implemented in primary education to the younger population. 

The movement was a natural reaction to the war. So, it didn't have a strong effect. So, in fields such as science, essentially no changes terminology were made. As simple English words as well as 和製英語 had been used before and during the war in not just the media but also by general citizens, it would, again, have been impossible anyway for the effect of English to be fully eliminated. As examples of words that were even used in government publications, シャツ, コンビネーション, チョッキ (from Portuguese meaning vest) never stopped being used. 

In fact, although there were attempts by the Ministry of Education to rid of English education in schooling, due to English's role as the lingua franca of the world, it was ultimately left as an optional course of study. That is not to say that some schools went ahead and banned it as an enemy language, but it is not the case that English education or the use of English words--whether when speaking English or Japanese--was ever implemented.  

However, there were a few things that were put in place that did influence the use of language in schooling. For instance, "pro-American" phrases were replaced, the use of Western-style dates was made limited*, and phrases felt to be derogatory to Japan were taken out of texts.

As for the second point marked with an asterisk, this has made a lasting impact on Japan. Though the Japanese-style of telling the date has never ceased and has been the most used throughout Japanese history, it is fair to say that before war tensions escalated that the Western calendar as well as customs on telling the date was becoming more and more common. Nowadays, the two systems balance out by being used in specific situations.

This sort of bifurcation is not natural for when one system is quickly replacing an older and more antiquated system. If we relate this to the use of Sino-Japanese and native numbers, we see that the newer Sino-Japanese numbers have been slowly replacing native numbers. So, if customs in using the Western and Japanese calendar were explicitly established in educational texts before the newer system fully took over, then these new conventions would take hold.

 It was also not the case that loanwords were banned in military use. For instance, although we will look at baseball terminology later in this lesson, ストライク was still used throughout the war in war related materials when speaking of baseball. The French word スペリー for "searchlight" and ピスト for "cockpit" were very important words at the time. 

Some words just couldn't be avoided, and some people including those in comedy and government would use this fact to make puns. For instance, what were people to do about words such as コーヒー (which even had its own 漢字 coined: 珈琲), ウィスキー, エンジン, and レコード? The answer is, of course, nothing.

野球用語

Baseball was loved by many Japanese at the time, but because it was the sport of the enemy and most prized one at that, the terminology for baseball was drastically revised as a means to still play it in a Japanese way. The change in terminology, however, is in fact not as sudden as it may seem. Nor is it evident that this movement was the reason for why the words were changed. This is because terminology began as early as 1890 by the help of 正岡子規, who tried his best to "translate" these phrases.

 As these coined words coexisted with the English loans, it would not be a stretch for the Japanese coins to even naturally replace the English. Because baseball organizations were shut down from 1942-1946, this ultimately prevented permanent erasing of the English loans.  In fact, some coins such as 野球 early on replaced English loans, which in this case would be ベースボール, which is still not used a lot today.  

A strike is a ストライク. However, to avoid using this word, よし#本 was used instead, and the word 正球 was around too. In Modern Japanese, "Strike 1", "Strike 2", and "Strike 3" are ストライク・ストライクツー・ストライクスリー、ユーアーアウト! respectively. If you were to put the number first, you just have a counter expression. A strike out is 三振. Instead of the English, you would hear 「よし、3本それまで!」 or 「よし、退け!」. 

On the score board, 振 would be used for strikes, 球 would be used for balls, and 無為 would be for "outs".  

A ボール is "ball" in English baseball terminology, too. It was replaced by だめ#つ or 悪球. To say something like two strikes and three balls today, you would say ツーストライクスリーボール.  

Below are many more words related to baseball with foreign and Japanese counterparts. A lot of them are still used, and it's most important to know which one's are not used. Those not used anymore will have a triangle next to them. Some words marked with triangles may still be used but not in the realm of baseball.

 敵性語  言い替え  敵性語  言い替え
 (ファール)ボール  だめ △・圏外 △・もとえ △  アウト  無為 △
 セーフ  安全 △  バッテリー  対打機関 △
 タイム  停止 △  フェアヒット  正打 △
 ファールチップ  擦打 △  バントヒット  軽打 △
 スクイズ  走軽打 △  ヒットエンドラン  走打 △
 ボーク  疑投 △  ホームイン  生還 
 フォースアウト  封殺    インターフェア  妨害 △
 スチール  奪塁 △  リーグ戦  総当戦 △
 コーチ   監督   コーチャー  助令
 マネージャー  幹事  アーンドラン  自責点
 チーム  球団  ホームチーム  迎戦組 △
 ビジターチーム  往戦戦 △  グラブ・ミット  手袋 △
 フェアグラウンド  正打区域 △  ファールグラウンド  圏外区域 △
 ウイニングショット  決め球  インコース  内角
 アウトコース  外角  オーバースロー  暴投
 ファールライン  境界線  スリーフィートライン  三尺線 △
 プレイヤーズライン  競技者線  コーチャーズボックス  助令区域 △
 フライ  飛球  エラー  落球
 デッドボール  死球  ピッチャー  投手
 バッティングピッチャー  打撃投手  フォアボール  四球
 ストッパー  抑え投手  スターティングメンバー  先発選手
 ライト  右翼手  レフト  左翼手
 センター  中堅手  インフィールド・ダイヤモンド  内野
 アウトフィールド  外野  スチール  盗塁
 ノーアウト  無死  ~アウト  ~死
 ランナー  走者  ゲームセット  試合終了
 スコアリングポジション  得点圏  プレート  投手板
 フリーバッティング  打撃練習  ホームラン  本塁打
 フルベース  満塁  ホームベース  本塁
 ファースト(ベース)  一塁  セカンド(ベース)  二塁
 サードベース  三塁    

Word Notes:

1. 一塁, 二塁, and 三塁・サード can be short for 一塁手, 二塁手, and 三塁手 respectively. These are, of course, referring to the basemen.
2. 本塁 may also mean "main fort" outside of baseball.
3. スタメン is a newer 和製英語 for スターティングメンバー used frequently today.
4. 内野 and 外野 may sometimes respectively be abbreviations of 内野手 and 外野手.
5. フォースアウト may be abbreviated to フォース today. 


 Umpire Language 

 三振アウト  それまで!  ボール  一つ、二つ、三つ、四つ塁へ  フェアヒット  よし
 ファールボール  だめ  セーフ  よし・安全  アウト  退け
 ボーク  反則  インフィールドフライ  内野飛球    

Other Sports

The most important changes in the name of sports are below. None of these coined terms are used anymore with exception to 送球 and 打球 which instead mean "throwing a ball" and "batting/batted ball". Use the 音読み of these characters to read. The only exceptions to this are 雪滑 and 氷滑. So, use the 訓読み for these two words. 

 敵性語  言い替え  敵性語  言い替え  敵性語  言い替え
 ラグビー  闘球  ゴルフ  打球・芝球  ハンドボール  送球
 クロール (Crawl)  速泳  アメリカンフットボール・米式蹴球  鎧球  スキー  雪滑
 スケート  氷滑        

Other Kinds of 敵性語の言い替え

For areas in which few words were changed, newer Japanese words held on more frequently. 

 地名  日本アルプス  中部山岳  Both still used in different contexts.
 地名  パールハーバー  真珠湾  Both still used.
 地名  シンガポール  昭南島  Latter only used in reference to this period.
 放送  ニュース  報道  Both used. Latter used a lot in compounds.
 放送  臨時ニュース  臨時報道  Latter is more formal. 
 放送  アナウンサー  放送員   Both used. Latter is more 書き言葉的. 
 放送  レコード  音盤  Latter more 書き言葉的.
 放送  マイクロホン  送話器  Latter rare and old-fashioned.
 交通  ロータリー  円交路  Latter not used. 環状交差路 used formally today.
 交通  プラットホーム  乗車廊  Latter no longer used.
 飲食物  サイダー  噴出水  Latter now means "spouting water".
 飲食物  コロッケ  油揚げ肉饅頭  Latter no longer used.
 飲食物  カレーライス  辛味入汁掛飯  Latter no longer used.
 飲食物  キャラメル  軍粮精  Latter no longer used.
 飲食物  フライ  洋天  Latter no longer used. 
 動物  カンガルー  袋鼠  Latter no longer used.
 動物  ライオン  獅子  Both used today. 
 植物  チューリップ  鬱金香  Latter rarely seen.
 植物  シクラメン  カガリビソウ  Both still used.
 植物  コスモス  秋桜  Both still used.
 植物  カスタービン  支那油桐  Latter still seldom used.
 植物  ヒヤシンス  風信子  Both still used. Latter can be read as ふうしんす.
 植物  プラタナス  鈴懸の木  Both still used.
 音楽  サクソホン  金属製曲がり尺八  The latter would just make people laugh.
 音楽  トロンボーン  抜き差し曲がり金真鍮喇叭  The latter would just make people laugh.
 音楽  バイオリン  提琴  Literary but not used.
 音楽  コントラバス  妖怪的四弦  The latter is not used.
 音楽  ピアノ  洋琴  The latter is more common in literature than 提琴.
 音楽  ドレミファソラシド  ハニホヘトイロハ  Latter not used.
 髪  パーマ  電髪  Latter not used.
 科学  酸素マスク  与圧面  The latter is no longer used.